·No text on this page.

·MARKILA AI
UX
SPINISII IRRIGATION.

·No text on this page.

·REPORT
OX TILE
IRRIGATION OF EASTERN SPAIN.
CLEMENTS R. MARKHAN, F.S.A.
PLYTED BY ORDER OF THE SECRETARY OF STATS
FOR INDIA, IN COUNCII..

·No text on this page.

·('ONTENTS TAGE 1 11 Introductory 11 Moonsh Ongin of Works of Irrigation in Eastern Spain 5 111 The Garden of Murcia The Garden of Orihuel. 31 Irrigation round Crevillente 38 vi Tank Irrigation of Elchc and Alicante Vil Irrigation at Novelda 56 VIII. The Gardens of Jativa and Gaudia 61 1x Irrigation from the river Xucar 69 Tlc Garden of Valencia 78 v Castellon, Vivaroz, and Benicarló 95 VII Blodern Works of Irrigation 99 Last of Authortits on the subject of Irrigation in Eastern Spain . 101 Su Glossary of Tei my used in Spanish Irrigation . 10% -

·DIRECTIONS FOR BINDING MAPS
to face page 4
1, General Map of Eastern Spain
II Oribuela.
31
JII Elche
++
IV Játıya and Gandia
61
3
v. River Xucar
69
20
VI. Valencia
78
13

·ON TIIE IRRIGATION OF EASTERN SPAIN. 1. INTRODUCTORY. An account of the works of irrigation, of the rules and customs by which the distribution of water is regulated, and of the agricultural condition of the irrigated lanc, in any country where irrigation las long been practiscd, cannot fail to be interesting, and may probably be useful in India, at a time when the subject of irrigagation so urgently demands attention. Colonel Baird Smith's work on Italian irrigation supplies such iuformation, so far as the works in the valley of the Po, and the systems in use in Piedmont and Lombarly arc concerned. He introduces his subject by pointivg out the striking similarity between the natural features of Northern Italy and Northern India. Both ac situated at the bases of great mountain ranges, both are drained by rivers flowing from regions of perretual show, and both have other features with the sainc ·2 OX THE IRRIGATION leading characteristics. It is curious, too, that the construction of the first great irrigation canals is contemporaneous in Northern India and Northern Italy. 'Thc canal of the Shah Feroze in India, and that of Gattinara in Piedmont, were both coinmenced in tlie fourtcenth century. If the irrigated region of Northern Italy may thus be compared with that of Northern India, the castern coast of Spain may, with equal propriety, be compared with the castern side of the Indian peninsula. Both in Eastern Spain and in the Carnatic the rivers rise in mountains below the level of perpetual snow, and are deficient in that permanency and regularity of supply which is the characteristic of more favoured irrigated regions. In both countries the rainfall is scanty and precarious, and the dry crops which are dependent upon it often fail. In both the supplies of water for irrigation are secured by similar contriranccs. Thc works in Italy and Spain are, of course, on a much smaller scale than those of Northern India and the Madras Presidency. In the North-Western Provinces and in the Punjab, the gicat works of irrigation are nearly all due to the English* ; but in the Madras Presidency, which is the part of India most analogous to Eastern Spain, they arc almost entirely of native origin. The important works at the celtas of some of the rivers, and the unfinished . For the canals of Shalı Ferozo and Shah Jehan were intendeel ratlıer to supply the palaces and pleasare grounds of tlosc sorereigta, than to furnish irrigation to the ficles of ticir uljects.

·OF EASTERN SPAIN. 3 canal from Kurnool to Cuddapah, are English. But the wliole system of canals and anicuts for irrigating Tinnevells, all the works in Madura, the original works on the Colcroon and Cauvery for the irrigation of Tanjore, and the thousands of tanks throughout the Presiilency, are of purely vative origin, and of great antiquity Centuries of experience had taught the ryots and wudders an extraordinary amount of engineering skill and administrative aptitude in the manageinent of these works. English engineers may cven now learn much, as regards tank engineering, from many a half naked maistry of the tank digging caste, and the old native method of distributing water is acknowledged to be superior to any system which has yet been devised for the irrigation works of English origin. It is, therefore, to be expected that some useful lints should be derived by public works officers from a people who have from necessity, and from time imincmorial, been dependent on irrigation for thic ripening of their crops. Undoubtedly this is the case in India. It seemed probable that in Spain, where irrigation has been practised for many ceuturies, there might also bc something to learn ; and that information collected in the Spanislı irrigated gardens would prove useful, cven if, in a professional point of view, it should serve no higher purpose than to act as an iuccntivc for further inquiry: In the hope that the present Report may be the means of dawing tlic attention of public works officers to this fiell of professional inquiry, I have appenried a B 2

·ON TIE IRRIGATION
bibliographical list of all the sources of information
which came to my knowledge, bearing upon Spanish
irrigation, and on the topography of the irrigated
districts.

·Daroc urmet Alcenzo In de Lluna de ortosa Farral 12 Jarraan "Torre Orreblanco 7 yance TELLON de la Plana o 4 Talmud oda R Tuns or Segorbe Chalat o ru Icocher L urne lro zol 10 ALENC Alhtclora tb truque D urar Acura Xu trealla ACT TE Jativa @ 7 Sns db JAW CS Martin Ayrat ABC R Jundo OLLA Tank к , Vevalda ICANTE Cure Cruz Mura w Ondula Seonora 2 8 - MURCIA Reference 1 Garrian or Muraa 2 Orduela 3 Ingation round. Canllante Tank Ingatlon of Elche of Alicante • Garden of Yonalda 7 . Gandia #Jatura • Ingation from the tocar o Gordmor Fumaa д Castelen e nel Ingabon of Firaros & Herucarlo & Marra en med.orca C Cde Palos C Negrele 3 MAP SHOWINC TIE IRRIGATED DISTRICTS OF English Miles EASTERN SPAIN La

·No text on this page.

·OF EASTERN SPAIN. II. MOORISH ORIGIN OF WORKS OF IRRIGATION IN EASTERN SPAIN. cia. The works of irrigation in Spain, which it is the object of this Report to describe, are to be met with along the eastern coast from Cartagena to the mouth of the Ebro, in the okl Arab kingdoms of Murcia and Valen- They all owe their origin, and the rules and customs by which they are managed, to the ancient Arab rulers of the peninsula, and have been in working oriler for upwards of a thousand years; though, in some instances, they have been enlarged and improved iu more modern times. It is probable that there were some few irrigation works in this region, even in the time of the Romans, when Spanish agriculture was represented by Lucius Columella ; but this is uncertain, and to the Spanish Arals the credit is due of having instituted a system whereby the rocky deserts and dried-up valleys of the peninsula were converted into terraced gardens and fertile regas. The Government of the Caliphs of Cordova, so far as its Public Works Department was concerned, was certainly the ·6 ON THE IRRIGATION most efficient that has ever existed in the world, with possibly the single cxception of that of the Yncas of Peru ; and to the long period of peace and prosperity which was secured to this part of Spain by the firm and beneficent rule of the Ommiad Caliphs, is to be referred the execution of the great works of irrigation in Murcia and Valencia. Some of these works are actually ascribed to particular reigns, and there can be little doubt that all date their origin from this period about A.D. 760 to 960 The subsequent centuries of Arab domination were periods of strife and internal dissension, ending in a struggle for existence. Those were not times for originating public works, * though * I allude to the state of affairs in Valencia, Murcia, and the outlying parts of Mohammedan Spain during the last few centures of Arab sway. The kingdom of Granada, which was founded at the very time when the other Mohammedan kingdoms were falling under the yoke of the encroaching Christians, survived for two centuries, and in that favoured region the mining and irrigation works of the Arabs continued to be pushed forward with vigour and intelligence But I do not propose to dwell in detail upon the irrigation works of Granala, because they do not present the same interesting series of local rales and customs which are met with in connection with the more ancient systemg established in Murcia and Valencia In Granada irrigation was the work of the State, while the chief object of the water supply system in that krogdom was to feed the fountains and baths of the capital A very brief account of these works will be sufficient The Arabs conducted four canals from the river Xenil, and three from the Darro, which irrigated the zega and supplıcd the city of Granada with water The main canals brought the water to large reserroirs, called albeicones, within the cits, wlience it was distributed by a thousand small channels to the palaces and houses, the gardens, fountains, and pallic baths, Seners were also con- ·OF EASTERX SPAIN. tlie irrigation system that had been instituted in the days of the Caliphs was perpetuated and confirmed under the succeeding dynasties, until, when the Christian conquerors appeared in the thirteenth century, it recommended itself for adoption, backed loy the experienced benefits of five hundred years The old Arab systems of irrigation are to be met with in the huertas of Eastern Spain to this day, and will be fully described further on. The Spanish conquerors, far less civilised than their defeated foes, could, at the best, merely follow in the footsteps of the Arabs. But the enlightened subjects of the Western Caliphs had brought the science of irrigation, and, indeed, of all branches of agriculture to the highest perfection. The bare enumeration of Arab authors on structed to carry off tle water after it had been used. The water of the canals which supplied the city was allowed to be used for irrigation during certain hours of the day, while at night, when the water was coolest, it was exclusively reserved for the supply of Granada. The other canals fertilised the rega, and served as the motive power for 130 mills. These works were constructed by Mohammed Alliamar, the founder of the kingdom of Granada (who reigned from 1212 to 1273), and bis successors, with the general revenues of the State, derived from royal fifths, almojarife or customs duties, alcabala or tax on transfers of property, azale or tatbes, and tahadil or composition for duties on shops nnd houses. After the conquest, Ferdinand and Isabella granted the frco use of the water in these canals to tho new settlers in the nega, in the Carlas Puculas or charters conceding special privileges, and Charles V issued an claborate Ordinance in 1538, in bich the duties of oflicens connected with the water vorhs aro statei in detail, and rules ar laid down for the distribution of thio water.

·8 ON THE IRRIGATION these subjects would fill a volume, though only one lias been brought within the reach of modern students. The work of Ebn el Awran, translated into Spanish ly Banqucri,* gives some idea of the advancement of the Arabs of Spain in agricultural knowledge gencrally ; but the Almokna or recollections of the best principles of agriculture by Abu-Omar, the work of Abu-Abdalac, who wrote with a knowledge acquired by cultivating luis own estates with his own hands, that of the learned Abu-cl-Jair, and many others, are still hidden from us in their original Arabic manuscripts. Schools of agriculture were instituted in Cordova, Seville, and other large towns; and irrigation works were constructed and ordered on principles which were sound and practical It was well understood that water, to be made useful to the community, must not and could not be regarded as the private property of the owners of land through which it flowed; but that it was the joint property of the whole of the inhabitants, to be regulated for the general good. How little either the Castilians or Aragonese were worthy of succeeding the Arabs in the government of the irrigated valleys, will be seen by a brief glance at the course of their legislation previous to the middle of the thirteenth century, when the gardens of Valencia and Murcia fell into their hands. The carliest Spanish laws are contained in the code of the Visigoths, genc- * Pablıshıcd in the beginning of the present century, by order of the Spanish Government, with parallel Arabic and Spanish columns. Tliere is a French translation, but without the Arabic text, in tlie Britislı Museum, Ly Clement Mulet.

·OF E.ISTERY SPAIN 9 rally called the Fuero Juzgo, by which two-thirds of the produce of all land was reserved for the conquering Goths, and one-third for the aboriginal Spaniards So far as it relates to property in land, and in the water of rivers and streams, the Fuero Juzgo is nothing more than a body of penal laws for the protection of the acquired rights of the Goths. When the Spaniards began to issue from the Asturian mountains, and commenced the long struggle for the dominion of the peninsula, their legislation consisted in little more than rough lairs for the distribution of booty and of t conquered land. After the king had received his fifths, the remainder was divided amongst the chiefs, according to the number of their followers, the enchas or compensations for the killed and wounded having been duly set apart. * It soon became necessary to grant special privileges to settlers who established themselves in the frontier towns, and were obliged to till the ground with arms constantly in their hands. Hence the Cartas Pueblas or Fueros Municipales, which are very numerous, and in some of those of later date the proprietary right over the water of streams is granted to the inhabitants as a body. But, on the other liand, * The Arabs made a similar distrbution of spoils. In 963 A D., the Caliph Albakem pablished the follomog proclamation at Toledo "It is the duty of every good Moslem to serre in the Alghed You shall not kill unarmed women nor children, por monks who live a secluded life. All the spoils, after the fifth has Lcen sot apart for our use, shall be divided on the field of battle. A knight shall receive two shares, and a foot soldier one sharc. You may tako what you require of provisions and things to cat," ctc. ctc.

·10 ON THE IRRIGATION the Fucro Viejo de Castilla, a code which was drawn up by the order of Alonzo VIII. in the beginning of the thirteenth century, gives no sign of any idea that running water in streams and rivers should be the property of the crown or of the public, in regions where irrigation is a necessity. On the contrary it protects the rights of private proprietors by the imposition of fines and other punishments. The first improvement in Spanish legislation, as regurds the use of water required for irrigation or navigation, appears in the reign of that learned sovercign, Alonzo the Wise. He promulgated the laws embodied in the Fuero Rcal in 1254, in which all navigablo rivers are declared to be frec for the use of all members of the community (Lib 49, Ley 6"), and at the same time he was himself engaged in the preparation of the famous Siete Partidas; which were not, however, ratified until the meeting of the Cortes of Alcala in 1318. Alonzo was far in advance of his age; he was not only a very learned, but a judicious and practical man,* and his Sicte Partidas, which display a know- Ierige of the true principles of legislation that would be looked for in vain in any other country at tlic same period, have justly received the title of the Castilian * Hrs unwise desirc to be crowned Emperor of Germany, and Ins fondness for astronomy, hare been dwelt upon to allow that 110 was a rain and anpractical ruler; bat the Siete Partidas, and the wisdom of the measures he adopted to preserve the Aral) works of irrigation in Marcia, aro not the only proofs that lio flossessed qunlities of the highest order, both as a legislator ami au administrator, ·or EASTCIN SPAIN, 11 This great Pandects. In the Siete Partidas it is declared that all rivers, barbours, anıl lugh roads belong to the community at large, and no distinction is made between narigable and un-navigable strcams.* principle, entirely opposed to the strict proprietary rights established by the Fuero Juzgo and the older Castilian laws, is the same as that which had long been recognised by the Arabs, and without which any extensive system of irrigation would be impossible. The western Caliphs had long ago dcclared that running water was the property of the community at large, and not, as was held by the feudal Spaniards, of the proprietors through whose land it happened to flow. Fortunately for the irrigated plains of Valencia and Murcia, those kingdoms were conquered, in the middle of the thirteenth century, by wise and enliglıtened sovereigns; and, instead of introducing the barbarous feudal laws which were then in force in Aragon and C'astıle, James the Conqucror and Alonzo the Wise confirmed the ancient rules and customs of the more civilised Arabs, especially those relating to irrigation, and granted the proprietary right in all the channels and works to the inhabitants. * Ley 6', Tit 28, Part 3 † The Smat of James I. of Aragon, dated May 8th, 1268, was aflcrwards' cibodied in thic Fucio (laws) of the kingdom of Valencia, Lib, ut, Incro 35 It runs as follows:-"For us and our successors we gire and concede for erer to you and each one of tlie inlabitants of the city and Kingdom of Valencia, all and each onc of the canals freely and unconditionally, whether they be large or small, with their waters and smaller channels, from which you may take water for eier, ly clay and hy night Inil so you ·12 ON THE IRRIGATION Thus the irrigation systems of the Arabs continued in operation, with slight alterations and few improvements, after the Spanish conquest; the old rules and customs were adopted by the Spanish municipalities, and many of them have since been embodied in modern ordinances; and the works of irrigation have simply been kept in working order, and periodically cleaned, according to immemorial usage. The Arabs irrigated every place to which rater could be conveyed either by subterranean tunnels or ordinary canals, and most of thesc localities continue to present bright patches of green amidst the bare and rocky hills 1 propose, in the following Report, only to describe in detail those which arc most important and interesting, anil which I consider as representative, will be able to take the water and irrigate, without the imposition of any service, tax, or tribute, and you shall take these waters according to the rules and cnstoms established of old, in the time of the Saracens." The Fueros of Valencia vero in the Limosin language, but have been translated into Spanish and published Alonzo the Wise, of Castile, granted a like privilege to the people of Murcia on the 23rd of January, 1315, as follows “Know all men who may see this letter that I, Don Alonzo, by the grace of God, King of Castile, of Toledo, of Leon, of Galicia, of Seville, of Cordova, of Murcia, of Jaen, and of Algarre, to do good and show favour to tho people of Murcia, and to give them satisfaction, hold it good, and command that the waters shall be beld by them in common, so that each one shall have his share according to the extent of his land on the day that his turn comes round. Given in Vittoria the 23rd day of January of the year 1315 1, Gil Perez, caused this to be written, by command of the king."

·OF ESTERX SI AIN. 13 namely :—the huerta or garden of Murcia, that of Orihucla, Crevillente, the gardens of Elchc and Alicante, Novelda, Jativa and Gandia, the irrigated fields on the banks of the Xucar, the lucrta of Valencia, that of Castellon, and the well irrigation of Benicarló and Viñaroz near the right bank of the Ebio. The differences in the customs of each centre of irrigation scein to indicate that the irrigation rules were not enacted by any of the Moorish Governments, but that they were adopted by mutual consent amongst the inhabitants; while their long continuance is a proof of their cxcellence, and of the experienced benefits which have resulted from them.

·14 OX TIE IRRIGATIOX III. TIL GARDEN OF MURCIA Tue hucrta or garden* of Murciat is a fertile and highly cultivated plain, about fifteen miles long 19 Ilirce or four wide, through which the river Segur flows from west to cast It is houndled, both on the north and south, by larc and rocky slate mountains. It would appear that, at a very remote period, these mountains were covered with forests of pines anıl other tacos, which live been entirely extirpinted, and now the naked rocks make a liard and well define line against tlic bunislıcı sky. No loulit this change litseil tlic temperature, reluced the rainfall, inel 10nclerce irrigation more urgently necessary: The plain of Murcia is certainly a most beautiful spot, with its • Murcia nas called loy the Aruly Il-Dulan or thio garslun Jaluri. † Murciit is s'uid to be derived from Moyeur (mystic); brut this is inerc fluciful iden from the resemblance in the sound 41 Mahkari raya it 1188 called Juur (18pt) from its similarity to that country. On the nutliority of the forest look of Alfonzo XI (1. 1912-30), quotcul luz Ilalacl de Vanclın, p. ci, ·OF EASTERX SPAIN 15 old city surrounded by miles of green fields and fruit gardens, and hemmed in by a girdle of rocks "I do not believe," exclaims an enthusiastic Murcian liistoriau," that among all the fertile and delicious vegas of Spain, there is one that can bear comparison with the garden of Murcia, for there are no words capable of sle-cryling its delights, nor any land in Europe which offers a view so lovely." Murcia was, with the exception of Galicia and the Asturias, the only part of Spain which offered any prolonged resistance to the Arab invasion. A Gothic chief of the blood royal, named Theodomir or Tadmir, made so determined a stand in Murcia and Orihuela, after the fatal battle in which Don Rodrigo was killed, that he obtained honourablc terms, and continued to reign peacefully until his death, in A.D. 743. Hence the Arabs always called Murcia the land of Tadmir. Ten years afterwards, Abul-cr-rahman 1. founded the Westein Calipbate, and the existing system of irrigating channels in the garden of Murcia, was coustructed during the reign of his descendant Alhakem II (A.D. 961-976).* Grcat numbers of Arabs and Moors of the best families settled in the fertile and delicious plain, and their memory has been preserved to this day in the panics of villages, or irrigating channels.† They enjoyed the blessings of peace during the greater part of the two centuries and a half in which the Ommad Caliphs ruled at Cordova. But on their fall, * Conde, Dommacun de los Arabes en Lspaña, p. 21. † los ralis en Jureu l'or Dun Telur Ponzoa Cebrian, p. 41; d'usaka, Ilustoria de Jurcia, p 31 ·14 ON THE IRRIGATION III THE GARDEN OF MURCIA Tre huerta or garden* of Murciat is a fertile and highly cultivated plain, about fifteen miles long by three or four wide, through which the river Segura flows from west to east It is bounded, both on the north and south, by bare and rocky slate mountains. It would appcar that, at a very remote period, thesc mountains were covered with forests of pines and other tices, which have been cntirely extirpated, and now the naked rocks make a hard and well defined linc against the burnished sky. No doubt this change raised the temperature, rcduced the rainfall, and nondered irrigation more urgently necessary. The plain of Murcia is certainly a most beautiful spot, with its * Murcia was called by tho Arabs 1l-Boslan or the garden. Al-Jallari. + Jarcire is said to be derived from Muptos (myrtle); but this is a mere fanciful idea from the resemblance in the sound A1 Blakkarı says it was called Jisr (Egypt) froin its similanty to that country. On the authority of the forest book of Alfonzo XI (11) 1312-50), quoted log Rafael do Mancha, p 0.

·or EASTERY SPAIX 15 old city surrounded by miles of green ficlds and fruit gardens, and heinmed in by a girdle of rocks. “I do not believe," exclaims an enthusiastic Murcian historian, " that among all the fertile and delicious vegas of Spain, there is one that can bear comparison with the garden of Murcia, for there are no words capablo of describing its delights, nor any land in Europe which offers a view so lovely." Murcia was, with the exception of Galicia and the Asturias, the only part of Spain which offered any prolonged resistance to the Arab invasion. A Gothic chef of the blood royal, named Theodomir or Tadmir, made so determined a stand in Murcia and Orihuela, after the fatal battle in which Don Rodrigo was killel, that he obtained honourable terms, and continued to reign peacefully until his death, in A D. 743. Hence the Arabs always called Murcia the land of Tadmir. Ten years afterwards, Abd-er-rahman I, founded the Western Caliphate, and the cxisting system of irrigating channels in the garden of Murcin, was constructed during the reign of liis descendant Alhakem II (A.D. 961-976)* Great numbers of Arabs apd Moors of the best families settled in the fertile and delicious plain, and their memory has been presciscd to this day in the names of villages, or irrigating channels.t They cnjoyed the blessings of pcace during the greater part of the two centuries and a half in which the Ommiad Caliphs ruled at Condova. But on their fall, • Conde, Dominacion de los Irabes en España, p. 24, + Los Arabes en Unreus por Don Felir Pouzoa Cebrian, p. 41; Cascales, lluna tle Jurcia, 31 ·16 ON THE IRRIGATION Murcia, like the rest of Spain, suffered from the incessant civil wars. There was a turbulent dynasty of Arab kings of Murcia from AD. 1043 to 1238, and finally the old kingdom was conquered by James of Aragon in the end of 1248, and transferred, according to a previous agreement, to the king of Castile. In 1315 the king Alfonso X granted the free use of the irrigation works of Murcia to the inhabitants. The river Segura* rises in the mountains which separate Murcia from La Mancha. These mountains are not covered with perpetual snow, but snow may be seen on their summits for nearly two-thirds of the year. Their sides are clothed with pasturc, alternating with woods of evergreen oak, pine, poplar, walnut, ash, and juniper in the hollows and ravines ; whore numerous springs rise and unite to form the Guadalquivir on one side, and the Segura on the other. The whole length of the course of the Segura, including its windings, which are very tortuous, from its source to the Mediterrancan, is about 127 miles. Water is taken from the Segura for puiposes of irrigation almost from its source, and there are as many as fourteen clams across its course, withi tucir attendant irrigating channels, before it enters the garden of llurcia. It would be superfluous to describe all thesc in detail, so I proceed at once to the irrigation works of the garden itself. The great dam, or anicut as it would be called in Southern Indin, which is thrown across the Segura to * The Romans called this river the Thadar, the Arabe kres it as the Shekam ·OF CASTENX SPAIN, 17 supply the garlen of Murcin with water, is four miles to the westward of the city It is called tlic presa or adud * The point selected for the dam is where two Inills narrow the valley, and oblige the river to force its way between cliffs of alluvial deposit. The dam is 36 feet high, 185 feet wide at the base, narrowing to 15 feet at the crest, and 760 feet long. The southern portion, over which the water of the river falls when it is not in fresh, is entirely faced with cut masonry in steps The rest is composed of large unhcwn stones imbedded in line and carth, and is of great antiquity. TIE SCOTRIXO SLCICE Close to the left or northern lank there is an arrangement for a scouring sluice, by which the canals can lie • The Irabic form is site (the olktruction, or dim) ·IS ON THE IRRIGATION screw. cmptied and cleaned, and the deposits of silt swept down. This is done once a year, in the inonth of March Thic escurridor, as it is called, consists of a masonry wall built across a channel excavated in the rock, on an arch closcu up with beams, against which the great deposit of silt rests. Above the arch there is an iron flood gate or tablacho, working vertically in a masonry groovc, by mcans of a This can be raised, at any time, without trouble, whenever the irrigation canals are receiving too much water. To empty thc canals, it is necessary to tlırow open the archway below. Tlic beams are first removed, and the water is then only held back lvy the accuinulated silt deposits, which are picrced and stirred, until at last thic whole mass is swept away, aud the level of the river above the anicut sinks below thc bed of the canals, which are then clcaied out. This is a very clunisy contrivance, when compared with the under scouring sluices of the Indian anicuts, with their masonry piers, and machiucry for opening and shutting. But it must be remembered that the irrigation works of Spain are entirely managed by the tillers of the soil, without any D. P. W. agency, that the use of these contrivances, first invented by the Arabs, has been handed down from time immcinorial, and that the people understand them thoroughly. Thc unit of measurement for tlic distribution of water is called a fila or hila; and the Spanisl system has always been one of measurement by volume, and distribution by liomry rotation. The system in use in thic irrigation canals which have been constructed by ·OF ELSTERY SPAIN 19 the English in India, is generally one of charging by acrcage irrigated, and its disadvantages arc obvious. The extent of land under cultivation varies annually, and hence the necessity for annual measurements, and consequent harassing interference with the cultivators.* In nativc irrigation works in India, especially in the Madras Presidency, the system is one of charging by volume; and the Spanish Arabs have always used a similar method of charging for and distributing water, The hila, in the garden of Murcia, is the volume of water that will flow through an openiug half a palmo (4 inches or thereabouts), in height by a palmo (8 inches or thereabouts) wide, in one minuto; or a volume of water mcasuring 50 yards long by a vertical section of 17.1 square inches, equal to about 32 English cubic feet. The land measurc of Murcia is reckoned by tahullas of 1600 square yards, equal to .27 of an acre. The volume of the river Segura was measured in 1816 by Spanish engincers during the month of . On the Ganges and Jamna canals there is a scale of water rates for different crops: R'. 5 per acro for sogar cano; R'. 3 foi rice, tobacco, and vegetables; R. 2 for spring crops; and R. 13 for miny season crops. There is a reduction of one thir! when tho water has to be raised artificially. The Madras Irri- Gation Company charge R'. 6 per acre. + In Italy tho old measure, called macina, was the quantity of water necessary to drive the keel of a cor mill, usually consi. dered to be equal to tho quantity issuing from na aperture 1965 inches square, or twelvo cubic feet ner sccond The modulo of the Itahan civil code is that quantity of water which, ander simple pressure, and with a freo fall, issues from a rectangular quadrilateral opening with a breadth of 7-874 inches, and a briglit of 7874 inchies Paint Smith.

·20 ON THE IRRIGATION October, when the water is at its average height. A short distance above the Murcian anicut it was found to be discharging 1,530 hilas, or about 48,960 cubic feet per minute. The same engineers found that it required 5 Irlas of water to irrigate 3 tahullas of land. As the irrigated land of Murcia and Orihuela covers 59,066 acres, it is evident that this supply is quite inadequate, and that the most careful and systematic cconomy, the second use of surplus water by means of the azarbes or drains which will be mcntioned presently, and a provident eking out of the supply by catching all the rills from the flanking mountains, alone cnable the people to extend the irrigated cultivation of these gardens over its present area. On the left bank of the river two main canals, mother ezequias* as they are called, irrigate the northern side of the river One, called Churra la nuera, is taken off by a mouth 13 feet wide, at a distance of 200 yards above the anicut, and irrigates 316 acres in five villages. The other is the principal canal on the northern side, and is called Azequia Aljufia,+ or tlie canal of the north. Its mouth is only a few yards above the anicut, and is 10 feet broad, width which is continued for half a mile, and afterwards it narrows to 8 feet, until it reaches the city of Murcia It is provided with six escurridores or scouring sluices, placed at intervals along its course, with openings about 8 to 9 fect high and 2 wide, fitted * As-Saliyah, n canal through which water runs for irrigation † Al-Juf je not north It means the centre, ·OP EISTERX SPAIX. 21 with flood-gates, and with channels below thicm, leading to the river. By this means the canal is periodically scoured and cleanscd. The water is distributed from the main canal, into 18 smaller channels on either side at varying distances; and for the purpose of mising water to irrigate land at a higher eleration than the main canal, there are two enormous wheels, one in front of the first cecurridor, and the other at the village of La Noia, which together irrigate 105 acres The wheel at La Nora is an enor- IEEL IT LA BORA. mous timber structue, 25 feet in diameter, turnil ly thic water of the main canal. It works on i luge heam resting between two brick walls 24 feet lugli, The smaller one, and that near La Xora acres.

·20 ON TUE INRIGATION supported by buttresses, and orergrown with maiden hair and other forns The periplıcrs of the wheel is fitted with woolen boxes, 2$ in number, on cach side, cach 2 feet long and I inches wide and deep. These boxes are filled through a square Lole at one end, as the wheel descends, come up full, and empty themselves as they turn, into an aqueduct on the top of a massive brick wall at right angles with the wheel. They tlius raise 40 cubic feet crery revolution. The wheel, or noria as it is called, is the icndezvous of the village, where crowds of girls come to fill their pitchers; while the groaning and creaking of the massive axle, as the wheel revolves, prevents their gossip from being overheard.* Tlie distribution of the water for irrigation is cffected by boqueras or openings in the sides of the channels. Each boqucra is fitted with a masonry frame, called a partidor, in which a flood gate or tablacho works vertically in groores. It is kept under lock and key, and is opened nt fised periods, and for a specified time, when the tanda or turn tomes round of the cultivators in the hercdamiento or piccc of land which is irrigated by thc brazal or smaller channel to which the boquera leads. The cultivators pay accorling to the number of hilas which flow ou to their laud, generally tlırec bours in tlic twenty-four. One of the inost important parts of the Murciau • "The music of the water wheels on the banks of the Segura, tlic charming melody of the singing birds, the siect perfumes exlaled by the flowers, arc indeed beauties which Lafic all de- .17 Jahr. *cription" ·OF E.ISTLRX T'AIX. urgation system, is that which provides for the drainage of surplus water. Tlie sub-soil is a stiff tenacious clay, and arrangements for preventing the accumulation of stagnant water and the formation of swampy ground, are particularly ugent. The irrigating channels, flowing from the right bank of the Azequia Aljufia, terminate at the river, but those from the left bank are led down the valley, and have no natural outlet for their surplus water. Very deep tienches, called azarbes, * are, therefore, dug in the lower part of the garden of Murcia, which receive, not only thic unused water of the channels, but also the drainage of the irrigated land. These aarbes, commencing as diains, gradually approach the surface, with tlic natural slope of the valley, until, on entering the garden of Orihuela, which adjoins that of Murcia, they become clanuels of irrigation. The main or mother canal on the south side of the river Segura is called the sizequia Alquillat (canal of the south). It flows off a few yards above the anicut, by a moutlı 6 fect wide, and is provided with five escurridorcs or scouring sluices. The first is close to the lower side of the anicut, and consists of a masonry wall, with a tablacho or flood gate working vertically in grooves. There are twenty-two irrigating channels taken off from the mother canal of alquibla, and the (Irainage is cffected luy a deep trench at the lower end of the valley, called the darle de Beniel. The irrigatiou of the terraced fields and other high land above * 1.-2..bul, a druin. + Il.lublish, the soutl. laturally " that which is before."

·244 ON THE IRIGATION the level of the canal, is effected by norias or Persian wheels, worked by mules. These norias are of extreme antiquity, having been used, in one form or another, from time immemorial, by Eastern nations A deep channel is cut from the canal, over which a huge timber wheel is placed, upwards of 15 feet in diameter. By its side are two stone pillars supporting a cross bcam, to the centre of which an upright beam is attached. This upright beam is the axle of a double wheel working horizontally, the two parts being joined by strong battens which lock with cogs in the great wheel. A long pole is fastened to the upper end of the upright beam, to which mules arc harnessed, and driven round. They move round the horizontal wlieel, the battcns of which lock with the cogs in the great wheel and turn it round. The great wheel is fitted with a succession of boxes round the circumference, which fill wlien at the lower cnd of their revolution, bring the water up, and pour it into a trough leading into a channel. Thus the fiekls up to 15 feet above the level of the mother canal are irrigated. The upper channel brings the surplus water to anotlicr large whcel, which raises it in tlic same way to terraced ficlds at an elevation of 30 feet above the Alquibla canal. • The norias in Algiers and elsewhere are usually fitted with cartbonwaro jars, instead of boxes round their circumference, Sce a full account of screral kinds of nories used for miring water for irrigation, in the work of J. Morin, “Dis machines al appareils destinés à l'élitation des enas, par lithur Jurin." Paris, 1863, r $9.

·OF EASTCRX SPAIN. 25 The irrigating channels from the Azequin Aljufia water 12,757, and those from the szequia Alquibla 12,521 acres, making a total of 25,278 irrigated acres throughout the garden of Murcia. These channels also turn the wheels of thirty-four flour and pepper mills At a short distance below tlie city of Murcia, the river of Lorca* or Sangonera flows into the Segura on its right bank, and the numerous destructive freshes in former times, have necessitated the construction of works to confine the waters of the Lorca within bounds. The proprietary right over the land in Murcia is divided amongst various residents in the city, some of them being titled nobles, and several being descended * In the last century a dam was erected across this river, near the city of Lorca, forming a very largo artificial lake or pantano, by means of which an extensive tract of country was irrigated. It appears that the proprietary right in the dam, as well as in the irrigated fields, was vested in a rich landowner named Robles, a relation of that great minister the Count of Florida Blanca, who was also a native of Lorca. Robles had raised the crest of the dam, in order to extend the irrigated area, but the work lad been done badly, and it was frequently represented to him that the dam tas not strong enougu. Robles obstinately refused to believe this, though he at last consented to visit the spot; and le set out in an old family coach drawn by six moles proached the dam, a noise like thander was lieard; the postilion declared that the dam had given way, but lus master refused to belicre it; so tlie lad wisely cut tlio traces, and trotted up the side of the hill with liis mules. Dora swept the irresistible flood, carrying away the lambering old coach and its obstinato occupant, and about a hundred people besides. The damn has norer been rebuilt, for the inliabitants dread a repetition of the catastrophe, althouglı engineers have reported favourably on the project As he ap- ·26 ON THE IRRIGATION from the knights who accompanied James the Conqueror or Alfonso tlic Wise. Chief among them is the family of Faxardo, Marquises of Los Velcs, and formerly the hereditary Adelantados of Durcia The land is rented to vast numbers of small tenants or arrendadores, whose farms sometimes measure 50 or even 100 acres, but generally do not exceed from 2 to 10. Their rent varies from 28 to 36 shillings per annum, and nominally they are yearly tenants, but practically their holdings are their own, so long as the rent is paid. They are handed down from father to son, and arc even divided as marriage portions amongst children, without the previous consent of the landlords. All matters relating to the system of irrigation arc under the control of the Ayuntamiento or Municipality of the city of Murcia; but the ancient rules and customs have not been embodied in a regular code of ordinances, as is the case in most of the other irrigated valleys of Eastern Spain. In 1350, King Peter the Crucl ordered the land owners of Murcia to clect two judges to settle all disputes relating to the distribution of water, and to superintend all repairs of irrigation works. They were called Jueces Sobreaccquicros, and were clected annually, the same persons not being eligible twice running. Under tlıcm there are guardias and other officials to regulate the distribution of the watcr Each tahulla receives three hours of day and night irrigation, the turn coming round every fifteen days. The principal irrigated crops arc Incluan corn, red pepper, alfalfa, (luceine), all kinds of vegetables, mclous, ·OF LISTERX SIJIX. 27 and gourds, pulses, and some wheat; but it is a mistake to grow wheat in irrigated land, when there are such abundant supplies raised in the adjoining province of La Mancha. There are also large gardens of oranges, pomegranates, vines, date palms, almonds, and figs; and rows of sun-flowers are grown for thcir sceds, which the people cat. The Indian corn crops are sown in Marchı and reaped in September. A creeping bean, callcd habichuclu, is sown with the corn, and after the latter is cut, the little habichuela, with its heart-shaped lcaf and bright yellow flowers, creeps up the maize stalks, and ripens its pods.* Thc Indian corn is sold at 24 to 30 reals the arroba, and made into gachamigas or fritters with oil and real pepper. But the principal ciop of Murcia is the round capsicum or red pepper, which is sown in ros, in thic fields, in June, and picked in October. After picking, the crops arc spread out on the rocky lulls to dry in the sun, the owners subscribing to pay a guard to watch then. If it raids while the pepper is out, the ciops are lost, but there is very little chance of a shower at that scason, in the rainless province of Mucia. The mountains which surround the valley prosent most extraordinary appearance while the popper is drying, many of them being one mass of bright crimson. When the perper is perfectly dry, it . There are screral kinds of habichuelas or small beans. The Arab ngricultural author, Ibu-cl-Jarr, enumerates eleren different species, according to size and colour of the floners. The most common is called Jalat (Plutsculus mulyaris) + ( vital • vn.

·30
ON THE IRRIGATION
sider NIurcia to be the most interesting of the irrigated
gardens of Western Spain.
In concluding this brief sketch of the irrigation of
Murcia, I must take the opportunity of expressing my
grateful thanks to Don Juan Albacete y Long, the
learned professor of belles lettres in that city, for much
valuable assistance.

·No text on this page.

·No text on this page.

·OF EISTER SIAIS 31 IV. TIIE GARDEN OF ORIHUELA. The irrigatal huerta or garden of Orılıuela is the continuation of that of Murcia, and follows the course of the Segura from the Murcian frontier to the shores of the Mediterranean, a distance of about fifteen miles. It is bounded, like Murcia, on the north and south by barc and ruggul hills, in somc places running up into lofty peaks, in others forming stecp precipices The irrigated valley of Orihuela covers an area of about 33,688 cultivated acres, ani), besides the city of Orihuela, it contains twenty-four villages with a population of 60,000 souls. The works of irrigation in Orihuela, like thosc in Murcia, date from thic reigns of the Western Caliplis Abd-er-rahman III and Alhaken II. After thic conquest of this part of Spain by tlic Christians, Orihuela at first shared the fate of Murcia and fornicd part of the kingilom of Castile, but it was subsequently ceded to Angon. While it was still under Castilian sway, King Alfonso X distributed the land, and gave orders that the tenants should clean tlic canals and azarles ·32 ON TIE IRRIGATION and repair the works, according to the customs established in the time of the Moors He also ordainci that the water should be distributed in the manner prescribed in the Moorish rules, This ordinance is dlated September 4th, 1272. King Peter II of Aragon confirmed the arrangements made by the King of Castile, in a decrec dated September 24th, 1364. All the rules and customs of Orihuela irrigation were compiled by Don Geronimo Mingot, under orders from Philip IV, and acceived the royal sanction in a decrec dated February 24th, 1645. The ordinances of Mingot are those which now regulate the irrigation of the Orihuela garden, with the exception of the land in Almoradlı, irrigated from the anicut of Alfeytamy, wluich has a special set of ordinances, sanctioncd in 1794. The soil of Orihuela is exceedingly fertile, and its system of irrigation is as perfect as that of Murcin. Tlic lila or unit of measurement is the same as that of Murcia, namely a volunie of water flowing through an opening 4 inches in height by 8 inches in width in one Ininute ; or a volume of water 50 yards long by a vertical section of half a square palmo, equal to 32 English cubic feet. At the western end of the garden of Orihuela the laul is irrigated by the atzaries or drains which carry off the surplus water from Murcia. The natural slope of the land brings these drains to the surface as irrigating channels, by the time they have reached the boundary between Murcia and Orihuela. On the soutli sidle thc Jiurcian can be de Benic becomes the ·OF EASTERN SPAIN 33 Orihuelan irrigating aqueduct of Gironda, and waters 189 acres of land On the north the azarbe de Zaraiche becomes the canal of Santomera, and, with the azarbe mayor, irrigates 1440 acres These canals distribute the water through ninctcen bracales or smaller channels, and the turn for irrigation comes round every fifteen days. The irrigation from the surplus waters of Murcia comes to an end a little to the westward of the city of Orihuela, and from thence to the Mediterranean the Orihuelan garden is irrigated by means of ciglt azuds or anicuts thrown across the river Segura. Thic first is called the axud de Beniel, and is thrce miles west of Orihuela It was formerly flanked by towers, whence notice of the approach of enemies was given to the inhabitants of the huerta. This azud was rebuilt in 1829, and now gives irrigation to 5369 acres of land. Closc to the azud there are two large norias or wlicels twenty feet in diameter, and fitted with twentyfour double boses round the circumference, for raising water. Two main canals are taken from cach side of the azud, and after irrigating 4903 acres, pour their surplus waters into the azarbc mayor de Iturchillo. Tlic next dam, following the course of the river, is called the axud de los lucrtos, which sends off a canal of the same name to irrigate 1773 acres There 18 a norint in this canal, twelve fect in diameter, for raising part of its water to a high level, and twentytwo distributing channels. The third dam is called the axud de Almoradi, opposite tlie city of Oriliuela It sends off four canals ·34 ON THE IRRIGATION to irrigate 5000 acres. The azud de Callosa, near the former, is the fourth. The canal of Callosa irrigates 13,000 acres, and the water is raised, for the irrigation of ligh land in the northern part of the garden, by seven wheels moved by the flow of water, whiclı arc fourteen feet in diameter. The fifth dam, called the Azud de Alfeytamy, was originally merely intended as a weir for a flour mill, but between 1571 and 1615 channels were excavated on both sides of the river, This azud is two leagues east of Orihuela. The azud de Formentera is the sixth, and is three leagues east of Orihuela. It sends a channel on cither bank, and, on the south channel, there is a noria or whcel twenty feet in diameter, with forty-cight double boxes for raising water. Next comes the azud de Rojales, and the cighth and last is the azud de Guardamar, fourteen miles cast of Orihuela. The irrigating channcls of Orihuela turn nincteen mills. The whole garden of Orihuela rests on a compact bed of clay, so that there can be no natural filtration. llence the necessity, as in Murcia, of excavating deep acarves or drains to receivc tlic surplus water from thic land and the numerous channels, and conduct it to the river again, to be used for irrigation at the next dan. During the time of the Doors, and cven down to the last century, there were large tracts of swampy unreclaimed land at the lower end of the garden of Oribucla, near the shores of the Mediterrancan. In 1721 they were granted to Cardinal Ballegas, the Bisliop of Cartagena, wlio caused rery deep Amins to be dug, which collected the stagnant water and draincal ·OF EASTERN SPAIN. 35 it off into the river Segura on one side, and into the albufera (salt lake) of Elche on the other. A very extensive tract of country was thus brought under cultivation, and supplied with irrigation from the system of Orihuela ; and the three villages of Dolores, San Felipe, and San Fulgencio owe their existence to this publicspirited act of the good Cardinal. The irrigation system of Orihucla is under tlie management of five Jueces Solrc-azequicros or Judges of the water courses, * who administer the ancient rules which are embodied in the Ordinances of 1645, and divided into thirty-seven Sections. They provide for the punctual payment of all irrigation rates by the cultivators, no defaulter being allowed to receive water, and the Juilges being empowered to put in executions for the amount, and to inflict imprisonment. All openings for the distribution of water are ordered to be of masonry, and fitted with grooves for tho gates; and fincs are to be inflicted on any cultivator who makes any unauthorised breach or opening in a channel. The openings are to be a foot higher than * 1 The judge of Orihaela regulates all the water which comes from Marcia, and that derived from the first four dams across the Segura, in tho garden of Orihuela. ... The judge of Callosa superintends the irrigation from the azud of the same namo 3. The judge of Alfeytamy performs the same office for the water derived from tho azte of that name, and lives at Almoradi. 4 Tho judge of Formentera regulates the water from the sixth azul. 5. Tho judge of Guardamar superintends Irrigation from the korenth and eighth dame.

·36 ON THIC IRRIGATION the floor of thc mother canal, and they arc to be kept closed at all times when it is not the turn of the cultivators to whose land the water flowing through them would come The turns by horary rotation, established in cach division, are to be inviolably observed on pain of fines. These turns vary from seven to thirtyone days, according to the canals, those from the Azud do Benicl being diurnal, but the average is fifteen days There is a Repartidor for each channel, elected by the cultivators, whose duty it is to see that the tandas or turns arc duly observed ; and if there is a dispute between a Repartidor and any of the cultivators, it is referred to the Judge of the Division for adjudication, who may impose a fine on tlic party he considers to be in the wrong. The planting of trees on the banks of water-courses is strictly prohibited, and all docks and herds are absolutely forbidden from approaching any azequias or avarbes, on pain of a heavy fine. It has already been said that the lands of Almoradi, irrigated from the acud of Alfeytamy, have a separato sct of Ordinances, divided into thirty-six Sections, which were approved by the Government in 1794. They are rather more democratic than those which govern the irrigation of the rest of the Orihuelan garden. The Sobrecequiero, or Judge of the Watercourses, is elected, cvery three years, on the 15th of December, by the whole body of tenants. His jurisdiction commences on the following new year's day, and he must be a person of pure life, a resident in the village of Almoradi, engaged in cultivating irrigated land, and he must have a certain property qualifica- ·OF EASTERN SPAIX 37. tion. The tenants also clect a lieutenant to perform the duties of the judge in the event of sickness or absence; and a Sindico and four Electos to form a Junta, or Board, entrusted with the receipt and disbursement of funds. The duties of the Syndic are to see that all the channels are cleared in March ; and, with the assistance of Peritos, or experienced appraisers, to calculate the estimated expenses for the year, including salaries of irrigation officials, and to divide this sum among the tenants according to the number of tahullas occupied by cach. Payments are to be made within fifteen days, and defaulters are liable to scizure of goods or crops. The Syndic also keeps lists, by which he gives notice to the cultivators respecting their tandas, or turns for irrigation, and any one irrigating out of his turn, has to pay all losses to him whose turn it was, besides a heavy fine Damages are assessed by Pertos nominated by the Judge.

·38 ON THE IRRIGATION V. IRRIGATION ROUND CREVILLENTE AMONGST the inhospitable and arid mountains which surround the little town of Crevillente, ninc miles north of Orihuela, there is ncither river, nor any surface water wherewith to form a tank; and here it. might naturally be supposed that the perseverance and ingenuity, even of such agriculturists as the Spanish Arabs, would be baffled. But it is not so. About four hundred Arab families settled at and around Crevillente in Moorish times;* and succeeded in forcing the naked rocks to yield sufficient for their sustenance, by adopting a method of obtaining water which must have been learnt from those ancestors who, from time immemorial, had practised a similar method amidst the arid rocks of Arabia.f The early settlers at Cre- * Nearly all the Moorish inhabitants emigrated at the time of the Spanish conquest, but many of their daughters were seized as wives of the new settlers. In the time of Cavanilles thero were 1800 families in Crevillente. Ford mentions that Crevil. lente was long the hilly lair of the bandit Jaime el Barbudo. + Wellsted describes this method of irrigation, as it is prac- ·OF EASTERN SPAIN. 39 villente sought for underground fountains in the surrounding mountains, and with the help of that instinct acquired by long experience, and after many failures tised in the Bedial, and other oases of Omán He says. "The oasis of Bediah, and nearly all those in the interior of Omán, owe their fertility to the happy manner in which the inhabitants have availed themselves of a mode of conducting water to them, a mode, as far as I know, pecular to this country. The greater part of the face of the country being destitute of running streams on tho surface, the Arabs lave sought in elevated places for springs or fountains beneath it. By what mode they discover these I know not, but it seems confined to a peculiar class of men who go about the country for the purpose, but I saw several which had been sunk to a depth of forty feet. A channel from this fountain head is then, with a slight descent, bored in the direction in which it is to be conveyed, leaving apertures at regular distances, to afford light and air to those who are occasionally sent to keep it clean. In this manner water is frcquently conducted from a distance of sıx to eight miles, and an unlimited supply is thus obtained. These channels are usually about four feet broad and two deep, and contain a clear mpid strcam. Few of the large towns or oases but had four or fivo of theso rivulets or felejt? running into them. The isolated spots to which water is thus conveyed possess a soil so fertile, that nearly every grain, fruit, or vegetable common to India, Arabia, or Persia is produced almost spontaneously." tellsted's Tratels in Arabia, i, s. 93. Tlic samo subterranean irrigating cliannels are used in Afrghanistan, where they arc called lakrezas. Seo Journal of the isiatic Society of Dengal, vol. is, p. 37. Sco niso a very interesting account of the Fontanili in P'icu mont, in Daird Smith's Italian Irrigation, i, pp. 33-43-61. Falajt means an interstici, lience a brook or rivulet. Locally, in Omáu, it may have the sigaification of an irrigation canal.

·ON TIE IRRIGATION and disappointments, they succeciled in ascertaining the depth and position of two or three. A subterrancan passage was then excavated, with the usual slope of an irrigation canal, in the direction of the supposed water, and the means of fertilising the rocky descrt were obtained. For the Arabs had invented a leveling instrument from very carly times, and the correct direction was preserved by making vertical apertures at intervals, whence the bearing of the supposed position of the spring was observed The principal subterranean excavation of Crevillente crosses the ravino near the town on a large arch, and then passes for 855 yards through hard rock At this point it forks into two passages going in the direction of two different springs, and the whole length of the longest of these underground channels is nearly a thousand yards. In some places the height of the tunnel is twelve feet, cxcavated out of the solid rock.* But the inhospitality of the Crevillente bulls is such that water is not the only want It is necessary also to bring soil from a distance before any fruit or grain can be produced. Down the sides of the ravine, on the edge of which the town of Crevillente stands, terrace walls have been built, and the intervening spaces have been filled with soil. These terraces are irrigated by watercourses * Obserraciones sobre la historia natural del Reyno de Valencia por Antonio Caranilles (Madrid, 1795), vol ü. Cavanilles crawled up one of these tunnels at Crevillente, nearly as far as the source of the water supply; and complained of the enormous quantity of bats which flew abont in the dark. I had no time to make a similar expedition.

·OF EASTERN SPAIN. 41 from the subterrancan canal, and the white flat-roofed houses now rise above a fine growth of date palms, vines, figs, and pomegranates. But the industry of the frugal inhabitants of this wild and rocky descrt is displayed in a remarkable degrce, in every direction. In places where artificial irrigation cxtends, fields and terraces are watered by a careful system of tandas or turns, but cultivation is not entirely confined to the area witlun the influence of the laborious irrigation Terraces are built up the sides of rocky mountains and planted with vines, and even in corners and crannies, where only single trees can find space, walls are built across the sharp angles of ravines, the littlo triangular step thus formed is filled with soil, and one fig or algarıobo or olive tree finds standing room. Of these trees the most characteristic are the carob or algarrobo (Ceratonia siliqua), which were introduced from Syria by the first Arab invaders. The young tree is transplanted from the nursery when about four years old, and is placed in a deep hole filled in with soil mixed with straw. It is watered once or twice during the first year, and somctimes protected by a fencing of reeds, but it soon becomes strong and vigorous, with a large trunk and smooth white bark, and yields a harvest of pods affording excellent fodder for mules and horses. There is an account of the cultivation of the algarrobo in the work of the Amb agriculturalist, Ebn el Awran (1, cap. vii, p 246). Tlic system of urigation by means of undergrounel channels, common alike to the Ambs of Omán and to those of Spain, was brought to a far higher degree of ·42 ON THE INRIGATION perfection by the admirable government of thc Incas in Peru ; and in no place in the world may it be seen in such excellent working order as in the Peruvian coast valley of Nasca, there all the works date from an Yncarial period.* I never met with any irrigation * Cieza de Leon, writing between 1532 and 1550 A.D., sags- "The Indians of Pera bad, and still have, great works for draving off the water, and making it flow through certain channels Sometimes it has chanced that I have stopped near one of these channels, and before we had finished pitching the tent, the channel was dry, the water baying been drawn off in another direction, for it is in the power of the Indians to do this at their pleasure" Next to the wonderful roads, these irrigating channels are the most convincing proofs of the advanced erilisation of the Tncas. Once nearly all the Peruvian coast Falleys were supplied with them; but now the irrigating channels of the Yncas are in working order only in the valley of Nasca. Their remains, however, are to be met with ererywhere The valley of Nasca descends from the Andes by an easy and gradual slope, widening as it descenils, and is covered with rineyards, cotton plantations, fields of capsicum, maize, pumpkins, melons, and fruit gardens. Yet all that nature has furnished in the way of water supply is a watercourse, frequently dry for years together, and at the best only a Jittle streamlet trickles down during the month of February. The engineering skill displayed by the Yncas in remedying this defect is astonishing. Trenches were cat along the whole length of the valley, becoming tunnels at the upper end, and perctrating into the rocks until they come in contact with underground springs. They are some four feet in height, with the floor, sides, and roof lined with stones, and are called Muirca. Lower down they separate into branches, which ramify in crery direction over the ralley, and become rarca or surface channels, supplying all the estates with delicious water throughout tho year, and feeding the little watercourses which irrigate the ·OF EASTERN SPAIN. 43 of this description during my journeys in the peninsula of India ; but there are vast tracts of rocky uninhabited desert, especially in the Ceded Districts, whicre similar works might doubtless be advantageously constructed, whenever the inercase of population makes it necessary. Near Cape Comorin, too, where the ghauts are broken up into isolated clusters of weather-worn hills, with sharp peaks and rugged precipices, many streams flow down their castern sides during the rains. These streams are heavily charged with silt, and after flowing for about a mile, are apparently choked by their own deposits, which spread out over half an acre of ground. If their drainage was received into tunnels such as those near Crevillente in Spain, in the oases of Omán, and at Nasca in Peru, most welcome additional supplies would be secured for the thirsty land which, in this part of Tinnevelly, is dependent for water on the precarious rainfall furnished from tanks. fields At intervals of two hundred yards there are man bolcs in the main tunnels. See my translation of Cicza de Leon, p. 230 and note; and Cuzco and Lima, p. 46.

·44 ON THE IRRIGATION VI. TANK IRRIGATION OF ELCHE AND ALICANTE. MURCIA, Orihuela, and some other irrigated valleys which will be described further on, are instances of irrigation effected by throwing anicuts across rivers. Elche and Alicante, on the other hand, are excellent representatives of the tank irrigation of Spain. In most of their details these Spanish tank systems resemble those of the Madras Presidency; and though the former are on a diminutive scale in comparison, yet both are of great antiquity, both of native origin. It is well known that the whole tank system of Madras, including near 50,000 separate tanks, and, . according to Baird Smith, somewhere about 30,000 miles of embankment, 18 so completely due to nativo skill, previous to the English dominion, that, down to 1853, not a single nevy tank had been constructed by That the tank irrigation of western Spain is not of Christian but of Arab origin, and therefore at least cight entines old, I shall be able to adduce most interesting proofs. us.

·Tarie meguia de Marchena TANK IRRIGATI ELCHE. . a Vallongues offiche Palm Gode paredere Arron English Miles Dam Wall of the Norda Will of Wo WT 31. okt u Turaiz en o de tapi Mado Torretar berteder Arbella Larredor de casa god de Arch Perlider de Forat Partidor Te Tandalex Der er ELCHE Hridge Terane Pest der Toskana Paruder dan Perledere under Pecador de Rarorat Perridor de Paremur San Antonio Derramador Bava II Sen AUST

·No text on this page.

·OF EASTERN SPAIN. 15 Elche* is twenty miles north-east of Orihuela, and seven from the shores of the Mediterranean. It is a city of palms Built on the edge of a torrent bed, which is spanned by a handsome old bridge, the flatroofed houses of Elche are surrounded on three sides by groves of date palms The grand old Moorish alcazar (now a prison) stands on the cage of the rambla or ravine, and the three or four church towers, in place of minarets, alone serve to remind the traveller that he is not on the confines of a town in Arabia or Morocco. The great feature of Elche is its date palms, the introduction of which into Spain is traditionally referred to Abd-er-ralıman I., who daily contemplated the first Spanish palm from bis palace window at Cordova, or watered with his tears the trec which was once irrigated by his beloved Euphrates. He felt half mortified that the palm should raise its crest towards hcaven and cxpand with the kisses from the brcczes of Algarve, while hc, another exile from the E.ıst, pined for the sweeter air of his native land. And truly thc descendants of the famous palm of Abucr-rahman, with their fifty feet of sten, crowned by the golden bunches of fruit and graceful leaves, feel quite as much at home in the gardens of Elche as they cver did on the banks of the Euphrates. The fertility of Elche is due to the great tauk or artificial lake which was forinců by the Arabs, several • From Laya, or with the article Al-luja, a broad and fertile plain. † "Con mis lagrimas regué las palmas que el Fomt ricga." Corule, Romuncion de los traber, r. 85.

·48 ON THE IP.P.IGATION reaches Elche quite independently of the irrigation channels, there it is of course a great boon to the people. The main imgating canal or Acequia Jadre, on first issuing from the dam, flows along the dry bed of the Vinalapo rrine for a short distance, until the rarine takes a sharp turn to the south. The canal is then divided into two branches, one flowing down the ravine, and the other being led through a tunnel excarated in the side of the mountain. At a distance of about half a mile the two streams unite, in an excavated channel which flows direct to Elche, being taken across ravines on aqueducts, and in some places being conducted through rocky spurs from the hills, by means of tunnels or deep cuttings. By the arrangement of dividing the stream at its commencement, the means are provided of cleaning out the tunnels, by allowing the whole volume to flors into the lower branch. The deep ravine of the Vinalapo, being the dry bed of the torrent which existed before the tank was constructed, cuts deep into the alluvial soil, having scarped cliffs on either side, and, passing the town of Elche which overhang it, extends to the shores of the Mediterranean. The Azequia Jadre flows down, close to the cliffs on the left side of the ravine; and, at a distance of threequarters of a mile from the dam, another channel branches froun the main canal, crosses the rarine, and is led down the right side as the Azequia Jarchena, to supply rater for the small estent of land which is irrigated on the southern side of the ravine.

·OF EASTERN SPAIN 49 At a distance of a mile and a half above Elche the Acequia lladre begins to send off partidores, or secondary irrigating channels, of which there are twenty-two in all, seven above the town, and fifteen below it, all of course issuing from the left bank of the mother canal, as the edge of the ravine is close at hand to the right The names of these partidores give more distinct proofs of the Arabian origin of the irrigation system of Elche than could be obtained cither from traditions or cven from written chronicles. I obtaiued these names from the mouths of millers and cultivators who live on the banks of the channels and use their water, and I am indebted for the following explanations of their meaning to that eminent Arabic scholar, thc Rev. George P Badger. Counting from the western end of the irrigated garden, or that nearest to the tank--they are as follows — 1. Arbinella This word is possibly composed of two others, Irbanın illah, the "forty pure springs". The singular of rllah is ill, which means a person or place whence anything pure originates 2. Carrey Probably Karizy,* "a channel through which water flows from a mountain"; or the place in which such water is reccired in a garden or ficlel. 3. Aincl. From an-Nasal, "descent, flowing". The clinnnel of the descent or slope. 4, Forat. Furett, "plenty, superfluity". 5. Annoy. Perhaps for Ghanzy, "rich". . Or kokrra. See note at rive 39. E ·50 ON THE IRRIGATION 6. Candaliz* There is an Arabic word, one of the rare instances of a noun with five radical letters, which is something like tliis-namely, Khandalis; but, as it means a number of lean camels, it is hardly likely that it can be the name of this channel. Candaliz may be a corruption of Kenzail-izz, "the treasure of dignity or happiness". 7. El Real. These are the clianncls above the town of Elche. The rest flow off from the mother canal after it has passed the town, and are as follows: 8. Albeit. Al-beit, “ the house". 9. Mijasc. Perhaps Majassal, "put together with lime”. The same word is used to express fulness, repletion, etc. 10. Aſatrof. Mutraf, "Afluent. Bestowing tho comforts of life". 11. Alcuna. Perhaps Al-ghand, “Richcs, wealtlı", also “a valley abounding with trees”. Or it may be ul-kandh, " the aqueduct, channel". 12. Nafis Nafiz, "penetrating, going through, effectual". 13. Tufa. Perhaps Tufooh,"fulness to redundancy". 14. Cuñera. Possibly K'inndra, "a harp, or guitar", from the musical sound of the water flowing through the channel. 15. Saunee. Probably Saniyy, “ Precious, beautiful”. The root of this noun (Sana) signifies to irrigate land with a water-wheel. * In Spanish Candelizas are the clew-garnets, or ropes for clewing up the fore and main courses ·OF EASTERN SPAIN. 51 16. Aladea. A feminine form, “passing, running, flowing" 17 Alfranc. Al-Frank," the Frank or European." The two channels called Aladea and Alfranc issuc from the mother canal as one, and separate afterwards, the latter being of later date. 18. Lausa Perhaps Lazah, “delight, enjoyment". 19. Borocat. Barakat,"abundance, fertility, blessing". 20 Natla. Perhaps Nalluh, " a draught". The verb Natal throws off scveral forms signifying redundancy. Or it may be Nathal, a ditch. 21. Palomar, 22. Aral. Awwal, “first". The Aral is the last of the secondary channels, and is about two miles below the town of Elche. The mother canal is cleaned out every year, in the month of September. The fila iu Elche is a very different measurement from the fila of Murcia and Orihuela, The whole volume of water brought down from the tank, by the Azequia Jadre, is divided into twelve cqual parts called clouble filas or hilas of water, and their measurement must of course vary according to the supply from the tank. Thus there are twenty-four single hilas corresponding to the twenty-four hours of the day, twelve for day anil tuelve for night irrigation. Two of these hilas are set apart for the use of the torrn, onc for the land on the right bank of the ravinc, irrigated by the Asequia Jarchena, and the other ninc for the garelen of Elche on the left lunk. Numerous brazales or small water-courses, learling from the channels with FO ·00 0. TIE II: NICATION Ambic names, conduct the water to the ficids, and at crery opening there is n wmilen flow.gate with a lock anil key: Tlic quesession of a single hilet is in other words the right to use, in the proper turn, the twenty-fourtlı part of the rolutiic contained in the mother canal for the space of twelve lour. Tlio time from sir 1... to six r.si. being the day hila, and from six P.M. to six A.M. the night hila, the time Ixing regulitel by the town clock. These huilas are disileil into half hilus of sis, and quarters of three, liour. The water i, soll crcry morning by the Irrigation Officers at a place called the Troneta in the pulslic aqunre of Flele, at right in water amil seven in rumcr. The ofliccr announces the hilas such are on for that clay, and the cultirators whose turns harc comc round. The cultivators then indlicate the particular laul wluch they require to be irrigatoil ; or the person to whom they have scold their claim, if tlıcy do not require water on that particular day. Ilic nance of the channels whence water will be distributed on that day, and the other details, arc then published. The stiperintendence aul government of the irrigation of Elchic is cntrusted to a Junta or Boari presided over by the Alcaldc of thic town, and consisting of four otlicr members. Two of these are the Sindic or Recorder to represent the municipality, and thic Regidor Decano to watch tlic interests of the public. The other two must be cugaged in the cultivation of irrigated land, and are clected annually by the body of cultivators, every person, living a right to half a ·OF EASTERN SPAIN 53 The general hila of water, being entitled to a vote. meeting of cultivators assembles to elect the members on the second Sunday in January. The dutics of this Board are to superintend all matters relating to irrigation and to the repair of the works, and to manage the funds. The services of its members are given gratuitously. The other irrigation officers receive salaries, and are nominated by the Board. They are the Depositario, the Contra-libro, and the Fidl Repartidor or faithful distributor. Tho Depositurio assists at the sales of water every morning at the Troneta, takes notes of the sales, and is responsible for the paynient of money by the purchasers. He is bound to submit his accounts to the Board every year, which are audited by two of their number, and the Depositario must make good any deficiency within three days. The Contra-libro also has to be present at the sales, to take note of the cultivators wlio irrigate cach day, of the fields irrigated, and of the quantity of water taken. All these particulars are entered in a book. Ile also has to superintend the execution of all repairs in the channels The duty of the Fiel Repartidor is to lock and unlock thic tablachos or doors in the channels, and to see that no water is taken improperly, but lic is strictly prolubited from sellmg any water, wlich can only bo done at the Troncta These rules nere frmed from the old Moorish customs, and, liaving been embodied into an Onlinjuce consisting of nmetech sections, were approved by a Royal Onler elateed January 9th, 1796 ·OS TUD: 1:1 ::.ITIOX The irrigatcıl area of the garlen of Elchic covers 8729 acres. The palm trees, often fifty fret ligli, arc plantel in rows along the water.cour-cs, and round the finall field. Flin-r-Awianº treats of their cultivation, and thic Moors (liatinguialıcd the male from tlic fomnlc, centuries lcforc Linncus taught the sexes of plants. The cultivators of Elclie plant onc male letween two females, and the fructification is effected ly the wind, nnd uot artificially, as in India. Thic young palms are raised in nurscrics until they are three years old, when they are planteil ont in rows six ſect apart. They are irrigatel once a week. T'lic intcrmcdiatc fields are sown with alfalfa, maize, vegetables, and pomegrantes ; and beyond tlic area of irrigation there aro plantations of olives, fig trees, and fields of com. A number of mills are turned loy the mother canal, and thic clcan confortable houses of the millers are sladal by palin troes, ng well as by vincs creeping over tlic verandals. In this beautiful climate thic corn is spread out to dry upon platformy resembling the barbecus of Indian coffcc planters, which are still called by thic Arabic name of alfarige.f The garden of Alicanto is also irrigated by means of a large tank or artificial lake; but, as I lave described tlic Elche system in detail, it is superfluous to inake more than a brief allusion to one which, in all its essential features, is similar. * I, p. 1, cap. vii, art 43, p. 3H. † Al-Farsh. Anything spread on the ground, as a mat oi cnrpet.

·OF L'ASTLEN SPAIX." 55 The dam for the Alicante tank is about a league south of the village of Tibi, and is built across a gorge between two masses of naked limestone rock, called Mos de Bou and Cresta. According to Cavapılles the height of this dam is 150 feet, its thickness 66, and its length 172 feet. The arrangement for cleaning out the tank, which is half a league in extent, is the same as that in usc at Elclic. At the west end there is a calingulah for letting off the water when the tank is very full. This dam was commenced in the year 1596, but entirely rebuilt in 1738. The canal flowing from the dam, is provided with a bed excavated out of the solid rock. It irrigates 8074 acres in the garden of Alicante, which is three miles long, from cast to west. The river Monnegre, for the constant supply of which the water is stored in the tank or pantano de Trbi, flows thence to the sea, through the garden of Alicante. Two azuds or anıcuts are thrown across this That of Muchamiel, furthest from the sea, is a curved wall of masonry, lience a deep irrigating channel is taken along the base of the hills, with a stone wall on one side, and five calingulalıs or outlets for surplus water Tliat of San Juan, also a curved masonry wall, is langer and nearer the sea. The productions of the garden of Alicante are viues, barley, wheat, maize, almonds, olives, lemp, figs, alfalfa, another fruits and vegetables ; besides algarrobos ml tlic Schus molle rver.

·56 "OX TIE IT:1.1GATIO VII. IRRIGATION AT NOVELDA. Tule system of irrigation at Norelda is deserving of special iotice, on nccount of the peculiar rules which have been handcl clown from the time of the Arabe, and still prevail there. Novelda is one of the first stations on the railroad from Alicante to Madrid, and is a nice little town surrounded by a fertile gardieu. Ilic irrigated area is about two leagucs long from east to west loy onc league broad, The springs of Jaut, whence the irrigating chaunel is conducted to the garden, arc about six miles distant. A wall, with a curve towarus thic currcut, is built across the ratine, nearly two hundred yards long, and the channel is taken through three tunnels hewn out of the rock, anil over several ravincs on arches. Thic Novelda garden yields corn, maize, alfalfi, pomegrauates, and vegetables, but it is especially famous for its alficos or serpent cucumbers (Cucumis Mexuosus, Lin.), which are twelve times as long as broad. The people are very fond of them. There is a mark at the upper end of thic irrigation ·OF EASTERN SPAIN: 57 channel up to which the water is private property, but the volume which rises above this level forms what is called a hilo, belonging to the public. The volume of water, which is private, is subdivided into four hilos, which flow over the whole garden. Onc of them supplies the town Each of these hilos is double, and is again divided into single hilos for day and night, counting from six in the morning to six in the evening, and ance cen's. The single hilos are furtlicr subdivided into parts, called <zumbres, consisting of the use of the water for the space of one hour and a half. The whole number of 336 azumbres" is the property of several owners, some of whom possess 10 irrigated land of their own, and their water is of course the sulject of many bargains. The distribution of water is not made with reference to the different holdings of land, but according to tlıc property in azumbres of water, the use of which comes round every twenty-seven days. A turn is cstablished, called martara, and the hours for cach azumbre are fixed. Between the periods for the usufruct of the acumbres of private individuals, six days are intercalated, during which the water is sold by tlic authorities, in order to provide the funds for the repair and improvement of the channels, and for other expeuscs connected with the irrigation works. It is remarkavlc tliat thc word used for a turn in Novelda is • Azumire is a Spanish liqual measure cquul to 0.11%) of a gullon. In Arabic As-Sanbir is a water-spout or pipe. In Syria the water for urigution, to nhich cultivators are entitled, is masured by the size of the pipe throngh which it flows ·JS OX TIE IRIGATION sint the Spanish tanda, but the pure Ambic form marlitla. Tlie relocity of the flow of water in cach mal or irrigating watercourse is calculatoil; and the time is marked that the water takes in flowing from the outlet of the partilor or branch channel to the outlet wliere it enters the irrigating braal. Tic town clouk serves as a guille, and thic water is allowed to flow through the boqueme of cacla cultivator luring the exact time to which he is entitled. Every day at noon the sale of water takes place from the Tronda, under the portico of the town hall of Noield.. The owners of asumbres, whose turns fall upon that «lay, have to state in what part of the garilen they «lesire that the water, to which they are tlus cntitled, bloull be deliveredl, whether for their own u«c, or for that of persons to whom they may have solil their right. The official, to whom is ontrusted the difficult and confidential dutics of managing the distribution and sale of the water, is nominated by tlic Municipality: IIc is called thio dlami,f a world of Arabic origin; and the post is onc requiring so much special knowledge, that it is always given to the members of certain families, who have held it from time immemorial. When the alami lias knocked down an (zumbrc to the bigliest bideler, he asks"Whıcıc?" Tlic bidder re- . Jardubah, a degrec, a step Tlo worel is niso used in Persinn and Turkislı to signify n time or turn, and in Indii. † Alim, going information, certifying wildnt would love thic electric furni"One who certhes."

·OF EASTERN SPAIX. 59 polies—"In such a channel, for such a piece of ground”. After the sale of the next night's hilos, those of the next day are sold, and the Alami then arranges the distribution of the water according to the number of liours it is to flow into this or that channel. Each buyer is supplied with a receipt, on which the time during which the water is to flow, and the field to lic irrigated, are marked. This receipt is still called by the Arabic word albara.* At the time of receiving the allard, the buyer is bound to pay the price of the water It will at once be seen that the duties of the Alami icquire constant attention, much care, and an intimate knowledge of the localities, for their satisfactory performance. He has to remember wlierc the lulos of day and night irrigation have licen delivered during the previous twenty-four hours, and which is the nearest among those sold on the current dny, to combine the directious in which the water should flow with the requisite volume, so that there may be sufficient in the places where cach zumbrc is to be delivered, adding to, or diverting from, the various channels, so as to sccurc these ends. These coniplicated operations can only be satisfactorily performed by persons who have had long experience, and are writlial quick-witted and intelligent. The albani is the title empowering the cultivator to usc tle water for a certain time, IIc knows the time it will take for the water to arrive at liis outlet, avil opens it at the right moment. When the rclocity of . .11. Hráil, the writing conferring inimmity or eremptırna.

·GO OX TIE 11:RIGATION tlic current is not inorked, ne is sometimes thc casc in the intermcliate parts of a channel, an operation callcul lira brosu is performed. faggot is launched into the channel at its licad (others which, from their shape, go down faster than the current, being taken out), and the cultivator follows it until it comes opposite to liis opening, when lic miscs tlic gate, and liis turn of irrigation coinmences. Tlc antiquity of these customs is very great, and the peculiar terms used at Novelda, point with cortainty to tlicir Ambian origin.

·No text on this page.

·Villamani
Olc (astelloni
alta del lley
ent
Sellando
Lulesa de lancs
Corlicni
climanja. Lorn Sauris
cllinen
lel Conde
olisalneu Torrente de trollit
lleudia de Crepins
filles de in Viller
Gnia
Tiwe Cew
Ancoro Julle
R
Canals
Hrana
100 Sardor
511
de
Since
Orfrahur
2
Santa
Houble
But a lila

·OF EASTERN SPAIN. 61 VIII. THE GARDENS OF JÁTIVA AND GANDIA. BEAUTIFUL Játiva, the birth-place of the Borgia Popes and of the painter Spagnoletto, is surrounded by an urrigated garden, with its thickets of mulberries, and fringe of algarrobos, olives, and vineyards. The grand old castle, so gallantly defended by the English during the war of succession,* riscs above the ancient and most interesting city, thosc history has been so lovingly and painfully written by Don Vicente Boix, the accomplished Chronicler of Valencia. The garden of Jatira is irrigated by water from the three rivers, Albaida, Montesa, and Los Santos, all tributaries of thic Xucar, and from scveral springs. The Spanish Arals, while establishing that famous paper mamfactory at Jativa, whence the art of making paper was extended to the nations of Europe, did not neglect the works of irrigation necessary to fertilize its garden. • In this castlo the Infants of La Cerda sere continel (the rightful licirs of the throne of Castile); and nfiterrans it was the prinon of Char Borgia.

·62 OX TIE 11:11GATIOX Twelvc irrigating canals arc drawn from the abovementioned rivers. 1. Tlc canal of Murta is taken from the river Allaila, by means of nn azul constructed of stakes and fascines, which is of course in need of incesannt renewal. It absorbis nine out of thic thirty-three parte into wliich the volume of this river is considered to be divided, which are lield to measure a fila cach when the river is at its average lidíght. Thc Jurta canal irrigates 1698 finegacias.* 2. The canal of Puig is taken from thic Alhaida liy means of a masonry anicut. It is conducted throug!. il rocky hill which overlange the river, ly a tunnel, and draws off cighteen out of the tliirty-thirve filas, to irrigate 5600 funcgadas of paddy cultivation. 3. The Benifurt canal also comes from the Allaidn, and is cirawn off by means of an acud of stakes. 4. That of La Torre also has an azul of stakes ani! fascines, 5. The canal of Sanla is derived from a spring near the river Montesa, and has a volume of three filus, which is conducted by subterrancan pipes of clay into thc city, to supply the fountains and private houses, G. That of Losa is brought from the Montesa river by mcans of an aud of stakes, and irrigates 7500 fanegalas with six filas. 7. Thic canal of 1[cses is also brought from the Montes. ly nicans of a masonry anicut, and has a * One fanegada = 1.13 acre ·OF EASTERN SPAIN. 63 volume of twelve filas, sufficient to irrigate 3703 fanegaclas. 8. Tliat of Foyes Velles also comes from the Montesa, by means of an azul of stakes and fascines; as does the canal of 9. Foyes Nores 10. The canal of Vila is taken from the river Los Santos, by means of a dam of rough stones. The Vila canal las a volume of nineteen filas, out of the twenty which the river is considered to contain. 11. The canal of Ranes takes the othet ninc filas from the river Los Santos 12. The Bellus canal is derived from a spring of that name. All these twelve canals send off thousands of smaller watercourses, which ramify in every direction over the garden of Jativa; and most of them have a separate code of ordinances for their regulation. The garden of Gandia lies between Játiva and the Mediterranean, and is separated from Játiva by a mange of bills. To the south is tlie bill of Santa Ana, and to the north the hill of Bayrent, near Gaudia, crowned with its lonry old castle. From the Mediterraycan to the hills of Azafar, which bound the garden of Gandia on the west, all is fertility. Within these limits there are nineteen villages, containing 7,500 inhabitants. Gandin was the home of tliat remarkable mce of Borgias, to wloin it also gave their ducal titlc. Here lived tlic great and vile, the good and bad, the saints and sinners of that famous line whose scions filled all ·04 OX THE IRRIGATION . thic world with thcir famc. The universe was full of them", declares their liistorian, who ndils that there arc Borgias in licaven, Borgias in liell, Borgins in the cast and west, in court anel cloister, on sca and land Borgins everywhicre. The garden of Ganrlin is irrigated lsy water from thic rivers Alcoy and Bernian, which unitc and fall into the Mediterranean; and comprises 35,506 fancyudas of irrigated land. All the works of irrigntion arc due to the Arabs, and the use of tlic water was confirmed to the inliabitants by the Conqueror Jayme I of Aragon. A division of tlıc land amongst the old Moorish inhabitants and the now settlers was male in 1244 lsy Don Peregrin de Trujillo, Governor of the old castle of Bayrent, which ovcrlangs the town of Gandia. In 1989 the Duke of Gandia brought a complaint beforc the Royal Auclience of Valencia, against thic formation of dams above thic garden, and he obtained a Royal Decree of nihil innoruntlo, having prove that the right of Gandia to all the water of the river Alcoy, dated from time iinmetorini, It has already been said that the hila, or measure of water tised in irrigating the valleys of Eastern Spain, is different in almost every centre of irrigation. In Murcia and Orihuela it is an exact measure of the cubic contents of a colupıp of water fifty yards long by a vertical section of thirty-two square inches In Elche and Ņovelda it is an imaginary measure, being a certain fraction of the whole yolume of a canal, whether the water lie high or low. In Gandia this ·OF EASTERN SPAIN 65 artificial measurement is unknown, yet the size of the Gandian lula differs from that of Murcia and Orihuela. The hila of Gandia is the volume which will flow through an outlet cight inches squarc at the rate of onc yard per second, or double the size of the Murcian hila. The Alcoy and Bernisa rivers unite at a distance of several miles above Gaudia, and their joint waters flow through the garden in a north-cast direction to the sca.* Threc anicuts or azuds are thrown across the Alcoy and Bernisa, for raising the water. The sicud de Alcoy, near Villalonga, has been there from time immemorial, and has always been repaired by the cultivators who receive water from its canals. The Asud de En-Jarch is a short distance lower down, and intercepts the water which escapes over that of Alcoy. It was constructed by the Lord of Beniarjó, whose name was Moscu March, in 1500 A.D. The third anicut, called the Acud de Bernisa, is a work of Moorish times. Villages of the huerta de Gandu On the left bank nf the river. On the right bank of the river 1, Gandia 1. Benifs 2 Reniopa 2. Beniarjó 3. Benipeixcar 3. Alqueria de la Condesa 4. Benircdm 4. Bellreguart 5, Real 5. Paluers 6. Palma 6. Ador Year the eca shore 1. Piles di the foot of the southern hulle. ? Wiramar 1. Potnes 3 Guanliniar • Fuente de Encarroz 1 Daimús 3. Olma ·66 ON THE IRRIGATION They arc all solidly built of rougli stond work and limc; but they are much out of repair, and require a thorough overhauling The cliannel fowing from thic south side of the daud de llcoy is called the fequia de Alcoy, and it conducts the whole volume of water to a vaulted reservoir called the Casa Fosca, the keys of which are kept lvy the towus of Gandia and Oliva. llere there 18 a stone wall with seven outlcts for dividing the watcr. Two of these outlets convey water to the channel of Relvollct, wlich irrigates the villages of Potries, Fuente de Eucarroz, and Oliva; and the others admit the remaining water into another reservoir, 500 yarıls lower down the valley, called the Casa Clara. JIcre the water is divided by twenty-five separate outlets, ten of which discharge the water whiclı supplies the canal of Gandia, and irrigates cight villages, laving a cultivatoil arca of 8884 fancgallas.* Thic other fiftecu outlets of the Casa Cları clischarge thic water to supply the canal of Olira, which also irrigates the land of coglit villages, comprisiug 13,290 fanegadas. A small canal, that of Encarroz, is taken from the north side of the Azud de Alcoy, and irrigates 1266 fanegadas. A canal of the same name flows from thic Azud de En-March, which was the subject of a forty years' lavsuit (A.D. 1506-46) between the villages of Beniarjó and Palma The last canal is that of Bernisa. The whole area irrigated amounts to 35,556 funegadas, and the irrigating channels turn two mills * One fanegada = 1:13 acre ·OF EASTERY SPAIX. 67 There is no code of ordinances approved by the Government, for the regulation of Gandia irrigation , but all disputes and other questions are settled by rules and customs which have been handed down from tle time of thic Arabs. When any business has to be discussed and settled relating to the water derived from the acud of Alcoy, the representatives of the municipalitics, whose villages are interested in it, assemble in the house of the Alcalda of the village of Palmera. The representatives or Syndics of the villages then state their views according to a long-establisher order of precedence, he of Gandia opening the debate. The saine order is observed in the other villages, in regulating the affairs of their respective azequias. Threc Azequicros are appointed by the municipalities to superintend the different channels. Tlcir duties are to denounce to the Alcalles any infraction of rules or improper use of water, to receive the sums of money paid as fincs, and to regulate the distribution. Thcir staff of office is a long role with an iron look at the end, called the dall. The cultivators also elect officers called Regantes, one for each channel of irrigation, to watch over their interests, and to aunounce to cach cultivator tlic hour when his tanda or turu comes round. The channels are cleaned out every year in the month of Jay. The villages are bound to assist, either with money, material, or labour, and the village of Fuente de Encarroz must furnish the wood for making temporary dams But there are four villages, Rafel.

·68 OX TIE IRRIGATION cofer, Palmera, Alqucria de le Condesa, and Beniflá, wlich claim total cxcmption from giving any aid whatever in this important work. The three fortuer villages allege, as thic ground of exemption, that when thic Moorish Chicf of Gandia was blockadel in the castle of Rebollet, and they succoured him with supplies of water, lic exclaimed :-"]lau regat y regareu, y al azud no anireu." The people of Beniflá found their claim on a similar trditiou. They say that when the Duclicss of Gandin was passing their village, on one very liot day, she asked for a drink of water, which was presenterl to her in a glass pitcher. She was so grateful for this relicf to her thirst, that she too exclaimcil .-“ Benifli rega y regara, y al azul no anira."* These villages stick most pcrtinaciously to their privileges, and oblige thcir ucighbours to do all the work, while they rcap the benefits. The other Gandian villagers must assuredly be very casy, goodtempered people to pay so high a price, without demur, for tlic drinks of the tlursty Moor and still more thirsty Duchess. The people of Gandia complain very much of the number of anicuts which have been built across thcir rivers before they reach the garden, in spite of the decrce of nihil innorando obtained by their Duke in 1689. This, and the dilapidated condition of the azuds, have diminished the supply of available water very much of late years. * " Benifs shall irrigate and continue to irrigate, and shall not repair the azul"

·No text on this page.

·KADI TIANY
Io
SULIT
SEN Cine
TA
Fuerta
(tlles
SE
System
OF IRRIGATION
free
RIVER XCCAR
En
41rt

·OF EASTERN SPAIX. 69 IX IRRIGATION FROM TIIE RIVER XUCAR The river Xucar rises in the mountains of the province of Cuenca, flows through a deep ravinc to Antella, then irrigates and fertilizes the region between Antella and the sea, forms an island round the ancient town of Alcira,* and falls into the Mediterranean at Cullera, soutlı of the great Albufera lake, and about twenty miles south of the city of Valencia. The Xucar irrigation is an instance of the mischief that selfish speculators and doctrinaire centralizers may do, by interference with the ancient rights of the people The Lucar irrigation was, but is not now, among the best in the eastern valleys of Spam, and, although it possesses the fiuest modern engineering works, neither its mode of government nor its system of cultivation is now to be admired The Arabs of the Valencian kingdom threw an anscut across tlic Xucar near Jutella, and extendel their ** The land in the Socar • Jeru-Shular of the Moon 1/ Vitku ·70 ON THE IRRIGATION irrigation mainly over the country on the left bank of the river. On the 31st of December, 1239, Jayme I of Aragon conquerel Alcim and its irrigatel garden, and divided the lamı amongst his followers. In 1973 he granted the privilege of using the water of the canals to the inlabitants, reserving a small tax, and thic nomination of irrigation officers. Subsequently the privilege of clecting the oflicers was concceled to the inabitants of Alcira, and in 1409 Juan II of Aragon granted a jurisdiction without appcal, in matters relating to irrigation, to the Juilge clected by the people. The towns of Alcim and Algemesi, by virtue of thesc privileges, nominated the four officials who composcil thicir Irrigation Tribunal. These rere the Jule dzequiero, the l’rocurilor Sindico, the Escribano or clak, and the inspector of accounts. The Jue 112Cquiero lind exclusive jurisdiction over all suits, processes, and informations relating to irrigation; granted the uccessary funds for repairs; inspccted the channels, and in fine exercised complete and independent jurisdiction over the irrigation works. It was the duty of the Sindico to watch over the privileges and interests of the people. Tlc Escribano recortled all judicial seutences, and all matters relating to the canals; and the inspector of accounts had charge of all funds, inspected the cannis, reported irregularities, and denounced transgressors. These officers were elected crery year, and immediately afterwards the General Council of Irrigators Ilus summoned by the Jucz Azequiero. This assembly ·OF EASTERN SPAIN. 71 decided upon the sum of money which would be required for the year, to pay the expenses of administration, the charges for repairs and the salaries of officials, This sum was then apportioned amongst the cultivators, according to the number of their acres This excellent system, which left the management of the irrigation entirely in the hands of the people, continucd in full force until the middle of the last century. Then, unluckily for the dwellers on the banks of the Xucar, a powerful grandee became a grasping speculator. The Duke of Hijar, u ho cnjoyed twenty-cıght other titles* and thirteen surnames, poroposed a scheme to the Government in 1767, for extending the royal canal of Alcıra at his own expense, on condition that the cultivators paid him one-twentieth of the value of their crops, in addition to the usual irrigating charges. Not only were the people themselves not consulted, but, in order to secure the interests of the Duke, those of the people were unjustly and shamefully set aside. Thic irrigation officials were suspended, a Judge with full and independent jurisdiction, named Casamayor, was appoiuted by the Government to assume all the powers so long exercised by trusty men clected ly their townsmen, and the old free institutious were abolished Casamayor held this office, with tlie title of Juc Delegado, from 1767 to 1778. He retniucd some of the ancient usages, but jubbery and corruption became the onler of thic day, and the sunber of officials was multiplied house, called the Cusu ddl Rey, was built for them at Intella loy the • Promi, Tilul.se, IT, +3

·advali и от
21
NA
(:
olid dan
line of the
Alcira
qua Real
XVCAR
PAT
7077rcs.

·ON THE IRRIGATION, ETC 73 Duke of Hijar. From that time the Azequiero of the Royal Canal of Alcira has held a very lucrative post. Don Lorenzo Rosillo succeeded Casamayor as Jucz Delegado He beld the office from 1778 to 1801, and during his time some fine public works were completedl, especially at the azud of Antella In 1817 tbc office of Jucz Delegado was abolished, and since that time there has been a Sub-delegado at Alcira, under the local authorities of Valencia, with twelve alquazıls or guards under him; and the canal fines are divided between this official, the denouncer, and the Government. The good old order of things, as it was handel down from Moorish times, and which is still preserver! in other irrigated gardcos, bas thus been destroyed for ever in the fertile valley of the Yucar. The Royal Canal of Alcira is drawn from the river Xucar, by means of an Azud or dam, close to the village of Antella. (Sec engraving on opposite page) The Axud is built between two rocky spurs, at az point where the river takes a sharp turn It wils conpleted at the end of the last century, but there was an older structure on the same site in the time of the Noors. It consists of a massive wall of stones and cement, resting on a reef of rocks in the river bed, and is divided by tlirce sluices through which the surplus water flows, the discharge being regulated by flool-giten The section of the .Inicut from a to : oui the plan opposite is here shown

·TORT
R I VER
D
Jonair llc oli ilmini
que Kerl
XVCAR
mense
Hirn.

·ON THE IRRIGATION, ETC 73 Duke of Hijar. From that time tho Azequiero of the Royal Canal of Alcira has held a very lucrative post. Don Lorenzo Rosillo succeeded Casamayor as Juez Delegado. Ile held the office from 1778 to 1801, and during luis time some fine public works were completed, especially at the azud of Antella In 1817 the office of Juez Delegado was abolislıcd, and since that time there has been a Sub-ilelegado at Alcira, under the local authorities of Valencia, with twelve alquazils or guards under him; and the canal fines are divideil between thuis official, the denouncer, and the Government. The good old order of things, as it was handel down from Moorish times, and which is still preserved in other irrigated gardens, has thus becn destroyed for cver in the fertile valley of the Xucar. The Royal Canal of Alcira is drawn from the rirer Xucar, by means of an Acud or dam, close to thic village of Antella. (Sce engraving on opposite page.) The Azud is built between two rocky spurs, at a point where the river takes a sharp turn. It was completed at the end of the last century, but there was an older structure on the same site in the timc of the Moors. It consists of a massive wall of stones and cement, resting on a reef of rocks in the river bed, anıl is divided by three sluices through which the surplus water flows, the discharge being regulated by flood-gates Tlie section of the Inicut from A to B on the plan opposite is here shown.

·ON THE IRRIGATION The Royal Canal of Alcim tlors off just above the anicut, on the left bank. At the outlct there is a build- Castell or Casa de las Compuerlas HHLHELMH Tinka ing on tlıree arches called the Casa de las Compucrlas, built over the sluices of the canal. It contains the screws by which the three sluice-gates are raised and Compuerta or Staice-gale lowered, and the discharge of water into the canal can casily be regulated by one man. Long wing walls, on either side of the canal, protect the banks from the action of the water.

·OF EASTERN SPAIN 75 The Royal Canal of Alcira shapes its course for a long time close to the left bank of the river, then skirts the rocky range of hills above Alcudia to Alginet, passing under a ravine, through a siphon 150 yards long, called the Cano de Algemesi. The lower part, from near this point to Albal, is the continuation constructed by the Duke of Hijar. The country composing the island from Antella to Algemesi, between the river and the canal, is one vast network of irrigating channels. There are, besides the outlets for these secondary channels (all fitted with flood-gates, of which the guard keeps the keys), as many as 102 masonry works of different kinds, tunnels, aqueducts, protecting walls, etc., connected with this canal The extent of country irrigated by the Canal of Alcira is slown on the map To the south it is bounded wy the river Sucar; to the north by the ravine of Catarroja, by which it is separated from the gardeu of Valcucin; to the east by thc Albufera lake; and to the west by the mountains of Carlet. It is a land of orange gardens, almonds, vines, and pomegranates; but its chief and most valuable product is rice, the paddy fields extending chiefly round the Albufera.* This lake, about nine miles in circumference Derireil from 11-Dulcirah, the diminutive form of Dahar, "a small sca" "Year Vulencia," says Al Mahkari, "there is a large lale, lucl reflects the rays of the sun in such a manner that the light in the city is increased by it. This, indeed, is a fact to which all outliers who have written upon Valencia lor ample testimony." (i, p. 67 ) van die Sachet to his lacul title from the lake of Albafera.

·76 OX TIIE IRRIGATION and from six to twelve fect deep, is separate from the Mediterrancan by a narrow strip of sand. In the winter it alounds with a great variety of wild ducks and other aquatic birds, of which there is a completo stuffed collection in one of the rooms of the university nt Valencia. The cultivation of rice around the shores of tlıc Albufera was introduced by the Arals, and was prohibited, on account of its unlıcalthiness and the waste of water it occasioncu, by King Martin of Aragon in 1403 A.D. Permissions and prohibitions have alternated since that time, and Cavanilles recommendol the total discontinuance of n cultivation which procluced so many fevers aud such swarms of mosquitocs. * Attempts have been made, near Valencia, to grow rice without irrigation, but they were fruitless. It would certainly appear that, apart from its cxtremo unhealthiness, thic cultivation of rice in this country is open to serious objections The continuous larvests and incessant swamping wear out and encrvate the land, and now the use of guapo and other manures is essential. Tlc rice is sown in April and May, and reaped in September; so that the swampy land is seldom cxposed to the influence of heat, and the stagnant water keeps it in a constant state of saturation, and rapidly neutralizes its fertilizing properties. At present the cultivation of rice is very strictly prohibited, beyond certain prescribed limits, * One of the Bloorish poets of Valencia says—“There is one thing, which annoys me most, and puts me out of humour, which is, that the fleas are continually dancing to the music of the mosanitoes 11 Makleri, i, p. 07. 11

·OF EASTERN SPAIN.
and the use of guano as manure is believed to have
decreased the pernicious effects of the swamped land,
though in what way it is difficult to understand.
Besides the Royal Canal of Alcira, the Xucar system
of irrigation includes the Canals of Castellon, Antella,
and Carcagente, and waters 49,065 acres, of which
32,852 are under rice cultivation It is calculated
that a lila (or nuela, as it is called here) of water
irrigates about 400 acres; and as the four canals have
a volume of -
Castellon
50 hilas
Antella
12
Carcagente
661
Real de Alcira
618
>
7461
about 495 are absorbed by the rice fields. The hila of
thic Xucar valley is a column of water twenty-five
yards long, with a vertical section cight inches square.

·78 OX TUE IRRIGATION X. THE GARDEN OF VALENCIA. Frosi the lofty Miguclete tower, in the centre of Valencia, there is a glorious view of the richest and most completely irrigated huerta in Spain. A vast expanse of brilliant green is dotted with villages, with the Mediterranean to the castward, and a belt of rocky mountains, some very distant, in every other, direction. The river Turia or Guadalaviar,* the creator of all this fertility, flows round the northern walls of the city, there it is faced with malecones or masonry quays of the time of Philip Iit and his son, and crossed by four bridges. It empties the few drops which are left by the irrigation into the Mediterranean, close to the Grao or seaport of Valencia. Valencin was famous for its irrigated huerta from the earliest Moorish times. The Arabs called it the D[edinatri-t-tarab or "City of Mirth"; and Al mityabu- * The white river." † Thoso on the left bank were built between 1606 and 1674, and those on the right between 1598 and 1729.

·PLE
n Rafol
Partai
S Joan
ހި
Z
ofgart
alena
71923,
Tafilbutal.
Talle de Jesus
Ibufera
tiyacion
Plato
Broary
La Cm
imanis
Win Srathon
Prera's
VIEDRO
themet
Sagutin
Proces
voll Station
Tirol
Rio

·No text on this page.

·OF EASTERN SPAIN. 79 l-Andalus, "The scent-bottle of Andalusia," from its numcrous orchards and flower gardens. Here was a Rissafale* or pleasure ground laid out in flowerbeds and shady walks, in imitation of the Rissafah planted by thic Caliph Abd-er-rahman at Cordova, which in its turn was called after similar pleasure gardens at Damascus. Here, too, was the Junyatuibn Abi Amir (the garden of Abi Amir), planted by a grandson of the famous Almanzor Here, too, were a thousand other pleasant gardens and alcazares, all fertilized by watercourses from the river; and we may gather, from poor Conde'st confused mass of chronicles, that the dams and irrigation canals were constructed during the long and prosperous reigns of the carlier Ommiad Caliphs. Afterwards, what with the raids of that cruel and treacherous fice lance the Cid Campeador; what with invasions by Almoravidles, Almohades, and Christians; and what with civil commotions, the garden of Valencia saw little peace, during the last century or two of its Dlohamıncdan days. But the wisc institutions and admirable irrigation system of the carlier Arab rulers had taken such 100t that they stood firm through all this, and have lasteel eren to our day. In the year 1238 the Arab poct sing his clegg on the fall of Valencia, from the top of the eastern gate; * Literally, "a pince pared with flags, or mado fat." Hcaco the Spanish Irrecife (a causeway). Gayan jos. + Conde, the author of Dominacion de lus Arales en Equania, was persecuted, and died in great porerty, learing lis work in. complete, for luring acted as Joseph Ronaparte's librarian.

·80 ON THE IRRIGATION and the conqueror Jayme I. of Aragon planted his red and gold bars over the palace of the last Moorish king. The land comprised in the beautiful garden was divided amongst his followers. This Christian king and his rude soldiers were far behind the conquered people in knowledge of agriculture and of all the-arts of peace. But, fortunately for Valencia, King Jayme was not so ignorant as to be incapable of comprehending his infcriority; and one of his first decrees related to the preservation of the Arab system of irrigation. The waters slia)l be taken and used," he commanded, "in the order that was established in old times, according to the rules framed by the Saracens."* In 1239 King Jayme conceded to the cultivators of Valencia, for all time, the frce use of all the canals and irrigating watercourses, except the Royal Canal of Dioncada, and on May Sth, 1268, he also granted this Royal Canal to the people, reserving certain rights of the crown. The canal is now the property of the community receiving water from it. As this canal, which irrigates the country on the left bank of the river Guadalaviar, is thus on a distinct footing; I PIOpose to describe it first, before entering upon the general system of Valencian irrigation, with its eight other canals The Guadalaviar (or white river) rises in the mountains in the southern part of Aragon, and no less than twenty-three dams are thrown across it, each with an * The words, in his barbarous Limosin dialect, are—"Presiats aquelles aigues segons que antiguament es è fo stablit è acostumat en teinps de Sarrahing," ·OF EASTERN SI'AIN. 81 irrigating canal, before it reaches the garden of Valencia It is unpecessary to cnumerate them all, but at a distince of four miles above the city, when the river enters the famous huerta of Valencia, the twentyfourth axud or anicnt is tliat of Moncarlo Thic azud of Moncada is a mass of lime and rough stones built across the river, opposite the small town of Pateina. The water of the river falls over the five steps in which tlic down stream face of the clam is built, and at one end there is a scouring sluice. The Moncada canal flows off a few feet above this sluicc, and a small house, with lock and key, is built over the tablones or floodl-gates which regulate the supply of water. The part of the canal between the river and thic tablones, called the almenara,* is faced with masonry: From this point the canal flows to Pozul, ncar the sea, and at ccrtam intervals there are outlets by which simplus water can cither be allowcıl to flow back into the river, or be sent to make up the volume of other canals that may require it. By means of these almendras, of which there are seven, tlıc capal is c'mpticd, wlicn it becomes necessary to clean it out. All the outlets for clistributing water for irrigation are faced with masonry, but they <lıffer in share and size according to the extent of land that is to roccivo water from them Each of these openings, of which there are no less than 924, has a separate name. Half way lictircen Paterna and Moncada, a sleep ..I worl of labie derivation, ine ining a channel consering <111 plus water from an irrigati: channı lisel to the river, or to another channel.

·SO OX TIE IRRIGATION ; and the conqueror Jayme I. of Aragon planted his red and gold bars over the palace of the last Moorish king. The land comprised in tlic beautiful garden was divided amongst bis followers. This Christian king and his rude soldiers were far behind the conquered people in knowledge of agriculture and of all the arts of peace. But, fortunately for Valencia, King Jayme was not so ignorant as to be incapable of comprchending his infcriority; and one of his first decrees related to the preservation of the Arab system of irrigation. “The waters shall be taken and used,” he coinmanded, "in the order that was established old times, accoráing to the rules framed by the Saracens."* In 1239 King Jayme conceded to the cultivators of Valencia, for all time, the free use of all the canals and irrigating watercourses, except the Royal Canal of Moncada; and on May 8th, 1268, he also granted this Royal Canal to the people, rescrving certain rights of the crown The canal is now the property of the community receiving water from it. As this canal, which irrigates the country on the left bank of the river Guadalaviar, is thus on a distinct fuoting; I propose to describe it first, before entering upon the general system of Valencian irrigation, with its eight other canals. The Guadalaviar (or white river) rises in the mountains in the southern part of Aragon, and no less than twenty-three dams arc thrown across it, each with an * The words, in his barbarous Limosin dialect, are "Presiats aquelles aigues segons yue antiguament es è fo stablit è acostumat en temps de Sarrahins."

·OF E.ISTCRN SI'AIN 81 irrigating canal, before it reaches the garden of Valencia. It is unnecessary to enumcrate them all, but at a distince of four miles above the city, when the river enters the famous huerta of Valencia, the twentyfourth azul or anicut is that of Monca la The azud of Moncada is a mass of lime and rough stones built across the river, opposite the small town of Paterna. The water of the river falls over the five steps in which the down stream face of the danı is built, and at one end there is a scouring sluice. The Moncada canal flows off a feir feet above this sluice, and a small house, with lock and key, 18 buult over the tablones or flood-gates which regulate the supply of water. The part of the canal between the river and the tabloncs, called the almenara,* is fuced with masonry. From this point tlic canal flows to Pozul, near the sca; and at certain intervals there are outlets by wbich surplus water can citlicr bc allowcil to flow back into the river, or be sent to make up the volume of other canals that may require it. By incans of these almenaras, of which there are seven, thic canal is chiptiod, when it becomes necessary to clean it out. All the outlets for distributing water for irrigation arc faced witli masonry, but they <iffer in shape and size according to the extent of land that is to receive water from them Each of these openings, of which there are no less than 224, has a separate name. Half-way between Paterna and Moncada, a deep A wont of Irabie derivation, meaning a channel coneins surplus water from an irrigting channel luck to the river, or to ariother channel.

·_
82
OX THE IRRIGATIOX
ravinc crosses the course of the canal, down which a
torrent occasionally rushes; and in order to aroid the
11
GUADAL AVIAR
Azad de Moncada
SS
R/VER
|_CANAL DE
DE MONCADA,
30 METEES
floods, the canal is taken under the bed of the torrent
ly means of a masonry siphon, called a cano.
* Sullo di Gatto (Cat's leap) of the Italian engineers.

·OF LASTERN SPAIN. 8:3 The Moncada canal turns ten mills, and irrigates the land of thirty-four villages, meaguring three leagues in length ly two wide, with forty-eight filas of water. A fixed rate is paid by cacli cultivator for water from the canal, according to the number of joradas* irrigated, half for maintenance of the works, and the other half as a fiscal charge imposed by right of the reservation made by the Conqueror Jayme I The government of the Moncacla Canal is entrusted to the cultivators. From time immcmorial this government has consisted of twelvo Jurados or Regidores nominatal annually from amongst the following twelve villagos, wluch orgwally received water from the canal 1. Paterna 7. Museros, 2. Moncada 8 Vinalcea 3. Alfara del Patriarca 9 Masamagrell 4 Foyos 10. Pung 5. Albarat dels Sorrells 11 Puzol 6. Mcliana. 12 Burjosot Tlic twelve Jurados elect a Juilge of Irrigation called the Acequiero Real, who must be a man of known integrity, a cultivator of land irrigated from the Moncada caurl, and owning no lund irrigated by any other canal. Tlus oflicial and the twelve Jurados take cognizance of all questions and disputes relating to the division of water, to any mischief done to thin * The Valencian land measure is as follows: 1 Jnyada 6 Caliizadas I Calizada 6 Faneguns I Faneruda 11 Irri ·St OX TIE IRRIGATION works, to the imposition of fincs, tlic decision of clnims, and tlic receipt and disbursement of irrigation funds. The privileges under which they act were conceded by Jayme II of Aragon in 1326, and by Peter II in 1329 : and are now cmbolicd, together with other rules which have been issued from time to time in more modern times, in the “ Ordinances for the good government and maintenance of the Royal Canal of Moncada, and the distribution anal use of its waters", consisting of 540 chapters. The Jurados also clect the other irrigation officials, namely, the V'cedores or appraisers, who assess damages and estimate expenses; and the Escribano or secretary, who must also be a cultivator receiving water from the canal. The Acequiero Real nominates two officers and four guards, whose duty it is to kecp constant watch over the works; but these nominations are subject to the approval of the Jurados. We now come to the eight other canals of the garden of Valencia. They are united under a common jurisdiction which is excrcised by a singular Tribunal of great antiquity; and as much interest must always attach to the Valencian system of irrigation, I will describe it in soine detail. The names of the canals arc- On the right bank On the left bank of the river Turia. 1-2. Cuarte and Manises. 6. Tormos 3. Mislata. 7. Mestalla. 1. Favara 8. Rescaña 5. Rovella.

·OF EASTERX SPAIN 85 1-2. The Canal of Cuarte and Manises flows round thic cxtreme edge of the irrigated arca, to the ravine of Catarroja, and finally empties itself into the Albufera. On its right bank, from the river to the ravine, is the extensive unirrigated plain of Cuarte on a high level, and covered with algarrobos, olives, and corn ; and it is not until it approaches the Albufera that the canal begins to distribute water for irrigation from both banks The azud of the Canal of Cuarte is thrown across the river, at a short distance below that of Moncada, which it closely resembles in all respects. The volume of water to which the Cuarto Canal 18 entitled amounts to fourteen filas ;* and this quantity suffices, by dint of much watchfulness and economy, for tlıc irrigation of the lands of twelve villages. Nino secondary chanuels send off a network of smaller water-courses; and eaclı channel is superintended by an officer clecteri annually by the cultivators whose * Ia Valencia there has been some difference of opinion as to the exact dimensions of a filu. Some authorities will haso it that a fila is the volume necessary to turn tho wheel of a flour mill. Others that it is an opening through which water flow, of the dimevsions of a square Vnlepcian palmo = 831 inches. The Perilos or appraisers of irrigation works consider a fila to be tho volume of water enclosed between two vertical sections onc palmo squire, in a length of 1? fect; at an inclination and math n licad of discharge causing it to flow out in one minute. This would mako it about the samo as a larrian fila. Others say that a lot is the quantity of water which will flow thmngh an opening n patima square, for n distance of four pulmor in a strond. All agne that a jila is a quintity suficient to irriste fin fitne julet of line ·OX TIL INRICTION works, to the imposition of fines, the decision of claims, and the receipt anel disbursement of irrigation funds. The privileges under which they act were conceded by Jayme II of Aragon in 1326, and by Peter II in 1329 : and are now embolied, together with other miles which have been issued from time to time in more modern times, in the " Ordinances for the good government and maintenance of the Royal Canal of Moncada, and the distribution and use of its raters", consisting of 540 chapters. The Jurados also clect the other irrigation officials, namely, the l’ecdores or appraisers, who assess damages and estimate expenses; and the Escribano or secretary, who must also be a cultivator receiving water from the canal. The Acequiero Real nominates tiro officers and four guards, whosc duty it is to keep constant watch over the works; but these nominations are subjcct to the approval of the Jurados. We now come to the cight other canals of the garden of Valencia. They are united under a common juris liction which is exercised by a singular Tribunal of great antiquity; and as much interest must always attach to the Valencian system of irrigation, I will dcscribe it in some detail. The names of the canals arc- On the right bank On the left bank of the river Turia. 1-2. Cuarte and Manises. 6. Tormos. 3. Mislata 7. Mestalla. 1. Favara. 8. Rescala. 5. Rovella ·OF EASTERN PAIN 85 1-2. Thc Canal of Cuarte and Manises flows round thic extreme cdge of thic irrigated arca, to the ravinc of Catarroja, and finally emptics itself into the Albufera. On its right bank, from the river to the ravinc, is the cxtensive unirrigated plain of Cuartc on a high level, and covered with algarrobos, olives, and corn ; and it is not until it approaches the Albufera that the canal begins to distribute water for irrigation from both banks. The axud of the Canal of Cuarte is thrown across the river, at a short distance below that of Moncada, which it closely rescuables in all respects The volume of water to which the Cuarte Caual 19 entitled amounts to fourteen filas;* and this quantity suffices, by dint of much watchfulness and economy, for the irrigation of the lands of twelve villages. Nine secondary channels send off a uctwork of smaller water-courses ; aud caclı channel is superintended by an officer clccted annually by the cultivators whose • In Valencia there has been some difference of opinion as to tho exact dimensions of a fila. Some authorities will have it that file is the volume necessary to turn the wheel of x flour mill. Others that it is an opening through which water flows, of the dimensions of n square Valencian palmo = 8-316 inches. Tho Peritos or appraisers of irrigation works consider a fila to be the volumo of water encloscil between two vertical sections ono palno square, in a length of 22 feet; at an inclination and with a head of discharge causing it to for ont in one minute. This would make it alont the samo as a Jorrian fila. Others say that a filt is the quantity of water which will flow through an opening a pazimo square, for a distance of fuar pulmor in a second. All agree that a vila is a quantity suficient to irrigate son fun-yarlar of Intl.

·86 ON THE ITIGATIOX land is irrigated by it. The village of Manises is separated from Cuarto by a dccp ravine, over which the canal is conducted on an acqueduct constructed by the Arabs. It is 240 yards long, and consists of twenty-eight arches, the highest, which is also the central one, bcing thirty feet in height. Massive walls of stalactites have been formed under the arches in thic course of centuries, and buslics find a footmg lictween the stones ; so that the timc-worn old structure looks more like a work of nature than onc of art The ordinances of the Canal of Cuartc are based on the regulations of the Arabs, and were finally approved aud printed by the Spanish Government in 1709. The municipality of thic villages nominates the persons for the office of Sindico, one of whom is elected by the whole body of cultivators to serve for two years. The two other nominees, together with four morc clected by tho cultivators, arc at the same time nominated to hold oflice as the six Elcctos of the Canal of Cuartc. The duties of the Sindico are to superintend the collection of ducs and fincs, to look to the maintenance of the works, and cspecially to watch the effect of fresbes in the river, on the axud. Under him there is a Collector, whose business it is to keep a list of the tenants vith the quantity of land cultivated by cach, and of water received for irrigation. Tlic Collector rcccives and kccps an account of all ducs and fines There is anotlicr official who personally superintends the repair of the axud, thic house over the sluices, the almenaras with their gates, and the canal. He also regulates tlie volume of water in the canal, according to orders ic- ·OF EASTERN SPAIN 87 ceived from the Sindico. When there is a fresh in the river, it is his duty to close the sluices, to prevent silt from being washed into the canal. Fines are imposed on all cultivators who take water surreptitiously, allow it to run to waste, or fail to clean their portion of the channels The mode of clecting the irrigation officers, and the rules embodied in tlic Ordinance, had been observed, as unwritten law, from time ininicmorial, by the cultivators of Cuarte and Manises 3. The Canal of Tormos flows parallel to the Royal Canal of Moncada, on the left bank of the river, and passes under the ravine of Carcaixent by a siphon. Tho azud is built of solid masonry, with a fall broken into five steps. It is scventy-eight yarus in length and tlurtcen fect wido. The officers and rules of the Tormos Canal arc the same as those of Cuartc. It is cntitlel to twenty filas of water from the river. 4. • Thc Canal of Mislata flows froin the right bank of the river, across the garden of Valencia, to the ravinc of Catarrojn It irrigates tlic most fertile portion of the garden, and is one of the most important sources of irrigation. Its governdient is entrusted to two Sindicos or Accquicros, cight Electos, a Chief Guard, and four l'ocilores. Thc Onliuances of the Mislata Canal were finally approval by the Government and printeel in 1751. It is entitled to ten hilas.

·8S ON T?ID RIGATION 5. The Canal of Mestalla, on the left bank of the river, irrigates the low land between the Tormos Canal and the river banks. I made a more minute examination of the Mestalla azud than of any of the others. It is only a few yarıs Lelow that of Mislata, and is of solid masonry: On the right bank it rests upon a massive wing wall of sufficient licight to restrain thic floods ; and on the left bank there is another wall, the outer sule of whiclı forms one side of the first part of the canal. TIere there are two almenaras or calingulas for discharging surplus water and getting rid of silt. Their mouths are closed by large beams fitting into grooves in the masonry, and the silt had formed up the crest of tlic walls. The beams are periodically rcmoved, and the silt is discharged into the river. A small house is built over the two sluice gates on the canal, where the volume of water is regulated by onc man, working the screws. The azud is twenty feet in thickness, and the down stream face is built in six steps. Its length from bank to bauk is cighty yards. (See PLATE.) The Canal of Mestalla is entitlcd to fourteen filas of water. Its Orlinances were confirmed by the Governnicnt in 1771, and consist of 123 sections. to 6. The Canal of Favara, taken from the right bank of the river, is soon afterwards separated into two main branches, flowing across the garden of Valencia to the lake of Albufera. It is also entitled to fourteen filas.

·Mouse
ALMENARA
LUTT
TRAIN
OF MESTALLA
CANAL
S4131

·No text on this page.

·OF EASTERN SI'AIN. 89 The Favara Canal sends off ten secondary channels, cach branching into three smaller ramifications It also supplies the Rovella Canal with a certain portion of its volume, and the cultivators interested in the latter canal have, in consequence, to pay one-third of the expenses of that of Favara 7 The Canal of Rascaña is the last on thc left bank of the river It crosses tlic Mestalla Canal and discharges its surplus waters into the Canal of Tormos. S. The Canal of Rovella is the last on the right bauk, and is used for flushing the sewers of the city of Valencia, anil to irrigate the gardens within the walls. These cight canals, together with that of Moncada, icceive 138 filas of water, and irrigate nearly tlırce square leagues in the beautiful garden of Valencia. Each canal has its separate code of Ordinances, and is governed by its own officers elected by the general Lody of cultivators. The Sindicos or secquicros of the eight canals form a tribunal which takes cognisance of all matters iclating to irrigation, and from which tliere is no appeal. It is called tlic Tribunal de las aguas or Cort de la Sco.* "Happy the country", cxclaims Jaubert de Pissa, "in which cach individual niny be called upon to perform the duties of a Judge": . From the place of nieeting ling at the door of the S. or cathorn, ·90 ON THE IRRIGATION The cight Judgcs, forming the Tribunal de las aguas, assemble once a week, on Thursdays at noon, under the door of the catlıcdral at Valencia, where they sit in a row, on a bench in the open air. Here a succession of rural judges, elected annually by their follow labourers, has sat in judgment every week from time immemorial. Before the cathedral was built they sat at the door of the mosque, and the origin of the Tribunal is referred, but on doubtful authority, to the reign of the Caliph Alhaken II, A.D 961-76. The Court is protected by no soldier nor policeman ; it has no porter, nor rk, nor officer of any kind, and no advocate pleads before it. A circle is formed round the door of the Apostles, and in the midst of deep silence the Judges take their seats. The guards of the different canals then denounce any of the receivers of water who may have broken any clause of the Ordinances, and announce any disputes between cultivators themselves, which are to be heard. The persons who are cited, then present themselves in an established order, and their cascs are disposed of. The accused stands forward, the guard states the complaint, and the Judge, who is the Azequiero of his canal, hcars what the accused has to say, and cross-examines any witnesses that may be called. The Azequiero of the canal in question then stands on one side, and after the other Judges have consulted in a low voice, one of then pronounces judgment, and declares the sentence. It is almost invariably received by the accused in profound silence, and with a respectful low; but, if no objects, the fine is doubled, and any further contumacy ·OF E.ISTERN SPAIN 91 involves total exclusion from the list of irrigators. In disputes between cultivators the same order is observed. If the person accused of any infraction of tlie irrigation laws is a nobleman or powerful landlord, the guard of the canal reports the matter to the magistrate, who proceeds to the liouse of thic accused on the following Thursday, and conducts him to the Tribunal, saying to the Judges :—“ The Guard of such a Canal has informed me of the accusation against the person who accompanies me, and I am come to place him at your disposal. Administer justice, and I am here to scc it enforcccl." Tlo Judges form tlcir decisions upon thic Ordinances of the different canals, and are generally allowed to be patient learers of evidence, dignified, calm, and just. Inilced the Tribunal is so popular that people often try to bring disputes before it wlich do not strictly aclatc to irrigation, in their desire to avoid the expensive justice of a more regular court. From the decisions of the Tribunal de las aguas there is no appcal. A Tribunal administering justice without capense, and so completely representing and sccuring a system of self-government, was sure to find enemics amongst the lespots, lawyers, entralizers, doctrinaires, and «lemocrats of all ages. The Builes of the Kings of Angon attacked it by cleclaring that all justice should cmanate from the royal bounty, especially in a con quera country: After the union of the crowns, I.uwyers and statesmen made several attempts to destroy + Disa Nier in Ingin.

·92 ON THE IRRIG.ITION the liberties of the irrigators of Valencia ; but it was from thic clcmocrats of the Cortes of Cadiz that the fice institutions represented by the Cort de la Seo stood in the greatest danger. That learned and patriotic Valeucian, Don Xavier Borrull, defended the Tribunal in a most cloquent and interesting speech before the Cortes, at the end of which he moved that the Azequieros of the garden of Valencia should continue to take coguizance, as they had done until then, of all matters relating to the waters of the canals, to irrigation, and to damage done to irrigation works”. Fortunately the cloquence of Señor Borrull made a deep impression on liis audience, and the continued existence of the Tribunal de las aguas is due to his exertions. This adinirable institution still flourishes as it did in the time of the Arab Caliphs, and it is, so far as I liave been able to learn, unique in modern Europe. The crops of the garden of Valencia, besides all kinds of fruits and vegetables, consist of Indian corn, alfalfa, wheat, flax, hemp, and beans. I also saw a finc field of cotton ucar the wing wall of the DIestalla azud, raised from seeds procured in Algiers. The fruits arc almonds, grapcs, oranges, figs, dates, and mulberrics. Centuries of irrigation are said to have diminished the flavour of Valencian fruits and vegetables, though I cannot say that I found them inferior to those in other parts of Spain. The people are clever and sharpwitted; but it is a word and a blow with them; a very slight thing throws a Valencian into an ungovernable fury; and there were sercial bad stabling cases during the short time that I was at Valencia T'lic ·OF EASTERN SPAIN. 93 land belongs to voblemen and other proprietors rcsidling in the city, and is let out in small lots to tenaut cultivators, as in the garden of Murcia. The tenants pay a certain rent, but otherwise they are quite independent, and give away portions of their hollings, of course with a proportional charge on then, to their children on marriage Nor is it cither a safe or an easy thing to cject a tenant. When such a throat is used, tlie tevant will probally reply that he would like to see the guapo who will occupy his land ; and if the threat is carried into execution, a sharp knife usually ends the dispute. But these head-strong peasants are excellent practical farmers, and tlıcir cottages arc cxceedingly ncat and clean both iuside and out. Tlio Valencian cottages are all on one pattern. They have whitewaslıcd walls with a door shaded by ir vinc trained over n verandah, and three narrow windows above it, in the gablc, and a neatly-thatched roof with small wooden crosses over cach cn. The door-posts, and frequently tlic interior walls, arc ornamented with the glazed tiles for which Valencia has always been famous.* The large room into which a visitor is admittel, is always very clean, and well furnislıcd. During my caamination of thic Valencian system of irrigation, I ruccived much assistance from Don Pulio Silvi, who possesses the finest library in the city; and # Tlie a:rkry, or fizru tile of Valencia, form a limnch of indlustry which lins leen handed down from the time of the Arles The clay is brought (mm the villige of Manises, nere ther jy also a manufattory of all kinds of earthenwar The curleyse generally lare blue or purple fonen on a wlute ground ·92 ON THE IRRIGATION the liberties of the irrigators of Valencia ; but it was from the democrats of the Cortes of Cadiz that the free institutions represented by the Cort de la Sco stood in the greatest danger. That learned and patriotic Valencian, Don Xavier Borrull, defended thic Tribunal in a most cloquent and interesting speech before the Cortes, at the end of wliich he moved "that the Acequieros of the garden of Valencia should continue to take cognizance, as they had done until then, of all matters relating to the waters of the canals, to irrigation, and to damage done to irrigation works". Fortunately the eloquence of Scñor Borrull made a deep impression on his audience, and the continued existence of the Tribunal de las aguas is due to his cxertions. This adınirable institution still flourishes as it did in the time of the Arab Caliphs, and it is, so far as I have been able to learn, unique in modern Europe. The crops of the garden of Valencia, besides all kinds of fruits and vegetables, consist of Indian corn, alfalfa, wheat, flax, hemp, and beans. I also saw a finc field of cotton ncar tlic wing wall of the Mestalla azud, raised from seeds procured in Algiers. The fruits arc almonds, grapes, oranges, figs, dates, and mulberries. Centuries of irrigation are said to have diminished the flavour of Valencian fruits and vegetables, though I cannot say that I found them inferior to those in other parts of Spain. The people are clever and sharpwitted ; but it is a word and a blow with them; a very slight thing throws a Valencian into an ungovernable fury; and there were several bad stabbing cases (luriug the short time that I was at Valencia. The ·OF EASTERN SPAIN. 93 lanıl belongs to noblemeu and other proprietors residing in the city, and is let out in small lots to tenant cultivatois, as in the garden of Murcia. The tenants pay a certain reut, but otherwise they are quite independent, and give away portions of their holdings, of course with a proportional charge on then, to their children on marriage. Nor is it cither a safe or au casy thing to eject a tenant. When such a threat is userl, the tenant will probalily reply that lo would like to see the guapo who will occupy his land ; and if the threat is carried into caccution, a sharp knife usually ends the dispute But thesc lcacl-strong peasants are excellent practical farmers, and their cottages are excccdigly neat and clean both inside and out. The Valencian cottages are all on onc pattern. They lave whitewashed walls with a door shaded by a vinc trained over a verandali, and threc narrow windous above it, in tlic gable, and a neatly-thatched roof with small wooden crosses over ench cnil. The door-posts, and frequently the interior walls, arc ornamented with tle glazed tiles for whiclı Valencia las always beeu famous.* The large room into which a visitor is aulmittal, is always rey clean, and well furnished. During my cxamination of the Valencian system of irrigation, I received much assistance from Don Pedro Silva, who possesses the finest library in the city; and * The azul, or gluzeul tiles of Valencia, form a branch of industry which has been handed down from the time of the Irabn. The clay is limonglit from the silline of Manises, niere there is no n manufactors of all kinils of earthenware. The ut in grinerally lare blue or grupule Poner on white pour..

·94 ON THE IRRIGATION from the learned Don Vicente Boix, the Chronicler of Valencia, to whosc care and judgment are due the preservation of the ancient towers and gateway, and other objects of antiquarian interest. The latter kindly accompanied me to some of the irrigation works, and assisted me to understand the scarcely intelligible Lemosin of the villagers. I take this opportunity of offering to these gentlemen my grateful acknowledgments.

·OF EASTERY SPAIX. 95 XI. CASTELLON, VINAROZ, AND BENICARLÓ. NORTil of Valencia there are some fine works of Moorish origin, which supply irrigation to the gardens of Almazora and Castellon de la Plana, from the river Mijares. Here the Arabs formed one of the richest vegas in the wide dominions of the western Caliphs. After the country was conquered by the Amgonese, thic cultivators on thc banks of the Mijares groaned for some years under the exactions of their fcudal tyrants, until in 1346 King Pedro of Aragon conceded to them the free use of water from the river. On the left bank 26,000 acres arc irrigated in Castellon, and 22,500 in Almazora ; and rather morc arc under irrigation on the right bank, in Villarcal and Burriana. Iu very remoto times the azud or dam, for thic canal which is common both to Castellon and Almazor, was thrown across the river Mijares, about two-thirds of a milc above the bridge of Villareal. It rests on rocks in thic bel of the river, which is licre 108 yards across, and there are two escape weirs for surplus water. The water is then led along a subtermnean aqueluct, 133

·96
ON THE IRRIGATION
yards long, to the great ravinc or rambla de la Viuda.
The obstacle of the ravine is overcome by mcans of
100. YARDS.
7A.si
100 YAADS
!"#3
siphon or cano which conducts tlic water under it, tlic
distance from one side to the other being 109 yards.

·OF EASTERN SPAIN. 97 This is a most remarkable work of Moorish times. The tunnel is two yards in diamcter, and is cxcavated in the rock for a depth of thirty yards below the bed of the torrent. The length of the curve is 169 yards, and the difference of level from one side to the other is thirteen feet; so that the pressure on the square inch is cqual to 5.59 lbs.* From the ravine the water is laci by tunnels cut in the rock, and under the brow of the old fortress of Almanzor, for a distance of 800 yards. The whole volume of water in the canal then passes under a house on the banks of thic river, where two strong iron flood-gates scparate it, and regulate the supply for the canals ; one for the irrigation of Almazora, and the other for that of Castellon, The cultivators who are interested in the Castellon system of irrigation are formed into a gremio (guild or association), which clects twenty-four Sindicos for the adnuinistration of their affairs. A third of thcsc take oflice every tliiril year, and watch over the maintenance of the works and the distribution of water. Tuc printed Ordinance for the irrigation from the Mijares is divided into sixty sections. Thic country between the Mijares anri the mouth of the Ebro is naturally larren and arid. But the extm- • The first time a siphon was used is supposed to have been m tho nqnc«luct between the springs of Mount Pila and Lyous, the date of which was about 10 AD On this nqueduct there were three sipbons. One of tļiem, içmes the valley of Chapronest 2,100 feet), was 200 feet deep, and the difference of leret between the two sides was 20 fict. The pipes were of lead. Vitruvius desenle the use of the siplion, for aqueducts.

·98
OY THE IRRIGATION
ordinary industry of the peoplc has supplemented the
shortcomings of an inhospitable region. At Vinaroz
and Benicarló the irrigated land comprises ncarly
2500 acrcs.
There is no river or canal, and the water
is procured entirely from 500 or 600 wells with norias
or wheels. The cottages of the labourers, surrounded
by fruit trees, are built by the side of the norias
and the water is led from the wells, by numerous
small channels, to irrigate the fields
;

·OF EASTERN SPAIN 99 XIT. MODERN WORKS OF IRRIGATION LIT OF AUTHORITIES OV TILE SURJFCT OF IRRIGATION IN FASTFRN SPAIN Altuouou the works of Aral origin, wluich I have cndeavoured bricfly to clescribc, are by far the most important and interesting, it must not be supposed that tho Spaniards linvo altogctlier neglected the important subject of irrigation, in modern times. It has been scen that they have collected the immemorial usages lancicd clown from Moorish times, and cmbodied them in printed or written Irrigation Ordinances; and that, in several instances, they have improved or cnlargel tlic ancient works. Nor are purely Spanislı works wholly wanting. Such arc the canals in Angon and Catalonia, the works of irrigation on the Tagu, at Aranjucz,* nnel tliose in progress in General Coucli's calouy near Malaga A Company is also projectal, for tlıc irrigation of thc valley of the Tagus alove Amn- • Constructel ls Charley r. It is to this irriimtion that the growth of the splendid elma, brought from tinglane luy Philip II, 1. duc Ser Es Syles, New jii, cap 7 ·100 ON THE IRRIGATION juez. Tlic magmficent works for supplying Madrid with water are partially used for irrigating the vegetablo gardens in the environs of the capital, and cannot properly be passed without notice. These works, called the Canal de Isabel II, were sanctioned in the year 1851. The water is brought from the river Lozoya at a distance of thirty-six miles north of Madrid, where there is a massive masonry dam' built across the river, and resting on the cliffs which rise up on either side. A lako several miles in length is thus formed in the mountains. A tunnel conveys the water from the lakc, and it flows across the intervening country in a channel requiring forty-one tunnels, twenty-seven aqueducts across valleys, and six siphons. The grcat-deposit outside Madrid is of granite, and thence the water is conveyed to all parts of the city in pipes passing along spacious tunnels. I have to thank the engincer of these works, Don José Morier, for lis kindness in showing me over them, and at the same time to express my admiration at their completeness, and at the ability which has been displayed in their construction The Spaniards are also justly proud of their legislation on the subject of the use of water. In August 1866 a bill, which har passed the Cortes, was sanctioned by the Queen and became law; containing a complete code on all subjects relating to the use of, thic property in, or the dominion over water, whether of the sea, of rivers, springs, wells, or from rain. This code, while ratifying all existing rules and privileges, lias been carefully drawn up with a view to clearing ·OF EASTERN SPAIN. 101 up doubts, simplifying applications for concessions, and lessening the chances of litigation. It is the result of much careful and deliberate consideration on the part of a special Commission, which was appointed some ten years ago, to prepare a project with a view to legislation In conclusion, I have to add a list of works, which may usefully be consulted, on the subject of irrigatiou in the castern valleys of Spain, and on the history and topography of the irrigated regions 1. “Historia de la dominacion de los Arabes en España, por el Dr Don José Antonio Conde Paris, 1840". A confused mass of translations from Moorish chronicles, but containing the history of Murcia and Valencia during Mohammedan times. “The Ilzstory of the Mohammedan Dynasties in Spain, by Almel ibn Mohammed Al Naklari, translated and illustrated with critical notes by Pascual de Gayangos. 2 rols. 410. Oriental Translation Fund, 1840." This work, besides being valuable in itself, contains a large mass of useful and interesting inforination, in tlic notes and appendices of the accomplished translator. 3. Ibn cl dteran, traducido por Banqueri. Jadrid, 1798." Thc Arabic and Spanislı texts are given in parallel columns. This is a most interesting Joorislı Mok on agriculture. It has been trauslated into French ly Clement Mulet.

·102 ON THE IRRIGATION << 4. "Discursos Historicos por Cascales : fol. Aurcia, 1604.". A local liistory of Murcia. 5. “Ilistoria de la dominacion de los Arabes en Murs cia, por Don Felix Ponzon Cebrian. Palma, 1846." 6. "Mſcmoria sobre los riegos de la huerta de Murcia, por Don Rafael de Mancha., M[urcia, 1936." An account of the system of irrigation in the garden of Murcin. 7. Ilistoria de la ciudad de Orihucla, por F. Martine. 1612." 8. "Dfcmoria sobre los riegos de la huerta de Orihucla, por Don Juan Roca de Togores y Albuquerque. 1831." An excellent treatise on the irrigation of Oriliucla. It is also printed in the second volume of Jaubert de Passa. 9. "Illice, por Juan Antonio Mayans y Siscar. 4to. Valencia, 1771." A history of the town of Elche. 10. Xatira, por Don l'icente Boix. 41o. Xatira." A learned and voluminous history of the town of Jativa 11. “Jfcmoria sobre la lucrte de Gandia, sus riegos, y procluctos, por Don Pedro de Lara y Jelit. l'alencial, 1831." A treatise on the irrigation of Ganlii. An 16 ·OF EASTERN SPAIN, 103 abstract of it is also given in the second volume of Jaubert de Passa. 12. "Observaciones sobre la historia natural, geografia, agricultura, poblacion, y frutos del Reyno de Valencia, por Antonio Josef Cavanilles. 2 vols folio. Jadrid, 1795." This great work, by the learned botanist Cavanilles, is full of valuable information respecting the works of irrigation, and agriculture of the kingdom of Valencia It also contains a useful map and scveral plans 13 “ Ifistoria de Valencia, por Don Vicente Boix Cronista. 3 cols. Ato 1815." 27 6 " Tratado de la distribucion del rio Turia, por Francisco Xavier de Borrull Folio Valencia, 1931 This work, written by a patriotic and indcfatigable defender of the liberties of his fellow-countrymen, contains an account of the system of irrigation in the garlen of Valencia.. L'irrigation dans le Royaume de Valence, Jaubert dle Passi." The French Baron, Jaubert de Passi, visited Catalonia, and the northern part of Valencia, as far as the river Xncar, between 1816 and 1819. He carefully cxamined the systcnis of agriculture and of irrigation, and this work contains the results of his investigations. IIc was indefatigable in collecting liis materials, and has put them togetlier with ability and judgment. His work is most interesting and instructirc. It luas lxen translated into German, Russian, un ·104 ON THE IRRIGATION Spanish. The Spanish translation was made by Don Juan Fiol, and was published at Valencia, in 1844, by the "Society of Friends of the Country," at whose rooms copics may be purchased. It contains numerous additions, and the texts of all the ordinances for the Valencian irrigating canals. 16. Ensayo sobre el origen, espiritu, y progresos de la legislacion de las aguas, por Don Cirilo Franquet y Bertran. 8vo. Madrid, 1864." The author of this work is a politician of some distinction, and was one of the Commissioners for preparing a project of law for the use of and dominion over Waters. The essay is agreeably written, and contains a general account of legislation on the subject of irrigation in Spain, from the earliest times 17 “ Coleccion legislativa de las aguas." This valuable collection of laws and ordinances forms a sccond volume to the essay of Señor Franquet. Commencing with extracts from the Fuero Juzgo and Siete Particias, it contains the text of very nearly all the legislation on this subject that lias been enacted in Aragon, Castilo, or the United Kingdoms from the earliest times 18. "Ley sobre el dominio y aprovechumiento de las aguas, promulgada en 3 de Agosto de 1866; con obscrvaciones para facilitar su inteligencia, por un Abogado del Ilustre Colegio de esta Corte. D[adrid, 1866." This is a copy of the law which was sanctioned last August, with a commentary by an anonymous lawyer. .

·OF EASTERN SPAIN. 105 XIII GLOSSARY OF TERDIS USED IN SPANISHI IRRIGATION Albart Albercon Albufera Alcabalı - Alcalde tlfarige A valucr, appraiser, expert. Term used in Novelda. Seo Perito. A receipt for the payment of ducs. A reservoir. The lako near Valencin. All salt lakcy communicating with tho sen ure socalled. It is derived from two Arabic words meaning "a little sca". A tas on property. Mayor, or cluef officer in a municipality A platform outsido'a mall, where corn 18 spread to dry. A cistern. Tlc centre. Namc of an irrigating canal in Murcia. A channel for the escape of surplus water. Tar-gatlierer. South. Tho namo of canals in Murcai and Oriluela. Tenant. I fresli. Junicipality, 1łyibe 1ljnia . Ilmenara allmojurife Alquilla Arrendailor frenit Iyuntamiento . 4 ·106 GLOSSARY. zale Azarbe . clzequia dzequiero Azul lauda Izumre - A tithe. A drain for carrying off surplus water from irrigated land, or irrigating canals. An irrigating canal. An officer in charge of irrigation. A dam, anicut. Persian wheel A term used in Novelda as a measuro for irrigating water. Also a liquid measure equal to about half a gallon. A officer in the kingdom of Aragon. A terrace. Small piece of cultivated land Outlet in the side of an irrigating canal. Nine palmos (which see) Small irrigating water-courses, in the fields The masonry forming the sides and floor of an outlet in a canal. A sluice post A land measure in Valencia, about six Baile . crown Broncal Dorfuera Diana Brazal . Brenca Calızada acres - Campo Unirrigated land Open country. Cano A siphon Compumta Sluce gate. Contrapu ailu A dam. Dlecto An irrigation officer clected by the cultivators. Intancar To establish a tanda or turn for irrigation. Escribano Clerk. Notary. Escurruilor Scouring sluice. Estaca A stake. Fagina A fascine. Hunegarla Firl Repartidor - The officer wlio superintends the distri. bution of water for irrigation, in Elclic. 1•1 acre.

·GLOSSARY 107 - Tulu Thoumt of measurement in Spanish irrigation, It Faries in different localities. The most generally received measure 13 a volume of water, 50 raras long, by a vertical section of half a square palmo Fiscal Officer representing the rights or claims of the Crown Prero A law, Gremio A guild or associntion of cultivators, for the government of irrigation works, Gunr.lu - A guard over a canal. IIcelamiento The area of land irrigated from one canal. See Fila II ucrta Garden. Irrigated land Jornal Day's work, Jorada Land measure in Valencia, equal to six caluzalas. Juz Sobre-aze- A judge in matters relating to irugaquicro tron. Junta A board. Comittec. Jurado Jury. Irrigation oſlicers clected by the cultivators. Lanirona Drain, See Azarle.. Julecon Quay. Dise. Janantial Spring Jarco Tho dimensions of an outlet in a canal. Fila - } Margen median-} Boundary line between two fields on the cro same level, Jargeu rallada Terrace wall, or boundary line between tio fields on different levels.. Varlara Turn for irrigation. Term used at lorelda. Sre Tania. tertucho A drin. See Izarle, Jumlar To clean out a canal, VM . Peniin wheel.

·108 GLOSSARY. Palmo Pantano Parada - Partidor i rcrito - Pesa - Pulgada Quigero Rafa - . 8.346 inches. A tank, Artificial lake. Mounds thrown up to retain water in small channels, to irrigate a field. An outlet in the mother-canal for distributing water. Channel flowing from an outlet. A valuer. Experienced person who is consulted in irrigation matters. See Alami. A dam, A Spanish inch, 36 to a vara (rchich sec). Slope of a canal. Operation of stopping the water in a canal, by a temporary dam, so as to raise it to the level of an irrigation outlet. A ravine. A dry bed of a torrent. A cultivator receiving water for irrigation Irrigation office. Flow of water against tho ordinary current Distributor of water. Irrigation. A siphon. Syndic. Recorder. Irrigation judge or officer, Irrigation judge. A furrow, Flood gate. Sluice gate. - Rambla - Regante Regidor Rogolfo Repartidor Trego Sifon Sindico Sobrecequico Surco Tablachy Tablon Tahadil - Tukulla 31 3) 3 . Adjustinent. Compounding for a tax. Land measure in Murcia and Omlucha, 27 of an acre. Masonry structure in the bed of a canal, to divide the water into two channels. Tujamar ·GLOSSARY 109 Tamta Thiltonal de las aguas Thoneta Turn for irrigation. See Jartara Tho Court of Irrigation Officers for the trial of all offences relating to irrigation, at Valencia. The place where the night to irrigation (the tanda) is sold, at Elcho ani Novelda. A Spanish yard, equal to 32.89 English inches. Overseer of irrigation works. Valuer or appraiser. A fertile plain, or valley. Taru. Tmely Ip LONDO INICHARDS,, otkr APIIX FTREET VA

·No text on this page.

·No text on this page.