·ORIENTALIA
RHENO-TRAIECTINA
EDIDERUNT
GORA'et H. W. OBBINK
VOLUMEN PRIMUM
J. GONDA
REMARKS ON SIMILES IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE
EGIDE.
UB.AL
TUTA
SE
LEIDEN
E. J. BRILL
1949

·REMARKS ON SIMILES
IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE
BY
J. GONDA
UTRECHT
SUBA
JUTA
e Avellas
AS.
LEIDEN
E. J. BRILL
1949

·lar. A.D. JICUXXXIX :oc volumen iuri publico datum erat. Incenun l'aca Geria: vicus Vlaiis A.D. JCMXL est deletus, superfuerunt tantum species XIII. A.D. MCVIIL imago eius voluminis phoicgraphice ficta prelo esi data. Corvrigh: 1919 by E. !. Brill, Leiden, Holland. il rights resercied, including the rights to translate or to reproduce this book or parts thereof in any form PRINTED IN THE NETHERLANDS ·CONTEXTS p. 1 11 14 15 16 16 16 . 17 18 19 21 21 21 Introduction 1. Primitive' men and similes. Similes which seen to be the only possible way of expression . § 2. Siinile for economical reasons' § 3. Type 'something Be.... § 4. Simile for motives of tact, etc. § 3. Supposition or cautious conc'usion § 6. ita — birati § 7. Similes which bring about a connection with ani iar facts. $ 8. Similes underlining das sinnlich Eindrucksvolle § 9. Expressive and iamiliar similes . § 10. Hyperbolic similes . § 11. Intensifying additions and exaggerations . § 12. Fixed combinations: complementary similes . § 13. Fixed combinations: historical and mythological characters § 14. Epexegetical and expressive additions, clichés. § 15. Similes 'instead of an adverb' § 16. Similes helping to promote Anschaulichkeit'. § 17. More elaborated instances of this type. § 18. Affective character, "Gefühlswert'. . § 19. Upamānas with affective character. § 20. Knowledge of the culture of the people is necessary. § 21. Illustration by means of a comparison to human circumstances. § 22. Allusions § 23. Comic and nonsensical similes . $ 24. Similes with 'sound-figures'. § 25. Adnominatio distributed over upamāna and upameya. $ 26. Artificial instances belonging to this type . § 27. Similes occupying the first place in a sentence. 24 25 28 31 . 1 . 34 36 38 39 10 . 40 41 43 45 47 47 ·(CNESIS . 50 52 53 5+ . 55 55 56 57 60 62 66 66 . . . . . . . 23. Te ne, pos-räska: works . The ages Dacica: exaggerations 5 đi. Cóax . $32. Tse rule of the 'wachsende Glieder'. $33. Sales a: he end of a hea, argamentation or canto 3 34. Simile: a: culminating points . $ 35. teema on oi similes . § 35. Aceason with imgera::ves in 'magical' verses, etc. ...uuacio. an prismatic diction in the epics. § 38. Lovers and similes. $ 39. Human lie and zake. 3. Siziles to be explained from relations between inan and varure $ +1. The same, in the works of poets. § 42. Magic: similes expressing in words a magical act. 43. An event or a phenomenon in nature as a parallel act. § 44. Divine power invoked. § 45. Simies bo Towed from anythology etc. in magical texts. § 46. Juhological similes without magical force . § 7. Oaths 48 Proverbial and perified similes. 49. Didactic and elucida ing similes, in Samhitās and Brāhmajas. $ 50. The same, in Lpanişad: $ 51. The same, in Buddhist literature . § 32. The same, in Dharmaśāstras, epics, kārya. $ 53. Similes which make the mind dwell on the subject; amplifications: independent, 'Homeric similes $ 54. Plastic similes; siniles deepening our feelings. $ 55. Yatka-eza (eram)-similes $ 56. Ito-similes. $ 57. Amplifications; prolepsis; combinations; blending, etc. $ 58. Suspense; repetitions; copulative similes, etc. . 8 59. Elaboration of similes in classical texts; ornaments; artificial plays on sounds. 69 70 71 74 76 77 79 80 81 . . . 84 88 90 92 . . 94 96 98 103 104 105 105

·COXTENOS
1G
ICS
.
§ 60. Compariscos ir. conneor,
vagy
$ 61. Verseker
$ 62. Equalizatioas and Ecocations, euiors
§ 63. The use of the same comparisco... hier... EX:: ,
§ 61. The study oi mies.
§ 65. Coilections or simies.
§ 66. Poeticai similes .
§ 67. Corrmon :a::guage and poerida: or.
$ 68. Artificial sinies, ases as marcas,
113
11
iit
:19

·No text on this page.

·INTRODUCTION In a paper published in March 1939 in the Thomas-Festschrift:1 I set forth the results of an inquiry into the meaning of the Sanskrit word alamkāra. As is well known. this word is usually translated by ornament, i.e. that which adorns a person or a thing; that which adds grace or beauts to him or to it". A special use is found in the history of Sanskrit literature, in the first line in the 'poetica': "embellishment in poetry, in the art of writing poetically, adornment of style". The question, how far this traditional explanation, as many other traditional translations. needs correction ought, to my mind, to be answered affirmatively. After an examination of a great number of texts in early Sanskrit literature, it appeared to me that a more original meaning may still often be recognized, viz. alamkāra-. alamkarana-: "making suitable, equal to, a match for, fit; invigorating, adding strength to; making such as is required for, fitting a thing out in such a way that it answers its purpose, etc." Hence the word alamkāra is used many a time to denote magical objects that are to strengthen a person or a thing, amulets and the like. And as suchlike objects are often at the same time ornaments, the word alamkāra may, in European languages, also be rendered by 'ornament; das Schmücken, Schmuck etc. In modern Western culture and in the languages of this culture we distinguish the magico-religious side from the aesthetical one, in a 'primitive culture’people set upon the same thing at the same time a magical or religious and an aesthetical value; there the distinction does not exist or it exists only in a vague and undeveloped way. But, if this is the original meaning of alamkāra, if I am right in contending that this meaning was not, or not merely an 'aesthetical one' in our terminology), how about the use of this word in 1 The meaning of the word alamkāra, in A Volume of Eastern and Indian Studies in honour of F. W. THOMAS, Bombay, 1939, pp. 97 ff. . For this term see my Stilistische Studie over Atharvaveda I–VII, Wageningen 1938, p. 19, n. 4.

·2 INTRODUCTION the specialdomain of Indian poetics, which hareeren borrowed their name. alam lārasastra- from it. Did the terra ammirasīsire-) irise at a moment or in an environment. in which alamkāra had 2 preponderating aesthetical ralue and are we allowed to go on translating it by 'poetical adornments and are we at liberty to assume that this was always its exact meaning? Or did at least those who used the term for the first time in the special domain after all attribute something else, something additional to it? Now it is clear that we may, for the present, put on one side the Forks of the younger theorists on poetics and style: here alamkārasastra is an established 'science, which, in fact, teaches and prescribes many a thing that omnium consensu aims at a certain kind of aesthetical effect, and gives definitions such as saundaryam alamkāraḥ, a.means beauty (Vāmana). But this science' too had a more unpretentious beginning. And in the very first place we have to ask whether the phenomena called alamkāra in the earliest texts in this domain need be understood as 'stylistic embellishment, merely aiming at aesthetic effect, mere ornament, — or does the application of the term allow us to render its meaning differently? Some of the figures of style' (to use this term). which are afterwards reckoned among the notion of alamkāra, were used as such already at an early time. Yáska mentions a definition of the upamā (simile)', and this term is found also in the sūtras of Pāṇini?. The earliest texts in which the term alamkāra is brought up, is Bhāratiya Nātyaśāstra, which, as is well known, treats with the theory of dramatic art. In this work of which the date is only vaguely known (probably the first two centuries after Christ), four kinds of alamkāra are mentioned: (17, 10) upamā rūpakam caira dīpakam yamakam tathā alamkārās tu rijñeyāś catrāro..., "simile, metaphor, 'illuninator', the kind of paronomasia called y. are to be understood as the four a." As has been demonstrated by KANE4 and DIWEKARS, these four terms are among the earliest in the field of poetic terminology. At the same time it is clear that the roots of Virukta 3, 13-18; cp. 1, 3, 5; 1, 1, 19. ? 2, 1, 50: 4, 1, 55; see DIWEKAB, Les fleurs de rhétorique, pp. 29f. 3 See STEN KOxow, Das indische Drama (Grundrisz), "Indian Antiquary (see further on), 41, pp. 127f. $ 0.c., pp. 23ff. p. 2.

·INTRODUCTION 3 the science of alamkāra, which in later times prescribes rules for authors wishing to write kávya. 'art-poetry etc. lie in a study of prae-classical literaturel. So, whilst investigating the original meaning of a. as a classical term in Indian poetics. re should ask the preliminary question: What is the character of the stylistic figures which were discerned and summed up under the name of a. at a time, when the term was first used? On the other hand we should consider the possibility that the meaning and the character of these 'figures according to Táska, the author of the Bharațiya Ns. c.s. need not agree with our views. Now, elsewhere, in an investigation into the language of Atharravedasamhita I-VII”, I tried to prore that a good number of stylistic peculiarities in Vedic literature, such as alliteration, anaphoric repetition, paronomastic juxtaposition, rhyme and homoioteleuton and other figures' must not be considered as ornaments, as stylistic 'embellishments at least not primarily); that, one the contrary, ther had another function: in the sacral or ritual 'Sondersprache a certain stereotypy in the construction of the sentence (parallelism etc.), the employment of repetitions and 'figures of speech' consisting in repetition of various kinds, etc. possess a very real and essential expressive value. they intensify the magic power or religious value of the text, have a hallowing effect, render the text solemn. The fact that among these "figures' there are some which in later kārya-works and in the books of the theorists occur as certain yamakas etc., does not imply that they are virtually identical. With regard to the Vedic sacral language, however, these 'figures' may be said to have been highly instrumental in making it answer its purpose. And even this "rendering suitable for its purpose was, to my mind. the original meaning of the word a. in its general use. But although it may be true that those stylistic figures which consist essentially in repetition of the same sounds are in Vedic literature not in the very first place 'aesthetical figures', yet we will have to study the three other 'early alamkāras, before we may conclude that the same is true with regard to all 'early 1 See also the remarks by G. BÖHLER, Sitzungsberichte Wien, 122 (1890), passim. 2 See above, p. 5, n. 2.

·+ INTRODUCTION alamkāras in general. For that reason I commenced an investigation into the use and the essence of the simile, the highly important phenomenon, called upamā. In my opinion there is reason enough for contending that the simile in the earliest Indian literature was a phenomenon that might be considered as an 'alamkāra', i.e. as a stylistic 'Ausdruckswert, which added strength to the text, made it such as is required, made it fit, prepared, which contributed to giving it the correct form of style. I draw special attention to the use of the simile discussed in S 9; 11; 12; 13; 15; 27; 30; 39 ff., esp. 42, etc. It would be incorrect to say that scholars have not taken an interest in the simile in Indian literature. The Indian theorists used to derote much attention to it: I have only to remind my readers of the long enumerations of the various kinds of this figure' and the fundamental place adjudged to it in the arthālamkāras. But also Western scholars have been attracted by the similes and comparisons in Indian literary works, those in Vedic texts included, although here, apart from the Upanisads, above all other texts the Rgveda has been the object studied. We may even say that the study of Indian similes has been commenced in various ways. In the first place I refer to the works which are based on the point of view of the history of civilization. In the year 1890 ARNOLD HIBZEL* tried to collect as completely as possible the similes occurring in the Rgveda: he arranged the materials 'nach sachlichen Gruppen'; "es lag (ihm) vor allem daran, zu zeigen, welchen Gebieten die Tropen angehören"5. Consequently we find all the similes borrowed from the 'Götterwelt' gathered in the first chapter, those from the 'mythisch-historische Welt in the second, those bearing upon man in the third; and every chapter is subdivided into paragraphs containing the similes relating to Agni, Aditi etc., to Angiras, Atri etc., to the bead, hair, face, etc. etc. I do not mean to say that this sort of See also my paper The meaning of the word alarakóra, p. 111. * Seo eg. Commentary on Vāmana, KĀvy. 4, 2, 1. * I refer to the romarks in my Stiliştische Studie, • A. HORARL, Gleichnisse und Metaphern im Rgveda in culturhistoriseber Hinsicht zusammengustellt Diss. Leipzig 1890. • HIRII, p. 2. p. 9.

·INTRODLCTIOX 5 research is useless: on the contrary, I regret that it should have remained unfinished. In her essays on Buddhistic similes and parables Mrs. RHYS DAVIDS practically takes the same point of view, but only a broader one. She gathered 'not only the tale or fable and the parable, but also the swifter single figure, even when compressed into one adjectival term' 1; the end she had in view was that it would be easy, "from this collection, to group out the variety of ways in which the Indo-Aryan mind has presented its images”, in the second place, however, because it is interesting to consider those objects and events, in the environing scenes of nature and of human contrivance, which both occur in these similes and occur with frequency", lastly because a study of Buddhist similes may serve to aid in following with sympathy and intelligence the views taken by Buddhist thought, and Indian thought generally. of the problems of life and conduct". In another beautiful, but rather inaccessible paper she remarks among other things that a knowledge of the similes will make us more qualified "to understand something of the corresponding perennial charm which has won for the teachings of Gotama the Buddha their age-long hold over all the countries of their adoption''4, moreover that "the various forms in which the illustrative imagery of the Pitakas is expressed are not without interest for comparative literature"5; then also: "these comparisons from the esthetic standpoint would certainly prove not the least fascinating part of this book that awaits its author"6. Another way has been followed by those authors who in the first place pay attention to the outward appearance of similes and suchlike figures and cling to the traditional schemes of the ‘art of composition', the ars bene dicendi et scribendi. In this connection the works of some French scholars should be men- I C. A. F. RHYS DAVIDS, Similes in the Nikayas. A classified Index. Journal of the Páli Text Society, 1906–1907, pp. 52 899.; Some additions etc., ibid. 1908, pp. 180 sqq. * 0.c., p. 56. * Published in The Open Court, & monthly magazine devoted to the Science of Religion etc., 22, 9 (628; Sept. 1908), pp. 522 ff. 4 0.c., p. 524. $ 0.c., p. 525. . 0.c., p. 533.

·6 INTRODUCTION tioned. “La rhétorique védique est en effet une rhétorique bizarre", "la hardiesse des comparaisons védiques est bien connue are opinions expressed by BERGAIGNE? in a paper which treats, among other things, with "comparaisons doubles", ,,combinaisons incohérentes du terme propre et du terme figuré”, rapprochements de comparaisons disparates"; but he keeps his ere also on other things. GUÉBINOT examines the outward form and the objects of comparison in & dissertation about Vedic rhetorics: the headings of the chapters are: de explicitis comparationibus (viz. similes with particles), de implicitis c. etc. But in contrast to the traditional Western 'art of composition' and its view aiming at practical ends, its often sterile schemes etc., modern scientific stylistics which intend to demonstrate the historical development and to explain the stylistic phenomena in the frame-work of the linguistic phenomena in general should take an independent point of view. Here I refer also to OLDENBERG's remarks: in his work Rgveda, Textkritische und exegetische Noten' he emphasizes especially the outward appearance and the grammatical construction of the similes. Other scholars stated that in the earlier Indian literature stylistic phenomena are to be found which are well-known in kavya and taught in the alamkāraśāstra. "Figures of speech are of rare occurrence in the most ancient writings”, KANE says", but: "without simile and metaphor no language can far advance", and, accordingly, he enumerates a number of "simple figures of speech" that are met with "even in the Vedic literature", where 1 .. 1 A. BERGAIGNE, Quelques observations sur les figures de rhétorique dans le Rig-Veda, MSL. 4, pp. 96ff. p. 137 "...que ce qui explique les plus bizarres de ces emplois, c'est précisément l'allusion qu'ils renferment à des idées mythiques et, avant tout, à la correspondance des rites du culte et des phénomènes célestes; le rito la formule ... sont comme des talismans qui assurent le succès de celui qui les emploi". I refer also to his paper La syntaxe des comparaisons védiques, Bibl, de l'Ecole des hautes étu. des, vol. 63 (Mélanges Rénier), Paris 1887, pp. 75 ff. Here (p. 76, D. 1) "comparaisons poétiquer" and "comparaisons historiques" sre distinguished. * A. GUÉRINO, De rhetorios vedica, Diss. Lyon 1900. • Berlin, 1909-12. See the Indioes. * P.V. Kars, Outlines of the history of Alamkāra literature, in Indian Antiquary 41 (1912), pp. 124ff. and 204ff.

·INTRODUCTION IN he calls their employment "rare and rather unconscious." DIWE- KAR', who treats the same subject as KAXE, expresses an opinion on this subject, with which I do not agree: "Nous avons vu que la répétition... reste à la base de tous les alankāra ou ornements de mots. Mais, avec le progrès du savoir, les mots ne suffirent plus à exprimer les idées nouvelles. La distinction même entre la lettre et l'esprit indique une nouvelle étape de la rhétorique. Une fois que cette distinction fut sentie, les mots passèrent naturellement à l'arrière-plan, cédant la première place aux idées. Ainsi. à côté de la répétition des mots, il y eut répétition des idées. Un mot exprimant presque toujours une notion applicable à divers objets, c'est-à-dire recouvrant sous la même forme des nuances de sens plus ou moins subtiles, déterminées par le conteste, on a pu se servir de cette particularité pour suggérer, à l'aide du même mot, plusieurs significations similaires. C'est ainsi qu'on est arrivé au procédé que les rhétoriciens désignent sous le nom de comparaison (upamā)”. Other scholars, OLDENBERG and WELLER, considered the simile in the most ancient Indian literature from the point of view of the history of religions. OLDENBERG perceived very well that “die in den Zauberformeln so häufigen Vergleichungen... offenbar kein zufälliger poetischer Schmuck (sind), sondern... ein magisches Moment (enthalten)"? Here the question arises, whether the occurrence of similes in this way is their original use in Indian literature in general (OLDENBERG speaks, indeed, about the most ancient Vedic texts), and also, how this use of similes is to be explained. As far as I know, OLDENBERG did not give an answer to these questions. Although WELLERY made a number of good remarks, in a paper of which the subject-matter does not agree exactly with its title, he appears to me to emphasize this point too exclusively: the style of the "nur andeutenden... Ausdrucksweise”, he says, “...entspringt einer besonderen Anlage der indischen Psyche für geheimnisvolles und zeigt sich in dem magischen Denken des Opferritualismus so deutlich wie in der 1 H. R. DIWEKAR, Les fleurs de rhétorique dans l'Inde, Diss. Paris, 1930, p. 15. : H. OLDENBERG, Die Religion des Veda, 34, p. 515. * H. WELLER, Uber Vergleichungen im Rigveda, Festgabe-Von GARBE, (1927), pp. 54ff.; see also WELLER, Zu einigen Metaphern des Rigveda, ZII. 5, pp. 178ff.

·8 INTRODUCTIOX Vorliebe für mystische und ratselhafte Rede. Der religiöse Glaube unterstützte die dichterische Vorstellung wesentlich, in der Fähigkeit eines Wortes zweierlei zu bedeuten sahen diese alten Menschen eine magische Kraft”'1. In my opinion, each of these views may lead to a certain outcome; we must rate the good elements in them at their true value. The classification of the various forms of their outward appearance, provided it takes place on correct principles, the cataloguing of the similes which occur in certain parts of the Indian literature in accordance with the object of comparison and with their frequency, the determination of the part played by the simile in magical or religious texts is of interest from the standpoints of the history of literature, culture and religions. We learn from these much that may help us to a better understanding of the texts and of the Indian mind. But each of these views considers only one side of the phenomenon. Moreover it seems to me to be an awkward procedure to confine our investigations to a very small part of the literature; we are not able to rate the "figure' at its true value, if we confine ourselves to too small a domain. We must, I take it, making our choice from various kinds of literature, proceed in a comparating manner. We must not confine our materials to kāvya and Rgveda, which contain, omnium consensu, a great deal of unusual speech, and which are in many respects 'court-art'. Moreover, we have to ask ourselves, whether the use of a simile is, apart from the cases mentioned by OLDENBERG and WELLER, always an 'ornament', as is suggested by those who teach that alamkāras are 'ornaments', that alamkāra includes "everything that makes poetry attractive, that adds charm to it and embellishes it". Last but not least: we must not omit to take the simile for what it is in the first place, viz. a linguistic phenomenon. In this booklet I will try to study the simile in a number of Sanskrit texts in a way independent both of the Indian books on slamkāra and of traditional Western rhetoric theories' that live on in many book. I will try to consider the matter as a stylistac problem; the term 'stylistic' to be understood as I ex- . 10.C. p. 61. I Cp a.s. Bbkr. Nitya 17, 41 gerade beim oit käryabandheste sádréyenoponukynasto wpiekund nudime merged guimbytisamašreyd.

·INTRODUCTION 9 plained elsewhere?. Not only classic texts, in casu Rgreda and kāvya-works, but any linguistic utterance, originating from anyone, from anywhere may be an object of stylistic research. In such a research certain means of expression of a language are studied in their relation to the manner in which their logical-intellectual meaning is expressed in the simplest way according to the standard felt in that language. In a stylistic research the conditions and motives are studied which are at the root of the use of certain forms of speech in certain circumstances, at the root of the choice made from the means of expression offered by the language. For these stylistics stylistic figures are Ausdruckswerte. The interpretation of the texts, the understanding of the Indian mind will benefit by such a research, which will, of course, bring to light also the above-mentioned 'magico-religious meaning' which may be inherent to a simile. Here linguistics, in casu stylistics, are once more essential to philology. When we undertake such a research in the domain of Indian literature, we should realize, that the language, in which it is written too, however 'artificial, however 'special, however 'technical it may often be, in its last resort has its roots in everyday colloquial language, spoken by the general public; that at least it can not be considered as possible without this background. The question how we have to conceive the relation between & certain kind of literature and the colloquial language which was its 'starting-point' a question which in this form has been put only in a simplistic way, it is not always possible to answer. There are two facts which make such an investigation in the province of early Indian literature not totally impossible. Firstly: stylistic data, as a rule, occur collectively: the 'style' of the whole passage generally contributes towards the elucidation of the value of one of the stylistic elements. Not only broadly outlined: there is a difference between the style of the remarks of the vidūşaka in a stage-play and & magical formula of the Atharyaveda, but also in a more limited sense: as contrasted with the greater 'precision of the well-educated man: the old gentleman is 1 See my Stilistische Studie, $ 6, pp. 12ff. * For this term soe W. SCHNEIDER, Ausdruckswerte der deutschen Sprache (1931), pp. 3ff., 7 ff.

·10 IXTRODUCTION - still a sturdy walker shows the more familiarly-emotional: the old gent is still slick on his pins more than one difference. And secondly: there exists - as may now be considered probable - a correlation between certain influencing factors and certain stylistic phenomenal. Although stylistics are a young offshoot of linguistic science, and although the simile as far as I know seems to have been neglected to a certain extent in the works and papers treating with such matter from the said point of view, it is an attractive task to try to acquire a more complete understanding of the simile in such an old and foreign literature. Of course, a first attempt must chiefly consist in reconnoitring the domain, if possible urging on to further investigation; it will not exhaust the subject-matter; its results will be only provisional. Much will already have been attained, when it evokes well-founded criticism. My explanations will be incomplete. I only treat those similes that are expressed by means of one of the particles iva, na, yathā; moreover the sentences with yathā evā (evam) and yathā tathā. As is well known images expressed in this way are often found also in another dress, e.g. in compounds. They might been treated in another booklet; the results should be gathered up and compared. The relation simile: metaphor will be discussed only incidentally. As the metaphor cannot always be recognized unequivocally - many a time an expression seems to us to be a metaphorical one, whereas the ancient Indians did not consider it as such, I thought it better to confine myself to expressions that are clearly indicated by means of the said particles. It stands to reason that the division into paragraphs and the classification are made chiefly for the sake of convenient arrangement. The lines drawn between the various classes are vague in the extreme; many an instance may be classed in more than one paragraph at the same time; in a number of cases I maks nie of references. The 'classes' are essentially no strict distinctions, but various aspects of 'the simile'. As the object I bare in view is to write on the simile as a linguistic phenomenon, the individual use of this figare and its use as a literary device in 1 at greater leagta: Stalistische Studie, p. 14.

·§ 1. 'PRIMITIVE' MEN AND SIMILES 11 works of art take only a secondary place and are very incomplete into the bargain. In a certain light my remarks may be considered as prolegomena to the study of the 'literary' simile. The teachings of the Indian theorists have been deliberately not been dealt with. § 1. As has already been stated in the Introduction, the view of DIWEKAR that the simile is a phenomenon peculiar to a high civilization, that it is a manifestation of knowledge and wisdom, a mark of art, nay of artificiality, that similes did not arise until "le progrès du savoir”, seems to be erroneous. That this view, which is found also elsewhere, although it is usually not expressed as clearly as in DIWEKAR's book, cannot be true and that similes are not late phenomena in the history of human language, we learn from the fact that we are accustomed to look upon abstract ideas as similar to things we perceive with our senseorgans, and that it is in the first place people who have no trained way of thinking that are accustomed to do so. Naive and 'primitive' men who are scarcely able to abstract, are inclined to name new things after the familiar and to compare things unknown to the well-known. By means of a 'simile' they bring the unknown within the sphere of the known. A primitive measure of time is e.g. malay sẽpertanak nasi lamanja, "as long as it takes rice to boil"; & measure of length is the spear or a hand's breadth, or the like; cp. Homer, Od. 6, 294 f. žmya dè nato's uoŰ TÉUEVOS... Tóccoy dò ntólos dogov Te yéywve fonoas; II. 3, 12; 21, 251, etc.; also in Sanskrit, krosa- "shout, yell" is a measure of distance; Ch. Up. 3, 14, 3 eşa ma ātmāntar hrdaye aniyān vriher vā yavād vã... „Avec le progrès du savoir" however, these inaccurate and unsystematical measures are superseded by a more exact terminology, based on a fixed standard?. „Die anderen Masze sind bei niedrigen und mittleren Naturvölkern ebenfalls als gewisse traditionelle Mengen oder Packungen, etwa von Tabakbündeln oder von Sagorollen u. dgl. ausgebildet, ohne dasz es aber zu irgendeinem allgemein anerkannten Hohlmasz oder Gewicht gekommen wäre. Es fehlt das Zurückführen sol- 1 See e.g. SCHRADER-NEHRING, Reallexikon der Indogermanischen Altertumskunde, II, 1999, p. 43.

·12 § 1. 'PRIMITIVE' VEN AND SIMILES "1 The more concher Handelsmengen auf einen Normalfall." cretely people think, the more they make use of 'gegenständliche Abstraktion', the more they have occasion for ‘similes etc. in trivial communications. When Bataks, Dajaks, Toradjas are asked to compare colours or to say their names. they use a circumlocution with a simile when their language does not possess a word. In Marindinese blue 'is to be translated by: "like the sky", red: "like blood'3. But, in many a case we also express ourselves in the same way: "gris souris (est) une comparaison''4, just as fr. étoffe saumon, cerise etc. Our West-European languages do not possess names of odours; here we must express our perceptions by means of a periphrasis: it smells of onions, his coat smells of tobacco, also: the smell reminds me of onions, etc.; I leave out of account words like biting, penetrating, sweet, bad etc. Many a flavour we can only denote by means of a simile: as sour as a lemon, as vinegar. Both 'primitive' and 'cultivated people often compare things unknown to the hearer with objects with which he is familiar: “the radja possesses a big house, as big as your house" (Flores), "the church of that town is as big as York minster". Also in Sanskrit: Manu 6, 53 his vessels shall be cleansed with water like the camasa-cups at a sacrifice. Primitive men and the common people think concretely and entirely on analogical lines. "Es besteht bei dem naiven Menschen die Neigung, in Schilderungen nicht die einzelnen Merkmale des zu schildernden Gegenstandes aufzuzählen, sondern ihn in Analogie mit anderen Gegenständen zu bringen, mit denen er die Merkmale gemeinsam hat... (a French boy, 14 years old:) entrez messieurs et regardez ce monstre, il a une omme une citrouille, des cheveux commes des carottes et des doigts comme we araignée... (nicht:) "runder Kopf, strähnige Haare, dünne Finger", "The speech of modern savages is often IR. THURNWALD, Psychologie des primitiven Menschen, p. 277f. * T.g.8.G. MOKLIA, Het primitieve denken in de moderne wetenschap, Diss. Laidon, 1933, p. 69. * H. GEURTJENS, Associatiebegrippen bij de Marindineezen. Mensch en Mastnahappij, 1988, p. 239. Cp. also F. Boas, The mind of primitive math, p. 198. • Co. BatLy, Le langage et la vie, p. 137. 5W.STIRN, Die Analogie im volkstümlichen Denken, 1893, p. 21 f.; see lo C. G. N. D* VOOY8, Vergelijkingen in de Tsal, in De Nieuwe Taalgids, 1909,=Verzamelde Teslkundige Opstellen, II (1925),pp.184vlgg.

·§ 1. *PRIMITIVE' MEX AND SIMILES 13 spoken of as abounding in similes and all kinds of figurative phrases..."'1. Comparing, i.e. connecting notions which have in common important characteristics, is a chief function of the human mind, for 'primitive (naive)' men it is often the only method of thinking and communication. We nust add that in & number of cases a comparison, from the logical-intellectual point of view, is the only adequate expression. In my opinion DIWEKAR C.s. who say that similes are a manifestation of a higher civilization, confuse the usually individual literary simile and the simile which arises or is called into being as a thing of art, as an elaborated and artificial element of style with the simile in general. In this connection it must be observed that e.g. in the dialogues of 'Bhāsa's plays' the similes are uttered chiefly by the vidūşaka and by persons of lower rank and station in life, such as servants, maids etc. In plays without & vidūşaka (Pratimãº, Abhişekaº) the number of similes is strikingly smaller. Moreover, in India too, authors who did not write kävya or those that wrote without the intention to create things of beauty employed similes as well. In this paragraph I especially point to those similes which seem to be the only possible way of expression in a particular case. In early Indian literature this kind of simile is well-known.3 Quite rational and to the point is e.g. Ait. Br. 6, 17, 2 yathā vā ekāhaḥ suta evam ahinaḥ, “as is the ceremony of one day so is the sacrifice that lasts several days". A person to whose house a Vrātya comes should say...: V., be it so as is dear to thee, A.V. 15, 11, 2, cp. also 6; 8; 10; Ait. Br. 6, 18, 11; 32, 15; 33, 14; 15; measures Ap. ß. s. 7, 2, 13 yāvān yajamānaḥ; 5, 1; 19, 11, 3; Märk. Pur. 10, 81; 12, 10. Quite natural is e.g. ChU. 5, 1, 6 ff., where it is told, how the prāņāḥ quarrelled about their respective superiority: speech departs from the body, and returning after a year's absence, it asks the other prāņāḥ how they survived without it; they say: like the dumb, without speaking, but breathing, seeing etc. In the same way the other prāņāḥ depart and return, and similar answers are given. "The gods 10. JESPERSEN, Language, p. 432. * I refer also to F. MAUTANER, Beiträge zu einer Kritik der Sprache (1906), p. 467. 8 VĀMANA, Kávy. 4, 2, 7 c 'describing tatoa-'.

·14 § 2. SIMILE 'FOR ÉCONOMICAL REASOxs' could not pass by: yarān eva rathayānāya tārān ākāśah. Jaim. Br. 2. 128. In any language people might say: so 'py eram närhate vaktum yathā tram Mbh. 12, 261, 8; cf. 334, 22; Nala 25, 15; Mbh. 7, 4, 10; 12, 279, 20 yatha karma tathā lābhah; Manu 6, 531; 8, 318. Here poetical ornament is altogether out of the question. See also Asv. S. 11, 53; Kāl. Māl. 4,7 + pr. on that occasion I was not gratified ... so much as I have been to-day ...; Bhār. Kir. 6, 40. $ 2. Very often a simile is used 'for economical reasons'. He behares like a madman is quite intelligible, but if we wish to explain the meaning of the simple simile like a madman we need a long explanation which, moreover, is not distinctly present to the mind of most of us. Likewise: like a snowball. For convenience we compare persons and things with other persons and objects on grounds of external appearance and characteristic qualities. Both Indians and we say the ... gods wander on the earth like mortals: Mārk. P. 82, 6 devaganā bhuvi vicaranti yathā martyā, or “this woman talks like a man": vakty eşā stri pumān ivar. And would “his nephew was like a son” (Jāt. I, 456: mayhan bhāgineyyo sabbathāpi nāta ko yeva) not be a very natural expression in many languages? Or unmatta ivas etc.? See e.g. RV. I, 39, 5 pro ārata maruto durmadā iva, "as if drunk"; Bhāsa, Avim. 6, 14 + kanyāpuram svagshavat pravisya. Manu, 7, 187 f. the various ways of drawing up the troops are described; although the sentence does not show the outward appearance of a similo, dandavysihena tam yāyāt sakatena vã mean "let him march arraying his troops like a staff, or like a waggon...”. I refer also to expressions such as shaped like the half-moon, e.g. Mārk. Pur. 21, 49. - Mșcch. 4, 20 + abhujissae via mantidam; Bhär. Kir. 7, 33. Cp. also Āp.s.s. 2, 11, 3; 17, 13, 6 kūrmaprşantetc. Modelled on this sort of sayings are e.g. Kāl. Sak. 7,14 + kim ** khals baile 'omixx aurası isa putre enihyati me manaḥ, 5,20; . . 1 Seo above. * DANDIX, Kavyapr. 2, 51f. • Sea e.g. Nala 10, 22; 13, 47, cp. also $ 12; cp. Bhār. Kir. 16, 46 himãoalak kpibo joacakompe. * See also $ 14; 18.

·> § 3. TYPE 'SOMETHING LIKE...' 15 5.22 --akaitara irāsyāḥ kopo lakşyate; cp. Rām. 4. 22.9. Kāl. Urv. 4,33, however, the simile expresses other things as well: here Purūravas, bewildered and trying to find t'rrasī, says to an antelope: she (C.) too glances gracefully as does your doe (yathaira-tathaira). Cp. Rām. 4, 23, 4. By the side of this type which is used unconsciously in every. day speech, people that speak or write consciously may express much in few words: thus Kāl. Ragh. 15. 21 calls a hard and huge rock the fist of Yama: it has destroying power. This is a sug. gesting simile. $ 3. Quite usual is a simile when things are described in a vague and inexact way, either because a short indication may be sufficient or on account of the speaker's inability to say more accurately what he has in view. Bhāsa, Pratimā, 5, 12 - aye vidyutsampāta iva drsyate, “here comes something like a flash of lightning"; Avim. 5, 5 ; Cār. Prol.; Kāl. Māl. 4, 15 + iha kutilagatiḥ sarpa iva drsyate; Urt. ?. 11 - after the falling of & birch-leaf, the Vidūşaka cries: bho kim ņu khu edam bhuangaņimmoam via sammuhe no ņiradidam, "what is it that like the slough of a snake has fallen before us?'': 19 + (pr.). Harga, Nāg. 2, 4 -.- Not unfrequently a simile is a makeshift : when we can not find the right word. Elsewhere we find this kind of simile as part of a description that enters into details: Bhāsa, Avim. 4, 0 (maid in attendance on the princess :) "the princess, tormented by shame and fear and love, perplexed by distress, is like someone who has swooned": avaadacedanā via samvuttă. $ 4. This simile is also found when a person does not want to speak right to the point for motives of tact or mockery or to throw a certain light upon a thing: Kāl. Māl. 2, 11 T Vid, to the king who mourns for Mālavikā's departure: you are like a poor patient who desires the medicine to be brought by the physician himself. The natives of Flores are accustomed to say about a person who is handsome and well-shaped, but has a bad character: bog ranga dika mana darat, "yes his face is like a d.” (a d. is usually a good spirit). If an Ibo-wife wishes to part with her 1 See e.g. J. VAN GINNEKEN, in: Leuvensche Bijdragen, 10 (1912–3), pp. 62ff. . According to Pater A. BURGER.

·16 $ 3. SL·PPOSITION OR CAST!OUS CONCLUSION - $ 6. IVA + BHĀTI .. husband, she says: 1 thing like you has to come to me. $ 5. Well-known in colloquial speech are utterances like the following: Ait. Br. 7, 16, 3 Sunaḥsepa who is on the verge of being slaughtered thinks: amănuşam iva vai mā rišasisyanti, "they will slaughter me like a not human being"; RV. 1, 94, 7 yo düre cit san talid ivāti rocase; 104, 5; 82, 1 matathā iva, "sei nicht wie einer, der anders will” (Geldner). Asv. Saund. 3, 22 ff. begins in a quite natural way: he walked in the air as if on the earth etc. (diri bhurīva), but in 24 imagination gets the upper-hand. This simile is found also in colloquial use, when some one gives utterance to a supposition or to a cautious or provisional conclusion. Bhása, Pratimā 5, 3 + Sītā to Rāma (pr.) your face is pale as if your heart were troubled by some sorrow. $ 6. Quite common is ira – bhāti or a compound of bhāti “to resemble, to look or be like”, drśyate and the like. Ch. Up. 4, 9, 2 brahmarid iva vai ... bhāsi, "you shine like a Brahmaknower". Yala 12, 103 ayam agamah ... lāpīdair bahubhir bhāti śrīmān parrutarād ira: Mbh. 7, 15, 18; 25, 41; 26, 61. An un-' affected and quite natural case is also Bhāsa, Abhiş. 4, 16 t, where Vibhīşaņa remarks: dvidhābhūta iva drśyate jalanidhiḥ, "the sea seems now to be cut in twain"; the Ocean, indeed, has given passage to Rāma and his followers; 2, 2 d mahendrapurīva bhäti Lankā. With a tautological ivas Rām. 4, 58, 17 the garment of Sītā bhāti yathā vidyud ivāmbare; see also 15, 4; 28, 6. Cp, also Bhāsa, Abhiş. 1, 13 II; 24; 4, 23; 6, 12; Avim. 4, O (pr.). Käl. Urv. 1, 6 + the nymph C. to Urvašī: anachcharā via me padihasi, "you seem to me to behave like one who is not. an apsaras"'; Urv. 5, 4 (ābk.); Sak. 7, 16 (vibh.); Māl. 3, 8 (ābh. with alliteration). Poetical fiction seems to be present Rām. 4, 61, 9, in a description of the earth seen from a great height; himavāms caiva vindhyaś ca ... | bhutale samprakāśante nāgā iva jalābaye. In poetical works we find elaborated cases, cp. e.g. Asy. Saund. 6, 3 vilambahārā calayoldrakā să tasmăd vimānād vinată cabise tapahksayad apsarasām varena cyutan dimānāt priyam ikpamāņā. A nice verse Käl, Urv. 3, 3 parijanavanitā- IN, W. Thomas, Anthr. Report of the Ibo-speaking peoples (1913), p. 61. * Sao 6.8. the example given by VÄXANA, Kåvy. 4, 2, 3. # See $ 58.

·$ 7. CONNECTION WITH FAMILIAR FACTS 17 karārpitābhiḥ / pariurta esa vibhāti dipikābhiḥ girir iva gatiman a pakşalopādanutaţa puspitakarnikārayastiḥ. Cp. Bhār. Kir. 18, 4. $ 7. In colloquial speech we often hear short and striking similes; most of them are borrowed from every-day life and events, from the "nächste Umwelt" of speaker and hearer.1 They bring about a connection with familiar facts. The other day I heard a man in the street say: hij liep te hijgen als een oud fordje ("he walked along, panting like an old ramshackle flipver"). AV. 9, 3 is a hymn that has to accompany the releasing of a house, 24 we read: like a bride, o dwelling, we carry thee where we will; we know that the bride must enter the house of her husband without touching the threshold and then sit down on a skin; she might however be lifted over it by a strong man; 10, 8, 14 Prajāpati bearing water aloft is compared with a female water-bearer having a vessel. It is an interesting fact that sometimes the Paipp. rec. of AV. has another reading: 11, 8, 32 all deities are seated in him as cous in a cow-stall, here Ppp. has & 'less naive'4 pāda: sarīre 'dhi samāhitāḥ; similar RV. 10, 97, 8, where, however, the comparison seems to be less selfevident, see also Ved. Conc. 348. Cp. also AV. 10, I, 1; 7, 43; 14, 2, 44; 19, 35, 2; 38, 2. Jaim. Br. n° 32 C. "the gods pressed down the asuras by means of bphat as with & net": brhatā jālenevābhinyaubjan, viz. after having packed them up (samvicya) with rathantara, here although the image has been taken from every-day life, its greater extent and the fact that it is repeated makes it nearly equivalent to a didactic simile.5 Ch. Up. 3, 13, 8 when the ears are closed, it is heard like the roar of a flaming fire; 3, 15, I the universe is a box: the earth is its bottom etc. (without a particle of comparison). Rām. 27, 15 a peak of a mountain is called svetam ivāmbaram | kailāsaśikharaprakhyam. Quite to the point is Bhāsa, Prat. 3, 14 (sl.) ayam ki patitaḥ ko 'pi vayahstha ida pārthivaḥ, in fact it was Bharata, the king's 1 See also CE. BALLY, Traité de stylistique française, I', $ 273; H. PONGs, Das Bild in der Dichtung I, Marburg 1927, p. 168. * See WHITNEY-LANMAN, Atharva-Veda Samhită Translated, p. 528. * See e.g. KEITH, Religion and Philosophy of the Veda and Upani. shads, p. 375. • WHITNEY-LANMAN, O.C., p. 651. 5 See also $ 49. Cp. $ 50. 2 ·18 SR SVILES TYDERLINING 'DAS SISSLICH EINDRUCKSVOLLE' son. See also, for instance, Kal. R. 15. 15: he arrived from the forest with a great number of wild animals, as if they were a tribute from it). The origin of these comparisons lay in the mere sense perception. But they may hare developed, and in India this happened indeed, into similes with an additional aesthetic value. In classic art poetry "wird z.B. das Antlitz der Geliebten in Parallele gestellt zu Mondscheibe und Lotosblume (auf Grund des weiszen Schimmers), aber über die objektive Konstatierung hinausführend mit der gefühlsmäszigen Absicht, durch den Vergleich den ästhetischen Wert zu betonen"1. § 8. In primitive tales, popular songs and the like, a thing is often called after a property that strikes the eyes or after the impression made by its outward appearance: germ. die grüne Wiese, mein junges Leben; neth. de blauwe lucht, eng. the merry month of May, gr. ukop Švi oivoti nÓVTO (Od. 5, 132). As the character of a primitive tale leans towards the idealistic, it likes to represent persons and things as perfect ones in their kind: a king, a prince or a knave are brave and stout-hearted, a princess is handsome, nay of a dazzling beauty, because she is a princess, a king has unlimited power, because he is a king. These epitheta are added many a time, when they are of no importance: puhoquerdr's 'Appodítn, Damayanti sucismitā. In the same way in the popular novel of modern times a distinguished person is usually a count, & rich man, a multi-millionaire. A frequent use of fixed epitheta may involve the employment of similes which are just as well & means to underline the concrete and das sinnlich Eindrucksvolle': as brave as a prince, as blue as the sky, as deep as the sea; by the side of germ. Schneeweisz: weisz wie Schnee, by the side of lion-hearted: as bold as a lion, etc. "In den mehr höfischen Epen, wie Nibelungen, Gudrun ... sind die Helden höchstens gróz oder vott zen brusten im späteren deutschen Volksepos zeigt sich ein ganz anderes Bild: ... (ist der) Held grozs: ... seine Arme (sind) dick wie ein Stamm und hart wie ei Stein, Schenkel und Füsse wie die eines Riesen"... als ein want ! B. HIDMAXX, Studien zur Eigenart indischen Denkens, pp. 186f. Cp. ROB. PETSCE, Volksdichtung und volkstümliches Denken, Hes. sinabe Blätter für Volkskunde, II (1903), p. 208; R. VAN DER MBO- LIX, Dio Naturvergleiche in den Liedern und Totenklagen der Li. tanar, Diss. Laidan, 1907, pp. &f.

·§ 9. EXPRESSIVE AXD FAMILIAR SIMILES 19 ist ein Schild oder armdick ... schnell wie der Wind sind die Pferde..."1. Very often in Sanskrit: simharat parakramed, Ind. Spr.2 4378; himapāņdura- Rām.; himagaura- Bhār. Kir. 3, 17 etc. Built on 'as deep as the sea?, e.g. RT. 3, 15. 3. is RV, 7, 33. 8 samudrasyera mahimā gabhiraḥ, cp. in a Flemish short story in the 'Handelsblad': 'n Franschen Graaf ... die 200 rijk was als de zee die pe 283. § 9. If we compare in our mother-tongue expressions like the netherlandish: hij sliep vast with hij sliep als een marmot; hij ging erg te keer with hij ging te keer als een bezetene and the like. We are quite aware of the fact that the second expression is more vigorous and expressive, but at the same time more familiar and popular (sometimes even vulgar) than the first. The same rule holds good in other languages: cp. e.g. engl. he hears with great difficulty, with he is as deaf as a post; he is rery poor with he is as poor as a church-mouse: cp. fr. dormir comme une souche : sourd comme un pot, etc. Originally these expressions were similes, just like many other similes, which had their root in the concrete way of thinking and speaking of the colloquial language. On the one hand the mass of these similes is constantly renewed, on the other hand, however, many of them lose their original character and become more 'moyens expressifs', 'Ausdrucksverstärkung 4. In modern languages it is not always an easy task to draw the line; in ancient literature it is very often impossible to know, whether in one case or another the original simile still appeals to the feeling of the author. AV. 8, 4, against sorcerers and demons, an instance seems to occur of an expressive, 'ausdrucksverstärkendes' simile: 25 ... sam aghasamsam abhy agham tapur yayastu carur agnimān iva, "against the evil-plotter ... let heat boil all up like a fiery pot", see RV. 7, 104, 2. RV. 1, 51, 14 pajreşu stomo duryo na * L. WOLF, Der groteske und hyperbolische Stil des Mittelhochdeutschen Volksepos, Palaestra 25 (1903), pp. 20-30. * See further on, $ 12. * Cp. Hoort, Warenar, 1030. See also De Vooys, O.C., p. 194f. VĀMANA, KĀvysl. 4, 2, 7, etc.: I refer also to the notion of 'pusti.', e.g. id. 4, 2, 19. For the construction and the meaning see WHITNEY-LANMAN, O.C., P. 486.

·20 § 9. EXPRESSIVE AVD FAMILIAR SIMILES II. yüpah, that means "das Loblied hält so fest wie der Türpfosten"1. See also RV.1, 185, 1; 2, 5, 3. Yet sometimes we have a good chance to be right in supposing a conscious use of the simile. In a menace2: Mbh. 7, 19, 3 adyaitan patayisyāmi kruddho rudraḥ paśün iva; Mệcch. 5, 11 + (pr.) with this stick I will make you fall as a ripe mango-fruit; Kāl. Sak. 6, 27 eșa trãm ... ! sārdūlaḥ pašum iva hanmi cestamānam, "I kill thee ... as a tiger does a head of cattle". In a siangingmatch: Mbh. 1, 137, 7 angarājyam ca nāthas tvam upabhoktum narādhama i stā purodaśam itādhvare; Kāl. Māl. 1, 12 +, where two dancing-masters quarrel: "this man is not even equal to the dust on my feet" (nāyam me pādarajasāpi tulyah) :: between you and myself is the same difference that there is between the ocean and a pool" (... samudrapalvalayor iväntaram). See Bhāsa, Prat. 3, 16 under $ 149. In an execration, magical threat: AV. 8, 6, 19. In anxiety: Kāl. Sak. 6, 26 + here some one is breaking me into three pieces like a sugar-cane. In an assertion: Mārk. Pur. 15, 57 I will remain firm as a mountain; cp. 21, 31. In praising, 8.8.: Mệcch. 1, 2 gaurībhujalatā ridyullekheva. Now and then this type has been elaborated: Bhāsa, Cār. 1, 26 + (pr.) e.g. has it twice with iva and the simile on the first place. With alliteration: Kāl. Sak. 4, 1 smarisyati tvām na sa ... / kathām pramattah prathamam kytām iva. Attention may be drawn to such cases as the following: Bhāsa, Pratimā 7, 9 d "(they wish to see your face) anointed ... like a lotus with drops of dew"; salilasiktam iväravindam, logically this means: your handsome face which becomes handsomer yet by the water; 7, 12 d Rāma ... is adored by myriads of people like the crescent moon, a hyperbolic expression, meaning: respectfully by a great number of men; cp. 13 d; 14 II. The well-known epic hyperbolic similes have their root in an intense admiration, veneration, respect and sachlike feelings with regard to the .. 1 GXDNK, Der Rigveda übersetzt und erläutert, I (1923), p. 58. * I refer aloo to H. WIENKE, Die Ursprünge der Metapher (1919) p. 991., soom: pp. 130f.; 166. : see p. 31. But this instance is at the same time comical!

·§ 10. HYPERBOLIC SIMILES § 11. INTENSIFYING ADDITIONS 21 gods, heroes and persons whose deeds are described 1. § 10. Hyperbolic similes are very frequent, in the shape of compounds, e.g. Ašv. S. 1, 42 saridvistītņa parikham, as well as with °kalpa- etc.: id. c śailakal pamahāra pram, and with ira etc.: id. d girivrajam ivā param. See e.g. id. 3, 41 people rejoiced there as in the golden age of Manu, compare our as in paradise; 4, 30; 14, 50; see also 2, 22. Often in epic language, e.g. Mbh. 7, 7, 31 pareşām agratas tasthau kālacakram irodyatam; 7, 46; 52; 15, 28 sannipatya gajāv iva; 19, 3; 11, 5, 9 nāgaih śailair ira samunnataih; Märk. P. 82, 11. See also Bhāsa, Căr. 3, 4 + (pr.), Abhiş. 3, 4 +; 6, 3 d; Kal. Šak. 6, 9; Kum. 4, 25; 7, 13. Learned and more artificial is e.g. Ašv. S. 1, 22. Denoting a very high degree RV. 8, 14, 1 yad indrāham yathā tvam... $ 11. A simile of this kind as an intensifying addition or as an exaggeration: Rām. 4, 67, 24 Hanumān says: I will fall down like lightning from the cloud, where the commentary adds: ridyudupamayā saighryena bahudeśavyāptir dhranyate. Bhāsa, Pratimā 1, 17 (sl.), when the "immovable Lakşmaņa” is angry: with him in wrath I seem to see a host of hundreds before me; 2, 16 with anaphoric repetition in I if... if... I think I may live like a dead person revived by amita; Kal. Māl. 4, 1 + Vidūşaka: sã khu tavassiņi tāe pingalacchie sārabhandabhūgharae miccumahe via nikkhittā. Bhav., Utt. 3, 39 + (pr.) I should like to go off, but ... my hand seems to be bound by 'concrete mortar' (vajralepa). I refer also to well-known exaggerations, Pañc. I, 224 + (NS. 6, p. 42, 10) tad dinam varşašata prāyam ira kathamcij jagama. We also say: I have not seen you for ages and the like; cp.lat. miliens mori meliuss; the intellectual wording Mbh. 4, 21, 21 kālo dirgha ivābhavat; cp. the well-known līlayeva (e.g. Panc. I, 227 +), and the like. $ 12. We saw that the common people likes to use & number of substantives and epitheta in fixed combinations; a merchant in my street always talks of honigroete kasdruiven and hagelwitte bloemkool, never of suikerzpete kasdruiven and meeuwwitte bloem- 1 “In leidenschaftlicher Aufregung ruft General Kleber Napoleon die ungeheuerste der Hy eln zu: General Sie sind grosz wie die Welt", R. M. MEYER, Deutsche Stilistik, p. 228. * Cp. DANDIN, Kavyap. 2, 31 prasamsopama; VĀMANA, Kávy. 4, 2, 7 stutsº. * J. B. HOFMANN, Lateinische Umgangssprache, 1936, $ 83.

·22 12. COMPLEMENTARY SIMILES kool. Thus we have: een reddende engel; zijn trouwe gade. In a similar war we very often see that certain persons or things are considered as possessing in a high degree a quality or property. Tith many a people an arrow is a model of swiftness; compare eng. the train went as quick as lightning with germ. Blitzsuy. neth. bliksemtrein, fr. train éciair etc. So a number of things are up to a point regarded as type?, prototype or ideal, with which other persons or things are compared. I remind of French instances, such as belle comme un ange, rire comme un Lossu, noir comme un corbeau?, neth. zo lelijk als de nacht. Here, to my mind. two kinds of similes are to be distinguished. The first kind, which I should like to call complementary similes, is represented by fr. belie comme un ange, eng. as quick as lightning, germ. hässlich wie die Vacht; here the model is added to the adjective: it can be added also to a verb; fr. manger comme un ugre, neth. vloeken als een ketter. In Netherlandish 'street-songs' we find e.g. (hi)) l'ermoordt haar als een lam; o Belgenvolk, ge hebt als een leeuw gestreden; het was hier stil als in het grafs. In Sanskrit literature we find many instances. It is interesting to see that in India the same objects are often used as types or wodels as is the case with other peoples. The custom of the geese to walk one behind another, germ. im Gänsemarsch gehen, is found as early as RV. 1, 163, 10 hamsā iva śreņiśo yatante, cp. 3. 8. 9. The wind is a model of swiftness: RV. 6, 45, 32 yasya râyor iva drarad bhadrā rätiḥ sahasriņi sadyo dānāya manhate; 1, 113, 185; 163, 11 tara cittam vāta iva dhrajīmān, cp. 4, 17, 12 rāto na jūtah; 8, 34, 17; cp. Rām. 4, 44, 5; Mārk. Pur. 22, 50 has two models: aśram suparnānilavikramam; in a more elaborate mg iner Bhāsa, Avim. 1, 5 +6 mūrtiman iva parano...; cp. also the well-known compound võtavega- (e.g. in 1 He is as slippery as an eel e.g. occurs in many a language, cp. F. A. STORTT, Yederlandsche Spreekwoorden etc., I (1923), p. 2. ? See also F. Barsot, La pensée et 13 langue (1936), p. 692; R. M. Myn, Die altgermanische Poesie (1889), p. 110. * WOUTERS and MOOBMAN, Het Straatlied, Nieuwe bundel, Amsterdam 1934, pp. 95; 121; 107. * As is well-known, for the sake of comparison also adverbs in -cat are used: tapaty adityardt, Manu 7, 6; 2. 232. See SPEYEB, Sanskrit Syntax, $ 241. . See GELDNBR, Der Rigveda, p. 136. * See also $26.

·§ 12. COMPLEMENTARY SIMILES 23 the Rām.; Jāt. I, p. 384 rätaregena otaritra ... tātaregena uppatitrā). Often also as suift as thought, e.g. Mārk. P. 21. 8º. The sun is the very picture of splendour: RV. 8. 34, 17 red mares bhrājante sürya ira; 1, 43, 5; Yala 2, 29 tam ... bhrājamānam yathā ravim; cp. 5, 43; 26, 30; Mbh. 7, 18, 18. Aśr. Bu. 5. 13. cp. 13, 41. The lightning suddenly appears and strikes without fail: RV. 1, 176, 3; Dand. Dskc. p. 88, 8. Bmd. Pur. 1, 3, 38 prădurbhūtas taờid yathā; Kāl. Kum. 3, 74 ranaspatim zajra irārabhajya3. Cp. also bhrājamāno 'hera AV. 5, 1, 1,4 cp. neth. helder als de dag. Cow and calve: affection and longing, RV. passim'. Mbh. 7, 8, 11 antakam ira kruddham, cp. 10, 49; 70; honour like a god: Mārk. P. 16, 15. Mbh. 4, 17, 9 msgarāja ira śrasan: Mārk. P. 69, 17 hissing like a serpent, cp. Mbh. 7, 15, 216, being afraid of a s. 12, 262, 31 (cp. 18); cp. 3, 31, 17; the wolf is a derourer: Mbh, 12, 319, 127; the lion roars: RV.1, 64, 8, is angry: Bhāsa, Prat. 2, 10. A king or prince is a happy and fortunate man in the eyes of the men in the street: neth. ik roel me als een koning, prins, also Mbh. 12, 177, 52. Other examples e.g. id. 28; 258. 23, cp. 261, 19 and 336, 22. The idea found in this simple kind of simile is at the root of longer ones: cp. e.g. Mbh. 7, 7, 28 yatha prajralitaḥ sūryo yugante lai rasundharām dāpyan dȚśyate hi tathā ketuḥ sarvatra dhimatah. It occurs also in works of art, see Dandin, Dskc. (X.S.10), p. 39, 1 mandamārutandolitā latevākam pata, Bhāsa, Asim. 5, 4 I am like a king enjoying rictory which he has won ... in the frontranks of the battle. Thus we find in 'poetical language': Mịcch. 1 Cp. Mbh. 12, 337, 36. 2 See also Mbh, 12, 332, 11. 3 R. THURNWALD, Forschungen auf den Salomoinseln, I (1912), p. 27: "und meine Habichtspitze haut wie der Donner". + As for like the sun, see $ 65. * See M. BLOOMFIELD, Rig-Veds Repetitions, p. 583, where a number of similes has been collected "which have assumed a marked for. mulaic character". . As for other similes with spasiti see $ 65. ? Cp., in the RV., agne pasur na yavase, 5, 9, 4; 6, 2, 9. 8 As for the lion in Greek literature H. BLÖMNER, Studien zur Geschichte der Metapher im Griechischen, I (Leipzig 1891), p. 209; 198–242 on animals in general. In African "epics’, see C. MEINHOF, Dichtung der Afrikaner, pp. 65ff. . From story from the life of the people: Deth. kost en bediening als een prins (“board and accommodation like a prince").

·24 § 13. HISTORICAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS 1, 17 ryādhanusăracakita hariņira yāsi (cp. Kāl. Megh. 79 cakitaharina'). But the 'figure' is not a poetical device in itself: RV. 8, 33, 6 kratta gaur ira sakinah is popular and poetical at the same time; cp. also 1, 84, 8. Thus Bhāsa, Yaug. 4, 0 soldier (pr.): drunk ... and his eyes red as China roses is quite populara. My mind rerolces as on a potter's wheel, Viś. Mudrār.5, 5 (cp. Bhag. P. 5, 22, 2). $ 13. To the second class belong in the first place historical or mythological characters and also things, which are typical in a certain respect. I refer to our Croesus, Maecenas, Job, Methusalah, Salomon, Deth. Brugman (& great orator), fr. pauvre comme Job,etc. Roman antiquity and Middle Ages liked to have a typical 'bero' possessing certain qualities. In the same way in India Sibi was famous for his liberality, e.g. Ašv. Bc. 14, 30; Bh. Pur. 1, 20, 20; Alakā was a town renowned for its luxury (Rām. 2, 15, 36 etc., cp. 16, 8), Kāl. Kum. 6, 37; the Nandakayana is a beautiful pleasure-garden: Kāl. Urv. 2,9 + (pr.); Garuda was very swift: Märk. P. 22, 50; Asv. Bc. 6, 5. According to the popular belief eclipses are caused by the planet Rāhu swallowing the sun and the moon; ChUp. 8, 13; Bhāsa, Yaug. 1, 16; Kāl. Urv. 1, 10; Māl. 4, 16.4 Indra has many qualities: vehemence, AV.5, 20, 2; glory 6, 58, 2; he is victorious 4, 31, 5. In the Rgveda Savitar is the god who has placed a light on high: 4, 13, 2; 7, 72, 4; 4, 14, 2:4, 6, 2 the poet states that Agni has, like S., placed such & light. Arundhati is a model of conjugal excellence: in & quite natural way Bhav. Utt. 7, 18 +. I also refer to ChUp. 4, 1, 3; 5 sayugvānam iva raikvam?. A good many examples are to be met with in simple and natural narrations, such as Nala and the like. Compare Nala 1, 2; 11; 12; 13; 15; 2, 28; also 13, 47; 16, 10; 12; 13; 14-26 etc.; Säv. l, 25 devi srir iva rūpini; 2, 15; also 6, 5; & number of these texts may be reckoned among those of the following 1 See also 65. . Soe Pet. Wtb., III, 68, 8.v. jană. * R. M. MBYRB, Die altgermanische Poesie, p. 110. • I refer to Pot. Wtb., VI, 340f. $ EROL, Gleichnisse..., pp. 16ff. • Cp. M. BLOOIELD, Rig Veda Repetitions, pp. 586f. See the commentaries, e.g. ChUp. trad, etc. par. E. SANART, Paris 1930, pp. 137.

·§ 14. EPEXEGETICAL AND EXPRESSIVE ADDITIOXS, CLICHÉS 25 section. These similes give an opinion about a quality: as quick as lightning, as bold as a lion etc. are judgments, and, at the same time, they praise. But in India, as well as among other peoples, it depends mainly on the individual user of the language whether he will have recourse to such expressions on a large scale or not. Occurring in a kāryawork such an expression need not be 'art": Daņd., Dskc. p. 125, 3 taskaraḥ khananakarmaņi sagarasutānām ivānyatamaḥ. In an individual shape: Mịcch. 5, 6 aksadyūtajito yudhisthira ivādhvānam gataḥ kokilo | hamsāḥ sam prati pāndavā iva vanad ajñātacaryām gatāḥ. $ 14. Primitive and naive speakers, the common people in general, like prolixity and circumstantiality; in popular songs and tales we find many cases of repetition, long-windedness and recapitulation - I remind of the 'volkstümliche Wiederholung', of the 'nachträgliche Korrekturen' and the 'Wiederholungen aus Deutlichkeitsbedürfnis'i -; they often make use of epexegetic additions, explanations, examples; standing phrases, proverbial sayings, 'geflügelte Worte', 'images' render them many a service. So do similes. In the following instances the second part of the utterance contains a simile which repeats' the first part: neth. wat was die trein vol, we zaten als haringen in een tonnetje!, or in a shorter form: we zaten er op elkaar gepakt, als haring in een tonnetje!; ... en een mooie vestibule met tegeltjes !, net een schilderijtje van Vermeer!; in the first example the simile is a common one (“cliché'), in the second it is an original one. In a Lithuanian daina: ich liess das Mägdlein aufwachsen, liess es wie die Beere reifen. The general speaker and reader dispose of a large number of clichés. As for clichés, they "perdent toute saveur à force d'être répétés, mais ils peuvent, dans certains cas, passer pour des créations originales”. Sometimes they are used consciously; 'eminent' men add new locutions to the existing. In living languages it is already often very difficult to know the origin of 2 * See e.g. W. HAYERS, Handbuch der erklärenden Syntax, pp. 119; 169; 175; H. WUNDERLICH, Unsere Umgangssprache (1894), pp. 122ff. * See VAN DER MEULEN, O.C., p. 44, who quotes the text. * CH. BALLY, Traité de stylistique française, I, p. 85.

·26 § 14. EPEXEGETICAL AXD EXPRESSIVE ADDITIONS, CLICHÉS these locutions and to distinguish between mere cliché and innovations if such be the case. However that may be, in my opinion it is beyond doubt that also in ancient India the general speaker many a time must have made use of epexegetical and expressive additions in the form of similes. Hariv. 16360 tat sarram nāśam āyāti himam suryodaye yathāl can be rendered literally in Netherl.: dat alles gaat onder als sneeuw in de zon, in English they say: it melts like butter in the sun, in French: fondre comme la cire au soleil. AV. 10, 1, 14 (against witchcraft and its practisers) apa krāma nänadati vinaddhā gardabhiva, "go away, making much noise, like an unfastened she-ass". AV. 19, 55, (1 I and) 7 1 II we find: ahar ahar balim it te haranto aśvāyeva tişthate ghāsam agne (b occurs in a slightly different form in many other texts, see Ved. Conc. 128); cp. 8, 6, 19. Also AV. 10, 1, 30 I. The upameya and its attribute may stand in a later pāda: e.g. AV. 5, 18, 15 işur iva digdhā ... sā brāhmaṇasyeșur ghorā; this type however will be treated further on. It has been remarked by WHITNEY- LAXMAN that AV. 19, 45, 2 and 57, 5 have the same thought: the evil dream which is in us etc. let him put it on", but 57, 5 niskam iva, "like a necklace” has been added; the adj. devapiyuh ... in 57, 5 are more vigorous words too than durhārdo in 45, 2. Similes of this kind are very frequently met with in the epic: Mbh. 8, 53, 12 arjunam sişicur bānaiḥ parvatam galadā iva; 9, 25, 56, 58, 33 anyonyam jaghnatur virau pankasthau mahişār iva; 11, 25, 21 dronästram abhihatyaisa maheşvāso hataḥ sete nadyā hata iva drumah"; 12, 174, 51. When, Rām. 4, 36, 1ff., Tārā's pleading has won Lakşmaņa, Sugrīva sees his altered mood and "casts aside fear and fright like a raiment heavy with rain"; (2) gumahat träsar pastram klinnam ivātyajat, a garment soaked by rain is a beavy burden, we should have said: "het was een pak van zijn hart" ("it was a weight off his mind"); 57, 15 we did not find Sită rätrar süryaprabhām iva; 4, 11, 2; 1. .. Cp. Rám. 2, 85, 18. * See $ 27. * Atb. V. Samhits, Harvard 1905, pp. 969f. and 998. Cp. in Lithuanian our brother fell in the battle) like an oak in the forest (Y. D. XIULIX, 0.c., p. 59).

·§ 14. EPEXEGETICAL AXD EXPRESSIVE ADDITIONS, CLICHÉS 27 22; 12. 16; 19; 16, 13; 29; 33: 2, 17; 26, 2: 33, 64. As a rule the fourth pāda is entirely taken up by the simiie. Bhāsa. Cārud. 1, 6 - Vidūşaka: ede dāņi dāsierutta ... are running away from the house like couherd's boys scared by gnats; Pratimā 7, 13 II (śloka) the world shines bright again somasyerodaye. “as at the rising of the moon"; Kāl. Māl. 2, 9 the poet gives an idea be expresses elsewhere (see Ragh. 1, 10; cp. Kum. 6, 20; Sak. 1, 2) in the form of a simile: (sloka) the teaching of a teacher is faultless when it does not turn black (prore faulty) in the presence of learned men just like gold (that is tested) in the fire. Ibid. 3, 1 - vid. (pr.) the girl being guarded ... more carefully ... like a treasure guarded by a nāga?, A longer simile, taken from the Mbh.: Xala 13, 9 ... l'egah kariņām duḥsaho 'bharat nagāgrăd ira sīrnānām patatām kşitau. Such additional similes which fill up the entire second part of a stanza are not unfrequent in post-epic poetry. Bhāsa, Cär. 1, 26 the viţa says: because people like me beggared him, he has been totally stripped ... he is like a great tank dried up in summer; Yaug. 1, 12; Abbiş. 1, 2 whence ... this ear-deafening noise ? pracandavätoddhatabhimagāminām balāhakānām ita the "higarjatām; here we find a delineating expatiation with a long compound. homoioteleuton, hyperbole; in colloquial speech like thunderclouds should have sufficed. An independent second part id. 2. 7 (with assonance); 6, 14 (rhyme). More natural, however, in a strengthening addition, in anger Prat. 3, 16 (sl.). Op. e.g. also Kāl. Sak. 2, 18; 3, 11. Yor are they unfrequent in strophes in works of art: Kal. Urv. 1, 10 etāḥ sutanu mukham te sakhyaḥ paśyanti hemakūtagatāḥ | pratyāgata prasādam candram iropa plavan muktam; here too the author refers to a well-known fact or event, the stating of which enforces his words, for people anxious to see the moon as soon as she is cleared from an eclipse stand in a prominent place and raise shouts. See however also $ 54. Cp. e.g. Urv. 1, 17; Śak. 3, 3, 5, 13 where S. veiled with her beauty not very visible is compared to a young sprout among faded leaves. The character of this simile may vary: Kal. Urv. 1, 10 + R., one of the companions of U. says: here comes the rājarsi with ... 1 Cp. E. W. HOPKINS, Epic Mythology, p. 149. 3 See also S$ 53; 54.

·28 § 15. SIMILES 'INSTEAD OF AX ADVERB' C. accompanied by C. risāhāsamīcagado ria cando, "looking like the moon gone near to Višākhā". Here, as is already the case in a number of the similes quoted higher up, the simile has been incorporated in the sentence and is no longer a mere addition; cp. Māl. 2, 13+ (pr.). - Sometimes a proverbial saying or the like precedes the matter of fact expression: Manu 7, 20. $ 15. It is a well-known fact that in a comparatively large number of cases the Indo-European languages in their earlier stages used adjectives where in modern languages adverbs or adverbial constructions are found. This holds good especially for adjectives denoting place, rank, time, number etc. We all know Greek instances such as πρώτος ήλθεν, χθιζός έβη etc.1. In Vedic and Sanskrit we find similar expressions: $B. 6, 4, 4, 22 udicah prácah paśün pra spjati; Ait. Br. 6, 28, 2 tā vihștāḥ samsati. This, however, is not the only equivalent of adverbs; as I have stated elsewhere3, paronomastic figures (e.g. suvrdha vardhamanam) may be used in this way. Now, the said phenomenon is not only peculiar to the earlier stages of the languages of the Indo-European family, it has a wider area. SPITZER has remarked that the adverb is "das sprachliche Spiegelbild des abstraktionsfähigeren Menschen”.4 And indeed, it is true that the naive and artless language of the common people, that daily parlance in many a case can dispense with adverbs: when we say: neth. gooi een raam open, we mean: doe snel een raam open, when we say: eng. to run, we mean: to go quickly, to feed: to eat gluttonously. Instead of: he was praised extravagantly we often hear: he was praised to the skies. Here, es is often the case, these phenomena are at the bottom of I Soe K. BRUGMANN-A. TauXB, Griechische Grammatik (1913), pp. 476; 4787. * See DELBRÜCK, Altindische Syntax, pp. 78f.; SPEYER, Vedische und Sanskrit-Syntax, p. 31 ($ 100). * J. GONDA, Stilistische Studie over Atharvaveda I-VII, p. 66. • L. SPITAL, Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie, 45 (1925), S. 286. Cp. also E. FRAENIKL, YSL, 19, I ff.; STERN, O.C., p. 23; THURN- WALD, in EBREI, Roallexikon der Vorgeschichte, 10, 302: "Das primitive Denken vollzieht sich ... mehr in Bildern als in Worten. Zur Zusammenfassung bedient es sich der Symbole statt der Abstruktionen." See alao E. HOTWANY, Ausdrucksverstärkung, Göttingen 1930, p.

·§ 15. SIMILES 'INSTEAD OF AN ADVERB' 29 ... characteristics of poetical language: nimmt er den Handschuh mit keckem Finger, mit schmeichelndem Munde sie fleht (SCHILLEB)." Now, in my opinion, also similes occur 'instead of an adverb'. As old as Jethusalah means “very old"?, as mute as a fish means "totally mute”. If we ask a child how high a thing is, the answer may be as high as a tree, the sky etc. The common people do not say ich gehe schnell, but ich renne wie ein Wiesel?; neth. hij sloeg om als het blad van een boom ("he changed like a leaf on a tree") means “hij veranderde plotseling en zonder moeite". Similes of this kind are not unfrequently met with in early Indian literature: AV. 6, 142, 2 uchrayasva dyaur iva (to the grain) "rise up like the sky", of course this is an exaggeration, but it is a quite natural one among 'primitive people, and also among educated people when they go into raptures; cp. 5, 19, 1 atimatram avardhanta nod ita divam aspršan, 6, 142, 2 we also have: be unexhausted, like the ocean. The war-drum thunders like a lion AV.5, 20,1; 2. AV. 9, 3, 17 mitā pithiryām tişthasi hastiniva padrati (to a house), “that is, apparently, heavy and big on the four corner posts, like an elephant on its feet''4. 8, 6, 7 the idea of chastity has been rendered in the following way: who lies with you (a pregnant woman) bhrātā bhūtva piteva ca. The idea 'carefully' is often expressed: as a father to his son(8) (cp. 10, 6, 5), or matera, “like & mother, motherly” (5, 28, 5), but these locutions will be treated further on taskarā iva (e.g. RV. 1, 191, 5), "like thieves" means "furtively, by stealth", here too the idea is expressed in the same way in several languages; RV. 1, 53, 1 the poet wishes to say between the lines that he has used his best endeavours: c nü cid dhi ratnam sasatām ivāvidan, "noch die hat ja einer das Kleinod wie ein Dieb) bei Schlafenden gefunden, d.h. so mühelos."? 1, 52, 58; 1, 116, 10. — Often in epic language: I refer to Nala, 10, 22 iyam ... unmatteva 1 Cp. HAVERS, Handbuch der erklärenden Syntax, 1931, p. 149. * Het huis is zo oud als de wereld, HILDEBRAND, Camera Obscura, Keesje. * Cp. J. WEIGERT, Des Volkes Denken und Reden, Freiburg im Breisgau 1925, p. 84. 4 WHITNEY-LANMAN, 0.C., p. 527. * See & 18f. * See $ 12. ? GELDNER, Der Rigveda übersetzt, I (1923), pp. 61. 8 GALDNEB, O.C., p. 59. ...

·30 § 15. SIMILES 'IXSTEAD OF AN ADVERB' ... katham buddhvā bhavisyati; 13, 47; 8,1 unmattavad and the like, which may be considered as 'type-similes'l- Nala 14, 6 Nārada who had been taken in by Karkoțaka said to him: tiştha tvam sthārara ira, like an immorable thing, like a tree", that means "rooted to the spot”, germ. "wie angewurzelt”, fr. "atterré”. Vbh. 4, 16, 52 uttişthottiştha kim śeşe bhimasena yathā mrtaḥ, this image too is well-known in other languages, cp. fr. faire le mort; in another context Jāt. I, p. 456: arrived at the cemetery you will go to the top of the mound and lie doun mata ko viya.2 Mbh. 12, 177, 26 labdhanāśe yathā mộtyuḥ, “[bitter) wie der Tod"3; 316, 25. Bmd. Pur. 1, 5, 19 w Vā. Pur. 6, 224 giriśrngam ivocchritaḥ. - Thus Bhār. Kir. 11, 33 pumsām gaur iraiti vidheyatām needs not be a poet's invention. Now and then this figure of speech dubbles out into a long period: Bhāsa, Prat. 4, 11 (sl.) your brother Bh., samkrāntam yatra te rūpam ādarśa ira tisthati; the image is familiar to several peoples. It is often very difficult to distinguish between this 'class' and the following, for many a time these similes betray clear vision and are indicative of a vivid style of narration. Mbh. 7, 8, 15 8a tathā teşv anikesu pāņduputrasya | kälavad vyacarad drono yuveva shaviro bali, here, it is true, the simile is an equivalent for "very forcefully', but it is at the same time a vivid painting from life. Other instances: Mbh. 4, 16, 41 draupady uvāca: kicako maradhit... sabhāyām paśyato rājño yathaiva vijane tathā, in a conscious contrast to the first half of the line; 4, 13, 33 a popular predilection for vigorous language is betrayed: bāhubhiḥ samatadyetām āyaanih parighair iva. Bhāsa, Prat. 2, 0. It seems to me that this kind does not appear in kāvya very frequently: Kāl. Ragh, 15, 19 the rāksasa, after having threatened S., desiring to kill him, tore up a tall tree mustāstambam iva, "as if it were & stalk of the mostā-grass”, which is uprooted with ease, Mallinātha explains the simile correctly: aklesena. Less popular is Kāl. Ragh. 16, 40, where instead of "having entered his residence with feelings of joy and affection" the poet says 1 Soo $ 12. * Cp. $2. • DruskK-STRAUSS, Vier philos. Texte des Mbh., p. 127. • See KIETL, Das Purina Pañoslaksana, 1927, p. 61.

·§ 16. SIMILES HELPIXG TO PROMOTE ASSCHAULICHKEIT' 31 "...like a lorer entering the heart of his beloved": kāmira käntährdayam, still more artificial 5, 63; with yamaka Bhār. Kir. 4, 1. $ 16. Some of these instances gire already rise to the following remarks. It has been stated higher up, that popular speech has a dislike to abstraction. Instead of: neth. hij zal altijd eerlijk blijven we are accustomed to say in familiar and popular speech: hij zal eerlijk blijven zolang als hij leejt, or: hij zal z'n leven lang eerlijk blijven; instead of: he will always lore his books: he will love his books as long as he lives; instead of: I hare him completely in my power: I have him under my thumb, instead of: he will encroach on my kindness: if you give him an inch, he will take an ell; etc. etc. In many a language we find popular locutions such as: he and his wife led a cat-and-dog life, or such as a devil of a fellow, neth. een schat van een trouu, fr. un fripon de valet?. Very common is the metaphor: his brother was always a lazy dog; this horse is an old screw. By the side of neth. hij is een ezel, we find hij is zo dom als een ezel, he is an ass: he is as stupid as an ass. Here the simile seems to be less popular and less 'primitive'?, although it appears to me that this point is worthy of closer inquiry. Yet the simile is found too: by the side of ze is een engel, which means ze is lief als een engel ("she is as sweet as an angel”) we often say zo goed als een engel ("as good as an angel"); further: hij is zo eerlijk (z0 trouw) als goud ("he is as true as gold”, viz. “... as daylight"); eng. I feel like a fish out of water, for: ... out of my element. When we speak with emphasis, in anger, excitedly etc., we use locations such as: neth, hij zag zo wit als een lijk (as pale as a corpse), hij zag zo wit als dat laken (he looked as pale as that sheet), and in my feeling this longer locution has & more affective character, is more affektentladend' than the compound neth. lijkbleek. Thus, in my feeling the three following expressions form a climax: hij is een koe ("he is a cow", which means "he is stupid”), hij is zo dom als een koe ("he is as stupid as a cow'), hij is zo stom als het achterend van een koe ("he is as stupid as the back-part of a cow'). Or: bliksemsnel ("'with lightning speed"), zo gauw als de bliksem, zo gauw als de gesmeerde bliksem ("tas swift as greased lightning"). And in the same way it seems to me that 1 Cp. L. SPITZKB, Zeitschr. f. Roman. Philol. 45 (1925), p. 22. 2. 2. * See J. B. HOFMANN, Lateinische Umgangssprache, p. 157.

·32 § 16. SIMILES HELPING TO PROMOTE 'ANSCHAULICHKEIT' hij zag zo rood als ruur ("he looked as red as fire”) by the side of hij zag zuurrood (“fiery red, crimson') or hij stond daar zo stijf als een stuk hout, ... als een panlat etc. by the side of hij stond daar stokstijf must not be conceived in the first place as appertaining to intellectual speech ('Intellektualsprache”), as is maintained by HOFMAXXI. Sometimes both expressions are used in ‘repetition with variation'?: e.g. a house-owner lays stress upon the good qualities of the cellar of the house which he wishes to let: die kelder is kurkdroog mijnheer, hij is zo droog als kurk (“the cellar is 'cork-dry' sir, it is 'as d. as c. ?", which means "as dry as dust"). Thus, colloquial speech has a special liking for expressiveness, for "das Sinnlich-anschauliche", for vivid description, vigorous expressions, exaggeration; it likes to lay on the colours thick. Here the words of VON DER GABELENTZ hold goods: "den höchsten Grad der Verständlichkeit erreicht nur das Anschauliche, und dies musz möglichst konkret, sinnfällig sein." Now, what does it mean: 'Anschaulichkeit'? With good reason, ERDMANN has pointed out the double meaning of the term 'abstrakte Ausdrucksweise''. "Bald gilt sie als das Zeichen eines gelehrten, wissenschaftlichen Geistes; bald betont man, dasz gerade Ungebildete und Kinder sich wegen der Armut ihrer Sprache.sehr allgemeiner Ausdrücke zu bedienen pflegen ... Beides ist einseitig, aber in gewisser Hinsicht zutreffend, (aber) ... nur der Zweck der Wörter und die Motive ihres Gebrauches bestimmen Wert oder Unwert einer abstrakten Ausdrucksweise." We have to take the torm 'adschauliche Sprache' not as language that "affects the organ of sight", but in another way, viz. es contrasted with abstract language. Thus 'enschauliche Sprache may be contrasted with exact, intellectual, scientific speech, but also with vague and colourless speech of illiterate persons, children etc. who often have & special liking for quite general notions and vague terms. 'Anschauliche Sprache' produces clear and vivid images of phantasy and memory. "Anschaulich ... ist wohl alles, was mit 10.a., p. 157. * See my Stilistiscbe Studie over Atharvaveda, p. 19. * G. YOX DER GARLENIX, Die Sprachwissenschaft, Leipzig 1901, · K. O. ERDMANX, Die Bedeutung des Wortes, Leipzig 1922, pp. 196ff. P. 439.

·§ 16. SIMILES HELPING TO PROMOTE ANSCHAULICHKEIT' 33 irgend einem Sinne (oder auch mit dem 'inneren Sinne d.b. mit der Phantasie) direkt wahrnehmbar, was irgend einem Sinne oder der Phantasie als Einzelgegenstand unmittelbar gegenwärtig und direkt erlebbar ist. Anschaulich ... ist also das Gegeneil vom Abstrakten, Allgemeinen und Begrifflichen"1. Now, it is well known that not unfrequently sentences containing a simile are illustrated by a gesture. A native of Flores, telling: then a serpent appeared ... as long as this, will indicate the length by gesticulation and I myself, saying: as pale as that tablecloth, point to the table-cloth. As I take it, in ancient Indian texts too similes help to promote this sort of 'Anschaulichkeit'. Jaim. Br. no. 142 C. te hotkrodam cakrire yathā sresthiny ägata utkrodam kurtate tathā, (when Indra came back, after having been looked for by the gods) "they raised shouts of joy, just like the shouts of joy which are raised when a man of high rank approaches”; p. 220, 1. 35 atho yathā taptan pāmsün upanahyātīyāt tādſk tat; p. 211, 1. 30 tad yathā dştim ucchväsitam punar abhidhamet tādsk tat; see also no. 34 in fine 3 x ; no. 96 in fine 2 X. These instances prore that in the 'arid Brāhmaṇas' now and then a vivid and elucidating simile appears which, referring to things and events of ereryday life, appeals to the feelings and memory of the bearers. An explanation which moves heart and phantasy of the public we find e.g. AV. 10, 4, 19 (against snakes) I have grasped together their heads, as a fisherman the karvara; 8, 6, 24 they (viz. demons) that creep away from the sun, as a daughter-in-law away from her father-in-law; cp. also 12, 3, 33. RV. 2, 5, 4 (vidvan asya vrată dhruvā vayā ivānu rohate (cp. Ved. Conc. 839). See also AV. 10, 1, 19d. Mān. G.S. 1, 1, 14 when a vratacărin takes to the water, he has to emerge as soon as possible (cp. the Commentary); the text, however, runs: yadi māyād danda ivāpsu plavet, "he has to emerge (as stiff) as a stick". For epic language, see for instance Mbh. 12, 352, 5 maharşir nārado ... paryeti kramaso lokar vāyur avyākato yatha; 354, 16 mamāpi 1 K. S. LAURILA, Sprache und Anschauung, Neuphilologische Mitteilungen, 29, Helsingfors 1928, p. 139. See also R. M. MEYXR, in Neue Jahrbücher für das klassische Altertum 21 (1908), pp. 63 f.; A. KNABENRANS, Zur Psychologie des primitiven Menschen, Archives suisses des traditions populaires, 23, Basel 1920, According to Pater A. BURORE. 3 ... pp. 154 f. 3 ·34 § 16. SIVILES HELPING TO PROMOTE 'AXSCHAULICHKEIT' matir ärignā meghalekheva rāyunā; 176, 16; 57. 14 $a can puruşc jahyād bhinnām nāram itārnare; 5, 33, 79; 13, 90, 46 śālāntare gaur ira nastaratsā, cp. Manu 3, 141; 1791; 6, 45. A quite natural and at the same time 'anschauliches' simile we find e.g. Bhāsa, Car. I, 28 + Vidūsaka: these two are worrying each other like tro ill-trained bullocks pulling a cart in opposite directions. Often such a simile typifies a person or a situation: Kál. Māl. 2, 13 — vidūşaka (pr.): your Majesty is like a bird hovering in the proximity of a slaughter house, desirous of meat, but afraid; Urv. 2, 0 maid (pr.): here stands (the viduşaka) like a monkey draun in a picture. See also e.g. Mșcchak. N.S., p. 10 (pr.); p. 40 (pr.); p. 66, 6 (pr.); p. 71, 15. It is evident that in such cases the simile has been enlarged: a whole scene is put before our eyes. In this sort of contexts the same type is met with in other languages too. I quote from a popular story in a Netherlandish periodical: zij heeft natuurlijk allang de beate bewondering gezien, die van oom aflelt als water van een overlopende dakgoot ("of course she has already noticed the beatific admiration oozing from uncle like water leaking from an overflowing spout"). Rām. 12, 17 the combat between Vālin and Sugriva: gagane grahayor ghoram budhāngārakayor iva; here GRIFFITH? remarks that in MILTON'S Paradise Lost, VI the encounter between Michael and Satan is described in a similar way; 12, 41 Sugrīva with the gajapušpi bears a resemblance to a dark cloud garlanded with cranes in the dusk of evening; 16, 24 sa tu vrkşena nirbhagnah salatādanavihialah gurubhārabharākrāntā nauh sasārtheva sägare; 19, 6 flying apes are compared to helpless deer: yüthād iva paribkrastān mrgān nihatayuthapān; 33, 18 Lakşmaņa enters the palace of Sugrīva without being refused admittance, just like the sun (enters) a great cloud; 67, 48 an anxious person is described as & traveller who has lost his caravan and sits down in the great forest. See also 4, 11, 14; 14, 10; 17, 21 (cf. 16, 37; 17, 1 II); 23, 29 etc.; 18, 49; 19, 12; 31, 19. Many of these similes are very fine. $ 17. In these instances from the Rāmāyana the simile is as a rulo longer and more elaborated, its form is somewhat more poe- ! See 47. SR. T. H. GRIFFTTH, The Ramayan of Valmiki, Benares 1895, 339. a. 1.

·$ 17. MORE ELABORATED INSTANCES OF THIS TYPE 35 tical; but essentially its character remains the same. As is wellknown, poetical speech and popular speech are to a certain extent allied. This alliance is due to the fact that both aim at 'Anschaulichkeit'. "Die Kunst der dichterischen Sprachgestaltung besteht darin, Worte auszuwählen und dieselben in solche Verbindung mit einander zu setzen, daß die Anschaulichkeit des Wortsinns der Sätze und Satzverbindungen zu einem Maximum gesteigert wird. Alle sogenannten 'poetischen Figuren dienen diesem Zweck, was wohl nachgerade als allgemein anerkannt gelten darf, teils direkt durch Ersatz einer abstrakteren Vorstellung durch eine konkrete, teils indirekt durch einschränkende Veranschaulichung der abstrakteren Vorstellung vermittelst Beifügung von konkreteren, oder durch gegenseitige einschränkende Veranschaulichung"1. But we have to add: “Die Anschaulichkeit ist in der Wortkunst nicht Selbstzweck, sondern nur Mittel zum Zweck. Der Endzweck ist die innere Erlebnistätigkeit, speziell eine durch die Anschaulichkeit bedingte Gefühls. wirkung”2. When we peruse kārya-works, we must confess that here too these remarks hold good. At times we find concise similes visualizing a well-known image, scene or event. See f.i. Bhār. Kir. 4, 17 rallavir abhi pranrttā ira vārayoșitaḥ, "cowherdwomen dancing like courtisans”. It goes without saying that in later texts too a very short example may be found: Kathās. 62, 165 sotsāhā pāśabaddheva tişthati; Bhār. Kir. I, 21 sirobhir uhyate mālyam iväsya sasanam. Then again we meet with a more elaborate specimen: Bhār. Kir. 12, 20 kakude vrşasya kýtabāhum ... 1 sparéasukham anubhavantam umakucayugmamandala ivärdracandane; 4, 27; Ind. Spr.2 6599. At times these similes are clearly elucidating, e.g. Bhāg-gitā 6, 38 ... chinnābhram iva naśyati, with a typical example: id. 2, 58 yadā samharate cāyam kūrmo 'ngāniva sarvasah | indriyānis. But in the works of great poets the chief part they play is often to be a thing of fancy and beauty: Kāl. Me. 15 yena šyāmam vapur atitarām kārtim āpatsyate te 1 varhenera sphuritarucină gopaveśasya visnoh; Kum. 7, 8; 11; 39; 50; Sak. 1, 31. I E. VON HARTMANN, Die Philosophie des Schönen, p. 717. : W. HAVERS, Handbuch der erklärenden Syntax, p. 151. * Compare the 'didactical similes', $$ 49ff.

·36 § 18. AFFECTIVE CHARACTER, 'GEFÜHLSWERT' ? .. $ 18. Now, there is another very important point. As we all know, words may have a quite different secondary meaning and 'Gefühlswert'. "Die fromme Inschrift einer Diakonissenanstalt könnte kaum lauten: Ich bin der Herr, dein Doktor, oder dein Heilkünstler, oder dein Medikus, sondern nur: Ich bin der Herr, dein Arzt"1. The words table in that table is broken, and mother in my (your) mother is ill appeal differently to the soul of the speaker (hearer). Not only substantives, but also verbs and adjectives do so: the words poor, rich, drunk, to die, often arouse certain feelings. As appears from the above-quoted German instance, we find often many synonyms differing in style, in degree of affectivity', in 'secondary meaning', in 'Gefühlswert'. Cp. e.g., neth. hoofd, engl. head: kop, engl. pate; neth. mijn zoon, engl. my son: m'n jongen, engl. my boy: neth. dronken : aangeschoten: bezopen. Now, it seems to me that ideas that may be expressed with a number of synonyms differing in style, 'secondary meaning' and 'Gefühlswert', are often also worded in standing phrases containing & simile. Thus we have as drunk as a fly, as a Lord, as old as Methusalah, as the hills, as dead as a herring, ... as Queen Anne, etc. 'Affektbetonte' verbs or adjectives are often connected with various similes. The affect with which these ideas are charged tries to find many ways to release itself. Besides, there are several ideas that are used by preference in similes. As we have state above", mother, lightning, arrow etc. are frequent upamānas in several languages. This fact I should like to explain from the highly affective character of these ideas that make great impression on heart and mind of most peoples. Thus in spontaneous and natural language similes are often 'gefühlsmiszig-anschaulich', 'affektiv'. When we must express in words feelings and sensations which can only with great difficulty be worded in an intellectual and objective way and which may be IK. O. ERDIANX, Die Bedeutung des Wortes, p. 118. · Notb. so sai ala sem zwijn, als een dragender and many others. • Netherl. examples: De Vooys, 0.c., p. 188. In sianding phrases in general see e.g. SHTa and HESELTINE, The Oxford Dictionary of English proverbs (1935), Index, pp. 613ff. * See 12. (In Kwakiutl) metaphorical expressions are used particularly when describing the greatness of a chief or of a warrior. The chief is comparod to a mountain, a rack which cannot be climbed, ..., F. Boas, Primitive Art, Oslo 1987, p. 321; also p. 327.

·9 § 18. AFFECTIVE CHARACTER, 'GEFÜHLSWERT 37 different with every single individual, we are often compelled to look for an approximating expression which is, in this case, the most adequate interpretation. Impressions and feelings are often vague and indefinite to such an extent that only an image that lacks clear-cut features may be in some degree an adequate wording. There again the value of the employment of an image is that it imposes on the hearer too a not completely unequivocal conception: be too may digest it inwardly just as he likes. Thus the image "rückt in größere seelische Nähe". When the impressions made upon us by events that happened before synchronize with what new events being similar feel to us, it may be that we also use the words suited to the former events in connection with the new ones. This similarity need not be objective, but may be existent only in the feelings of the speaker. We must not lose sight of the fact, that similes may be rooted in our inward reactions in such a degree that it is almost impossible to form an idea of what they are like. In Sanskrit and other literatures an image frequently met with, is the swiftness of the mind compared with that of the wind: manojara- etc. Yet, ERDMANNremarks with good reason that in the following lines of LEUTHOLD "der eigentliche Vergleichungspunkt Gefühl (liegt"): Wie der Sturmwind, der über die Heide pfeift | Ohne Rast, ohne Ruh, ohne sichere Statt, So mein heiszer Sinn über die Erde schweift, So mein Herz, das keinen Freund, keine Heimat hat. As is well known in the Homeric simile the poet is often carried away by his feelings and imagination to such a degree that he loses sight of the proper object of the simile and thus it becomes independent. Yet, this is not necessary. In a popular song from Carinthia e.g.s the lonely and deserted man is compared to a stone on the road, over which everyone passes silently; here both 'Gefühl' and object of the simile are present. Similes and metaphors often derive their existence from the emotional value of a word. In colloquial speech we use often a simile when we pour out our hearts, when we reprehend, scorn or threaten a 10.c., p. 210. I refer also to G. VAN DER LUDW, La structure de la mentalitá primitive, Paris 1928, p. 3; J. VAX GINNAN, Het gevoel in taal en woordkunst, Leuvensche Bijdragen, 10 (1912–3), pp. 51ff. Compare also G. VAN DER LAUW, Wegen en Grenzen, 1932, p. 12, * See O. BÖCKBL, Psychologie der Volksdichtung, Leipzig 1906, p. 277. Dur im ...

·38 § 19. UPAMĀNAS WITH AFFECTIVE CHARACTER > person, or when we make fun of him. Husband to wife, who for a whole day keeps silence with apathy, in a sudden outburst: neth. wat zit je er vandaag weer bij als een schelvis (what a sack of old bones you look again to-day!). "Das Gleichnis in der Edda wird in der Regel dann gebraucht, wenn der Dichter die Gefühle seiner Helden recht stark zum Ausdruck bringen will ... Schmähend, klagend, lobpreisend oder spottend, immer verräth er eine gehobene leidenschaftlich erregte Stimmung"'1. This class of similes is in the first place met with in stage-plays. Bhāsa, Avim. 3, 19 in one of those stanzas which further the progress of the playa: kim kampase pavanavegahatā lateva, "why do you tremble like a creeper smitten by the violence of the wind''; we should say: wat sta je daar te beven als een riet!, cp. eng. as frail as a reed etc.; Bhāsa, Vās. 4, 1 + Vid. (pr.); Yaug. 3,1 +; Cār. 1, 1 +. Kal. Māl. 2, 13 + Vid. (pr.) ту stomach burns like an oven ...; 4,1 + id. she fares like a cuckoo in the grip of a cat, "(he) means that she is in a sore plight” (Kales); 17 + the female doorkeeper of the palace (pr.): ... the princess was trembling like a frail leaf in a strong wind, 5, 6 + Mālavikā (pr.) my heart trembles like the water lying on a lotus-leaf; Bhav. Utt. 3, 7. Ratnāv. p. 484 (2, 5+ Vid.) in a menace: I will fell you ... like a ripe wood-apple fruit; cp. 97 in a question. An emphatical request: Kāl. Śak. 1, 10 in a more poetical form: let not ... that arrot be cast on the delicate body of the deer, like fire on a heap of flowers; the like 4, 18+ (pr.) in an 'affektische Frage'. A 'lyrical effusion' Ratnāv. p. 113 (4, 2+). - Being consumed by an intense emotion the speaker produces variations or enlargements. - That this simile occurs very frequentiy in poetry is a matter of course: the effectiveness of poetry does not depend upon the power of description which releases clear mental notions, but upon the energy with which its words arouse emotions. $ 19. Often the effective character of a simile is obvious from the context and from the meaning and 'Gefühlswert' of the apamāna. The teachers of that school are just like fathers and mothers 1 A. HOFFMANN, Der bildliche Ausdruck im Béowulf und in der Edda, Englische Studien 6 (1883), p. 198. * See A. B. KXITR, The sanskrit drama, Oxford 1924, p. 114. * The X. of K. ed. by M. R. Kale", 1918, Notes, p. 76. • Ed. Balamaporama Press, Madras 1935. ..

·§ 20. KNOWLEDGE OF CULTURE IS NECESSARY 39 to the children, here it is quite obvious what is meant. The feelings of the man who after travelling a long time in the intense heat of the tropical or subtropical sun reaches a shady place are immediately clear to us. See e.g. RV.2, 33, 6 ghrnīra chāyām ara pā asiya; 6, 16, 38 upa chāyām iva ghỉner aganma sarma te rayam agne A person is seized by Death like a sleeping deer by a tiger, Mbh. 12, 175, 18. See also e.g. Mbh. 12, 176. 19; 177, 50 grişme sitam iva hradam; 361, 6 as the cultivator the rain-cloud. Instances from the Rām.: 4, 17, 22 Vâlin complains of Rāma who has hit him with an arrow and upbraids him with his ungenerous way of acting: (tvām) jāne pā pasamācāram trnaiḥ kūpam irāır. tam; the next verse has alliterating words; 48; 20, 7; 66, 37 Hanumān is encouraged to leap over the ocean: visannå harayaḥ sarre Hanuman kim u pekşase rikramasta mahārega rispus trin likramān ira (cp. 67, 3 II). The subjects of king Suddhodana reposed peacefully pitur ankagatā ira, “like children in their father's lap", Aśv. Saund. 2, 7. Of course, father and mother often form part of similes. In the Isle of Flores (Neth. East Indies) old men used to say to a missionary who gare them & quid of tobacco: just like a father who loves his children and gives them presents you give to us, old men, good things. When AV.2, 28, 52 we find mātevāsmā adite sarma yacha, these words mean "give him shelter, o Aditi, in a very careful manner", but how this meaning may be couched in more exquisite terms than in the literal rendering "give him s. like a mother", which will be understood in all times and in all languages*?; cp. RV.1, 41, 2; Jaim. Br. 143 in initio; 140 at the end; Mbh. 11, 16, 37; Rām. 4, 22, 9 putram ivaurasam, see above, $2; Mārk. Pur. 25, 8; 69, 23; 81, 4; 24, 3; 91, 25. Uttarar. 3, 19 sutam iva manasā tvām ... smarāmi;- Harga, Nāg. 1, 7+ (art). $ 20. More than once, however, it proves necessary to have a profound knowledge of the culture and the life of the people, 1 From a letter from Pater A. BUBGEE. After the missionary had left them for Europe, a man of the people of Manggarai wrote him: just like an orphan, who has lost father and mother, I look about here. See also Ved. Conc. 703. * Also e.g. Bhäsa, Prat. 4, 13. • As for the order of words, see $ 27.

·40 § 21. COMPARISOX TO HUMAX CIRCUMSTANCES whose similes we wish to understandi. With us, in the Netherlands, we attach to a hog or porker the notion of dirtiness, debauchery, meanness; with the people of Flores, on the contrary, saja piara dia seperti babi, "I bring him up like a hog", does not mean: “such an upbringing could only make a dirty fellow of the boy", or the like, but "I bring him up with great care”. Thus when we read Mbh. 12, 263, 10 yajñāt prajā prabhavati nabhaso 'mbha itämalam, these words are not perfectly clear at first sight. The connection between the water from the clouds and the offspring is explained by the next verse: agnau prāstāhutir brahmann adityam upagacchati lādityāj jāyate vystir vrster annam tataḥ prajāḥ. § 21. In Mārk. Pur. 29, 14 (and other instances) the simile may be said to bring a thing or an event in the very sphere of the speaker or of another person: a man must nourish the gods daily, like his own body. A simile may bring a thing nearer to us: RV. 1, 144, 7 Agni ... delightful in appearance like a dwelling that is rich in food; 191, 14 ... have taken asunder thy venom just like female jar-bearers; 1, 3, 8; 25, 1; 30, 1; 37, 8; 57, 4; 103, 6; 104, 5; 3, 45, 3. Here the upamānas are borrowed from every day life. In the same way, but somewhat extended: 1, 32, 5; 116, 15. This sort of simile may illustrate a fact or an event by means of a comparison to human circumstances: 2, 6, 7 Agni, thou goeth between both races (viz. of gods and men) as a messenger like a bridegroom's friend (who is matrimonial agent); see also, e.g., 1, 83, 2d; 85, 5. AV. 3, 11, 8 old age has curbed you, as if it were a cow, an ox, with a rope; the bridling of an ox or a cow formerly has impressed the author and called forth definite emotions in him; now a similar emotion is called forth by seeing or thinking of a curbed person, and thus the curbed one and the cow and Ox are combined in a simile'a. $ 22. When the Jester, Bhāsa, Cår. 1, 28+ (pr.) remarks that there is no oil in the lantern, just as there is no affection in a courtisans, he undoubtedly alludes to Cāradatta's affection for 1 Tbo remarks of F. Boas, Primitive Art, pp. 325ff. should be read too. I refor algo to the examples given by C. MEINIDF, 8.1, pp. 67.; 135ff. i See also KARL GROOB, Das Seelenleben des Kindes, 1913, p. 98. Cp. $ 54. * As to the double meaning of piseinshd see $ 60.

·§ 22. ALLUSIONS 41 the courtisan Vasantasenā, the point upon which the play hinges. Thus, as we all know, we may make allusions with a simile. "Wortspiel und Vergleich können ... mit einander verbunden werden: ... anspielend auf die durch Kummer bewirkte Abmagerung der Königin Eulalia: there is not so thin a Queen in the Cards"1. Puns on the double meaning of the upameya are to the taste of the general public: neth. 20 let als modder (l'et = 1 "fat". 2 "tipsy"); die thee is zo slap als een vaatdoek (slap= I "Weak, slack. limp”, 2 "wishy-washy"). See e.g. Msech. 2, 1, shampoeer narabandhanamukkāe ria gaddahie hā tādido mhi gaddahie; 8, 46 the same person as a bhikṣu ... pattā! ede rithinnapattā manne pattā via phulanti, "the leaves tremble ... like wings ... with spread feathers". With a simile we may imply veiled hints and remarks; Kāl. Mál. 3, 22 + (Vid., pr.), where the return of Agnimitra's wife is compared to that of the planet Mars to the zodiacal sign: both are unfavourable. $ 23. Many a time colloquial speech has a special liking for similes, because they may have a comic character. As we have stated above, similes are often affektisch" or "anschaulich" and then they may be in use as vigorous locutions: neth. hij is zo arm als de mieren ("as poor as the ants", i.e. "as poor as a churchmouse"), zo kaal als een luis (“as naked as a louse"). But sometimes we find variations upon this sort of similes, which are witty or comic either because the upamāna is an idea that makes & comic impression or is ludicrous in itself, or because the connection of upamāns and upameya is a laughter-moving one. Cp. e.g. neth. voortkomen als een luis op een teerton ("to proceed like a louse on a tar-barrel"). Now and then this comic effect is emulated for its own sake: noth. hij gleed uit als een slak op een kale kop ("he slid along like a snail on a bald head"). Witty persons and authors, especially authors of comedies are wont to take advantage of laughter-moving and caricaturistio similes: neth. 1 Soe E. EOKEARDI, Die lustige Person im älteren englischen Dramda, Palaestra 17, 1902, p. 245. * More examples FRED. BERNS, Taal en Lotteren 9, p. 423. But see further on, $ 60. * See J. PE. VOGEL, Het leemen wagentje, Diss. Amsterdam 1897, p. 207. . See e.g. ECKHARDT, 0.6., pp. 244.; 349.

·42 § 23. COMIC AND SONSENSICAL SIMILES Symen ik verlief op jou as een boer op een boeckweyte koek (Bredero) ("S. I am in love with you like a peasant with a buckwheatcake"); zijn rolzinnen rijden xoort als 'n kinderwagentje (Van Deyssel") ("his sentences ride along like a baby-cart”). In many cases the source from which the poet borrows was undoubtedly colloquial speech. In the same way the Jester? says, Bhāsa, Cār. 3, 9 - (pr.): I can sleep no more than a Buddhist who has made a date with a servant girl. As we may expect, similes of this sort often leave the mouth of the jester, who in his comparisons too utters himself in a hyperconcrete and realistic manner3 ; Bhasa, Yaug. 3, 0 (pr.) like an old hog's bladder I am bringing up nothing but wind; ibid. (he) comes running hither like a foaming stream of dirty rain-water in the road; Avim. 2, 8 + two similes (pr.); cp. 4, 21; 22; Căr. 3, 2+. Often his jokes recall to mind his favourite occupation: eating, cp. Bhāsa, Căr. 1, O (pr.), see the whole passus; Vās. 4, 0 (pr.); cp. Avim. 2,8 + (pr.); Mșcch. 4, 28- (pr. vid.) etc. etc. In a hyperbolical simile the emotional value ("Gefühlswert') sometimes domineers to such a degree that logically the result is nonsense, for instance in emphatic utterances, invectives and the like: neth. hij is zo gierig als de pest ("he is as stingy as pestilence''), je bent zo lui als de bliksem ("you are as lazy as lightning”). In general, such expressions which are 'meaningless' in themselves, have been built upon well-known patterns. Comic nonsense arises also, when the upamāna is faulty or wrong. Thus, in the Mfcchakaţikā Samsthānaka betrays his ignorance by errors in the field of mythology: 1, 25 I will catch you just like Hanumān caught Subhadra, the sister of Visnu; 1, 21 Kunti caught by Rāvaņa; 1, 39 etc.; 1, 12, here in the whole passus the poet is siming at effects. A sudden transition from the sublime to every day events or to reality may cause a comic effect: Bhāsa, Pr. 1, 2 the sūtradhāra glorifies "this autumn season, when the swan takes her ? Quoted by W. KBAXER, De vergelijking, in De nieuwe Taalgids, 34, pp. 273ff. ? For the vidisaks and his speech HILLSBRANDT, Kalidasa, 1921, pp. 120 ff.; J. HULXINGA, De vidūşaka in het Indisch tooneel, Diss. Groningen 1897, pp. 134ff. Cp.o.g. the example given by MAMATA, Kp. 7, 309. * Exaggeration to raise a laugh, BEBENS, 0.C., p. 221.

·§ 24. SIMILES WITH 'SOUND-FIGURES 43 delight on the banks of sand" -- then interrupted by the 'voice behind the scene' he goes on: bustling with joy as in the royal palace - a portress. Just as in this verse, also Kāl. Mal. 1. 3 and Harsa. Vāg. 1, 4 in such a transition the upamāna stands at the end, a fact which enhances the effect. Context and wordorder may emphasize what is characteristic in a simile: Kāl. Māl. 4, 15 - a maid-servant: here is, like a bull in a market-street, the revered Gautama, gone to sleep; notice the contrast between the words bull and äryagautama which immediately follow each other! $ 24. As I have already stated elsewhere?, more than once 'sound-figures' are found in similes: in English about 25% of the sayings such as as dry as dust, as dead as a door-nail are alliterative: in Neth, compare zo groen als gras (as green as grass), zo klaar als een klontje, ("as clear as a lump of sugar"), zo vrij als een rogel, zo week als was etc. In other sayings rhyme (homoioteleuton) is found: neth. zo rood als een kroot ("as red as a beetroct"), co nat als een kat (as wet as a cat'). Yow, these agreements in sound are not poetical in themselves. In the doggerel of children we often hear rhyme etc., sometimes in the outward appearance of similes: ik ben zo groot als een boot ("I am as big as a boat"). Very often these 'similes' are devoid of sense and prove nonsensical, when we try to find a logical meaning in them. They are unnecessary complements of a communication in the form of a simile, owing their existence in the first place to & want of and a special liking for assonance and parallelisms. Moreover, it may occur that the speaker likes to linger a moment with the idea or image he calls forth; then the simile may have a retarding and intensifying effect. This kind of sayings are apt to become formulae, mannerisms. In ancient German popular songs the expressions wie der morgenstern, wie ein stern etc. are in the verge often meant to rhyme with the word gern! In medieval German literature we 1 J. GONDA, Reim und Alliteration im ... Atharva-Veda, Acta Orientalia, vol. 18. * C. MEINHOF, 0.c., p. 148 wrongly says: "...poetische Form reimt man". 3 See my Stilistische Studie Z. B. son pp. 2011, ·44 § 24. SIMILES WITH 'SOUND-FIGURES' find proper names, 'formelhaft verwendet', in 'Gleichnis-Reim', e.g. diu vil saelege kūnigin was geheizen Ottegebe ein wol berendiu winrebe; "besonders im mittelhochdeutschen Reimvers, wo oft der Reim sie hervortreibt”2. Indeed, a 'simile' containing a proper name may render many & service to rhyme: neth. ick ken schermen alsoo wel as Pieter Brackick ken behendich en fray speelen uyt den aes-sack3; elsewhere Napoleon has been introduced to rhyme with the ‘simile smelt als sneeuw voor de zon*. We must not forget that 'similes' of this sort which from a logical point of view are usually superfluous in the long-winded speech and recitation of simple and 'primitive men have to perform a function. In the Atharvaveda we find alliterations: 6, 42, id; 2b sakhāyāv ira sacāvahai; 80, 2 b diri devā ira sritāh; 7, 95, 2 c kurkutāv iva kūjantau. 18, 3, 67 b = RV. 7, 32, 26 b (see also Ved. Conc. 583) pită putrebhyo yathā, Mbh. 7, 2, 3 piteva p.s; an enlargement by means of another b: AV. 11, 4, 10 b pitā putram iva priyam; 12, 1, 45 let the earth yield me ... streams of property dhruveva dhenur ...; 19, 49, 6 rātri rājeva; 10, 1, 1 1 ... vahatau vadhum iva | višvarūpam; see also 8, 7, 15a; 14, 1, 43. RV. 10, 149, 4 dāśreda vatsam sumanā duhānā; 1, 38, 8 vāśreva vidyuu mimiti. These cases are not artificial. The alliteration may be either in the upamāna and in the upameya or in one part of the entire expression. With all, and rhyme RV. 1, 4, 1 suripaktnan ataye sudugham ida god uhe. Also in post-vedic texts: Mbh. 1, 6, 12 krosantim kurarim iva, also elsewhere, e.g. 11, 12, 10; 16, 18; Rām. 4, 19, 28; patanga spa pāvabane Mbh. 9, 3, 27; Rām. 3, 28, 14 (fixed formulas). See also Mbh. 7, 5, 8; 10, 23; 51; 15, 25. Often in the Rām.: 4, 17, 23 pāpam pracchannam ira pāvakan; 22, 9: 4X; 19, 22 sagrārām inc vasaram; 31, 30 pañcāsya iva pannagah; 32, 21 1 A. DAUr, Das alto deutsche Volkslied, Leipzig 1908, p. 118. H. Poxas, Das Bild in der Dichtung, Marburg 1927, p. 172. * BRIDERO, 800 P. H. VAN MOXRKEBKEN, Het Nederlandsch Kluchtspel in de 170 bouw, I, p. 31. * WOUTERS and Moorman, Het Straatlied, Nieuwe bundel, Amsterdam 1934, p. 143. Similes for the sake of rhyme also e.g. pp. 125; 138; 143. s see my Stilistische Studie, pp. 84ff. Also Ram. 4, 89, 9, etc.; see also J. J. HEYKB, Trilogie, III, p. 176.

·$ 24. SIMILES WITH 'SOU'YD-FIGURES' 45 .. bhartur bhāryera tadraße; 45, 3; 48, 21; 54, 3: 07, 43. See also 4, 22, 17 grahagrasta ira; 24, 27; 26, 23. Not unfrequently in the works of Asvaghoşa: Bc. 7, 53 rāgena sārdham ripureva yuddhvā; 8, 72 vajradhianinera rāraṇaḥ; 13, 5; 38; 47; Saund. 6, 37 sašānkalekha saradabhramadhye. Compare also: Kāl., Ragh. see 1, 36; 2, 39. Rtus. 1, 27, b; Mocch. 8, 15b. In a more artificial Fay e.g. Mşcch. 1, 12; in a comic verse id. 1, 52, With homoioteleuton etc.: Athy. 10, 1, 25 jānihi kytye kartāram duhitera pitaram svam; this sort of rhyme is frequent in these texts2. Rhyme e.g. Mbb. 7, 3, 13 ... samkruddhā ryāghrā ira mīgaksayam pandara karisyanti kuruksayam; this sort of responsio is as old as the hills and not artificial in itself? In & yathā - tathāsimile with responsio id. 7, 5, 102, only yatnā 7, 7, 6%. Emphasizing assonances: Mbh. 5, 124, 223, Besides, we also find the interesting combination of simile and adnominatio*. AV. 19, 35, 2 sa no raksatu jangido dhana pālo dhaneras; Mbh. 7, 14, 30 matto mattam iva dripam. Here the adnominatio lies within the upamāna. Although found in a kävyapoem, the line Bhār. Kir. 3, 45 I roots in a very old type: prapto bhimanavyasanād asahyam dantiva dantaryasanād vikaram; here we find responsio and the same word ryasana- is found as well in the upameya as in the upamāna. It goes without saying that we should not treat alike all 'similes with adnominatio': Mbh. 7, 26, 4 sa nāga iva nägena govyşeneva gourşaḥ | sa māhūtaḥ svayam rājñā nägānikam upadravat we have an instance of polyptoton indicating reciprocity?. - In a kavya-work: Aſv. S. 4, 39 bhrāntam mīgam bhrāntamukhí mīgiva: Kāl. R. 16, 40; Rtus. 3, 3 samadāḥ pramadä iva. $ 25. Much more interesting, however, are the cases in which the adnominatio is distributed over upamāna and upameya. Here, in a number of cases this adnominatio is quite natural, 1 See my Stil. Studie, pp. 92ff.; Acta Or, vol. XVIII, 0.c. * See $ 55. * See further on, $ 25. * As for adnominatio, soe my remark, Stilistische Studie (see above), p. 64, n. 3. & Compare the sort of adnominatio which I have called 'pleonastic &.", 0.C., p. 69. . 0.0., p. 34. 7 0.c., p. 68.

·46 § 25. ADSOYIXATIO DISTRIBUTED > although, of course, the speaker or author wants to express something with it. (Mbh.) Savitri 6, 23 tvām hi jānāmi Sāvitri Saritrim iva tejasā. Bhāsa, Pr. 4, 10 we see an artificial and elaborated instance of this type, which in itself is in fact not artificial; after having heard the name of Raghu in strophe 9, Laksmaņa gives a welcome: raghur iva ... bhara ... gunānām bhājanam. A rather frequent type consists in the combination of a simple noun with the same noun as part of a compound. Here in a translation we can often add the word real. Thus, Nala, 5, 7 the assembly of the kings is described: rājasamitim ... sampūrņām puruşaryāghrair ryāghrair giriguhām iva, "filled with man-tigers (men like tigers) just like a mountain-cave with real tigers." See also e.g. Mbh. 7, 26, 52 saradhārābhir dhārābhir iva toyadāḥ; 1, 3, 186; cp. 7, 14, 5 aśmavarşam ivāvarşat. Aśv. Bc. 13, 63; S. 14, 29. Further: e.g. Mbh. 4, 14, 4 tām drstvā devagarbhābhām carantim deratam irva; 1, 3, 186; Dandin, Dskc. p. 46 (NS. 10), 1. 3; 5. Somewhat different is e.g. Mbh. 5, 124, 22 vipākānte dahaty enam kimpākam ira bhakṣitam. Cp. Aśv. S. 6, 9 vivarnavaktrā ... tearnacandreva ... This type can easily be made a play, a trinket, an instrument of artificiality: Asv. Bc. 8, 43 gato nīdevaḥ sa hi devi decorat; 8, 75 gunapriyo yena vane sa me priyah priyo 'pi sann a priyavat praceritaḥ; S. 6, 26, where (padma(°) occurs six times! Occasionally proper nouns play a part in the affair. Rām. 4, 11, 26 nanarda kampayan bhūmim dundubhir dundubhir yathā; Asv. Saund. 2, 49 tasya devi nặdevasya māyā nāma tadābhavat ritakrodhatamomāyā māyeva divi devatā, ... queen named Māvā, who like the goddess Māyā ...”), an accumulation of the same sounds and words as we often find in the works of Ašvaghosa and other kārya-poets. See also 4, 6. Kāl. Mál. 3, 0 mālariāti ... anuhūdamutta via mäladimāla, "Mālavikā ... like a mālati-garland ...", Mșcch. 1, 6. In a song of praise of a kingbard (vaitālika), which song is applied as an artificial expedient, we hear in a hariņi-stanza with adnominatio ... ananga ivāngavān, Kal. Mal. 5, 1. Repetition of the same word with a different meaning: Ašv. 1 Here JOHNSTON, The Saundarananda translated, Oxford 1932, p. 13 refers to BRĀMAHA, KĀvyalamkāra 1, 39, who objects to the use of Māyā in comparisons.

·§ 26. ARTIFICIAL INSTANCES in Bc. 8. 24 tataḥ cabāşpă mahişi mahipateḥ pranaštaratsā mahişiva ratsalā; Saund. 2, 19 gām adharmena nadhuksat kşiratarseņa gam ira. With rhyme: 6, 25. § 26. In addition to the cases of adnominatio quoted above, I point to a number of artificial instances: Bhāsa, Arim. !, 5 + bhimamurtir mürtiman iva pavano ...; Kál. Ragh. 3. 30 tatāra ridyāḥ ... diśo haridbhir haritām iresuaraḥ; cp. 5, 37 dipa iva pradipāt. Not unfrequently in Daņdin's Dskc., e.g. p. 27, 10 (NS. 10) aśmanaḥ saridhe vidher ānanam iva; 11 ... tāmraśāsanam śāsanam ridhätur ira yam ādāya ridhim tadu padiştam dişta rijayam ira, quite unnaturala; p. 44, 9 drastu kā mah kamu ita; p. 47, 7 samtuştāntarangā tarangāralim. Artificial repetition of groups of syllables. Now Aśr. S. 6, 33 we find a comparison which, at first sight, seems rather unusual: Sundari's heart throbs with sighs like a cave, the opening of which has been split by the thunderbolt, but as appears from the Sanskrit text, here the author cares only about the repetition of sounds': să sundari stāsacalodarī hi vajrāgnisambhinnadarī guhera. Sometimes the words or the order of words seems to be chosen intentionally in such a way that two words, almost equal in sound, follow each other. Mbh. 12, 331, 32 ... bhagnā nagā nāgair ivottamaih; Rām. 4, 20, 3 rānaram ... | tārā tarum ivonmülam paryadevayatāturā. Artificial too is e.g. the simile combined with a sleşa*. $27. In my opinion there is occasion to raise the question, if there exists any connection between the place in the sentence occupied by the simile and its 'Affektgehalt (emotionalism). Indeed, in sentences or utterances which are spoken under the influence of feelings and sensations, the most 'affektbetonte element will push itself towards the first place in the sentence. Now, as I take it, in Netherlandish this is often the case with similes aus well. When we read in the report of a meeting: Als een briesende leeuw stond de heer X. op en schreeuude: ik protesteer! (like a 1 See also $ 12. On the contrary, p. 29, 10 & simile is found without a yamaka, although here there is an abundance of examples of this figure. 3 Comic, in a Netherl. stage-play: BERDEBO, Sp. Brab. 389. See $ 60.

·18 $ 27. SIMILES OCCUPYIN: THE FIRST PLACE IN A SENTENCE roaring lion Mr. &. got up from his seat and shouted: I protest !), then, in my opinion, the incident is related more vividly and the feelings of those present are interpreted in a more apparent way than in a sentence in which the simile occupies a place near the end; the sentence: De heer X. stond op als een briesende leeuw... (Mr. X. got up like a roaring lion) expresses less emotion. A Malay instance: seperti boeroeng ajahanda perdjinak | didalam doekoeng pelihara dan pénak. It might be an interesting task to collect instances belonging to different languages. Moreover, the place occupied by the simile with respect to the central point of the utterance or communication may differ and in this too may lie a difference with regard to the Ausdruckswert. Especially, when the distance between it and the upameya is rather great, & comparison opening the sentence may promote the tension: O, es war ein himmlisch Ahnen, womit ich jetzt den kommenden Frühling wieder begrüszte! Wie fernher in schweigender Luft, wenn alles schläft, das Saitenspiel der Geliebten, so umtönten seine leisen Jelodien mir die Brust... Here the reader's patience is put to a severe test. As for Vedic and Sanskrit texts, in a number of cases the simile occupies the first place in a sentence or in a verse; then it seems to me that usually a peculiar stylistic value may be recognized. The frequency varies in the various texts. In the Atharvaveda this position of the simile is not unfrequent: 5, 14, 10 I putra iva pitaram gacha svaja izābhişthito daśa, “as a son to a father go; like a constrictor trampled on bite"; 7, 109, 4 II orkşam ivāśanyā jaki yo..., "like a tree with a thunderbolt, smite him who...", here the victim occupies the first place; compare 6, 37, 2 II baptáram atra no jabi divo vykşam ivāsanih. Just as in this case, elsewbere in sentences containing an imperative: 4, 4, 6d dhanur ivā tānayā pasak; 19, 46, 2c indra ida dasyun ava dhūnusva petangatak, the nighty name of Indra in the first places, see also 28, 3d; 28, 4 I like the rising sun; 14, 2, 31 II "like Indrāņi... 1 HÖLDXLIX, Hyperion, see W. SCENZIDER, Ausdruckswerte der deutschen Sprache, Laipzig-Be in 1931, p. 181. W. KRAMER, Inleiding tot de stilistiek, Groningen 1935, p. 59 refers to Old Testament, Jes. 55, 10. DANDIM, Kavyap. 2, 17 miparyciaopama, "reversed simile". See other ·§ 27. SIMILES OCCUPYING THE FIRST PLACE IN A SENTENCE 49 mayest thou...", but here the verb stands at the end of the line: Indrāņīra subudhā budhyamānā jyotir agrā uşasaḥ prati jāgatāsi; in the same way 32 II like Süryā... with your husband unite here. AV. 10, 1, 3 II; 2, 28, 1; 5; 4, 18, 2; 5. 26, 5; 6. 30, 3; 14. 2, 37. In a passus containing several very short sentences (which is very often a proof of emotion), with alliteration 10, 1, 17 rāta iva uzkşān ni m?nihi pādaya, "like the wind the trees, crush down, bring to ruin...”, cp. RV. 2, 39, 5. In execrations and the like: AV. 8, 4, 8 II like water held together with the fist let (him)... be non-existent; 19, 50, 3 II variation upon a well-known image: gambhiram aplavā iva na tareyur arătayaḥ, "like a deep water men without a boat may the niggards fail to pass (it)". 5, 20, 1d like a lion, about to conquer thunder loudly against (them), 28 goes on with: like a lion has roared thunderously..., cp. also 21, 6b. In the last verse of a hymn, 2, 30, 5 II (to secure the love of a woman) hither has this woman come desiring a husband; desiring a wife 1 have come, like a loud-neighing horse... I have come?. In other sentences that do not contain an imperative: 12, 1, 57 asra iva rajo dudhuve; here the simile is an indication of vivid and vigorous speech. AV. 8, 6 is a 'hymn' to preserve a pregnant woman from demons: 8 the demons who surprise her - them like a shadow the sun, circling, has made to vanish; in my opinion the equivalence of demons and shadow has been emphasized by the position of chāyām iva at the beginning. Cp. 8, 7, 15. Sometimes, however, it seems to be difficult to see a greater emotional value in such a simile. AV. 14, 2, 440, containing the simile, is perhaps attracted by b; 12, 3, 33 II; 9, 3, 24. Now it is worthy of note that in this text many of the upamānas which stand at the beginning, are ideas that have a great 'Gefühlswert' (emotional value) in itself or are usually found in speech that is meant to be vigorous. In AV. the word mātā occurs 40 times, māteva or mātā... yathā 6 times, but this is always at the beginning of a verse or line; cp. 18, 2, 50 mātā putram yathā; 12, 3, 23 janitrīva prati haryäsi sinun; lion and fire 8, 7, 15. I also refer to frequent lines such as putram iva pitarão ašvinobha RV. 10, 131, 5a etc. (Ved. Conc. 588); afva isa sajitoarik RV.10, 97, 3c etc. 1 See WHITNEY-LANMAN, A.V. translated, p. 942. See also $ 31. Seo also WHITNEY-LANMAN, O.C., p. 73.

·50 $ 27. SIMILES OCCUPYING THE FIRST PLACE IN A SENTENCE The Rgveda yields a rather large number of instances. 1, 32, 6 like a person who is not able to fight... he (Pstra) has challenged the great hero (Indra); 117, 18 in an exclamation; 123, 10 kanyeva tanrā šāšadānām eşi deri deram..., "like a maid... thou goest, goddess (l'şas)": cp. 130. 4 III; 1, 23, 11; 100, 3. Here the position of the upamānas points to briskness. With a command or request: 1, 63, 5d to Indra: ghanera tajriñ chnathihy amitrān, emphatically. Cp. 104, 9d pitera naḥ śrṇuhi; 140, 1. Query of a person who is interested RV. 1, 165, 2; cp. 117, 12; desire 2, 33, 6. - In post-Vedic literature: Nala 10, 27 doleva muhur āyāti yāti caiva sabhām prati; 12, 24 yüthabhrastām iraikām mām harinim... I na mānayasi mām (2 x möm!); Sāv. 5, 5 śūlair iva siro viddham idam sa mlaksayāmy aham; in direct oration too: Mbh. 11, 16, 57. See also 7, 22, 15: 10, 8. Compare also 7, 25, 31. A longer and more elaborate upamāna Mbh. 11, 16, 43 (lamentation of the Kuru women over the slain) raktot palavanāniva vibhānti... | mukhāni... Kesara 1. But usually we find in the Mbh. shorter and more natural upamānas denoting 'affektbetonte' notions in vivid and emotional speech: 7, 10, 31 āśivisa iva..., "like a venomous serpent”...; 63 utsanga iva samurddham; 15, 22 as with their claws great tigers, as with their teeth great elephants, see 7, 22, 4; 7, 1, 24; 12, 145, 5 dāvāgnineva nirdagdhā... latā; 177, 39 pātāla iva. I refer also to the type of sentence: 7, 15, 15 tau vrşāv iva nardantau... viceratuh; 21, 65; Sāv. 1, 21 sa vigrahavatīva srir vyavardhata nšpātmajā, where only the demonstrative pronoun precedes, but its meaning is no other than our "and" or "then". Op. Manu 8, 173. With yak sa + simile Mbh. 7, 10, 7. See also Manu 8, 95 like a blind man who swallows fish with the bones is the man who..., which is more vivid than: the man who... is like a blind man... Rāmāyaṇs: 4, 45, 3 the monkeys, in search of Sītā, as soon as they have heard the command: like locusts they overspread the earth and set out. When a lot of monkeys reach a cave, like the going of the wind... their looks rum off into the darkness (50, 20), which sounds vivid, but also to take up the preceding words without any delay: their eyesight and courage did not fail; in this way every thought of the contrary is excluded. When they reach the ocean, their hearts sank into their boots (64, 7) äkālam iva duspäram sāgaram prekoya vānarāḥ. Cp. 4, 61, 8. $ 28. It might be an interesting task to trace this phenomenon ·§ 28. THE SAME, IX POST-VĀLMIKIAX WORKS in other texts too. Here I have to confine my remarks to a number of post-Vālmikian works. In the plays of Ašvaghoşa for instance: Arim. 1, like an incarnation of the wind its swift morements... in a the description of a minister who has seen an elephant rushing at the princess' carriage; Cār. 1. 28 - pr., Vid.: in a menace Cār. 1, 26 - pr. (2x). Artificially: Abhiş. 2. 1 (pr.) Sītā: how is it that to-day when the... sacrificial fire is blazing like the sprinkling of water some comfort in my heart arises?, cp., with a compound, 5,9 %. In verses: Yaug. 1, 16 the minister swears that his name shall not be Y., if he will not liberate the king (after this vow the play is named): if, seized by the enemy's troops as by Rāhu the moon, I do not liberate the king..., here the adjectire °grasto, being most 'affektbetont', tries to occups a place at the head of the sentence and drags the simile along with it, which now occupies pāda b; the simile, on the other hand, gives rise to the word °grasto. 2, 9 the king of Ujjain says, that this capture passes his belief. He cries out: I do not believe the capture of C. which you relate — like the removing with the palm of your hand of the Mandara (mountain) — whose enemies report his heroism in battles... Here the main point of the emotional utterance (“I do n't believe") is at the beginning of the verse, the hyperbolic simile interrupts the 'regular' construction of the sentence, d is an addendum; notwithstanding the outward appearance of & vasantatilakā-strophe a reflection of quite natural speech. These two texts may be sufficient to prove that also in Bhāsa's verses the simile may be more than a dead thing or a stencil acting only as an ornament: on the contrary, the simile itself and its position too often are copied from the living language. Thus, Avim. 3, 3 the effusion in the form of a simile of Avimāraka, disguised as a barglar, does not seem to stand at the beginning for the sake of the metrum or the like: after the exclamation: horo fearsome is the midnight! he commences & sārdūlavikridita-strophe as follows: like embryos in the womb are unconscious all creatures in their sleep. Such ancther case 4, 4a, cp. b; cp. Prat. 3, 2 gone into ecstasies over the speed of the chariot drumā dhūvantiva... nadīva etc.; Cār. 4, 3 II a disconcerted cry: mygida... kampose canulampase. Prat. 6, 1 is a singular yamsastha-strophe: after some long 1 See $ 37.

·32 § 29. THE SAME, SUGGESTING compounds we find in d mpgīva sītā paribhūya niyate. Cp. also Prat. 1, 21; Avim. 4, 12c. As I stated above, a simile that precedes the upameya may evoke tension. Bhāsa, Car. 3, 9 Vid. (pr.) it seems to enhance the comie effect: like a Buddhist monk who has an assignation with a seriant girl — I can not sleep. Yaug. 2, 11 in a 'poetical' form: the king answers the queen who had asked, why the king of the Vatsas is not an eligible son-in-law: like a fire... in a forest and burning the whole world..., the flames of my authority are extinguished at his boundary. Learned: Prat. 5, 7 II. In the same way Kāl. Crv. 2, 13 - Vid. (pr.) as I when hungry get presents..., you hare obtained... (comic); broadly elaborated Sak. 3, 23, when the king wishes to kiss Sakuntalā: apariksatakomalasya tāvat kusumasyera narasya satpadena | adharasya pipäsatā mayā te sadayam sundari gfhyate raso 'yam; art, but in the favourable sense of the word. Emotionally: Kāl. Sak. 6, 27 + (pr.), cry of distress (Vid.): like a mouse seized by a cat -- I hare become hopeless of life, cp. also 6, 23 + (pr., porter). Admiring Urv. 2, 9 + (pr.) Nandana-garden. Admiring, in an inquiry: Šak. 7, 8 +, with long compounds. Kāl. Urv. 2, 0, maid, being commanded by her mistress, searching for the Vidūşaka (pr.): like a monkey drawn in a picture..., silent, here stands the venerable M. (= the Vid.), rooting in a predilection of the common people for rather emotional speech? See also Ašv. Bc. 5, 79 iti suhrdam ivānusisya...; 8, 83 (2 ). -- Ratnāv, 3, 18 + (Vid. pr.; choice of words!). Bhav. Uttar. 2, 24 a quite natural order of words. $ 29. Sometimes it seems to me that the author who puts & simile at the first place wishes to suggest or to make his readers guess the things he wants to say; the image is, as it were, a prelude. Ašv. Saund. 2, 30 the excellent king: like with water a cloud, with good conduct he gladdened the people; 4, 2 he, as with a she-sheldrake the sheldrake,..., the name of the cakravāka speaks volumes. In the same way 13, 1 parisiko 'mileneva yuyuje paraya mudā. Op. also 2, 32 II. More elaboratedly Aśv. Bc. 8, 71 tatas... yasodharām preksya... mahāravindair iva vrstitāditair mukhaik aabāspair vanitā vicukránh. Saund. 14, 41c, here the place of the upamāns for the upameya has perhaps been brought about by a tendency to variation: in some foregoing verses iva occurs in d. With & learned simile and repetition of the same words, artifi- ·§ 30. PRAISING AND ILLOGICAL EXAGGERATIONS 53 n cially but engaging the readers' attention equally strongly: Kāl. R. 1, 1 like words and their meanings united, for the understanding of words and their meanings, I salute the parents of the unirerse, Pārvati and Paramešvara, where the first words belong to the last; see also Kum. 6, 79. Other instances: Mịcch. 1, 11 - (pr.); Bhär. Kir. 6, 2; Daņd. Dskc. NS10, p. 24. 1. 1; Bhar. Tttar. 3, 5; with a long digression 4, 15. $ 30. The Indian authors on the subject were well acquainted with the fact that a simile is very often employed in praising a person or a thing. See for instance Vāmana?, who says: "a simile is employed in praising, reviling (reproaching) and describing the real state of things”. Now the simile may be used in this way, as we have stated aboves, as in the example quoted by Vāmana: an affectionate wife is like nectar, but we moreover find it in communications and utterances that are complete in themselves, as an intensifying addition. As a rule this simile is undeniably exaggerating or hyperbolic. In colloquial speech this kind of similes is found too: neth. O, dat park is zo mooi, net een sprookje (the park is awfully fine; just like a fairy-tale!''). It is obvious that this use of the simile too is peculiar to sensibility, excitement and the like. The evident exaggeration which is peculiar to it (but not only to it!) is a typical phenomenon of the speech of the common people: illogical and not to be understood literally it may serve to give expression to feelings and sensations. In a certain sense sentences like the following may be counted among its number: Mbh. 7, 22, 12 naite jātu punar yuddhan Theyur iti me matiḥ 1 yathā tu bhagnā dronena väteneva mahādrumāḥ. Perhaps in many cases this type is at the root of the wellknown constructions such as Nala 5, 6 sukeśāntāni carūni... mukhāni rājñām šobhante; id. 1, 12; here the following words nakşatrāņi yathā divi may be understood as having been originally an addition. Genuine, though slightly less spontaneous examples are Nala 1, 11 tā... | ...atam sakhiram... paryu pasac Chacin iva; 5, 5 tatra sma pārā dřsyante bäharak parighopamāk 1 See § 53. : VĀMANA, KĀvyālapkārasūtravętti, 4, 2, 7. 3 See $$ 9 ff. • See also $ 10. CALAND, in his romanised edition of the Nalopakhyāna (Utrecht. 1916) puts & comma before yathi.

·54 31. CLIMAX äkärarantaḥ suślaksnā) pañcaśīrşā iroragāḥı; here in b par. is a hyperbolic addition to pīnā in a, d is an exaggerating enlargement of the whole communication. Jbh. 4, 16, 11 sa papāta tada bhūmau... ! righūrņamāno niscestas chinnamūla ira drumah. See also Yala 1, 2; 20. 1. In the Ath. V. 6, 87, 2 I be just here, be not mored away, like a mountain not unsteady. $ 31. Now, more than once such an 'addition may be serviceable in forming a climax. IFe find such a climax also in every day speech. The other day I myself to stimulate a person said: vooruit, gaur, als de bliksem ("hurry up, off you go, like lightning!"). In the Atharrareda several instances are met with: 4, 12, 6 sa uttistha prehi pra drara rathaḥ suca kraḥ su patiḥ sunābhiḥ, "do you here get up. go forth, run forth (like) a chariot well-wheeled, vell-tyred. well-nared2; 8, 6, 17 III padā pra vidhya pārşnyā ! sthālim gaur ira spandanā. 8, 8, 3a crush them... b devour them... c let them be... broken like hemp; in this verse also adnom. and allit.; 6, 67, 2; 19, 28, 2. Without an imperative: 6, 21, 2 you are the most ercellent of remedies, the best of plants, like Soma..., like Paruna. A very fine instance is 6, 115, a hymn for the relief of enas, "sin": I if... we hare committed sins, free us from that..., ? if I hare committed sin, let... (it) free from that, drupadād iva, "as from a post", 3 being freed as if from a post, as one..., like..., let all cleanse me of sins; in 3a drupadăd iva muc- (2d) has been taken up; although this figure may be 'besonders künstlich' elsewhere*, this is not necessary. Soe also AV. 10, 1, 1-3. — With rhyme RV. 1, 128, 1 visvasruştiḥ sakhiyate rayir iva sravasyate. Instances from the Rāmāyaṇa: 4, 31, 13 Sugriva delays and Lakşmaņa gets angry: ...krodhägninā vrtaḥ| Prabhañjana ivāpritaḥ prayayau L., 19 his wrath increases: babhūva dviguņam kruddho bahvindhana ivānalah, 29 it comes to a burning-point: sa dirghosna mahocchevāsaḥ kopasamraktalocanaḥ babhüva naraśārdūlah sadhüma ira pārakaḥ | bārasalyasphurajjihvaḥ sāyakāsanabhogavān satejovişasambhrútak pancāsya ira pannagah, and as if smoking fire and the venomous fury of a five-headed serpent do 1 See above, $$ 9f. . Here the Paipp.-tert is very different. * For particulars see also WHITNEY-LANMAN, O.C., p. 365. . Sve HOFMANN, in STOL.-SCHNALZ, Lateinische Grammatik", 1928, p. 830; my Stil. Studie, pp. 52 f.

·§ 32. THE RULE OF THE 'WACHSENDE GLIEDER 55 not suffice to describe L.'s fury, there follows tam diptam ira kālāgnim nāgendram ira kopitam... In a sārdūlav.-stanza Bbāsa, Yaug. 4, 12a de pressed by... b defeated ...and devoid of... c ignorant of... and overcome by... d with his face doun-cast with shame like a wrestler... $ 32. Here I observe that it seems to be an outcome of the so-called rule of the 'wachsende Glieder', when in sentences containing descriptions after some adjectives or compounds a simile occupies the last place. It seems to be a fact in Sanskrit too, that in a sentence, when equivalent parts are connected. the longer and more massive parts like to follow the shorter and lighter members. See e.g. Nala 11, 3 II ha hatāsmi, rinastāsmi, bhītāsmi vijane vane; 12, 9 II mahişāmś ca rarāhāmś ca skṣāms ca vanapannagān; Mbh. 12, 266, 21 I pitā dharmaḥ, pitā srargah. pitā hi paramam tapaḥ; Mārk. Pur. 16, 65 dhanyāsmy, anugrhitāsmi, devais capy avalokită, etc.1 With a simile: an interesting example, for the greater part borrowed from every day speech, is Bhāsa, Cār. 1, 8 pr. (vasantatilakā-stanza). $ 33. It has struck me that in the Atharvareda more than once one or more similes are found in the last verse of a hymn. See 3, 18, 6: in a longer line two similes: mām anu pra te mano vatsam gaur iva dhāvatu pathā vār ira dhāratu” ; 3, 11, 8; 30, 6–7; 6, 22, 3; 7, 115, 4; 13, 2, 46 (= RV. 5, 1, 1)"; 19, 33, 5. An expressive winding-up beginning with a yathă-sentence, in which the mighty sun is introduced as a parallel", and ending with a iva-simile, in which the elephants is the upamāna: 10, 1, 32. For Vedic prose, compare e.g. Ait. Br. 8, 20, 7, 8 yatha simile in a long parallelism: tad yathaivādah priyah putraḥ pitaram priyā vā jāyā patim sukham siram upaspršaty ă ristasa, eram haivaitenaindreņa mahābhişekenābhişiktasya kşatriyasya surā ir somo vānyad vānnadyam s.r.u.7.0.; 8, 11, 86 just as ... barbarians or waylayers ... seizing a rich man in the wilderness, then throw him in a pit, rob his property and run away ...; both times, the long simile is found at the end of an argumentation, the latter at 1 I intend to write a paper on this subject. ? Epiphora, see my Stil. Studie, p. 35. : See also WHITNEY-LANMAN, O.C., p. 727. 4 See also $ 43. 3 See &$ 39ff. & See also § 49. 4 eram- ·56 $ 33. AT THE EXD OF A HYUX, ARGUMENTATION OR CANTO the end of the description of the Punarabhişeka, the former at the conclusion of the Mahābhiseka. With iva 7, 31, 5 in dominion, in himself, he places the dominion of the trees, nyagrodha ivāvarodhair bhūmyām, “as the nyagrodha with its descending shoots in the earth”, he is established in sovereignty. See also Jaim. Br. no 34, at the end: sa yathäkramanăd akramanam akramyodanyāt, tādſk tat; no 88 at the end: yatha ha girau jyotir bhāyād, evam ... bhāti ... ya evam reda, "as on a mountain a light shines, in this way shines to him who knows thus”; 179 end. Cp.also ChU.5, 24, 5; BĀU. 2, 1, 20. In the Mahābhārata & simile occurs at the conclusion of an adhyāya in a rather limited number of cases: 4, 14, 20; 15, 21 (sloka); 7,5, 21; 16, 54; 21, 65 (sloka); 26, 68; 118, 18; 146, 144; 160, 60; 163, 68; 8, 10, 56 (sloka); 14, 39 (sloka); 19, 58; 20, 51; 23, 22 (sloka), unless marked, long meter. Instances: 8, 14, 39 tataḥ samāgamo ghoro babhūva sahasā tayoh | yathā devāsure yuddhe eytravāsavayor iva?; 8, 25, 42 virarāja tadā pārtho vidhūmo gnir ira jualan; & more artificial instance, however, is 7, 146, 144 sa devasatrün iva devarājaḥ / kiritamāli vyadhamat samantāt| yatkā tamāmsy abhyuditas tamoghnaḥ / pūrva pratiññām samavāpya virah. In the poems of Ašvagboşa one or more similes at the end of & canto are found several times: one simile Bc. 1, 94; 4, 103; 8. 2, 65; 10, 64, see also 18, 64. Bc. 1, 94 concludes the 'birth of Buddha': Thus by ... the birth of a son to the king, that city known as Kapila was delighted as was the city of the god of wealth full of apsaras at the time of the birth of Nalakūvara; S. 18, 64 the poet adds an image to his concluding words "let the reader understand this and study it ...": as only the residue of gold is taken ... $ 34. But we find similes not only at the end of an argumentation or at the conclusion of a part of a text; they may also be met with at culminating points in the story or argument. As will be stated further on, here even two or more similes are often found together. Jaim. Br., no 140: Indra had perpetrated several 1 Ed. W. CALAND, Das Jaiminiya-Brāhmaṇa in Auswahl, Akad. Wet., Amsterdam, 1919. * For youthd ... svg, see § 58. ? Soe $$ 35ff.

·§ 34. SIMILES AT CULMIXATING POINTS 37 crimes; the gods refused to sacrifice for him, and so the sin remained with him; at length Agni performed a sacrifice for him: "now he (Agni) burnt out at once the whole sin of Indra", and here two similes are added: sa yathähir ahiccharyai nirmucyeta. yatha muñjād işīkām vivrhed eram era sarrasmāt pāpmano niramucyata. Ait. Br. 8, 25, 1 (dealing with the office of a housepriest) in a somewhat emotional passagel. When we peruse the unperishable story of Yala, we meet with similes in those verses, where important persons or events are described:1, 2; 15; 2, 28; 29 Nala; 1, 11; 12; 13; 3, 13 Damayantia; 5, 3; 5; 62 the kings arriving for the stayamvara: 5, 43; 442 the first connubial bliss; 10, 27 when Nala, intending to run away from D., is in two minds; 11, 20; 12, 24; 103; D.'s wailing; 11, 36; 39 her meeting with the hunter, who wants to violate her; 13, 47; 16, 9 etc. D.'s pitiable condition; 17, 6; 9; 11 the freckle or birth-mark, by which D. is recognized; 20, 1; 21, 4; 7; 8; 35 N.'s journey for the second svayamvara and his arrival; 24, 52; 53 D.'s joy after the reunion etc. Of course, not every instance is equally clear, but the drift is, in my opinion, clear enough. The same holds good even in a text like the Mārk. Pur!; here too, when important events of a story are related we find more than once an effusion, and also a simile: 10, 77; 21, 82, 51; 87, 17; 89, 7. At a pause or at the end of & subdivision e.g. 11, 21, were it is explained how living beings are born etc. ... "and again the human being dies and is born again. Hence he perambulates this mundane existence, like the jar and the rope (at a well)”: ghatiyantravat; here the mind of speaker and hearers lingers a moments. Reviving of what has been said 11, 31. $ 35. HIRZEL already said, that "bei seiner Behandlung der Bilder ein hervorragendes Merkmal der vedischen Kunstsprache notwendig verloren ging: ihre Häufung in demselben Lied, sogar im selben Verse"'4. Indeed, it is a pity that he did not study this 'Häufung'. It is really an important and interesting phenomenon, with which everyone who has read Sanskrit poetry attentively 7, For the Upaniseda see H. OLDENBERG, Die Lehre der Upanishaden usw, 1923, p. 157f. * See further on, $ 37. * See further on, $ 54. • BIRZEL, O.C., p. 2.

·58 § 35. ACCUMULATIOX OF SIMILES must be acquainted. To those who might contend that accumulation of images in a small compass is without any doubt artificial, I would answer that this accumulation is essentially a sort or a figure of repetition. figure which is repeated often has the nature of an emotional utterance. If the conditions giving rise to the use of a simile are present with an extraordinary intensity or during a greater length of time, they will probably produce two or more similes. In the case of an explaining or illustrating similel this is clear enough: if there is occasion for us to have recourse to a simile through want of understanding of our partner, it is evident that we will add another simile, if we wish to attain our end and this not understanding happens to last. In this way we try to approach the idea we wish to explain. This trying is at the root of such raried repetitions as are well-known to the readers of the Upanişads; see e.g. BĀU. 4, 3, 18 f.; CHU. 6, 1, +6: see also BĀL. I, 4, 7; — Mārk. Pur. 27, 22–26; Aśv. S. 11, 24 ff. etc. In the case of an emotional simile' the strong emotion causes repetition: when the 'emotional (affektisch) figure' has been used once, the emotion is not yet appeased. In this way we meet with such a repetition in effusions, in lyric texts etc. The repetition of the figure of the simile in order to paraphrase and to define an abstract notion as clearly as possible or to explain an idea for which we are not able to find the exact word or words (or for which we do not care to use them), to explain & vague and indistinct, but strong feeling, are among the cases called by LANDOR 'prismatic diction'. Here we use again and again new delineating qualifications which constantly cast a new variegation or elucidation of feelings on the object we have in mind. It goes without saying that this way to express ourselves may develop into a device, into mannerism, that it may be used consciously and by design. Authors possessing a vivid imagination and those that have a strong sense of decorative descriptions make good use of this accumulation. Then it becomes an artifice or an ornament. See $$ 49ff. * In a Melanesian 'song' e.g. the body is described with a long series of comparisons: THURNWALD, Forschungen auf den Salomoinseln, I (1912), p. 134; see also p. 178 dem Gelbetaar gleich ist deine Haut / wie der Hundos / von Schweine hast du 's, dasz du scheckig bist.

·§ 35. ACCU'YLLATION OF SIMILES 39 Here follow some examples. The other day, I heard a bor sar to someone wearing a fine net hat, but the rest of those dress and outward appearance was not in keeping with it: dat lijkt wel een vlag op 'n modderschuit, nou zeg, net een aap met 'n garibaldi.' ("'it suits him as a saddle suits a sow; say he looks like a monkey in a slouch-hat”). Or, wife to husband who is walking about in a heat: doe toch niet zo als een bezetene! je lijkt wel gek! ("don 't behave like a fool! You're not dotty, are rer?"). In a literary work: Van Deyssel, Porcelein, Kr. 235 vlg.1: waar je lijkt op een poes op een katheder, op een haas op een vigelant-im periaal, op een muis die boren op een hoogen hoed zou zitten ("where you look like a cat in a pulpit, or a hare on a cab-imperial, or a mouse on a top-hat"). For other languagesê: "Statt nur eines Bildes zieht der [altfranzösische] Dichter auch wohl noch ein zweites und drittes herbei um anschaulich zu werden (Doppelvergleiche)'*3, sometimes very concisely: car plus sont fier que lyon ne serpent. “Die Dichter lieben es, mehrere Vergleiche an einander zu reihen. Namentlich begegnet dies bei der Beschreibung von Personen, Tieren oder Gegenständen aber auch sonst". "Sehr belebt wird die Sprache [in der Volksepik der Grossrussen] durch die vielen Vergleiche. Bei diesen tritt nicht selten ein dreifacher Parallelismus der Glieder ein, so z.B. Dobrynja bleibt zwölf Jahre weg, da heißt es: Ein Tag nach dem andern fliesst dahin uvie Regen, eine I'oche nach der andern kommt heran, wie wenn das Gras wächst, aber ein Jahr läuft vorbei nach dem andern, wie ein stürzender Strom''4. From Westphalia: Ich wünsch ihm all das Beste, so viel der Baum hat Äste. | I.w.i.s.v. Glücke fein, 18.v. wie Stern' am Himmel sein! etc. In Babylonian spells: ... ich habe dich lieb ... wie ... die Schafmutter ihre Lämmchen, die Gazelle ihr Junges, die Eselin ihr Füllen. I See W. KRAMER, Inleiding tot de stilistiek, Groningen 1935, p. 127. The whole chapter (7, Diaphaan-prismatisch) is worth reading. : I refer also to R. HEINZEL, Über den Stil der altgermanischen Poesie (1875), p. 16. : KARL MEINHOFF, Die Vergleiche in den altfranzösischen Karlsepen, Diss. Marburg 1886, p. 59. · 4 W. WOLLNER, Untersuchungen über die Volksepik der Grossrussen. Diss. Leipzig 1879, p. 12. See also O. BÖCKEL, Psychologie der Volksdichtung, Leipzig 1906, p. 296. 5 BÖCKEL, O.C., p. 296. * M. JASTROW, Die Religion Bab. und Assyriens, I, pp. 317ff., whose view, however, is not right ('poetry').

·§ 36. WITH IMPERATIVES IN 'MAGICAL' VERSES, ETC. As for ancient Indian literature? I refer to the following instances: AV, 8, 5, 11 bc you are the best of herbs, like the ox of moring creatures, like the tiger of wild beasts; here the abstract "best of is made more intelligible by means of two concrete examples. 3. 29, 6 at the end of this group of mantras (7–8 do not belong to it) that has to accompany the offering of a sheep with white legs we find three or four similes to explain and to make clear the abstract idea: “the sheep is not exhausted": ireva nopa dasyati, "like refreshing drink it is not exhausted", like the ocean, a great draught, like the two ... gods, the comparison with the two gods is not very clear?. See also 6, 12, 1;7, 45, 2; 95, 1-2. The sūkta 6. 115 is a fine instance of a somewhat different type, where the second simile is clearly an enlargement: 1 if we have committed sins ... free us from that, 2 if etc., let ... free from that, as from a post, 3 being freed as if from a post, as one that has sweated ..., like sacrificial butter let all cleanse me of sin. See also 19, 28, I ff., a beautiful climax, to an amulet of darbha: 1d 2a. burner 211 do you ... burn like heat against all the 3a burning like heat ..., 311 split (them) like Indra breaking apart Vala, 4 split ..., II make their heads fly a part, as the rising sun does the skin of the earth. See also 5, 20, 1-2; 4, 4, 6-7. · Not quite on a par with these instances are texts such as 8, 7, 15 simhasyeva stanathoh sam vijante 'gner iva vijante "as at the roaring of a lion they shrink with fear, as at fire they tremble ..."; here two verbs occur, and the whole line is an instance of a sort of varied repetition. See also 3, 14, 45, 6, 87, 2 I". $36. Such an accumulation of similes occurs more than once with imperatives in verses accompanying a magical site. AV. 6, 37 is a sūkta against curses: 2 avoid us, o curse, as a burning fire a lake, smite our currer as the thunderbolt from the sky a tree. A great number of comparisons we find in 5, 14, especially at the end; this sūkts, which prevents witchcraft with a plant, is 'written' in a very emotional speech: adnominatio (1c; 5b), repetition of pādas (10-2b), anaphora (71) etc.; now in 10 we read: go like a son to a father; like a constrictor bite, 11 like ... 2 1 Cp. Danpix, Kávy. 2, 40 bahüpama, "multiplex simile". * See also WHITNEY-LANMAN, O.C., p. 137. * Soe my Stilistische Studie, pp. 35ff. * For this verne soe also $ 30 in fine.

·§ 36. WITH IMPERATIVES IN MAGICAL' VERSES, ETC. 61 ... an antilope, an elephant ..., like a hind, let the krtyā go to its maker, 12 straighter than an arrou let it fly ... like a deer, 14 let it go like fire ..., like water ... like a chariot .... a flood of passionate desire, concentrated on a definite aim. The great accumulation only becomes evident when, in our society, we imagine someone who is about to turn away a person. He is not likely to use so many comparisons. Yet in magic texts of other peoples this abundance of comparisons is found too: "so heißt es in der angelsächsischen Beschwörung einer Geschwulst: Du mögest dich zusammenziehen wie Kohle auf dem Herde, schrumpfe ein wie Yist an der Wand, und schwinde wie Wasser im Eimer, so klein mögest du werden wie ein Leinsamenkorn"'l. With the Letts: ... Im Winde retschuinde, Geschwür, vergehe wie der abnehmende Mond, wie ein alter Bortista : verschwinden wie Morgentau, wie der abnehmende Yond. wie ein alter Bourists. The magic effect of these similes will be treated further on Elsewhere the similes belong to different verbs or to different sentences: 1, 14, 1; 4, 4, 7; 7, 4-5; 6, 14, 2-3; 142, 2; 13, 2, 465 at the end of a sūkta; 4, 36, 6 I am a rezer like a tiger; like dogs they do not find ... In the Rgveda we find in a hymn to Uşas, 1, 124, 7, "vier Vergleiche, die in ihrer Steigerung die zunehmende Schönheit der Uşas veranschaulichen". Here the poet is enthusiastic about the beauty of the divine maid; the number of images he can find is wholly inadequate to express his feelings. RV. 1, 130, 1 the poet presses Indra passionately for a visit, with epiphora? and an abundance of images: endra yāhy upa naḥ parāvato nāyam achā vidathāniva satpatir astam rājeva satpatih. See also 2, 39, 5 to the Asvins, 5 similes! 1, 143, where Agni's might is described. See also 1, 66, 7; 91, 13; 105, 7-8; 1, 64, 2–8, in a hymn addressed to the Maruts. In Vedic prose it is clear that a number of passages, although they contain archaic characteristics, are narrated in a relatively ... 1 H. Ponos, Das Bild in der Dichtung, I, Versuch einer Morphologie der metaphorischen Formen, Marburg 1927, p. 150. * See M. BARTELS, Zeitschrift d. Ver. f. Volkskunde 5, p. 31. * Idem, p. 34. 4 See $ 43. RV. 5, 1, 1 etc. & GELDNER, Der Rigveda übersetzt und erläutert, I, p. 156. ? See my Stilistische Studie, p. 35.

·62 $ 37. ACCUMULATION AND PRISMATIC DICTION IN THE F.PICS Eram vivid was. Here also an abundance of similes is found. See e.g. Jaim. Br. no 168, p. 221 (ed. Caland) with direct oration: sa yathā kşetrajño grāmam dharayed: adaḥ sugam tena yāsyāmo ... eram etau ... carato, 'tha yathā soma prarākaḥ somam prāhairam prāhatuḥ, and further on, p. 2221; no 140°; no 1643; no 168. I also refer to the argument about the man who, though he is learned in the Veda, not 'escels'. no 1404. As for the nature of these similes see further one. In trying to find the exact words: Ch. Lp. 3. 13, 8 ninadam ira nadathum ivägner iva jralata upasnoti. $ 37. It is interesting to see that in the episode of Nala an accumulation of similes is to be found exactly in those places, where the most important events of the story are narratede: 1, 11-13, our first acquaintance with the heroine: she is like Indra's wife Saci, like lightning. like Sri etc.; 5, 3 ff., when the princes arrive for the stayamvara: they are like great lions that come to a mountain; their fore-arms are like iron clubs, like serpents with fire heads etc.; 5, 43 ff.. when Nala and Damayantī are newlymarried; 16, 10, where Sudera, one of the brahmans sent out by Bhima in search of Damayanti, sees her and recognizes her; the 17 verses he says to himself contain many an instance of adnominatio, alliteration, rhyme etc., and also a considerable number of similes?: 10 lokakāntām iva sriyam, 12 ratim iva, pürnacandraprabhām iva, 13 mrnālim iza coddhștām, 14 paurnamāsim iva nišām, ... nadim ita and so on; (21, 4 ff., when D. hears the sound of Nala's horses: 4 yathā megkasya nadato gambhiram jaladāgame, 7 meghanāda ivotu kāḥ, here we have repetition of the same image in & somewhat different form;) 24, 52 f., when N. and D. are reunited. In & menace Bhāsa, Căr. 1, 26 + (pr.) uses two similes (see in Bhāsa's works also Pr. 2, 13; 2, 7, 6, 2, 3 etc.); when Mälavikā departs, the king utters three similes (Kal. M. 1, 11). 1 See CALAND's translation, pp. 226f. ? See above, $ 34. * Translation, pp. 212fT. • Translation, p. 170. $$ 49ff. . See also above, $ 34. * I also refer to OLDENBERG, Das Mababbarate, p. 147f. • 24, 63 (last verse of the adhyāya) is in long metre.

·$ 37. ACCLXLLATIOX AND PRISMATIC DICTION IN THE EPICS 63 Prismatic diction we find for instance, when an almost incredible event is related: at the fall of Droņa bh. 7, 9, 12 f. like the drying up of the ocean, like the moring off of the Jeru, like the fall of the sun I can not even conceive Di's jull. See also 7, 1, 24 ff., when Bhişma has fallen: patite bharatasreşthe babhūra kururähini dyaur iväpetanakşatrā hinam kham ita väyunā äsuriza yathā senä nigrhīte nộpe balau vidharera rarārohā śuş katoyera nimnaga etc. etc. When important matters are spoken of: Bhisma lying on his couch of arrows; 7, 4, 2 ff. at the beginning of Bhişma's address to Karna: even like the Ocean of the rivers, like the sun of the luminaries ... be you the refuge of your friends; in a description of a battle 7, 13, 22 ff., of a duel 7, 15, 20 ff.; 20, 15 sqq. Sās. 2, 15 the hero is introduced with four similes ; BLG. 11, 28–29 (long metre); 13, 32–33; 12, 320, 32-33; 14, 18, 9 ff. At the end of an adhyāya Mbh. 4, 14, 20; 15, 21, etc. Only the man who has studied the Veda the gods consider to be venerable, says Manu. 2, 156; what is an unlearned Brāhmaṇa?: like an elephant made of wood, like an antelope made of leather - (1571), two parallel and anaphoricè pādas. See also 6, 78, where Manu speaks about the person who leaves this body. A difficult doctrine BLG. 3, 38: an elaboration Mbh. 12, 262, 25. In the Rāmāyaṇa this figure is met with several times. I choose a number of different types from the fourth sarga. When the asura Dundubhi challenges the king of the monkeys Vālin, his appearance is like that of a cloud: prāvrşiva mahāmeghas toyapūrno nabhastale (4, 11, 25), he shakes the ground like a drum (26)*: with his horn he scrapes the gate like an elephant (27), then Vālin comes out in a hurry with his wives like the moon with the stars ; now the last comparison which no doubt puns upon Tārā, Vālin's wife, looks less natural. See also 4, 16, 22 ff.: single combat between Vālin and Sugrīva: S., spitting out blood, resembles a mountain with waterfalls (22), V. struck by a šūl-tree like a great mountain by the thunderbolt (23), he is perplexed and totters like a vessel on the sea; sunk by the overwhelming weight of her load (24), they rushed to fight like sun and moon fighting in the sky (25). Also 17, 1 ff., when Välin has been cast to the ground; 23, 17 ff. Nila removes the fatal arrow from Välin's body; this arrow seems to 1 For parallelism see my Stilistische Studie, pp. 37ff. 1 dundubhir dudubhir yatha, 8oo above, $ 24.

·64 $ 37, ACCUMULATION AND PRISMATIC DICTIOX IX THE EPICS be a girigahrarasamlinam diptam āśirişam (18), from the shaft shone a splendour like that of the setting sun (19), the stream of blood rushed out tāmragairikasamprktă dhārā ira dharādharāt. 27, 14 ff., where Rāma describes the splendid scenery on the Prasraraņa-mountain; 28. 8 ff., where in a state of ecstasy Rāma describes the rains and is reminded of Sitā, we find almost one continued string of similes, 34, 1 ff.: when Lakşmaņa, being in a rage, has entered, he is pradiptam ira tejasā (2), Sugriva springs up from his throne mahan mahendrasya yathā svalamkyta ira dhrajah (3), his wires follow him ... gagane pürnam candram tārāgaņā ira, he stands there kalparykşo mahān ira (5), L., angry, says to him who was satāram sašinam yathā (6); although this is an accumulation of similes in a very emotional passage, the repeated allusion to tārā: Tārā and the nature of one or two of the similes render it artificial to a certain extent. See also 61, 8 ff., where Sampāti relates his flight to the sun; the end of kāņda 4 and the beginning of s. 5, where Hanumān's leap is described, etc. Concatenation of similes in the same sentence: 4, 17, 9 10 Vālin wounded to death: gatārciņam irānalam yayatim iva ... deralokād ina cyutam (adityam ira ... pâtitam mahendram ira durdharşam upendram iva duḥsaham; Vălin scorning Rāma 17, 22 ff.; Välin lying down 18, 2 like the sun deprived of splendour, like the ocean without water ... like fire that has been extinguished. Although in places we find an archaic specimen (e.g. 4, 14, 21 at the end of & sarga: dravanti ca mrgāḥ tighram bhagnā iva rane hayāk patanti ca khagă bhūmau kşīnapunyā ira grahāḥ, with parallelism), in the main the accumulation of similes is found in & more advanced stage: the similes are longer, the images are occasionally less natural, and more than once the accumulation is too great to be a phenomenon of spontaneous speech. The last point, which, however, is not unknown in the Mbh. either, e.g. 12, 356, 2-6, has already been remarked by JACOBI®, who referred to the description of the mourning town of Ayodhyā (2, 114): 16 similes in 16 verses, and to that of $ītā in prisonment (5, 198): 29 similes; "das ist nicht mehr naive Verwendung einer Kunstform im Dienste der Sache, sondern ein Gefallen an der Form als solcher". See my Stilistische Studio, p. 34. * H. JACOBI, Das Ramayana, Bonn 1893, p. 120. : sic; %, 19 is a printer's error.

·§ 37. ACCUMULATION AND PRISMATIC DICTION IN TI!E EPICS 65 Ašvaghoşa proceeds in his own way with this accumulation. respectively prismatic diction: Aśr. S. 2. 59 like the month of Jadhu ...., like the new moon rising or like Ananga ... he (Xanda) was resplendent ...; 4, 8 a-c 3 similes. This poet likes to employ the accumulation in a place which strikes the ear: S. 1, 1 ff.; and the end of S. 1 (61-62); 3 (41-42); 15, 66–69 broadly elaborated comparisons of the goldwasher and the goldsmith; see 16, 97-98: Bc. 3 (64–65); 5 (86–87); 10 (41); 13 (71-73). He too likes to accumulate comparisons when reaching a climas: S. 2, 52-62 the birth of Buddha and Vanda etc.; 4, 6 ff. the beauty and love of Nanda and his wife; 4, 28 ff. Buddha's ineffectual visit to Nanda's house; 4, 39 ff. Nanda's departure; 6, 24 ff. Sundari's despair; Bc. 5, 49 ff. the well-known account how the Buddha, on the night of his leaving his home, sees the women of his seraglio all asleep; Asv. has a greater number of similes than the parallel description in the Rāmāyaṇa, 5, 10, 34-49. See also Bc. 8, 20 ff.: 71 ff.; 13, 36 ff. Often this accumulation of similes is somewhat monotonous, and in places they are far-fetched, see e.g. Bc. 6. 31 ff.; now and then also sound-figures are employed, and these too often lack artlessness. In Kālidāsa's works too prismatic diction in the first half of a verse is found: e.g. Kum. 7, 26 kşirodaveleva saphenapuñjā paryāptacandreva sarattriyāmā ... sā bhuyo babhau; in 8-c 6, 55; 7, 21; in a, b, d 3, 48; however beautiful the images are, they do not belong to spontaneous speech. Completely artificial, at once by the length of the parts and by the wording: Bhav., Uttarar. 2. 26 cirād vegārambhī prasyta iva tiuro visarasaḥ / kutaś cit samregāt pracala iva salyasya sakalah vrano rūdhagranthiḥ &phutita iva honmarmani punar / ghanībhūtaḥ soko rikalayati mām nūtana ina. Daņdin, Dskc. p. 46, 3 ff. (NS. 10) not the images which are quite common in themselves, but the fact of their being combined in one sentence, and the sound-effect caused by this combination. are artificial: sã mūrtimativa lakşmir mālavesa kanyakā svenaivārādhyamānam samkalpitavara pradānāyāvirbhitam mürtimantam manmathamiva tam älokya mandamārutandolitā lateva madanā. vešavati cakampe. Bhār. Kir. 12, 17, however the comparisons are learned and artificial. - That also the Buddhists knew "eine I See E. B. COWELL, The Buddha-cerita of Afvaghosha, Anecd. Oxon 1893, p. XI. 5 ·66 $ 38. LOVERS AND SIMILES kunstrolle Anhäufung von Gleichnissen'i has already been noticed by others. Thus abundance of similes too has been made a stylistic device in kāryaworks: more than once it has been elaborated in an unnatural way, see e.g. Bhāsa, Dhg. 1, 27 (śārd.); Kāl. Crv. 5, 21. $38. Lorers hare always had a predilection for metaphors and similes in describing the excellences of their sweethearts. Some scholars have even been under the impression that here is the root of all metaphors etc.*, but this is improbable. Yet, as Kālidāsa makes the king, who is in love with Sakuntalā, recite (Kāl. $. 1, 21) a stanza containing two comparisons in the shape of compounds followed by (c) a varying ira-simile, this is only the work of a linguistic artist. More artificial: 2, 11, and, in a still higher degree, Trv. 1, 7. $ 39. R. M. MEYERS has remarked that with the ancient Germans (e.g. in ancient Norse literature) the older similes are borrowed chiefly from the animal world, and further also from the vegetable kingdom; the younger, on the contrary, are taken from human lifet; these younger similes, he says, are more intensifying and less illustrating than the older. "Der kleine Bauer, der nie von seinem Hof geht auszer bei Krieg und Landesnot, hat nie einen königlichen Mann erblickt, der seine ganze Schar um Hauptes Länge überragt: eine riesige Esche im Walde hat er oft bemerkt...". Now, greater coherence may be given to this observation. For “primitive' man there exists a close connection between things in human life and nature.5 A contrast may be drawn between modern cultivated mankind and 'primitive' man. namely the former objectivizes its environments and stands in an independent and superior relation to it, while primitive man appertains, as he takes it himself, to his environing sphere and to nature in general. To him the difference between mankind IM. WINTERNITZ, Geschichte der Indischen Litteratur, II, p. 85. H. SCHUCHARDT, Romanisches und Keltisches (1886), pp. 248f.; MANNHARDT, quoted by VAN DER MEULEN, O.C., p. 163. * RICHARD M. MEYRE, Deutsche Stilistik, München 1913, p. 151. Cp. OLDENBERG, Mahabharata (1922), p. 164 "Irre ich nicht, tritt menschliches Leben und Treiben in den Vergleichungen (viz. in the Mbh.) merklich weniger hervor als die beschaulichere Natur." Cp. e.g., C. MEINHOF, Die Dichtung der Afrikaner (1911), pp. 16fT.

·§ 39. HLWAX LIFE AND NATURE 67 and animal is much smaller than to us: essential differences between humanity and the non-human part of creation he hardly recognizes. There exists for him a certain coherence between nature and natural events on one side and man and human events on the other side. But not only primitive man, we also are prone to look upon phenomena and events in nature as analogous with those in our own body and mind "l'homme a la manie de se retrouver dans ce qui n'est pas lni''2 and to see the latter in relation with the former and in the light of the former. This is evident too from the great number of popular sayings containing similes, such as: as frightened as a hare, to lead a cat-and-dog life, lion-hearted etc. In the world of popular songs and tales, in the country-life of former times, in primitive societies in general we may state ever and again that many similarities and equalizations between our own life and that of nature are construed. "Der ursprüngliche Mensch ... fühlt sich als ein Teil der Natur"'4, "(er) verknüpft mit der Natur das Schicksal des Menschen"'5. Man musz wissen, wie eng das Volk mit der Natur zusammenhängt und welchen Einflusz das Naturleben auf seine geselligen Vergnügungen, auf sein Gemeinschaftsleben ausübt, um zu begreifen. dasz jede Berührung dieser Vorgänge eines Widerhalls in den Herzen der Hörer sicher sein darf."6 "Primitive man in the broadest sense7 likes to associate the coldness of winter with sorrow and misery, springtime with love and new life8: Der walt hat sich entlaubet gen disem winter kalt | meiner freud bin ich beraubet gedenken macht mich alt. "Aus dem Zusammenfühlen See especially O. BÖCKEL, Psychologie der Volksdichtung, pp. 234ff.; R. V. D. MEULEN, O.C., pp. 14; 17; 27; etc. Man exerting influence upon nature e.g. AV. 2, 12, 1. * CH. BALLY, Traité de stylistique française. I, pp. 187f., also e.g. FRED. W. MOORMAN, Interpretation of nature in English poetry, Strassburg 1905, p. 33. * See above, $ 12. Cp. also F. SEILER, Das deutsche Sprichwort, 1918, pp. 39ff. • Jos. WEIGERT, Des Volkes Denken und Reden, Freiburg im Breisgau, 1925, p. 5. 5 Id., p. 46. * ROB. PETSCH, Volksdichtung und volkstümliches Denken, Hessische Blätter für Volkskunde 2 (1903), p. 209. ? See my Stilistische Studie, p. 19, n. * Cp. e.g. Mşcch., 5,1 and 46. * H. PONGs, Das Bild in der Dichtung, I, p. 208.

·68 $ 39. HUMAX LIFE AND NATURE von Natur und Mensch ergibt sich ein Wahrnehmen paralleler Vorgänge in beiden Bezirken, das tieferliegende Sinnzusammenhänge erfühlt: Ich hort ein sichelin rauschen i vol rauschen durch das korn ich hort eine feine magt klagen sie het ir lieb verlorn. Hier ist das Rauschen unterm Sichelschnitt und das Klagen zusammengefühlt; das Rauschen des Korns ist auch ein Klagen. Die Sichel aber faszt in sich den Sinn eines naturhaft schicksalhaften Endes, das ähnlich über dieser Liebe schwebt"1. “Die malaische Epik ist reich an Gleichnissen. Meistens werden zum Vergleich herbeigezogen Objekte aus der Natur ..."2. On the one hand they intensify and 'humanify the life of nature. On the other hand man places his own life on a broader basis; he lifts it up high above the exceptional, above what is experienced only once or incidentally or only by one single individual. A primitive feeling is created of being in touch with the universal. This need not exclude aesthetic appreciation or aesthetic value of linguistic expressions of such experiences and feelings.5 In the language this is also expressed in its similes. From a Betuvians rustic story: Mar krek 200 min as in de naotuur de hemel altai' blaouw is, 200 min is da' ok in 'n minsebestaon ("but just as the sky is not always blue, a man's life is not always a bed of roses"'). In substance the life of nature remains always the same, and man, inasmuch as he sees resemblances, will ever and apon mark the same agreements. Comparisons borrowed from nature may be produced again at every turn and always remain young as long as contact with nature is maintained. At several places and in different epochs the same properties of animals, plants and things may induce man to comparing human qualities with them. In this connection I refer to the considerable stock of popular comparisons which are current in many languages, e.g. as sly as a jox etc. . * PONGS, O.C., p. 208. See also e.g. Th. W. DANZEL, Kultur und Religion des primitiven Menschen, Stuttgart 1924, pp. 19ff.; VAN DER MEULEN, O.c., p. 104. 2 R. BRANDSTETTER, Charakterisierung der Epik der Malaien, Luzern 1891, p. 40. * Cp. 2.8. F. BOAs, Primitive Art, Pp. 327ft. • Cp, also WBIGKET, 0.c., p. 39 a.o. * In the Netherlandish province of Guelders. • For English, see o.g. GAIKNOUGH and KIITRIDGE, Words and their ways in English speech (1914), p. 362.

·§ 39. HUMAN LIFE AND NATURE 69 As is well-known, in ancient India too the relation of man and nature is quite different from that of a modern and intellectual European and his environment. Man is a part of nature. Man and nature interact on each other. Of this there exists abundant evidence to which I need not refer. And, just as in other ancient literatures, in the Indian texts a very great number of the similes are borrowed from nature which surrounds man?. In the first seven books of the Atharvaveda, for instance, the number of upamānas taken from man, human events and human circumstances, from social and spiritual life, is about 20, that borrowed from technics etc. somewhat less, that of 'mythological upamānas I 5, but similes borrowed from nature (animals, plants, elements, cosmological and geographical ideas etc.) about 60. From the 22 ideas that occur more than once, 15 belong to this category. Fire and cow head the list, then follow horse, water, bull, sea, sun, wolf, reed, bird, tree, at the bottom of the list stand wind, sky, lightning, mrga. I also refer to the works of HIRZEL and Mrs. RHYS DAVIDS, which I discussed in the beginning of this paper.4 As we have stated already5, even in the Brāhmaṇas similes are found, and here too events in the life of animals etc. are upamānas: see e.g. Jaim. Br. 20 29; 140. Epic comparisons, such as Mbh. 7, 2, 12 ni pătite śāntanave ... / divākare bhūtalam ästhite yathā; 10, 23 vāto vegād ivāvidhyan meghān saraganair nrpān are often to be found. $ 40. In my opinion, we must often explain a simile from the said relations between man and nature, in other words we must consider a comparison as having its root in the conception of the world of the Indian. When in the story of Nala we read 11, 39 ultamätre tu vacane tathā sa mgajivanak vyasuh papāta medinyām agnidagdha ida drumah, we see that the hunter, struck by the curse of Damayanti, falls on the ground like a tree that has 1 For the Mahābhārata, see H. OLDENBERG, Das Mahabharata, pp. 78ff.: Das Weltbild des Epos. * For the Sprachdichtung', see WINTERNITY, Geschichte der altindischen Litteratur, III, p. 137. * Of course this is only & rough calculation: there are texts and words that are not very clear, ideas that may belong to more than one category or that can hardly be classified; the same verse or passege may occur two or more times. . See pp. 8 and 9. See p. 37.

·70 $ 40. RELATIONS BETWEEX vax AND NATURE been burned with fire (lightning). For us this simile may perhaps elucidate the quickness and completeness of the effect of the curse, for an Indian, however, it is more: he is firmly convinced that the effect of a curse is identical to that of fire, that a curse is a form of firel. Likewise in the case of a comparison about the effect of a snake's poison with lightning, Mbh. 1, 180 (Pauşya): both are a form of fire. The same holds good with regard to a brāhmaṇa: his essence too participates in fire: therefore I see more than an individual effusion in Manu 9, 317 (cf. 318 f.): a brāhmana ... is a great dirinity, just as fire ... is a great divinity; see also 3, 168; Mbh. 1, 180, 2 Aurte; anistīrno hi mām roso dahed agnir irāranim. In the same way the comparison of the two Soma-presses with two pudenda is not a subjective thought of an individual, see e.g. RV. 1, 28, 2, cp. e.g. 3, 29, 1 and the texts quoted by MEYER.* RV. 1, 110, 6 ā manisām antariksasya nşbhyaḥ srucera ghrtam juhavāma vidmanā: this is not a real 'comparison', for a hymn or prayer is a kind of offering"; like ghee it invigorates the gods, see e.g. also 1, 61, 1. Sometimes we find metaphors and identifications by the side of similes. It is a well-known fact too that in Indian religious thought identifications and the like are highly esteemed: often things in nature and human things are put on a par. These equalizations gave rise to similes. 5 $ 41. We should add that the comparison of mood and feelings of man and of his adventures with what happens in his environments, especially in nature - "(in) der bewegten und beseelten Natur" - is not foreign to the works of our poets and prosaists. We will find it especially in emotional moments, when the mood of the hero harmonizes with the mood of surrounding nature. As 1 Cp. J. HERTRL, Die Sonne und Mithre im Avesta (1927), p. 45; Awest. Herrschafts- und Siegesfeuer, Index, 8.v. afriti. * J. HIRTEL, Awest. Herrschafts- und Siegesfeuer, Index, 8.v. Gift; Beiträge zur Erklärung d. Awasta u. d. Ved., Abh. Sächs. Ges. d. Wisa. 40 (1930), pp. 224f.; 235. * J. J. MEYER, Trilogie altindischer Mächte ... der Vegetation, III, p. 187. * See my paper The meaning of vedic bhupati, pp. 9ff. * See OLDENBERG, Vorwissenschaftliche Wissenschaft, pp. 110ff., and further on, $ 62. 6W. SCHNEIDIR, Ausdruckswerte der deutschen Sprache, 1931, p. 146.

·§ 41. THE SAME, IN THE WORKS OF POETS 71 we saw above primitive man also knows this phenomenon. It is also possible that the scenery conjured up by the author leads to the associating of nature with human feelings and conditions: e.g. neth. A. wist er niets van, maar ze was een zlasblond, kriekeblozend ... appelrond meisje, gezond en blij als de bloemen waarin ze soms te wentelen lag in het zonnige gras .... Or: Tusschen het teedere groen... voelde hij zich op eens thuis, als een vogel die zijn nest gevonden had.2 But here the similes have an individual character and are products of the genius or of the art or skill of an author. In the same way Kālidāsa in the beautiful eighth canto of the Kumārasambhava, 73: the moon joins its yogyatārā, whose orb trembles, as the bridegroom with a newly-married maid; the verse is said by Sira to Pārvati during their honey-moon. That the great poets of India 'created'? many a splendid simile borrowed from nature goes without saying, see e.g. Kāl. Kum. 3, 18; 4, 46, 5, 85. That comparisons which perhaps occurred to other people quite 86 well have been expressed in words by a great artist in an unsur passable way holds good for India as well: Kāl. Megh. 89; Ragh. 15, 66; here we have creation of beauty. "Kālidāsa belauscht die Natur mit innigerem und, es scheint, eingehenderem Verständnis als wir”4. With adnominatio: Asv. S. 4, 39 Sundari watched her husband going away, bhrāntam mīgam bhrāntamukhi mặgiva. Elaborated: Ašv. Bc. 5, 49 another woman (in the seraglio) with her flute in her hand and with her white garment fallen away from her bosom, lay stretched like a river, whose lotuses were visited by a row of guileless bees, and whose banks looked as if smiling by the foam of water; see also 13, 39 and other places. $ 42. For another important reason too we should not lose sight of this intimate coherence of ancient Indian man with nature and his being tuned differently from our conceptions. For him a close contact, a parallelism, and a mutual influence are always extant. Now primitive man is wont to find out the exact coherence to 1 See Jo. SMIT, Bijdrage tot de kennis van Potgieters Stijl, Diss. Utrecht 1937, p. 87. * FB. V. EEDEN, De kleine Johannesz, p. 96. * See further on, $ 66. * A. HILLEBRANDT, Kalidasa, Ein Versuch zu seiner literarischen Würdigung (1921), p. 114. See also p. 116. 5 Seo also $ 67.

·72 § 42. MAGIC: SIMILES EXPRESSING IN WORDS A MAGICAL ACT. avail himself of this knowledge. He works by means of the con- Dections known to him. These connections and this work we call magic. It is a well-known fact that in magic "Vorbildzauber? play an important part: when a certain thing is in some way affected or influenced, it involres a corresponding erent to another thing, connected with it in a magical way. Next we must call to mind the great importance of the word in magic and religion. The word of man has a magical, a creative power, the word of Power is mighty in the mouth of man. The word is able to have the same effect as a rite. When 'primitive' man wishes to attain a certain aim or to bring about a certain effect, he may have recourse to a rite, but also to an expression of desire in the form of words, which we call a spell. The word of Power exercises potent influence. It owes its power to precise recitation and to an exact mentioning of every detail. Now when the spoken word accompanies a rite, it may, of course, take various forms. When, for instance, the Yew Caledonian kindles a fire to make the sun's heat increase, he adds at the same time the formula: Sun, I do this that you may be burning hots. But by the side of it the word often takes the form of a more or less detailed comparison, being an exact expression in language of the parallelism of the magical happening, more than once with an accurate filling in of the details. I refer to a very interesting Sumerian rite, which has been discussed by BABTELS":"Wenn die Heilung (einer Krankheit) eintreten soll, so musz dieselbe unter der Form ... einer Abschälung ... der Oberhaut vor sich gehen, und darum wird der Wunsch * See e.g. C. KEAD, The Psychology of Magic, The British Journal of Psychology, 7 (1914), p. 168. * Soe f.i. G. VAN DXB LEEUW, Religion in essence and manifestation, London, 1938, pp. 422ff.; slao N. ADRIANI, Verzamelde Geschriften, II, pp. 390ff.; III, p. 14ff. * See J. MURPHY, Primitive Man, Oxford, 1927, p. 235. • M. BARIRLS, Zeitschrift für Assyriologie, 8, p. 179ff. For Babylonia etc. see alao the examples given by O. WEBER, Die Literatur der Babylonier und Assyrer (1907), pp. 116; 164. Likewise in Australia: C. VON STRIHLOW, Des soziale Leben der Aranda and Loritja (1913), I, p. 33. A very interesting rite for fertility on the isle of Sumatra: FORBE, Wanderungen, quoted by H. WERNER, Die Ursprünge der Metapher, p. 58. Likewise among the Lillooet Indians (British Columbia), the Arapahos, the natives of the Admirality Islands; se WERNER, Die Ursprünge der Metapher (1919), p. 70; in Africe: C MXINROY, O.C., p. 99f.

·$ 42. MAGIC; SIMILES EXPRESSING IN WORDS A MAGICAL ACT. 73 ausgesprochen: ... sicut allium desquametur". Now, it is not difficult to show that also in ancient Indian magical texts many a simile is an exact expressing in words of a magical act. AV. 3, 6, 71, e.g. He read: te 'dharāñcaḥ pra plavantām chinnā naur ira bandhanāt, "let them float forth downward, like a boat cut off from its moorings"; now this simile is not an ornament nor an image like our expression: to send a person out on the high seas in a shallop: the verse occurs in a rite of sorcery mentioned in Kaus. s. 48, 3 ff., where it is prescribed that a man who wishes to get rid of his foes has to put an equally large number of snares (pāśa-) as he has foes in a little boat and then to let it drift and sink. The sūkta's 4, 4 and 6, 101 are to be employed for the recovery of virility: 4, 4, 6d and 6, 101, 2d run: dhanur irā tānayā pasaḥ, "make his member taut like a bow", these words too are not an 'image': Kaus. 40, 15 prescribes : "he places a bow which is strung in his lap". AV. 5, 29, 12 f. we read "let this man swell like a soma-stalk”, améur iră pyāyatām ayam etc., these words activate a process from the ritual, see f.i. Āp. śr. 8. 11, 1, 111. These similes clearly made the mantras what they were. made the 'Sondersprache' of the mantras fit to answer its purpose, because they are an essential part of it: without them these formulas, incantations and prayers would be anarthakāḥ.* Now this form also occurs, when the spoken word is only & substitute for the rite. It has already been remarked by OL- DENBERG+ that a Vedic simile sometimes has & magical character: "die im Vergleich genannten Wesen oder Ereignisse sollen in der eben vorliegenden Situation ihr Gegenbild nach sich ziehen": AV. 1, 11, 6 etc. "An Stelle des magischen Symbols tritt das magische Gleichnis”5: So wahr dieses oder jenes stattfindet, 80 wahr soll ... stattfinden. Cp. AV. 4, 39, 1; 3; 5; 7 on the earth they paid reverence to Agni (etc.); he throve; as ... they p.t. to A. (etc.), so let they pay r. to me. 1 See also CALAND, Das Srautasütra des Āpastambe, II, p. 193. Cp. my paper The meaning of the word alamkara, p. 111. * A fine transitional instance is mentioned by A. C. HADDOX, The Ethnography of the Western Tribes of Torres Straite, Journal of the Antropol. Inst. 1890, p. 217. H. OLDENBERG, Religion des Veda, p. 515. ST. SCHAYK, Die Struktur dor magischen Weltanschauung, Zeit- 8cbr. für Buddhismns 6 (1995), p. 299.

·74 § 43. EVEXT OR PHENOMENON IN NATURE AS A PARALLEL ACT r $ 43. In the following texts it is not a rite, but an event or a phenomenon in nature or kosmos that forms the parallel act, the example or ‘Beispiel'. AV. 6, 14, 2, against the balāsa?: I destroy the balāsa of the sick man ... chinadmy asya bandhanam mülam urlārrā ira", I cut its bond like the root of a gourd (the stem of this fruit becomes loosened of itself when it is ripe); here a natural phenomenon which acts automatically is example, ‘Beispiel'. See also 6, 54, 1 do you increase his kşatra and his sri as the rain the grass; 3, 24, 3 (for abundance of grain) may they bring fatness here, like streams (bring) drift when it has rained; 6, 89, 2 vātam dhūma iva ... mam erānretu te manah; 5, 14, 10; 20, 3; 6, 37, 2; 7, 45, 2; 3, 18, 6 (end of the sūkta, 2 similes) 6, 37, 1 the dreaded wolf appears: the curse pursues the curser as the wolf (seeks) the house of a sheep-ouner; cp. 5, 8, 4; 7, 50, 5; tiger 4, 36, 6. With other peoples similar 'images are often met with in magical incantations. "Gegen den Krampf spricht man im Voigtlande: Geschwind, wie der Rauch tom Wind, wie der Nebel von der Sonne sollst du gehn von dannen”! ... “Die Letten gegen Schlangenbiss: ... wie Rauch werden sie vergehen"'; an interesting Greek instance: υστέρα μελάνη μελανωμένη, ως όφις είλύεσαι και ως λέων βρυχάσαι xai us agriov zoluoü5. Moreover, I draw attention to the remarks of GUTMANN on the 'literature of the Dschagganegroes:8 "Er redet ... die Krankheit selber an und spricht: Verwese wie der Schmetterling, der hierhin weht und dahin weht und dort vergeht. Während der heißen Zeit finden sich die Schmetterlinge in dichten Scharen am Ufer der Bäche ein, um dann bei Beginn der Regenzeit wie weggeblasen zu verschwinden und zu sterben. So ist der Schmetterling ein Sinnbild der Unkraft, die vor dem Zauberworte des Mannes entflieht ..., U.B.w." Cp. AV. 19, 50, 4 as the millet-seed flying forth, is not found, 80 ... make him fly forth .... The power of the objective fact or event in nature is 1 kisasucedimaka-slesmeroge. Comm. ? See 14, I, 17. * See also WHITNSY-LANMAN, O.C., p. 291. . BARTKLS, Zeitschrift des Vereins für Volkskunde, 5, p. 27; vgl. also pp. 29, 31. See DEKLE, Philologrs, 58, pp. 594.ff.; NORDEN, Antike Kunstprosa, pp. 8221. • GUTMANN, Dichten und Denken der Dschagganeger, 1909, p. 159. ? M. JASTROW, Die Religion Babyloniens und Assyriens, I, pp. 345f. (Krankbeit:) ploich siner Taube, die ihr Neu aufsucht, entfliehe... 5 ·§ 43. EVENT OR PHENOMENON IN NATURE AS A PARALLEL ACT 75 cast in the manifestation of the will of the magician and benefits the analogous case which is to be influenced.: AV. 6, 8, 1 as the libujā (creeping plant) has completely embraced the tree, 80 do you embrace me (to a woman whose love is to be won2); with repetition of the verbs: 6, 139, 5; 7, 13, 1; 10, 6, 33; 14. 2. 374. Next we should compare such instances as 6, 15, 3 as of herbs soma is highest ..., as the talāsā of trees, (80) may I be highests; 2, 15, 1(-6). "Zahlreiche Segensformeln verdanken ihr Entstehen dem Glauben an die Sympathie zwischen Vorgängen in der lebenden Natur und dem menschlichen Körper" "Segnung des Kindes: nicht röte sich dein Auge wie Rotöl, weisz sei es wie Leinen".? A very fine example of an incantation in prose: AV, 17, 1, 20f., cp. 6a and the burden, 6 ff. Some instances from other texts: R1.5, 78, 7 yathā rātaḥ puskariņām samingayati sarvataḥera te garbha ejatu ...; 1, 106, 1 ratham na durgad vasavaḥ sudānaro ristasmān no amhaso niş pipartana. An interesting passus in later literature is Rān. 4, 67, 1 ff., where the host of the monkeys rose at Hanuman and praised him, when he was on the point of leaping across the ocean; then being praised, he grew and increased (4 I samstúyamāno hanuman vyavardhata mahābalaḥ); he was filled with tejas, "energy"; his outward appearance became excellent (5 II). Now, all these details are related in the past tense, like vs. 7 ff.; vs. 6, however, reads: yathā vijrmbhate simho vivyte girigahvare marutasyaurasaḥ putras tathā samprati jrmbhate, was a lion stretches his limbs ... 80 H. ..." in the present tense. The cheers and the praises may 1 "Sowohl Naturanschauung als auch Naturgeschehen werden in der Sprachform eingefangen und so magisch verwertbar", WERNER, 0.C., p. 72, who quotes several instances, borrowed from P. G. PEEKEL, Religion und Zauberei auf dem mittleren Neumecklen. burg (1910), pp. 91ff. . For this comparison, $$ 63f. 3 See further on. . Compare M. WINTERNITY, Das altindische Hochzeitsrituell usw. (Wiener Denkschriften, 1892, vol. 40), p. 99. 3 See WHITNEY-LANMAN, P. 291. 6 OSKAR EBEBMANN, Blut- und Wundsegon in ihrer Entwicklung dar. gestellt, Palaestra 24, Berlin 1903, p. 108. ? D. WESTERMANN, Die Glidyi-Ewe in Togo, p. 18.

·76 $ 44. DIVINE POWER IXTOKED have a magical meaning, shouting and praising set power in action and strengthen a person?; in this context it strengthens Hanumăn, who has to take upon himself the important deed in the name of the whole group. This yathā-tathā-simile, which for the rest is rare in Rām. IV, reminds us of the magical incantations of the AV. It seems to me that for the author the magical passing of power from the lion to H. is living or reviving reality. To preclude misunderstanding I remark that, as a matter of course, comparisons based on nature etc. are often by no means magical: Nala 5, 3; 17, 6; 11 are hyperbolical similes; Mbh. 7, 21, 2 is an epic and delineating simile, etc. I also draw attention to the well-known 'ritual identifications' occurring in the Brāhmaṇas, f.i. Jaim. Br. 20 96 (Caland) at the end: ... tān yad anustubhānuprati padyante, vāg vă anuştub, väg u vai vācayitri, vācā rā āha: prehi ... sa yathā vācā brūyāt: prehi ... tādık tats. KB. 11, 8 as a chariot ... so is the sacrifice; TS. 2, 5, 11,5 as the mind so is Prajāpati, are identifications that have taken the form of a 'simile', "gewiß ist das nicht anders gedacht, als wenn es heißt Prajā pati ist der Atem (SB. 4, 5, 5, 13)”4. We know that the ancient Indians tried their utmost to avail themselves of the knowledge of these identifications. § 44. Elsewhere divine power, aid or skill is invoked. AV.4, 12, 7, at the end of a well-known sūktas with which they intended to heal serious wounds: as a Rohu the parts of a chariot, may it (the herb which seems to have had healing properties) put together joint with joint. Compare german 'Segen', as f.i. "(um Blut zu stillen) ... du sollst will stehen, wie Jesus ... gestanden", "um Schmerzen zu legen) ick stille dir die Schmerzen, wie unseren lieben Herrn Jesu gestanden sind an Stamm des Kreuzes"?. AV. 19, 31 is a sūkta to win "See e.g. my paper The meaning of vedio bhüpati, Wageningen 1939, Pp. Oft. . See 6.g. H. OLDAXBERG, Vorwissenschaftliche Wissenschaft. Die Weltanschadung der Brahmapa.Texta, 1919, pp. 110ff.; A. B. KETE, The Religion and Philosophy of the Veda and Upanishads. 1985, p. 484, and further on, $ 62. s See also CALAND's translation, p. 107. • OLDXNBERG, O.C., p. 115. * See Kuhn, KZ. 13, 58. * Paipp. has a quite different tert. ? HEILIG, Zeitschr. d. Ver. f. Volkskunde 5 (1895), pp. 9, 15 (Segen ens Handschuhebeim bei Heidelberg).

·§ 45. BORROWED FROM MYTHOLOGY ETC. IN MAGICAL TEXTS 77 various blessings with an amulet of udumbara, in verse 9 in the apodosis the goddess Sarasvati is invoked. § 45. Very often, indeed, magical texts borrow the 'similes from the domain of mythology and history, between which the boundaries are vague, With AV. 2, 27 they wished to come off victorious in a dispute, by means of a certain plant, the root of which had to be chewed (according to Kaus. 38, 18-21, where the rite is described); now in vs. 3 and 4 it reads: Indra put (that plant) on his arm and consumed it in order to lay down the Asuras; thereupon 5 with (that plant) I will over power the foes, as Indra did the sālāvskas?, in 6 and 7 Rudra and Indra are invoked to crush the opponent. The 'simile' in stanza 5 makes active the mighty deed of Indra who overpowered the sālāvşkas in the same way as the facts related in 3 and 4. -Kaus. 47, 20prescribes that the man who wishes to crush his foe by means of A1.6, 135, bas to perform what is stated in that text: now, stanza 1 reads: because I eat, I make strength, thus I take the thunderbolt, cutting to pieces the shoulders of N.N., as Indra of stra; here the mighty deed of Indra has been made active. See 10, 3, 11. One might compare the prescriptions in Kaus. 47, 14 and 18 and the same ‘simile' in AV. 6, 134, 1. A historical event AV. 18, 4, 55, with parallelism, assonance, alliterations. Elsewhere ancient and approved magic power is set in motion once more: AV. 1, 29, 1 with the mani (amulet), by means of which Indra increased, with that o Brahmanaspati, make 68 increase unto sovereignty; see also 1, 14, 4; 35, 1; 7, 38, 2.2, 32, 3 = 5, 23, 10 we find a simile like Atri, K. and J. I slay you followed by with the incantation of Agastya I crush the worms. Here mythological and historical events are used as 'Beispiel'. Very interesting are the stanzas AV. 9, 2, 17 and 18, which have nearly the same words, 17 however reads: with which (yena) the gods thrust forth the with that (tena) do you, Kāma, thrust forth my rivals, 18 a8 ... 80 ... (yatha ... tatha); resuscitation of magic power. 13, 1, 38 aham bhūyāsam savitēva căruh in a hymn addressed to Rohits 1 See H. ORBTEL, JAOS. 19, 8, pp. 123f.; WHITNEY-Laxx, 0.C., asuras P. 08. * See also CALAND, Altindisches Zauberritual, p. 161. * See WHITNEY-LANMAN, PP. 871; 886; pada d is not clear. • TĀ. 4, 36, la, äp. 8r.8. 15, 19, 5, however, read atrind tund krimo haumi.

·78 § 45. PORROWED FROM MYTHOLOGY ETC. IN JAGICAL TEXTS (= the Ruddy Sun; cp. 19. 45, 4) seems to be in the first place magical. Other instances taken from the Atharvaveda: 5, 8, 8, cp. 9; 6. 64, 1; 85, 3; 141, 3. - AV. 14, 1, 53 during the nuptial ceremonies they mention the name of the mighty divine prototype when the bride is dressed in a new garment?: ... envelop this woman, like Süryā, with progeny; cp. also 14, 2, 31; 32 (cp. Kauś. 79, 6). That in German languages there exist incantations corresponding with these atharvanic stanzas was noticed as early as the year 1864 by A. Kuhna in a famous paper on 'Indische und germanische Segenssprüche'. It is also apparent from the many instances published afterwards that parallelism is the most favourite form of exorcising. See for instance the well-known “Jordan- Segen'), and the Longinus-Segen': “Zu den ältesten Bestandteilen der christlichen Legende gehört die Erzählung von dem blinden Landsknecht Longinus, der Christus mit der Lanze in die Seite stach und durch das aus der Wunde strömende Blut sein Gesicht wieder erhielt ... In die Segenlitteratur ist die Legende schon in sehr früher Zeit eingedrungen (12. Jhdt.), zB. ... De Jud L. der unsern herren J. C. staech daz eneitert nith, noch gewan hitze, noch ensuar, noch enbluotet ..., alsô tuo disiu wunde, diu enbluot nith zeril, noch engewinne hitze, noch enswaer, noch ..., die ich gesent (d.h. gesegnet) habe." In those 'Segensformeln' that have the outward appearance of a simile (wie damals Maria soll auch jetzt...) "liegt die Heilkraft zwar auch noch zum Theil in der Autorität der betheiligten Persönlichkeit, ... aber zum Theil ... in den Worten selbst”5. "Ursprünglich beruhte die Beziehung zwischen dem in dem Segen angeführten Ereignis und der erhofften Wirkung durchaus auf dem Parallelismus der Begebenheiten"6; against cancer: Sollst du vergehen gleich wie die, 80 unsern Herrn Jm Cm gekreuzigt haben, etc.?. This sort of incantations is found with many a people: the ancient Egyptian ma- 80 pp. 113ff. 1 See M. WINTERNITZ, Altind. Hochzeitsrituell, p. 47. 1 KZ. 13, S OSKAR EBERMANN, Blut- und Wundsegen, p. 24. * Ibid., pp. 421. * SCHÖXBACA, Studien zur Geschichte der altdeutschen Predigt, Sitz. ber. Wien 1900 (142), p. 125. • EBERMANN, 0.c., p. 140, cp. p. 132. See also A. WUTTKE-E. H. MEYER, Der deutsche Volksaberglaube, 1900, $$ 226ff. ? HEILIC (ree above), p. 294.

·§ 46. MYTHOLOGICAL SIMILES WITHOUT MAGICAL FORCE 79 gician who wished to cure a serpent's bite narrated a long myth containing the story of Ra, who, bitten by a snake, was cured by the mighty enchantress Isis?. Hence the epic narration in many a magical incantation?. As in later texts too instances of the belief in the coherence between man and nature are to be found: Kāl., Sak. 1, 19-, e.g. so Priyamvadā remarks that Sak. is thinking: as the jasmine creeper) has been united to a tree worthy of it, so may I too get a worthy husband (jahā - eram-simile) —, so also the belief in the stimulating force of revived historical or mythological events is present. An objective historical fact, a deed of a person who is considered to be an authority has conclusive force. When the Aśvins have given a cake to Upamanyu and he declines to eat it, their only argument is: "formerly we gave such a cake to your guru, and he ate it" (Mahābh. 1, 3); in the Mech. 3, 11 Sarsilaka has a mythological justification for his acting as a burglar: Droņa too attacked his foes at night! Kāl. Ragh. 16, 22 the presiding deity of Ayodhyā comes to Kuša and presses him to come back to her: just as (yathā).your father (Rāma), having given up the human form ... Assumed once more his (oun) form of the Supreme Soul (Vişņu): "as true as your father ..., do you also...” – In relation with a fable: Pañc. ed Bo. I 315. Ašv., Bc. 8, 8 and 81 compares Buddha's departure with that of Rāma, but here the similes are chiefly ornaments: 8 purā rathe dāšarather ivāgate. § 46. Not every mythological comparison, however, has the same force. Many of them were, 88 has been stated aboves, or less petrified 'typical similes'. Elsewhere mythology was source of images that served to extol, to honour, to praise, to compare with an ideal. Nala and Damayanti enjoy their honeymoon like Indra and Saci (Nala 5, 43); Nala worships the gods like Yayāti, Nahuşa's son (5, 44); cp. ibid. 26, 14:33; 36; Satyavān is compared with Rantideva Sibis, Yayāti, Soma (Sāv. 2, 17) in answer to the question, whether he is liberal, religious etc. See also 7, 1, 47 more ? See e.g. DIETERICE, Abraxas, p. 136, n. 1. ? See e.g. M. MÜLLER, Über die Stilform der altdeutschen Zauber. sprüche bis 1300, Diss. Kiel 1901, § 8, especially p. 45. 3 See $$ 12; 48. * Cp. e.g. VĀMANA, KĀvy. 4, 2, 78 etc, See also $ 13.

·80 § 47. OATHS n (long metre): 2, 35 (1.m.): 3. 15 kurarah samtrasisyanti vajra paner irāsurāh: 6, 4; 7. 6; 52; 14. 48 f.; 60 (l.m.); 19, 6; 26, 67 (l.m.); 4, 13, 13 yuddham ... ghoram tayos ... ... rstrarāsarayor iva; 9, 17, 491; 10, 9, 8. In kārya-works this kind of simile is well-known; Aśr. S. 1, 61; 62: 6, 49 at the end of a canto; 1, 23-26, in which the poet shows his characteristic aptitude for unnatural redundance by repetition of the same figure. See also Kāl. Urv. 4, 37; 5, 14; Mál. 5, 17 seems to be an example of an ingenious, but artificial use: Agnimitra and his son like Aurva and the waterconsuming fire; cp. also Ragh. 15. 76. Of course these similes often add nothing to the meaning. Ragh. 15, 10; 40. Mere ornament: e.g. Bhär. Kir. 9, 22; 28. $ 47. Bhāsa, Yaug. 3, 8 Yaugandharāyana makes the solemn statement: if the king does not carry her off, like Arjuna Subhadrā, or an elephant a lotus plant, my name is not Y., a simile borrowed from ancient history, and another taken from nature have to strengthen Y.'s statement. In solemn declarations similes may be almost comparable with the contents of yathā-sentences in adjurations and the like. Cp. e.g. Nala 5, 17 ff.: vacasā manasā caira yathā nāticarāmy aham tena satyena vibudhās tam eva pradiśantu me; 11, 38 yathāham ... tathāyam patatām ...; Rām. 7, 97, 13 ff.; Kāl. Ragh. 15, 81. A simile is used more than once in the form of an oath: Homer, II. 3, 295 ff. wine is poured out and the gods are invoked: O.TZTÓTEQOL noótapol ineg ogxla renuøvelAY | dé og Xyxécaios xauadis géol ús öde olros, and with the Romans Liv. 1, 24, 8 Iuppiter populum Romanum sic ferito, ut ego hunc porcum hic hodie feriam ..."; see also Polybius 3, 25, 6 ff. ... šyo uóros Éxnoot oŰTOS ús de litos vŪy. The Bataks sometimes take an oath over the dead body of a frog; the perjurer will be crushed like that animal. We might compare maledictions with nothing but words, such as: ... mögen sie wie dirres Kraut in Flammen lodern! mögen sie wie das Gras im Garten Cp. C. R. LANXAN, Sanskrit diction as affected by the interests of herdeman, priest, and gambler, JAOS. 20, p. 18 sqq. * As for the oath sea e.g. R. HIRZIL, Der Eid, Leipzig 1902; HASTINGS' Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics svv. Oath, Ordeal; SCBBA- DXR-NEERING, Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde I. pp. 226ff. Quoted in full by SCHRADKB-NEHBING, p. 229.

·§ 47. 04THS 81 ... verdorren! (from an Italian popular song)". The blind man whose son has been killed by Dasaratha, curses him: yathāham bhos tram a py eram putraśokād vi patsyase (Bhāsa. Pratim. 6. 15; cp. Rām. 2, 64, 53 ff.), just as the maid, whose belored had been murdered by her brothers, calls down the curse upon them: may you all be unhappy in marriage? Mbh. 1, 118, 33. This sort of simile has a firm foundation in the human soul. In the same manner in the blessing at the end of a drama: Bhāsa, Pratim. 7, 15 yathā rāmaś ca jānakyā bandhubhiś ca samāgataḥ tathā lakṣmyā samāyukto rājā bhūmim praśāstu naḥ. I refer also to the employment of a yathā-sentence Nala 21, 8 yathasau rathanirghoṣaḥ ... mamählādayate ceto Nala esa In a confirmation of someone's words Nala 2, 18; cp. 17, 16; Mbh. 7, 3, 19; Säv. 6, 10; 14 (Mbh. 3, 298, 10; 14); Rām. 4, 14, 15 f.; 2, 64, 40. In uttering wise words of wisdom, gained in life. or experience, similes are occasionally used. Bhāsa, Car. 1, 2 to the Jester says (pr.) the young days of a house are like those of a man. subject to various circumstances, the ruin of your wealth Tends a charm to your poverty like that of the moon when it loses all its light in the dark fortnight. Mano 2, 112 dharmārthau yatra na syātām ... tatra vidyā na vaktavyā śubham bijam iroşare; 2, 94; 8, 95; 3, 179 perish like ... unburnt clay in water. Pañc. I, 135 + (NS.", 1925, p. 21) phalenaiva jñāsyasi, very concise: "you shall know (him like a tree) by its fruit"; Nītiv, 72, 1 rely upon officials is to be compared to appointing cats to watch over the milk. Compare also Kāl. Ragh. 2, 343; 5, 548. § 48. Now, we ought not to lose sight of the fact that these 'images' too are not always vivid ones. With regard to phenomena in languages that do not completely live for us we run the risk that we wish to understand the image too much to the letter. Once created and used frequently in every day parlance similes as well as other 'images are subject to wear and tear: they are apt to lose their character as images. So long as the speakers of the language are aware of the fact that they are speaking in ... 1 BÖCKEL, 0.0., p. 302, who quotes LINO-BRUNO, Canti pop. delle Isole Eolie, pr. 97; p. 229. ? BÖCKEL, O.C., p. 301, who quotes CHILD, English and Scottish popalar ballads, III, 166. * See $ 58 in fine. 6 ·82 § S. PROVERBIAL AND PETRIFIED SIMILES images, and so long as their 'Gefühlswert' is different from the logical-intellectual expressions. so long frequent expressions such as neth, ik ben hier als een kat in een vreemd pakhuis, engl. I feel like a fish out of water must be called 'similes'. But in the same way as in colloquial speech words and combinations of words expressing an affirmation or a negation are subject to lose their expressivity and must be renewed at intervals (cp. neth. hij is erg rijk: hij is verschrikkelijk rijk. but in the long run verschrikkelijk becomes merely an equivalent to erg, and then other terms are introduced, e.g. hij is vies rijk and the like), and in the same way as also the degrees of comparison are apt to become worthless?, even so the frequent expressions which originally were real similes too used to lose their force and often become similes only in their outward appearance. And even when they possess in that very form a certain "Gefühlswert' and may belong to a certain group of speakers or to the speech of a special community or to familiar speech or the like, nevertheless the image has receded into the back-ground. When neither the speaker nor the listener 'see' or imagine the image before them, expressions such as neth. wees er bij als de kippen, engl. to tremble like an aspen-leaf; fr. pleurer comme un veau, dormir comme une marmotte, or with the natives of Flores he is as ugly as a monkey, are no longer real similes. This kind of expressions has become 'assez vite un moyen expressif parce qu'imagé, de marquer que la qualité observée dans un objet ou un être y existe à un degré éminent”. They are apt to become petrified, they become clichés, standing phrases: people that use them often do not borrow from their own experience, but 'live on the experience of their ancestors. Thus these similes pass into the general language. As the proverb is a form of 'primitive Ökonomie der Lebenserfahrung's, so by asing petrified similes we ourselves may save brain-labour in speaking. When I wish to say to somebody, that he has to go quickly, and the adverbs neth. snel and vlug ("quickly”) do not 1 See W. HAVERS, Handbuch der erklärenden Syntax, p. 161. 2 FERD. BRUNOT, La pensée et la languet, Paris 1936, p. 692. * For the predilection for standing phrases etc, in the 'Volkssprache see FR. MAURKE, in Hessisebe Blätter für Volkskunde 26 (1927), p. 165. * See also VAN DER MEULEN, O.C., p. 15. 5 R. H. MEYER, Deutsche Stilistik, p. 145.

·§ 48. PROVERBIAL AND PETRIFIED SIMILE: 83 seem to me to be adapted, then the haas ("hare"), hazerind (“greyhound'), bliksem ("lightning") will render me good services in a petrified simile. Also will do 'proverbial similes". Ath. 1. 11, 2. 13. it reads pascăd anu prayunkşe tam riddhasya padanīr ira, translated by Thitner-Lanmanº: him from behind thou pursuest, like the tracker !?) of one that is pierced"; they compare 10, 1, 26 b "lead, as it were, the track of one stabbed". riddhasyera padam naya, where they remark **lead'... appears to be used in the sense of 'follow'; the 'track is doubtless that of the maker"; ad 11, 2, 13 they rightly remark that the expression is apparently a familiar or proverbial one. Indeed it occurs also in Manu, 8, 44 in a more extended form: yathā nayaty asskpätair mrgasya mīgayuh padam, as a hunter follows the track of a (wounded) deer by the drops of blood; LANXAN also refers to Dhammapada vss. 179 f. — A daughter is a deposit guarded by the father to be made over to ber husband: see e.g. Ybh. 1, 157. 35 bhartur arthāya nikşi ptām nyāsam dhātrā mahātmanā; in the same way a kingdom may be compared with a deposit: Kāl. Ragh. 12, 18; Sak., 4, 22 by the skill of the poet the idea is revived: having sent her (viz. $.) to her husband, Kaśyapa says: my soul is now serene. pratyarpitanyāsa iva, "as it is when a deposit is returned." The venerable character of a proverb or adage may be accentuated by parallelism, responsio, rhyme etc.5: Bhāsa, Pratim. 3, 23 gopahinā yathā gāvo vilayam yānty a pālitāḥ eram nypatihina hi vilayam yānti vai prajāḥ, a frequent comparison, "a people without a king is like cows without a herdsman," couched in the well-known long-winded form.-Kāl., Māl. 2, 7 even a stupid person becomes clever by association with the learned, as turbid water is made clear by contact with the fruit of the mud destroying plant; the pankachid is a tree whose fruit is used for clearing turbid water. Here the simile expresses experience perhaps still familiar to the poet's readers. Harsa, Nāg. 5, 24 the sin lost in goodness like a small particle of salt in ... a great lake; individual exaggeration * For 'images in usage with Buddhists, H. WINTIBNITZ, Geschichte der Indischen Litteratur, II, pp. 57ff. * 0.c., p. 622. : 0.c., p. 566. • O.C. p. 622. Stilistische Studie $ See $ 55. * See my "", P. 19.

·84 $ 49. DIDACTIC AND ELUCIDATING SIMILES is very of like salt in water. Käl. Māl., 1, 8 the minister says: Your Majesty says what is in keeping with the teaching of the Sastras, for an enemy who has lately assumed the reins of government easy to extirpate, like a tree that has been planted newly; this 'simile' has been elaborated by means of the explanation praktişv arūdhamulatvāt”, “inasmuch as it (viz, the tree) has not taken firm root" and, referring to the enemy, "inasmuch as he has not yet gained a firm hold on the affections of his subjects"; besides, the wording of the verse is too careful and 'poetical' to be spontaneous speech. It is worthy of note that an adage that has to prove the truth of a remark etc. has its natural place after that remark. Having noticed or determined a fact, we are apt to use it in a wider sense, to give a greater coherence to it. One way of doing this consists in formulating a general thought, but when we avoid thinking abstractly, it stands to reason that we prefer to use a concrete image instead of a general thought. Thus Bhāsa, Vās. 1, 4: formerly you obtained every desire, in the future it will be so once more: the worldly fortunes revolve ... like the spokes in a wheel. Now and then & comparison has been borrowed from a fable: Mocch. 1, 16 + (Vid., pr.), or from a story: Mbh. 13, 70, 31. This phenomenon also occurs in the case of other peoples. § 49. Human speech does not only serve to betray feelings and sensations and to express wishes, desires and the like, it has also another very important task: it has to be a vehicle of ideas and thoughts. It is old wisdom that often & mixture of Anschaulichkeit' and abstract wording, interlarded with examples and similes, is the best method to explain more or less difficult things to a greater public. Pope Gregory the Great said with good reason that the mind of the bearers is often more struck by examples and stories about events in former times than by mere words. This word has been practiced by many a missionary and popular teachers. Several authors have a special liking for similes in order to elucidate abstract ideas. "Während ... bei Schiller der Cp. Chớp. 6, 18, cao 5 50, p. 9. . Compare Regh. 8, 10. * See P. REGNAUD, Le Chariot de terre cuite, Paris 1876, al.; VOGEL, 0.c., a.l. * See e.g. F3. PAULHAN, La double fonction du langage, Paris 1929. & E.g. in Africa, C. MINHOT, 0.0., p. 147.

·IN SAYHITĀS AND BRAHMANAS 85 Vergleich außer der Verdeutlichung dem sittlichen Pathos und den Aufschwung ins Erhabene dient, ist er bei Lessing lediglich Mittel, und zwar oft und gern benutztes Mittel, Begriffe zu klären und zu verdeutlichen'1. Authors of scientific works, who, in the main, strive after abstract speech and avoid images, at intervals use comparisons to set forth difficult argumentations or to throw light upon unknown facts in concise form: thus when they compare the working of magic power with electricity or Indian history and historical personages with European history and persons: the Indian Tacitus, Xero, Philip II?. The Indians too knew from olden times that good but difficult lessons may be made interesting and intelligible by telling fables and parables and that short similes, drawn from the natural scenes and from every day life, and other suchlike expressions are capable of calling up in the memory familiar facts and events that may elucidate the subject matter of the teaching. They knew that these similes throw light on that matter by way of analogy. It must be added here that they are not only invented by teachers, but that a number of them is founded on popular wisdom (e.g. Mbh. 12, 316, 19 f.), on popular beliefs and institutions and on folk-ethics, e.g. the simile "which compares treachery to a friend with lopping off the branch that gives you shade." It is true that a good deal of these similes have an aesthetic effect too, that for instance the Buddhist parables and similes possess a "perennial charm which has won for the teachings of Gotama the Buddha their age-long hold over all the countries of their adoption.". It is even true that for us these comparisons from the aesthetic standpoint are not less fascinating than from their didactic point of view. But it is true just as well that the teachers and authors did not produce them with a view to creating things of beauty, -leaving out of the question a number of exceptions in certain texts. As early as the Ath. V. there seems to exist an instance: 12, 4 1 W. SCHNEIDER, Ausdruckswerte der deutschen Sprache, 1931, p. 74. * See H. GOETZ, Epochen der indischen Kultur, Leipzig 1929. Omnis comparatio claudicat! The remarks of K. 0. ERDMANN, Die Bedeutung des Wortest, 1922, pp. 196ff., are worth roading. * Mrs. RHY8-DAVIDS, Buddhist parables and similes, The Open Court, Sept. 1908, p. 531. 4 Idem, p. 524.

·86 $ 49. DIDACTIC ASD ELUCIDATING SIMILES “like a person ... 14 I like a deposited treasure (seradhi-), so is the cow of the Brahmans. As for the comparisons in the Taittiriya-Samhitā I can make use of the collection of the material made by KEITH in the introduction of his translation of this text. In this work all higher qualities of style' are missing, KEITH Observes, "there is no trace of humour or pathos ... The aridity of constant quibbles and meaningless explanations is relieved only by occasional, and always very brief, references to real life." In two parts of the Brāhmaṇa, however, the similes are more frequent, viz. in V, the Agnicayana, and in VII, 5 the Gavām ayana. 5, 3, 10, 1 a familiar, at least well-known, every day affair is ased to set forth a part of the ritual: yat samyānir upadadhāti yathāpsu nāvā samyāty eram eraitābhir yajamāna imām lokānt sam yāti, who takes to the water in a boat, eren so with these the sacrificer goes to these worlds”, an image frequently found in these texts. 6, 4, 11, 3 yat tuşnim pūrve grahā grhyante yathā tsārīyati ma ākha iyati nā parātsyāmīty upāvastjaty evam eva tad, "that the former cups are drawn silently, that is as when he (the hunter) lets go (his arrow, thinking) so far off is my mark...”, according to KEITĖº the use of gesture in the teaching of the text, a fact proved beyond doubt by such passages as 5, 4, 3, 3; 4. By the side of this hunter's act (see also 5, 4, 10,5 the awakening of a sleeping tiger), we find 7,5, 3, 2 a comparison with yathā-tādsk tat borrowed from navigation: bịhat and rathantara are like a boat on the shoreless ocean: yathā madhye samudrasya plavam anvarjeyus tādsk tats, with repetition of the verb. More concise is also 5, 4, 10, 2 yādan evāgnis tam yunakli yathānasi yukta ādhiyata evam eva tat, "he yokes the fire in its whole extent; that is as when something is placed on a yoked cart"; 7, 2, 2, 3 yathā dugdham upasidaty evam uttamam ahah syāt, "as when a man sits down to a cow that has already been milked”, 5, 5, 7, 4 sa yathā vyāghrah kruddhas tişthaty evam vaişa etarhi. The parallelism is noteworthy, e.g. 7,5, 9, 2 yatha bandhan mumucānā utkrodam kurvata enam epa tad yajamānā utkrodam kurvata. ? A. B. KEITE, The Veda of the Black Yajus School (Harvard Or. Ser, 18, 1914), pp. CLviif. 2 0.c., p. clviii. * Cp. Jaim. Br. no 113, the whole passage CALAND's translation (J. B. in Auswahl, Akad. v. Wetensch. Amsterdam, 1919), P. 126.

·IN SANHITĀS AND ERAHMANAS Si Less pronounced 7, 5, 6, 2 yathā drtir upanaddho ri pataty eram samratsaro vi pated?; 7, 5, 8, 5 (the flying upwards of a bird). Although the similes to be gathered from the litarefa Brāhmaņa are few in number?, I am able to quote some fine instances of a didactic nature. 6, 35, 11 yathā ha rā idam ano 'purogaram risyaty evam haiva yajño 'daksino risyati, "as in this world a waggon without a leader comes to grief, so a sacrifice without a fee given to the priests comes to grief”; it is noteworthy that the preceding words dakşiņā vai yajñānām purogari contain an equalization: "the fee is the leader of the sacrifices", so, in the comparison it is not a fee that is compared with the leader of a waggon, but a leader of a sacrifice who is compared with an ordinary leader. Elsewhere too similes go side by side with equalizations, see 6, 9, 7 yajamānam ... garbham bhūtam: 0. 31, 2 sa yathā garbho yonyām antar evam sambhavan chete. 6. 21, 10 we find two similes in a less pronounced parallelism (opt.. indic.): the sailing in a ship: the celebrating of certain sacrifices; ship: tristubhah; but 6, 6, 6, the verses are ships that lead to heaven (see also 7, 13, 6). With yathā — tādşk tat: 6, 23. 8. Shorter similes: 6, 18,11;21, 14 indram evaitābhir nihrayante yatha ysabham rasitāyai, "Indra they summon, as a bull calls to a cow", in 22, 9 in a more extended form: yatha rşabho vāśitām yathā rā gauh prajñātam goştham evam haiņām Indro yajñam aira gachati; here of course the character of the simile is not only didactic, but also emotional. See also 6, 3, 1; 7, 26, 5 (2 x). In other Brāhmaṇas too similes referring to events in everyday life play the part of elucidating, nay, conclusive arguments. See for instance Jaim. Br. no. 1643; no 34 end "as if one should fall in a hole": yat pade antarāvānyâd yathā kartam patet tādşk tat; no 88 as live coals poured out into a vessel. The same thing occurs more than once: a bag of leather: no 130 beg.; 164 (3x); images borrowed from travelling (see above) no 168, etc. - See also no 4; 103 beg.; 130; 220. — From nature and hunting: no 1 See KEITE, O.C., p. 623, D. 4. 3 See also H. OLDENBERG, Zur Geschichte der altindischen Prosa, Abh. Ges. d. Wiss. zu Göttingen, Ph. hist. Kl., X.F. XVI, 6, 1917, p. 19; A. B. KEITĖ, Rigveda Brahmanas (Harvard Or. Ser., 25, 1920), p. 97. CALAND's translation (Das J.-B. in Auswahl), p. 31% top.

·88 $ 50. DIDACTIC AND ELLCIDATING SIMILES 164 (p. 213) the sacrifice is like a hare, yo rai éasam utsargam lipsate, nainam sa grhnāti etc. Borrowed from technics': no 112; 131; 140; 163; 179. Yo 117: like a husband visiting his wires, so the sun risits the quarters of the sky every one in its turn2; the comparison elucidates and places the sphere on a human plane. No 88 end we find a concrete image to make clear a metaphor: as on a mountain a light shines, so it shines' for him ... who knows thus. That both teachers and hearers were aware of the fact that similes are capable of giving instruction appears from the interesting no 168, where Ahina teaches his sons; they say that he teaches, 80 to speak, in an unintelligible way (parokşeneva), and they add: tathā no 'nusādhi yathedam vijānīyāmeti, “instruct us in such a manner that we may anderstand it”. Thereupon he elucidates the matter he has already communicated and adds to his explanations a number of similes. Sometimes 'objective teaching' was appreciated: no 90 tries to solve & theological riddle in this way. One day, when the Kurus and the Pañcālas were discussing & 'riddle from the Veda' (brahmodya-), they saw a dog, which was lying down, rolled up. They said: "in this (dog), indeed, must lie for us the decision" Now the P. asked the K.:"what of him resembles the sacrifice ?" (kim asya yajñasyeveti), etc.5 $ 50. It is almost superfluous to say that the Upanişads contain many instances of elucidating and didactic similes: a good many of them are known even to many people who are not able to read the original texts. Ātman has entered this world like a razor placed in a razor-case or like risvambhara (a certain animal??) in its dwelling (BĀU. 1, 4, 7); as all the spokes are fastened in the nared and the circumference of the wheel, so all beings, all gods etc. are fastened in that ātman (id. 2, 5, 15); as the spider proceeds, along with its web, as little sparks proceed from fire, 80 from that atman See CALAND, p. 213. * See the entire passage, CALAND, pp. 130-132. * See $ 62, p. 114. * See CALAND's translation, pp. 222ff. * See CALAND's translation, p. 100. • See KEITI, The Religion and Philosophy of the Veda and Upani. ahade, p. 506. ? See e.g. SANARI, in his translation, Paris 1934, p. 11. & See also ChU. 7, 16, I.

·IN UPAXIŞADS 89 all organs etc. proceed (id. 2, 1, 20); the world comes forth from ātman as the sound from the drum, when it is beaten or from the conch-shell, when it is blowni. Most of the similes to be found in these texts belong to this kind, although now and then also quite natural expressions make clear to us that not only difficult lessons and doctrines, but also simpler things are explained by means of a simile. see e.g. Cht". 5, 1, 82, - and, on the other hand, human feelings and magic seem to play a part too: ChU. 1, 2, 7 f. the asuras approached it and were destroyed as is a clod of clay struck against a rock. (repeated), 80 he will perish who ... Most of these elucidating.similes are rather concise: ChU. 1, 4, 3 as one discovers a fish in water. 80 ...; 2, 23, 4; 4, 1, 4; 14, 3; 5, 24, 1; 7, 3, 1; 8, 6, 2; 8, 12, 3. Somewhat longer is ChU. 4, 17, 7f. tad yathā lavanena surarnam sandadhyāt suvarnena rajatam rajatena trapu ... elam eşām lokānām āsām devatānām ... viryena yajñasya riristam sandadhāti; see also 6, 7, 3 and 5 f.; 6, 8, 2, 6, 9,1 f. (2 x yatha - eram). The most extended simile in ChU. is 6, 14, 1f.: as a man with his eyes bandaged is carried away from Gandhāra and left in a lonely place ... and thereupon a person unties the bandage and says: This is the way to G. ... and that man ... reaches G. at last, so a man who has a guru etc. As has been noticed by OLDENBERGS this simile is almost a short narration, but the outward appearance of a comparison yathā, yathā, yatha --evam eva has been maintained. ,,Eigentliche Erzählungen, die sich zu einer wenn auch måBigen Länge ausdehnen, wie in den buddhistischen Texten oder dem Neuen Testament, finden sich unter den Gleichnissen der Upanishaden kaum. Den literarischen Gewohnheiten dioses Altertums war es offenbar noch fremd, ein bloßes Gleichnis zu solcher Dimension und solcher Selbständigkeit anwachsen zu lassen.". To my mind, OLDENBERG says with good reason that die Gleichnisse ... gewiß ... der Verkündigung vom All-Einen nicht allein als 1 See H. OLDENBERG, Die Lehre der Upanishaden und die Anfänge des Buddhismus+, Göttingen 1923, p. 71. sCp. $$ Iff. * OLDENBERG, Die Lehre der Upanishadan, p. 159, n. 3. See also further on, Mbh. 12, 262, 22. • OLDENBERG, O.C., p. 159, whose remarks pp. 157ff. are worth reading. 5 0.c., p. 157.

·90 § 31. DIDACTIC AND ELL'CIDATING SIMILES Schmuck (dienten), sondern auch die Bestimmung (hatten), die berzeugungskracht der Rede zu verstärken ..., instead of "auch", however, I should like to read "in erster Linie 1. Lastly, I recall to mind the interesting passage ChU. 6, 13, where Sretaketu has to immerse salt in water and the dissolving of the salt leads to a discussion: the well-known simile BÃU. 2, 4, 12 in a dramatic form. This 'Inszenierung von Gleichnissen' is found also in Buddhist texts*; it is teaching by illustration. $ 51. It is, indeed, a well-known fact that Buddhist literature contains many similes and parables, fables and narratives, between which no hard and fast line is to be drawn. And this fact is in concert with what might have been expected: in the first centuries of its being this literature existed and grew principally in the mouths and ears of teachers and listeners and in the memories of its compilers. “I have made a simile for you that you may understand what I mean", "by means of a simile many a wise man understands the meaning of the argumentation" are sayings of the Buddha, who was perfectly acquainted with the fact that hearts and minds of his hearers were much more pervious to his teachings when they were couched in images and similes than to logical demonstrations. For lack of space I must confine myself to referring in the main to the books and papers quoted in the note; I only wish to emphasize the fact that very often these Buddhist similes are broadly elaborated and made into real parables, told in a lively and illustrative way and are more than once couched in the form of dialogue. Not natural, but artificial is for instance Vinayapitaka, Cull. 9, 1, 3f., where we find an eightfold and carefully elaborated See also OLDENBERG, Buddha, 1921, p. 36: "Immer neue poetische Wendungen werden versucht, immer neue Gleichnisse ersonnen, das Rätsel des Ātman zu deuten." * Cp. Maitry Up. 6, 35; 7, 11. * OLDENBERG, p. 159, n. 2. • Cp. e.g. Samyutts Nikāya, V, p. 437 f. * For similes and parables in Buddhist literature, see Mrs. RHY8- DAVIDS, Similes in the Nikāyas, & classified index, Journal of the Palī Text Society, 1906–1907, pp. 52 sqq.; with addenda, Ibidem 1908, pp. 180 sqq.; idem, Buddhist parables and similes, The Open Court, Chicago, 22 (9), Sept. 1908, pp. 522 ff.; H. OLDENBERG, Buddha, passim, especially pp. 215ff.; M. WINTERNITX, Geschichte der Indiscben Litteratur II, passim.

·IX BUDDHIST LITERATURE 91 comparison between the eight properties of the ocean with those of the Buddhist doctrine and order: as the ocean has only one taste, l'iz. the taste of salt, thus our religion has only one tasts. the taste of final emancipation, etc. It goes without saying that in Buddhist similes too nature plays an important part: it may be seen from the texts, “how naturally the imagery used by him (viz. Buddha) springs from the scenes that will have met his eye”1: the monk who has subdued his senses sits down like a lion in its den; the wise man is like a firm rock or like an elephant, etc. etc. But now and then we meet with 'figures that do not belong to spontaneous speech: e.g. an abundance of similes such as in Therig. 112 ff. From the Dhammapada, where many instances of various kinds of similes are to be found (cp. e.g. 81 as a solid rock is not shaken by the wind, wise people do not falter amidst blame and praise; 91 like swans having left their lake, they leave hearth and home; 334 the thirst of a thoughtless man grows like a creeper; he runs from life to life, like a monkey which seeks fruit in the forest) I quote as a 'didactic simile 338 as a tree ... is firm so long as its root is unhurt and grows again, so, unless the feeders of thirst are destroyed this pain (of life) will return .... In the same way in other Buddhistic works the subject-matter is made clear, livels and intelligible by similes, parables in the outward appearance of narrations; more than once they are elaborated very broadly. But WINTERNITZ is in the right, when, in reference to the Saddharmapuņdarīka, he says: “Noch schöner wären alle diese Gleichnisse. wenn sie nicht mit solcher Breite und Weitschweifigkeit ausgeführt wären", as for instance the parable of the man, blind-born. In the Milindapanha, especially in the second book, many elucidating similes are to be found. In the second part of the work. however, they have a highly artificial character: the greater part of the fifth book is one long and elaborated simile: Buddha who has founded his religion is compared to an architect who builds up a city. That orthodox philosophy and the Jainas too did not despise to elucidate their texts with similes has already been set forth 1 Mrs. Rhys DAVIDS, Open Court, p. 527. 2 WINTERNITZ, O.C., p. 234. 3 See, in KERN's translation, p. 129. " I refer to R. GARBE, Die Samkhya-Philosophie', 1917, pp. 220ff.

·92 $ 52. DIDACTIC AND ELLCIDATING SIMILES sufficiently by others. Yox, although similes may be acceptable and appreciated expedients in explaining instructional subject matter, it stands to reason that, on the other hand, too great a number of images will often be detrimental to an exact intellectual understanding. People that try to understand the truth intuitively, however, like to make use of them all the same. In this manner the 'didactic' simile more than once develops into a vague and symbolic expression that may be more or less poetical. Then & simile has to bridge & cleft in the logical reasoning. Ingeniousness and poetical skill obtain superiority over the true and enlightening naturalness of the older instances, 2 $ 52. I must change the subject. We are not surprised to see that also the authors of Dharmaśāstras and the like occasionally make use of such similes. See e.g. Vas. Dh, ś. 8, 14–16; Manu, 7, 105: a king has to secure 'the members of his government as the tortoise hides its limbs (= Mbh. 12, 83, 49; 140, 24); 2, 88 a wise man should keep his organs in check ... like a charioteer his horses; 2,99 a man's prajñā slips away just as the water (flows) through the one (open) foot of the bag (of a water-carrier). These iva-similes, however, can from another point of view be counted among other groups': typical, proverbial, 'anschaulich', intensifying. Likewise in the Mbh. , e.g. 12, 215, 24 ... sanair agnim ivendhayet lānānvitam, "gradually like a fire one should inflame him who is accompanied by knowledge." Some of these short similes are perhaps & concise form of a more complete one: cp. 14, 19, 12 sanair nirdānam āproti nirindhana ivānalaḥ.5 But undoubtedly to the 'didactical similes' (with yatha-tatha) belong e.g. BHG. 2, 22, with repetition of the same words: vāsāmsi jirņāni yathā vihāya navāni grhnäti naro 'parāni tathā sarirāņi vihāya jirņāny anyāni samyāti navāni deki; rhymed 12, 216, 6 lohayuktam yatha hema mipakuan no virājate tathāpakvakaşāyākhyam vifrānam na prabaéate, one of those images, the demonstrative force of which oannot but be understood intuitively. Sometimes "", pp. 178-223. 1 E.g. WINIXBNITY, O.C., II, p. 297. * See also OLDENBERG, Die Lehre der Upanishaden Die Anfänge des Samakhyasyatems. * See Bohn's tranalation, SBE. vol. 25, p. 48, note. • I refer to O. SIRAU88, Ethische Probleme aus dem M., Estratto dal Giornale della Societe Asiatica Italiana, 24 (1911), p. 202 (10). * A usual image, see slao e.g., Akv. 8. 14, 8.

·IX DHARYAŠĀSTRAS, EPICS, KĀVYA 93 we meet with a complete simile, whereas elsewhere the same or a similar idea is expressed by a short saying, e.g. 12, 214, 21 payasy antarhitam sarpir yadvan nirmathyate khajaiḥ śukram nirmathyate tadrad dehasa mkal pajaiḥ khajaiḥ, cp. 318, 33; 247. 15. At the same time plastic e.g. BHG. 2, 70 with poetical wording: āpūryamānam acala pratiştham samudram āpaḥ pravidanti yadrat į tadvat kāmā yam prariçanti sarre sa sāntim a proti na kāmakāmi. A longer yathā-protasis occurs e.g. 12, 174, 15, the same subject in a still longer form 12, 262, 22 f., almost a short narrativel. - In Purāņa's: Mārk. 11, 6; cp. also 68. 22 f. When we peruse some kāvya-poems we find instances as well. Ašv., in his Saund., has a predilection for them, which is quite comprehensible from the character of the work. With ira e.g. Saund. 14, 7; 8; 15 food supports the body, like a prop a ramshackle dwelling that is about to collapse; 39; 47; 48. Two illustrating iva-sentences: S. 14, 36. With responsio: 14, 38. A yathaprotasis, followed by tadrat -, instructing with an example: S. 11, 24 yathāsanārtham skandhena kaścid gurrim silam vahet tadvat tvam api ...; 25; 27; 29 like a man who looking for honey, overlooks the precipice, to which the Darrative Mbh. 5, 64, 16 ff. is to be compared, and also Mbh. 12, 309, 7 madhu paśyasi durbuddhe prapātam nānupaśyasi, from which it appears that the simile was a familiar one?; 14, 11; 128; more extended 11, 60; two yathā-sentences, followed by tadvat, with some responsio, S. 13, 4-6, a construction which in this form is only possible in careful speech. With yathā - tathā $. 11,26; 28; 59; longer 14, 18 f. That the poet may employ this figure to deepen and vary the thought, we see Bc. 6, 41 f.: 44 svajanan yady api snehan na tyajeyam mumukṣayā | milyur ... samtyājayisyati, 46 vrisavs kşe sanäganya vigacchanti yathandajāḥ | niyatam viprayogāntas laikā bhūtasamāgamaḥ, here the image explains the thought which is kept on a general plane: death will separate all men from one another; in 47 another example is added: sametya ca yatha bhūyo oya payānti salākakaļ | camyogo viprayogas ca tathā me prárinām matah; this addition is meant to show that all things in the world See above, p. 93 & propos of ChU. 8, 14, 1f. : JOHNSTON noted it nine times in the Kbh., see E. H. JOEYSTON, The Soundarananda translated, London 1932, p. 63, note. * See JOHNSTON, Q.c., p. 77, note. ..

·94 § 53. SIXILES WHICH MAKE MIND DUELL OX SUBJECT are subject to separation, and consequently man too. --- Kāl., Sak. 2, 9+, after a lyrical strophe said by the king the vidūşaka intends to explain his conduct to him; he uses an image borrowed from his own sphere of interest: (pr.) just as one that has lost relish for dates may have a desire for tamarind, so is this longing of yours, who are scorning the beautiful ladies of your palace); here this kind of simile has been adapted in a skilful manner to the context and to its character as a part of a stage-play. Quite natural in itself, but, of course, clothed and expressed in 'poetical language is Crv. 4. 33. where Purüravas, seeing an antelope, asks it, if it has seen Urraśī and for the sake of clearness, he adds: she glances as gracefully as your mate does with her large eyes?. An added explanation, Śak. 7, 31. A substantiating example: Bhār. Kir. 11, 55. $ 53. As I have already remarked above, now and then a simile is a strengthening addition. It may act as an example with intensifying function. AV. 9, 2, 6 e.g. we find such a simile, which, moreover, builds on upon a popular image: with the strength of Kāma ... I thrust forth my rivals, as a skilful śambin- (punter?s) a boat on the water. AV. 11, 4, 19 the simile is a repetition and at the same time an enlargement of the preceding verse: (18) to him who knows this ... all shall pay tribute (19) as ... all ... are tribute-bearers to thee, 80 shall they bring t. to him ... (yathā---eva). It is, however, often not easy to say, whether the presence of such a simile has been brought about by a tendency to intensify, or by a longing for a pleasant association, which makes the mind of hearers and readers linger and dwell on the subject. Nala 11, 36 ma iu pāpamatik kşudraḥ pradharsayitum äturah durdharşām tarkayāmāsa diptām agnišikhām iva, in my opinion, the simile, in the first place intensifies, but Mbh. 12, 331, 3 this seems to be certain only in a smaller degree: rujanti hi sarīrāņi rogāḥ śāriramõnasāk ayakā iva tikspāgrāk prayuktā drdhadhanvibhih; the two words in d, p.d. perhaps betray the desire to amplify, for its See also $$ %; 3. * See $ 14. * Cp. WHITNEY-LANMAN, O.C., p. 522. + I refer to the remarks of BKTY HEIXANX, Studien zur Eigenart Indischen Denkens (1930), pp. 17f.

·AMPLIFICATIONS; INDEPENDENT, 'HOMERIC' SIY:LE: 95 own sake and the pleasure to dwell on the association conjured up by the image. The amplification may be longer; e.g. Jbh. 7. 3, 16 trāsayisyanti ... kurūn ... samiddho 'gnir yathā rira mahajvālo drumān dahet. Here one has a still greater right to expect the longing of dwelling on the association which has been conjured up. See also Mbh. 7, 16, 3 tasya di ptā mahābānā rinisceruh sahasrasah bhānor iva mahārāja gharmakäle maricayah; 54 iend of an adhyāya). Now and then the simile is a complete 'picture showing many detailed associations with that which has been compared. e.g. 4, 13, 10 tāv ubhau sumahotsāhār ubhau titra parākramau mattāv iva mahākāyau vāraṇau samnipetatuh; cp. e.g. 7, 14, 61: 25, 48; Bhāsa, Abhiş. 6, 11 d. But also a short simile may be capable of making our mind linger: Mbh. 12, 27, 301 samyogā viprayogāntā jātānām prāninām dhruvam budoudā ira toyesu bhavanti na bhavanti ca. Amplifications are not rare in the works of Bhāsa: Yaug. 4. 13 ... bhujagam iva sarosam dharşitam cocchritam ca; 15 with rhyme: guror avajitam hatvā śāntam draunam iva sthitam; Tāsas. 5, 1 d; Abhiş. 2, 8 d. Yaug. 2, 10 let my people see the king, my enemy, as a captive, 'while anger is within him’, like a lion captured for a sacrifice; here we find an amplification of as angry as a lion, and the emotions aroused by the image are quite in concert with the circumstances. Such a use of similes may give rise to more or less independent amplifications. Rām. 4, 35, 6 ff. Tārā excuses Sugriva: because of his joy he has not noticed how the time passed: prāptakālam na jānīte, but here she adds a comparison: višvāmitro yathā muniħ || ghrtācyām bila samsakto dasa darşāni ... / aho 'manyata ... visvāmitro ... 11 00 hi prāptam na jānite kālam ... ( v. ... kim punar yaḥ prthagjanaḥ, with the last words she recurs to her subject. From these and similar examples it becomes clearer to us than from & good many of the other similes discussed so far, that also in Sanskrit literature many similes are of a nature, "daß sie ein Motiv aus der Erzählung ... aufnehmen und in einer andern Sphäre wiederholen, wie im Orchester, wo die Flöte in andrer 1 BÖHTLINGK, Indische Sprücbet, no. 6635. * See also 54.

·96 § 54. PLASTIC SIMILES; SIMILES DEEPEXIXG OUR FEELINGS Tonlage ein Votir wiederholt, das die Violine angab".1 But similes such as Rām. 4, 35, 6 ff., viz. independent or 'Homeric' similes, are rare in Sanskrit? Ibh, 12, 316, 22 f. we meet with a comparison which occurs not only in Sanskrit literature3: taila pātram yathā pürņam karäbhyam grhya puruṣaḥ sopānam āruhed bhitas tarjyamāno 'si pāņibhiḥ samyatātmā bhayāt teşām na pātrād bindum utspjet tathairottaramāgamya ekāgramanasas tathā il sthiratvād indriyānām tu niscalatrāt tathaiva ca eram yuktasya tu muner laksanāny upalakşayet. This is an amplification into an independent picture of the elucidating and didactic simile. In a more concise form:12, 321, 8. Cp. Uttarar. 4, 15. Mostly the sphere is one with which the hearers are more intimate: animals: Mbh. 7, 14, 67; 15, 31; 18, 26; 21, 2; 22, 14; nature: 7, 15, 26; 35; 36; 16, 4; 10; 21; 30; 20, 57. $ 54. Of course these similes are at the same time plastic. Not unfrequently such a simile may be said to make the emotions more lasting and intense, to deepen the thoughts that arise in our minds and especially the feelings that are awakened in our hearts. See e.g. BG. 2, 67 indriyāņām hi caratām yan mano 'nuridhiyate tad asya harati prajñām väyur nāvam ivāmbhasi; 15, 8. See also e.g. Mbh. 7, 8, 27. This deepening may of course also be effected by repeating the image and by adding another.5 Mbh. 7, 5, 8 f. na vină nāyakam senā ... tiaphati lähavește ... netshineva naur jale ll yathā hy akarradhārā nou rathas cāsārathir yatha | ... tadvat syād rte senāpatim balam. Or by an amplified repetition of the image: Mbh. 7, 14, 1 f. vyacarat pytanam drono dahan bakşam ivūnalah | nirdahantam anikani sākṣād agnim ivotthitam drstvā rukmaratham kruddham ... See also 7, 26, 8 f. Vālmīki and later poets often make use of this aspect of the simile. See for instance Rām. 4, 24, 16: Sugriva in despair cries · H. Främ, Die homarischen Gleichnisse, Göttingen, 1921, p. 1. ? For tbe Müh. See OLDENBERG, Mahabharata, p. 166. * Compare malay esperti menatong minjak jang ponosh, "as one carries a bowl full of oil", uually & simile for assiduous care and attention. * See $$ 4947 See $35. & Cp. MEINHOF, Dichtung der Afrikaner, p. 85: Ich werde angroifen wie ein Loups, wie der Lörde der die Nadchon vorschlingt; JASTROW, 0.c. I, p. 455.

·$ 54. PLASTIC SIMILES; SIMILE: DEEPESING OUR FEELISUS 97 out: a great distress orerwhelms me like rain that falls drun in tor. rents in a deep plain; here a scene of an inundation-calamity looms up in our minds. Ibid. 18. It is a proof of the high poetical ability of Kālidāsa that he knows how to exploit the possibilities that lie in this kind of simile. Ragh. 16, 45 the day of which the heat ... increased and the night attenuated both looked like husband and wife Estranged on account of conduct that was ofiensire to each other. but smitten with remorse afterwards:1 16. 70:2 a very significant simile is 2, 163. Ragh. 15. 54 Rāma joins the company of Agastya who met him as the autumnal season the moon: R. is compared to autumn on account of his amiable qualities': 33 they showered presents on Rāma like clouds that pour down rain-rater on the standing crops; 103; 16, 2; 38; 68; 2. 20; Sak. 3. 11. Hyperbolically: Ragh. 15, 60 Ayodhyā with its four gates: the fourfaced Brahmā; 15, 10; 16, 79; cp. Trv. 4, 40, — Kal. Mal. 3. + the spring ... has made the southern wind, fragrant with mango-blossoms, pass along my body with agreeable touch like the palm oſ a hand. In a more ingenious kind in the fore-part of the verse an introduction to the simile is found: Ragh. 15, 16 dhumadhūmro rexägandhi jrālābabhruširoruhaḥ'kraryādgana parirarai citāgnir ira jangamaḥ; the image is, as it were, a summary at the same time. See also. 1, 13. As the poet describes the mental derangement of Purūravas who has lost Urvasi, he makes him identify a rivulet with her; here the same kind of simile is employed, in a natural and at the same time highly artistic manner: "since this rivulet. having the waves for frowning eye-brows (tarangabhrübhangā), the ... birds for the jingling belt etc. mores crookedly I am sure that it is she transformed into a stream" (l'rs. 4, 28). Sometimes it may be said that in the image the idea is fully dereloped: Sak, 7. 15 Duşyanta, after having seen his son, says: "this boy appears to me to be the seed of a mighty energy", and in the second part of the verse he adds: remaining like jire, in the condition of a spark waiting for fuel (to blaze up); which means: the noble birth and the excellent character of the boy are apparent; he has only to become full-grown, well-instructed and the like to show all his ? See e.g. KALE, The Raghuvamsa of Kalidasa, IV (1930), pp. 158f. 2 Ibid., p. 164. 3 See KALE, O.C., I, p. See also ibid., III, p. 135. 43.

·98 $ 55. YATHĀ-EVĀ! EV.AN)-SIMILES' first-rate qualities." Employed in an individual way: Māl. 1, 22 in an ankāvatāra (the hinting at the opening lines of the succeediny act at the end of the prerious one): this sound of music of the tambourine is as if it were the sound of my desire ... In these instances the simile is made in the same mood, leads to deeper understanding of the situation, co-ordinates, expresses poetical imagination. $ 55. Here there is room for a more systematic, although short, review of the outward appearance of the simile?, in as far as it fits in with the rest of this treatise. The yatha - tathā2 and yadrat — tadvat-similes, which, on the whole, are less frequent than the yathā - evä (evam)-similes, show complete similarity or resemblance in manner. See for instance AV.5, 8, being an incantation against enemies, invoking the assistance of Indra and other gods3, 5c it reads: ... be he under your feet, o Indra, and further: 8 as I. put U. under his feet, 80 (in the same way) I put them down; here a mythic event is been made active*; 3, 9, 1 yathābhicakra devās tathāpa kynutā punaḥs. The yathā — evão (evam)-simile seems to express in the first place agreement in essence, which may even develop into complete identity. In this kind of similes, whether they are didactic', or 'ritualistic' or used otherwise, the yathā-protasis as & rule? occupies the first place; the apodosis is usually a complete sentence. In the magical texts of the AV. etc. these similes are found in exactly formulated sentences, being employed consciously to exercise, whether or not in harmony (at least as far as we can prove) with the ritual, an incantating effect; on the one hånd an event in cosmic, ritual or divine sphere (in the yatha-protasis), on the other the object or aim of the incantation (in the apodosis) are put in parallelism. The verb of the apodosis is generally an imper., sometimes an indic., rarely an optat.; once in a ? For the Rgveda: OLDENBERG, Rig Veda Noten, Indices, may be consulted. * yatha + opt. is left out of account (AV. 4, 8, 6; 5, 29, 3). 3 See above, $ 44. • Soe § 45. - For AV. 4, 5, 5, see WHITNEY-LANKAN, 0.c., p. 152. * The word ena singly Av. 5, 2, 9b = RV. 10, 120, 9b. 3 Cp. RV. 8, 38, 9. * The texts BV. 5, 78, 7; 8; 8, 47, 17; 10, 60, 8; 9 are magical too, not 'poetical', as HIBZSL, O.C., p. 30, a. 16 says. See also BEBAAIGNE, Me. Rénier, p. 76, 1. 1.

·§ 35. YATH.-E. EVM "MILE: war yathā is repeated to introduce another upamāna. at social event is found only AV. 6. 46, 3! = RV. 8. 47. 17, the only pagsage that occurs also in R.1.; the paying off of & debt), and 6.70, 1 (gambling-board), and 3 (the parts of a wheel); man 6. 70. 1-3. I shall give some examples: The ritual prescript belonging to AV. 1. 3, viz. Kaus. 25, 10 ff., is also clear enough, although in particulars there are difficulties:1 against obstruction of urine one has to open the way of the urine' (see Kaus. 25. 15 f.) by means of a little metal bar, as appears from Keśara's paddhati. Now, the text to be recited abhimantrya, Kešara) during that act, viz. AV. 1, 3, consists of a five-fold rid mū sarasya pitaram. which means: "We know (consequently we possess) the origin (consequently the essence) of the reed'?. this implies some primitive form of a fistula urinaria, the castiyantra ... of the later physicians", then & verse (6), in which the urine is commanded to be released: evā te mūtram mucyatām, followed by (7): I split up thy urinator like the dam of a tank ... and (8) unobstructed be the orifice of your bladder like [that] of a water-holding sea, to which, at both times the command eră te m.m. (6) is repeated; these similes doubtlessly accompany an act performed with the little metal bar; and in the end (9) yatheşukā parāpatad arasystādhi dhanvanah erā te müram mucyatām, as the arrow flew forth, shot off from the bow, so etc.", here the swiftness of the arrow is to be transferred to the urine, as appears from Kaus. 25. 14, where & ‘Vorbildzauber' is prescribed in the ritual: işum rissjati. That this arrow should be shot off bhayotpädanāya, "to cause fear", as is the opinion of Dārila“, seems to me to be only plausible as a reinterpretation. I beg leave to dwell upon this subject. Not unfrequently in the ritual, as far as we know it, no corresponding acts are prescribed. E.g. 6, 105, consisting of three stanzas, to get rid of cough: as the mind (1; the ... arrow 2; the rays of the sun 3) flies (fly) away swiftly, so do you, o cough, fly forth ... It does not appear from Kaus. 31, 27 and 28, 15 f. that the said acts were performed as 'Vorbild- 1 See CALAND, ad Kaus. p. 69, n. 7 (Altindisches Zauberritual, Verh. Kon. Akad. v. Wet., Amsterdam, Afd. Lett., 1900). ? See my Stilistische studie over Atharvaveda I-VII, 1938, pp. 48; 81. 3 WHITNEY-LANMAN, O.C., p. 3. 4 See BLOOMFIELD's edition of the Kausikasutra, JAOS. 14, 1890, p. 68.

·100 $35. VATHĀ-EVA EVA-SIMILES .. zauber". Voreorer, only 2 could be executed. Yow, as Paipp. has only 21, it might be supposed that the shooting array of the cough with a swift arrow accompanied by the words yathā bāṇaḥ susamsitah parā patuty ūsumat, followed by erā tram kāse pra pata has been the original nucleus of the magic act and spell and that I and 3 are amplifications. Elsewhere, to be sure, the things with which the Vorbildzauber' is performed are mentioned in the ritual, but not in a corresponding war: 6, 138, 5 (to make a man impotent): as women split reeds so I split your member, the reed in Kaus. 13. 33, however, is not split. Here the ritual seems to be younger than the text.3 at least in this form. It seems not to be impossible that the text of the mantra too was originally different and that 4 and 5 belonged to a separate Vorbildzauber The absence of 5 in Paipp. and its character as an intensifying amplification of 4 in Saun. may point the same way.s Often, however, we do not see any connection between the simile in the mantra and ritual acts. 6, 70 e.g. (to attach a cow to her calf) we find three verses ending in oj a lustful man the mind is fired on a uoman, so let thy mind ... be fixed on thy call; here the burden is preceded by respectively 3 x.1x.3. yathā ...; the similes are rather obscures; the meaning is that the cow should be drawn towards the calf as a lustful man to a woman, as the dice to the gambling-board, as a pair of amorous elephants to each other. as the parts of a wheel to each other. But also in those cases, where we are not able to prove a relation with ritual, the connection between the upameya and the thing addressed exists more than once. See e.g. 5, 21, 46, where the war-drum is adjured to cause a panic amongst the foes: like the 1 1 Cp. Handwörterbuch des deutschen Aberglaubens, VII, 1070. *AT. 7, 13 we have, in my opinion, an instance of the magical effect of the glancing at & person; Kaus. 48, 35f.: the user of verse 2 has to look at his enemies and to say: just as the rising sun takes away the tejāmsi of sleepers (see also vs. 1), 80 I that of those who hate me". * See CALAND, &d Kaus. p. 170, n. 18: "das Rohr verdankt seine Anwesenheit in diesem Ritual offenbar zur den Worten des Liedes: "As women .. etc." . I refer to OLDENBERG, Religion des Veda, p. 480, n. 3. Another such ‘rite in Egypt: M. MEYEREOT, Beiträge zum Volksheilglauben Der Islam 7 (1917), p. 313. 5 For AV. 6, 72 Kaus. 40, 16f. see CALAND, ad Kaus. .., p. 139, n. 9f. * I refer to the commentaries in the translations.

·$ :5. YATHIEVIE123--IMILE: 101 So my uild beasts, ... all in a tremble at man like the birds at the falcon ---, like the goats and sheep... at the volt -: three typical and objective examples of fear of a more powerful being, threefold concrete and graphic variation of one idea. serre to put the potency do you, o drum. alarm and frighten our enemies" into the drum. That this effect is attained. appears from vs. 7, where the past tense is used: "the gods have frightened our enemies awas by the drum." See also 1. 11. 69: 6, 7?: 102. 1: 139, 53: 7. 50, 5. Yot only when animals stand in the vathā-protasis: cosmical: 1, 2, 4; gods and nature: 6, 58. 2; gods: 6, 74. 3: 85, 3: cp. 141.3: 1,23,2. As a principle of sūkta-building: 6.813 stanzası: 7013 s.): 105 (3 s.). Compare also Mān. G. S. 1, 2. 13 yatha dyaus ca prthiri ca na bibhīto na risyataḥ eram me prāna mā bibha Elam me prāņa mā rişah, with AV. 2, 15, 1, where in a sākta against fear the first stanza as both heaven and earth do not fear ... breath fear not" is followed by the couples day and night, brahma and kşatra etc. in 2-6, and by seren other couples in Paipp. In Al. the single verse has been repeated in a variated form. the power lying in the simile has been enhanced. 6. 58 is interesting from the point of view of sūkta-building: la yasasam mendro ... krnotu - 2 yathendro dyārā prthiryor yasasıān ... erä ... yasasah syāma - 3 yaśā indro ... ajāyata yaśā ... aham asmi yasasta mahs; in st. 2, which contains the simile, magical power is transferred. Another clear instance of this use of the yathā-erā-simile is 6. 74. one of the sammanasyāni (Kauś. 12, 5); in lb we read sam manāmsi ..., "let your minds be together", cp. 28; in 3 the simile: yathādityā vasubhiḥ sambabhūvur ... ezā ... imām janān samma nasas kşdhihi.. In the same way 6, 85, 3; 141, 3; see also 1.2, 4. In 6, 139, a sūkta to compel the love of a woman, we have in st. 4 and 5, that are supernumerary', yatha -eva-sentences. Repetition of the verb may be said to enhance the exactness of the wording. AV. 5, 25 is quoted in Kauß. 35, 5 in the ceremony for conception of & male child, in st. 2 it has: yatheyam pytkiri 1 These stá-sentences are longer by one pada than 1-3. * See WHITNBY-LANMAN, O.C., p. 12. 3 See id., p. 385, perhaps a popular belief. • Paipp. 6, 5, see JAOS. 34, pp. 386f. s See also my Stilistische Studie, p. 47. . For the simile in a climax sae $ 31. * See WHITNZY-LANMAX, Pp. cxiff.

·102 $ 55. YATHĀ-EVĀIEVAM)-SIMILES mahi bhūtānām garbham ādadhe evã dadhami te garbham ...; the verb also occurs 1d, and the simplex lc; 3a; b;d; 4d. Here the effect of a stupendous event in nature is magically transferred; the prototype of the 'setting' of all 'embryos' is in the protasis of the simile. See also AV.3, 6, 3 (cp. Kaus. 48, 3), where identity of action is underlined by repetition of the verb. In 6, 17, a sūkta against premature birth, which consists of four stanzas in refrainform, in the verb dadhāra in the yathā-protasis and erā te dhriyatām the meaning is reposited. See also 3, 6, 3; 6, 70. With responsio, which needs not be a rhetorical device, 7, 50, l. - Cp. 6, 72; 9, 1, 11-13; 12, 2, 25. – On the contrary, 4, 39, from the point of view of sūkta-building, is cunningly devised: 4 times 2 stanzas.1 After this digression on the function of the simile in exactly formulated magical incantations, I proceed to the part it plays in the scientific demonstrations of the Brāhmaṇas. In these texts2 the greater part of the similes are yatha--evam-similes with which the authors intend to elucidate difficult questions in their demonstrations by pointing to more familiar things or events. See e.g. Jaim. Br. 1, 1653 tad yathā vā adaḥ samudram prasnāya dvīpam rittropotsnāya riśramyann asta, eram ha vă etan nidhanam u petya kamam riérāmyanta āsīrann astuvānās; ibid. no 14. More than once some words or ideas of the upameya are found in the upamāna, as well especially the verb, e.g. Jaim. Br. no 168, p. 220, 334 tad etena kytsnena brahmana yathā carmanā kudikantakān prāvstyätiyâd evam epaitat samoatsarasya vyāptam prāvrtyatiyanti; no 130 beginning; TS. 7, 5, 3, 2.5 At intervals the parallelism is fairly complete, see TS. 5, 2, 8, 5; 7, 5, 9, 2 yathā bandhān mumucānā utkrodam kurvata edam eva tad yajamānā utkrodam kurrata. This antique type of sentence-structure has been preserved in many a language especially in formulas and in texts, in which an exact wording is appreciated. Often in Manu: 2, 218; 6, 90; 7, 129; 8. 44, etc. Among later authors, in the first place the "rough, but vigorous" Ašvaghoşa has a considerable number of this kind 1 I refer to text and translations. : At least, as far as I have perused them for this purpose. 3 CALAND, Auswahl (see above), p. 63, 10. 55. • CALAND, Auswahl. s See also HIBAEL, Q.C., p. 56, n. 22.

·56. IVA-SINILES 103 of sentences: S. 14, 49; cp. also d. 14. 38 sararyak sa tu dosā. nām yo hinaḥ smrtirarmaņā : tanasthaḥ prati satrūnām rihina ira varmană. $ 56. As for the difference between similes with the particle iva and those with yathā, it is well known that, if the standard of comparison is expressed by a full sentence. yathi is used, and that iva does not introduce a sentence?. Except a notice of BOL- LENSEN3 and a remark by RexOr", who says: "yathā introduit des comparaisons plrs développées, et insiste sur la notion d'équivalence”, I cannot recollect any further remark about this point. It seems to me that in post-vedic literature the difference has as & rule become less greats; in the older texts howerer yathā points, as far as I see, in the very first place to essential or modal agreement or correspondence, ira to a subjectire resemblance. The use of the particle yathā in oaths and solemn statements and its meaning "so far as"", which even may develop into a causal meaning on the one hand, the use of ira to denote germ. "etwa gleichsam", eng. "rather, almost, as if it were, so to say"8. its being used as a particle to express some interest taken in the question by the speaker and its being connected with verbs meaning "appear; be like, look“10 on the other hand, corroborate this distinction. The relative scarcity of ira in Vedic prose and the fact that in 'objective comparisons', such as the magical and didactical, yatha is the usual particle are in keeping with it. In my opinion the difference between iva and yathā is especially clear in the Atharvaveda: as for ira see e.g. 1, 5, 2; 1, 14. 1; 2, 5, 6; 12, 3; 13, 1; 5, 20, 11; 48 for y. the above-quoted texts. Of course, there are passages that are less clear: 1, 3, 7-8; 2, 27,5; 6, 15, 3 has yatha ... iva in 2 'similes' (cp. Paipp.) See J. S. SPEYEB, Sanskrit Syntax, $$ 430ff.; Vedische und Sanskrit Syntax, $$ 118, 230. * See, however, L, RENOU, Grammaire sanscrite, p. 520. * In his edition of the Vikramorvasiya (1846), pp. 273ff. 4 0.c., p. 520. 5 Even Manu 3, 181: ita tatha. * See above, & 47. ? SPEYER, Sanskrit Syntax, $ 470, Rem. .. See the examples quoted by B. DELBRÜCK, Altindische Syntax, p. 477; Petersb. Wörterb., I, 818f. • SPEYER, S.S. $ 409, 3. 10 Soe above, $ 6.

·104 57 AMPLIFICATIOX: PROLEPSIS: COMBINATIOxS; ETC. . $ 57. A quite natural short simile may be amplified, such an amplification need not have an artificial character. The simile as a mother her son1: AV. 18... 50: 3, 50 mātā putram yathā sicā, "as a mother her son with her hem"; 11, 4, 10 pitā putram ira priyamº, cp. RV. 10. 29, 3:-R1. 10. 119. 4 rāśreva vatsam sumanā duhānā. but AV. 12, 3. 37 in an amplified form vāśrerosrā taruņam stanasyum imam derāso abhihinkļņota. Bhāsa, Vās. 1. 15 - a student says: "after the departure of the king the village became desolate like the sky when the moon and stars have set", ... prositanaksatracandram ira nabho 'ramanīyaḥ; this text, however, is perhaps an instance of a somewhat long (and retouched) form of a natural simile, but is not to be put on a par with the preceding texts. A simile such as Bhāsa, Pratimā 3, 10 (sloka) ayodhyām atavibhūtām pitrā bhrāträ сa rarjitām pipāsārto 'nudhārāmi kşinatoyām nadim ira need not be artificial; it has prolepsis of the word pipāsārto. Neither is Rām. 4, 18, 51 a deliberate artificiality: sa mamadarsanad dino ... tatāka ira pītāmbur udasosam gamisyati (cp. Kāl. K. 8, 37); the commentary (Rāma) has remarked already: sa mamadarsanāc choşam gamisyati; attractio. Occasionally the combination of two similes gives rise to remarks. Rām. 4, 58, 17 the vulture Sampāti, consumed by emotion, narrates, how he has seen Rāvana bearing Sītā through the air süryaprabheva sailāgre tasyāḥ kauśeyan uttamam asite rāksose bhāti yatha vidyud ivāmbare. It is a well-known fact that especially in colloquial speech blending of images, constructions etc, is not rares. Occasionally two similes are found in one verse, but in such a manner that a long one stands at the beginning, a short one at the end: see e.g. Mbh. 7, 2, 12 nipätite śāntanave mahārathe divākare bantalan Östhite yathā na pārthidāḥ sodhum alam dhananjayam giripravodkāram ivānilam drumāḥ; this is a special case of accumulation of similes, at the root of which lies, in normal language, extraordinary emotion. In certain circumstances this kind of utter- I See $$ 18f. AV. 18, 3, 50 RV. 10, 18, 11. • See $ 24. * See e.g. W. HAVIES, Handbuch der erklärenden Syntax, 1931, pp. 82.; L. BLOOWLLD, Language, London, 1935, pp. 422ff. • See &$ 35ff.

·$ 58. SUSPENSE; REPETICY: COTILITITE SMILES, ETC. ... ances is quite natural. e.g. neth. ce cag haar man liggen atzeslacht als een beest, en na een korte & prakeloosheid barstte ce ios en ging te keer als een becetcre, but it is apt to develop into a poetical artifice. $ 58. When the particle of comparison is at the end of the sentence. suspense may be arousedl. See e.g. At. 3.8. yathendra udrācanam labdh tã cakre adhas padam kenre 'ham adharams tathā amūm śaśratibhyaḥ samābhyah. note the position of the words t. and amūm. Rām. 1, 24, 35 srarge 'pi sakam ... mayā rinū prāpsyati ..., rideha kanyārahito yathā tram As far as I see, repetitions such as Chl'p. 6. 9. 1f. are confined to the longer periods of intellectual or consciouslr constructed speech: yathā saumya ... nistişthanti ... gamayanti, (2) te yathā ... labhante iti, eram era khalu ... riduh ... iti: 8. 1. 5 f. In a number of similes the verbofthe upamāna seemsto hare been transferred into the upameya. In fact the verb in the upamera is used metaphorically. Seee.g. Mbh. 7, 8. 8 zyadhamat pandarānikam abhrāniva sadāgatih, "he blew awarii.e. dispersed) the troops ... as the wind the clouds": the simile has its original freshness. cp. 1. 138, 21. See also 7, 14,77; BhG. 7,7; Manu 7, 20; Bhäsa, V.1, 16." Of course, not only the similes expressed by means of the particles iva and yathū should be studied, but also the other kinds of upamā, which are enumerated e.g. by Dandin, Kāryādarśa. 2, 57-65. Here I wish to draw the attention only to a kind of simile, which in the Indian works on poetics is usually not reckoned among similes: a counterpart of the so-called copulative simile, to which I intend to devote a short paper elsewhere. A fine instance is e.g. Bhāsa, Yaug. 1, 18: from wood springs fire when it is pierced, the earth gives water when dug, for men that display energy nothing is impossible. Sometimes a tautological ira is found: Mbh. 7, 22, 4; 26, 63: 8, 14, 39; Rām. 4, 24, 16; 34, 3; Macch. p. 142, 26, etc. $ 59. In classical texts authors like to elaborate & comparison in detail and to dwell on them in a number of points of agreement:3 Asv. S. 6, 9; Kāl. Mal. 1, 64; 3, 21; cp. R. 1, 30; 16, 26. ? Co. also my remark AO. 17, p. 139. * For the type AV. 6, 54, 1 Topatram ir sea vardhagad tonom, see BIRQAIGNE, Mél. Ránier, p. 78. * See also HILLEBRANDT, Kalidase, pp. 117; 119. Op. e.g. DANDIN, Kävyåd. 2, 43ff. Cp. Kaux (1918), Notes, p. 14.

·106 § 59. ELABORATIOX OF SIMILES IN CLASSICAL TEXTS Here too instances of a similar detail-comparison may be taken from prae-classic texts. ChUp. 3, 15, 1 antariksodarah kośaḥ ! bhumibudhno ...; diśo hy asya sraktayaḥ / dyaur asyottaram bilam; 3, 1, 1.1 Instances from other sources: a detailed comparison between man and monkey in a work of the French poet Rabelais, a Lituanian folk-song: die Sonne geht auf, und beginnt ihren Lauf am Himmel; sie zählt alle Sterne, jedoch einer fehlt ... die Mutter geht über den Hof u.z.a. Töchter, j.e.f. etc.3 $ 60. As in Bhāsa's Avimāraka, 5,1 + the vidūşaka says about a maiden (pr.) eren so she delights the eye like a digit of the new moon, Avimāraka interrupts him: ati pandita iva,"(these words) are too bookish!” Here the stylistic value of the simile is expressed in the text itself. But a little before this part (5, 1) in an upajāti-stanza A. himself had said: she shines with natural charm, like a sacred text without the application. From the mouth of Rāvana, disguised as & religious mendicant, we hear, Pratimā 5, 7, a comparison with oblations. Hence we may conclude that an unusual, far-fetched, learned upamāna occurs in different circumstances: at times as a hyperbolic expression", when the speaker wants to utter extraordinary feelings, then again when he wishes to display or to promulgate knowledge and learning or to give a certain cachet to himself. Although it is difficult to set a fixed standard, I do not hesitate to say that this sort of simile has often been used in an artificial way, as an 'ornament'. See e.g. Ašv. Bc. 6, 31 ... närhasi ... rikātum ... / ... rājānam saddharmam ita nästikah; 32; 7, 38; 13, 47; 50 na rsim dadarsa kāmātmakaḥ śreyo ivopadistam; S. 2, 60; the upamānas contain allusions to moral precepts and so on. See also S. 2, 62; 4, 31. Kāl. Māl. 1, 10: the two masters of the art of gesticulation ... wish to have an interview with Your Majesty, like two (dramatic) sentiments appearing in a bodily form; 1, 14; Urv, 1, 12; 2, 22; 5, 19; Ragh. I, 4; 16 he was to his subjects at once unapproachable and inviting as the ocean is on account of its monsters and gems; 1, 88; 5, 63; Kum. 1, 18; 5, 52; 7, 53. Sometimes the learned or artificial character appears in the first place 1 Cp. H. WELLER, in Festgabe-Garbe, p. 63. * P. DR LA JOLLIÈRE, Les comparaisons dans Rabelais, Diss. Bonn 1911, pp. 9f. * VAN DER MEULIX, O.C., p. 114; cp. also pp. 42; 79; 96. • Above, $ 10, see also Rām. 4, 34, 5; Käl. Sak. 1, 6.

·$ 60. COMPARISONS IS COXXECTION WITH AMBIGCITY from the chosen words. Ass. Bc. 5. 3 prayayau ketum ira drumābja ketuh, with adnominatio. d. means the moon"; 8, 60 ricakrarākera rathangasāhrayā. like the duck that has her name after a part of a chariot, being deprived of her male"; Käl. Ragh. 3, 30 tatāra vidyāḥ paranāti pātibhir diśo haridbhir haritām irefiarah: 2, 291; Daņdin, Dskc. p. 97, 4. Then the well-known similes token from grammar: e.g. Bhär., Kir. 13, 19. Here I also make mention of artificial play on the sound of words and suchlike ornaments: Rām. 4, 21. 1 nipatitām tārām cyutām tārām irâmbarāt; 23, 20 dhārā ira dharādharāt. Aśr. Bc. 8. 24 ... mahişi mahipateh pranaštaratsā mahişira ratsalā, & play on the double meaning of mahişi; a play with adnominatio 8, 43: gato nyderaḥ sa hi deri derarat; 75; 77; 13, 62; 71. etc. Ašvaghoşa has a special liking for this ornament. Kāl. Kum. 3, 43 (all.). Double meaning of the same word: Rām. 4, 28. 7. Here follow some texts containing a figure which is there undoubtedly artificial, I mean the comparison in connection with ambiguity.: Asv. S. 1, 43 it reads: pandurātälasumukham suvibhaktāntarā paņam harmyamālā pariksi ptam kuksim himagirer ira, where the pādas 8-c should be translated twice, once as adjectives to the city mentioned in 41, and once, with other meanings, to the upamāna in d: “having ... upper storeys and ... bazaars, and encompassed by & row of palaces“, like a valley of the Himālayas having tops like ... Watchtowers and ... interior wealth and enc. by uplands like palaces”, see also 1, 485; Käl. Sak, 7, 18, where pāda c should be translated twice;' Bhär. Kir. 13. 14 f.; Kād. p. 436 etc. Yet, in essence this device reaches back to a well-known popular pun: dat is zo vast (1. "sure, certain”, 2."immovable') als een muts met zeven keelbanden; hij is zo groen (1. "silly, ignorant", 2. "green") als gras, "he is as green as grass." Cp. e.g. Ind. Spr.5 7181 sauhrdena parityaktam niksnehakhalavat tyajet. Another kindred type is that in which the subject is a com- 1 For particulars see the commentaries. 2 See e.g. HILLEBRANDT, Kalidasa, p. 118. 3 Cp. DANDIN, Kävyād. 2, 29. * See JOHNSTON, Translation, p. 5, D. 5 Cp. JOHNSTON, 1.c. & Co. also the odition of Käle-Shembavazekar, Bombay 1934, Notes, p. 173. See also BRBENS, 0.0., p. 283.

·108 $ 61, VERSE-FILLERS pound: Bhār. Kir. 4, 28 ripāņdu samryānam irāniloddhatam nirundhatiḥ sapta palāśajam rajah anārilonmilitabānacakşuşah sa puspahāsā vanarājiyoșitaḥ. § 61. It goes without saying that a considerable number of similes, especially those that have become fixed formulas may not unfrequently impress us as if they were employed by the authors as verse-fillers when they had nothing better to sayi. Especially in the Mahābhārata this is the case. cp. 7. 14, 86 athainam sahasā sarte samantān nisitaiḥ śaraiḥ abhyākiran mahārāja jaladū ira parratam; 18, 24; 26, 16; 12, 217, 12; mostly in the d-pāda. Such d-pāda's are often found in more than one place: sārdūla ira kunjaram Mbh. 7, 14, 67; 15, 8. — See also Rām. 4, 15, 19, perhaps also Asv. Bc. 6, 36; 13, 5; S. 2, 57 b. Also in Kālidāsa's Raghuvamsa we find a great predilection for a comparison in the d-pāda, but with a difference: more individual, more artful and elaborate, profounder in meaning, e.g. R. 1, 16. Another point is that kā vya poetry often dwells at great length on the painting of details, which do not bear on the essential points of the narration. Further an equalization may carry along a comparison $ 62. By the side of similes expressing a comparison by means of words we find equalizations and identifications. Although it is not my intention to treat these 'figures', I should like to make & few observations however. Sometimes incorrect views have boen uttered about equalizations. So long as an equalization is the expression of something that is believed to be an objective fact, so long the name 'metaphor is not applicable. Now, this belief varies according to cultural and other circumstances. Some primitive men call a goitre a toad because they believe it to be & toads. Similar statements are met with in ancient Indian literaturet: stars are the lights of virtuous men who go to the heavenly world etc. Then, we have the so-called 'figurative' or 1 Soo also, with regard to German literature, PONGS, O.C., I, p. 174. · See above. : K. BETA, in Handwörterbuch des deutschen Aberglaubens VI, 211. Also THORNWALD, in EBART, Roall, der Vorgeschichte, X, p. 307; P. BEYER, in MERKER-STAXXLER, Reallexikon der deutschen Literatur, II, p. 340. The explanations of H. WERNER, Die Ursprünge der Metapher, Leipzig 1919, pp. 10ff., 31ff. are worth reading. * I refer to H. WELLER, Zu einigen Metaphern des Rig Veda, ZII. 5, p. 178, und Über Vergleichungen im R.V., Festgabe-Garbe, pp. 54ff.

·62 EQUA1.247:48 ODSTICC 4TION:, "E=>751055 109 ‘metaphorical use of words. In English. e.g., they sar: he is a sly joz. by the side of a simile: he is as cunning as a 157. Or 11: cunning as a weasel. This sort of metaphor is rery popular and belongs to ordinary speech in every languages. Further, we find expressions such as: lat, utres inflati ambulam us? We walk like inflated bags, but here both in English and in other languages, such as German (**vir wandeln wie aufgeblasene Schläuche") we must use a simile to translate the Latin words, which consider persons to be identical with things (persons, of course, if the case should arise, only with regard to one function. Primitire man was, in former times too. forced to express his thoughts in all kinds of figurative speech. metaphors and the liked, which means, in the same language as our poets, and because he was forced to do so, it has more than once been said. that the language of primitive man was poetry. or at least figurative or allegorical. But this is not correct. It is wrong to contend that only poets make use of metaphors. Poetic metaphor is on a large scale an outgrowth of the metaphor of ordinary speech. "The picturesque saying that "language is a book of faded nietaphors' is the reverse of the truth. for poetry is rather a blazoned book of language". The metaphorical use of words is in all languages a phenomenon of the utmost importance. As was already stated by CICERO and QUINTILIANTS?, the peasant and the illiterate man, in short any ordinary speaker of a language makes use of metaphors. And also learned men and philosophers who try to find out the essence of all things have recourse to them. A second error with regard to metaphors is to consider them as abridged similes. Both psychically and historically this view is incorrect. Moreover, it would be wrong to treat all 'metaphors' See for instance H. PAUL, Prinzipien der Sprachgeschichter (1920). $$ 68f.; F. BRUNOT, La pensée et la langue, pp. 77ff. 2 Borrowed from J. B. HOFMANN, Lateinische Umgangsspraches (1936), p. 158. 3 See also the views of O. JESPERSEN, Language, XXI, $ 11. * See also my Stilistische Studie over Atharvavada. p. 22. 5 L. BLOOMFIELD, Language, p. 443. 4 CICERO, Orat. 24, 81. ? QUINTILIANUS, Inst. or. 8, 6, 4. & See e.g. E. ELSTER, Prinzipien der Literaturwissenschaft II (1911), p. 119; A. H. GARDINER, The theory of speech and language, p. 167.

·110 § 62. EQUALIZATION AND IDENTIFICATIONS, METAPHORS front alike. Here too, in different times, environments, stages of culture, in different sorts of language and literature etc. things that seem to be alike are not necessarily alike. In ancient Indian literature we often find a simile by the side of a metaphor. AV. 7, 50, 6, a difficult text, full of technical gambling-phrases: a atidivä jayati, "a superior player, he wins", b kýtam iva sraghni ri cinoti kāle, "he divides in time the winnings like a gambler". In a stanza with which they intended to ward off poison (cp. Kauś. 29, 5), 5, 13, 3: a bull is my cry, but 5, 20, 2 and 3 the drum has thundered like a lion, like a bull. In the same way: 4, 8, 4; 19, 46, 5; 8, 5, 12 he is (becomes) a tiger, but 4, 36, 6 vyāghro ... iva; 3, 3, 3 syeno bhütrā, cp. 6, 48, 1; 7, 41, 1; but 7, 70, 3 and 5, 30, 9 like (a) falcon(s); 1, 25, 2 (cp. 3)— 5, 22, 2; 7, 73, 1 (cp. 4, 34, 4) — 7, 62, 1. See also RV.1, 48,5 – 1, 92, 11; 1, 73, -1, 13, 1 etc. AV. 8, 6, 7b bhrātā bhūtvā pitera ca is probably an instance of 'Satzhaplologie'. - Not unfrequently the author passes from comparison to metaphor or the reverse: RV. 2, 3, 6 night and day ... like two gay weavers ... two good milch-cows, rich in milk. In the Brāhmaṇas' we meet with many an interesting instance of identification a nd comparison: Kauş. Br. 7, 84; Ait. Br. 5, 30, 1; Jaim. Br. no 34 end (p. 40 Caland) vayo vai vāmadevyam. yad rcam upaspršed, yathā vayo 'ntarikşeņa patad uşkşam şcchet, tādľk tat; no 164 (transl. p. 213) yathā vai saša evam yajño: yo vai saáam ..., but cp. no 143 (transl. p. 175 top); Pañc. Br. 7, 6, 15 B. and R. are two big trees, but Jaim. Br. 29 yathā mahāvý kşau. Cp. also Jaim. Br. no 179; 168, p. 220 (transl. p. 224 top); no 98; 112; 140 end. A simile used as an introduction to a metaphor seems to me to be employed consciously: JBr. no 88 end: yathā ha girau jyotir bhāyād evam tasyām janatāyām bhāti yasyām bhavatis; compare, in an advertisement, neth. als een rots in de branding kunt u de stormen des tijds trotseren; at the beginning of a discourse: het 1 Cp. also D. WESTERMANN, Die Glidyi-Ewe in Togo, p. 115. * For this interesting phenomenon, see A. DEBRUNNER, Dissimilation ganzer Wörter, in Mélanges-VAN GINNEKEN (1937), p. 67. * See also OLDENBERG, Vorwissenschaftliche Wissenschaft, p. 115. * Cp. e.g. Ait.Br. 2, 37, 1; Kauş. 14, 4. Cp. p. 92.

·§ 63. ('SE OF THE SAME COMPARISON IN DIFFERENT TEXT: karakter kan X. l'ertoont, als een geslepen jureel meerdere facetten. - The simile after the metaphor: Bhāsa. Abhiş. 4. 18. $ 63. As I hare thus far mainly spoken of the shades of mean. ing and the stylistic value of various similes, room should be reserved here for a necessary complement viz. the use of the same comparison in different texts and various circumstances. As is well known, in Vedic literature a considerable number of similes, either relatively short ones which do not occupy entire pādas, or such as fill up a pāda, have become formulas expressing a familiar idea in a fixed form. For example: samudram ira sindhavaḥ RV'. 8, 6, 35 etc.!. Xow, a good many of them are mere phrase, as in this case the 'sea' expresses the general idea of 'very great expanse'?; they may be used in different connections. Not only Indra's belly swelling up (RV. 1. &, 7). but also his strength increasing by the songs of praise (RV. 8. 6. 35) is compared with the sea which swells up or is filled by the rivers. We must, however, be aware of the fact that being strengthened by songs and swelling up by soma are very kindred notions to the Vedic Indians, which with regard to aim and effect are mostly identical. As far as I see it is not necessary to suppose that in this group of texts any of the expressions, e.g. samudra ira pinrate (Indra's belly) is the original one, the others representing merely secondary employments. This would be only a possibility It is likely that at the root of these expressions is a popular saying = 'as extensive as the sea' (cp. AV. 3, 29, 6 etc., Ved. Conc. 981), whereupon one or more poets have built longer expressions which, becoming common property, have been varied. I do not believe that, dyaur na prathinā savaḥ being said (RV. 1, 8,5) to indicate that Indra's power is "as extensive as the sky'. meaning: "very great", the use of the simile in this connection need be the primary use, as perhaps might be concluded from BLOOMFIELD's remarks". Nor should I like to adhere to the following judgment by SCHAYERS: "viele von diesen (d.h. magischen) Gleichnissen sind · See BLOOMFIELD, Rig Veda Repetitions, p. 582; 574. * See above, $ 12. * See my paper The meaning of vedic batipati, pp. 10; 14 ete. 0.c., p. 573. See above, $$ 14. 5 ST. SCHAYEB, Zeitschr. f. Buddhismus, 6 (1995), p. 299.

·112 § 63. risk. OF THE SAVER PIPARISON IN DIFFERENT TEXTS v später, ihres nagischen Sinnes entkleidet, zu rhetorischen Alamkāra's des Kārya-Stils geworden", if these words should be interpreted in such a war that such a simile came into being as a magical one and has been borrowed from atharvanic texts by poets of later generations to be mere ornaments and nothing but ornaments. A propos of AV. 6, 8, 1 (to win the love of a woman): as the creeper (libujā) has ... embraced the tree, so do you embrace me, SCHAYER remarks: “SO ist die Liane stets das Sinnbild der geliebten Frau geblieben". A well known popular saying was sa tasya chāyera, "he is like his shadow", or "to follow like his shadow": RV. 1. 73, 8 (to Agni) chāyera riśram bhuvanam sisaksi; Bhāsa, Prat. ?, 10 d (sl.); after a detailed description, summarizing châyera tām bhūpatir anvagacchat, Kāl. R. 2, 6; Dandin, Dskc. p. 51, 5. Is this saying only explicable as an "ihres magischen Sinnes entkleidetes ... Gleichnis”? In magical sphere the shadow of a man, which is a striking image of himself, plays, indeed. an important part: it is often considered a form of his soul; in some degree it is that man himself?; when it is pierced, the death of that man can be compassed. Are the magic acts primary here with respect to such & saying? What is primary: the shadow of man as the magical ‘Abbild seines Wesens' or as the 'unzertrennliche Begleiter'4? Although the answer seems not to be difficult, one might object that 'to follow like his shadow originally meant 'like his soul or like his ego etc. and that the comparison was at first used only in connection with magic or only in magical sphere. But this is pure speculation. Other properties of the shadow were observed too: AV. 8, 6, 8 the ... sun has made them ranish like a shadow; here magic is out of the question. To my mind both the popular sayings in many languages (eng. to shadow, germ. einem wie sein Schatten folgen, neth. als z'n schaduw volgen, schaduwen, gr. ox and lat. umbral etc. 1 VÄXANA, Kivyål. 4, 2, 14 laukikyäm. * See HASTINGS, Encycl. of Religion and Ethics, 11, 727; G. VAN DER LEEUW, Religion (1938), pp. 287f. • Kaus. 47, 55; CALAND, Altind. Zauberritual, p. 166, cp. p. 124; V. HENRY, La magie dans l'Inde antique, p. 110. • See J. VON NEQELEIN, Bild, Spiegel und Schatten im Volksglauben, Arch, für Relig. 5 (1902), pp. 1ff., esp. 12ff. See MURRAY's New English Dictionary, VIII, 2, p. 591, sub 8. * Cp. A. KIESSLING-R. HEINZE, &d HORATIUS, Sat. 2, 8, 22.

·§ 67. THE STUDY OF SIMILES 113 etc.) and the belief that the shadow is an important form of the soul, on which the magical practices are founded. hare their root in the same thing: reality seen by the eye and observed br the mind of impressionable man. The same resemblance may be seen time after time, but it depends on the circumstances whether the observation will give rise to a spoken utterance, and if so, in what form. For the magician or the man who thinks magically, for whom resemblance means identity and who study to put the knowledge of the identities into practice, such a simile is an instrument to attain their ends. The 'ordinary speaker and the 'poet' use it in a different way. Of course by the side of the borrowing from the vast stock of the living language to shorten my argumentation I do not go too far in other possibilities and well-known relations, borrowing from literary sources is often possible and, in India especially in classic works, not unfrequently an established fact. $ 64. In living languages it is already very difficult and generally impossible to trace the origin of a simile. Very often its first occurrence in a written record is not its birth. In ancient languages such investigations would be totally fruitless. The only things we can do are firstly to gather the instances of the image in the texts and to study the manner in which it is used, its stylistic value, secondly to gather all data that may throw light upon the simile. In the case of the creeping plant and the tree is wife and lover or husband (see e.g. Mbh. 12, 145, 5; Rām. 4, 22, 31; Aśr. S. 4, 33; Kāl. Māl. 4, 13; Kum. 3, 39; Rtus. 4, 10: Märk. P. 21, 19; Venis. -1, 20) we should consider that the creeper without the tree is frequently an upamāna for a (slender) Foman: cp.e.g. Ašv. Bc. 8, 28; 59; S. 6, 28; Käl. Kum. 3, 54; 7, 21; Bhār. Kir. 4, 15; Bhāsa, Avim. 3, 19 etc. (mark the variety in particolars!), and that the creeper is also an upamāna for the arm (bhujalatā), lightning (vidyullatā), eye-brows (bkrülatā) etc.. and on the other hand that the belief that man and tree are essentially identical, or that there exists & similarity or & peculiar relation between the nature of man and that of the tree has taken 1 See also C. MBINROT, O.C., p. 140. * As for the libujá AV. 6, 8, 1 809 Kaus. 35, 21 and AV. 2, 30; 6, 9; 6, 102. • See the dictionaries. Sed also VÄXANA, Kävy. 4, 2, 146. 8 ·114 $ 65. COLLECTIONS OF SINILES root with many peoples?; moreover, that especially in India the conception of plants and trees as animated beings has resulted in treating them as males and females that can be married?: I refer only to the well-known scenes in the Sakuntalā 1, 21 + and 4, 12+, where a navamālikā or priyangu creeper, being $.'s 'creeper-sister', is united with a mango-tree, and where §. said to think: as the creeper has been united to a worthy tree, so may I too get a worthy husband, and that, lastly, the tender affection of the devoted wife comes out in many a text4. When a simile is studied in this way the compounds and other expressions should not be forgotten, e.g. by the side of the plastic pānibhyam ca kucau kācit suvarnakalasopamau i upaguhya ... (Rām. 5, 10, 47) the stereotypical kucakumbhau or kucakalasa- Māgha, Śiśup. 7, 48; 73; 10, 32; 47, with variation 8, 51; 53;5 here the inversion ghatastana-, Kāl. Kum. 5, 14 is noteworthy. $ 65. At the instigation of ERNST LEUMANN OTTO WALTER wrote a useful booklet "Übereinstimmungen in Gedanken, Vergleichen und Wendungen bei den indischen Kunstdichtern von Vālmīki bis auf Magha.'& Of course, his collection is not exhaustive. The author did not intend "festzustellen, ob dieser oder jener Gedanke oder Vergleich auch außerhalb der sogenannten Kunstdichtung, also etwa im Veda oder im Mbb. oder in der buddh. Lit., anzutreffen sei"? This work should be done, and moreover 1 See 2.8. R. VAN DER MEULEN, Naturvergleiche in den Liedern ... der Litauer (dee above), paskim; Handwörterbuch d. deutschen Aberglaubens, I (1927), p. 955; and especially W. MANNHARDT, Wald- und Feldkulte, 1904-5, passim; for India e.g. OLDENBERG, Religion des Veda, pp. 262f. * I refer to FBARB, The golden bough", 1911, II, pp. 24ff. * A parallel in Netherl. literature: FRED. VAN EEDEN, De kleine Johannes, ch. 6 Heb mij list, heb mij lief! omvat mij als de hoprank den boomstan, VAN DER MEULEN, O.C., seys, p. 29, with reference to the Lithuanians: "vor allen dingen wählt man zur apposition diejenigen pflanzen, tiere u.8.9., die in ihrer gesamterscheinung der art des menschlichen wesens zu entsprechen scheinen: mädchen als lilie, schroot see also pp. 49; 133. For man and tree, p. 52 etc. Elsewhere ivy and tree, e.g. Euripides, Hek. 398. 4 Soe also H. CE. CHAKLADAB, in Cultural Heritage of India, III, P. 197. * For a medieval German parallel: J. J. MEYER, Trilogie altindischer Mächte und Feste der Vegetation, I, p. 170, n. 3. • Indica, berausg. von E. LAUMANN, Heft 3, Leipzig 1905. 7 WALTER, P. 32.

·§ 63. COLLECTIONS OF SIMILES 115 the images should be studied with regard to their appearance and their occurrence in the texts as 'Ausdruckswerte'. It should. e.g., be remarked that the well-known cakravākas, which play à part in other similes too (e.g. RV. 2. 39, 3), as a model of mutual conjugal love, occur as early as Al. 14, 2, 64 in the marriage texts: Indra do thou push together these two spouses like two e., cakrarākeral, chiefly 'anschaulich-ausdruckverstärkend', in a very succinct form Rām. 4, 30, 65 (Sitā) cakravākiva bhartaram prsthato 'nugatā tanam, emotional etc., in & manner that is simple and natural in itself, but betrays conscious employment of 'sound-figures' Asv. S. 4, 2 sa cakravākyera hi cakravākas tathā sametah priyayā priyarhaḥ, as an intensifying addition id. 6, 22 na sa trad anyām pramadām avaiti svacakranakya iva cakravākak; varied 6, 30 să cakrarākiva bhşsam cukuja éyenāgra paksakxatacakravākā, "she, like & she-sheldrake, moaned when its mate has had the tip of its wing hurt by a hawk". It is clear that Asvaghosa intentionally repeats the word and that 6, 30, he makes the word subservient to the expression of a sentiment by sounds and their combinations. The combinations kr, gr, the sounds é, s and the long compound may express the sentiment caused by horrible events. With a circumlocution of the name Asv. Bc. 8, 60 tato dharāyām apatad yasodharā vicakrarākeva rathangarákvayā; cp. 8, 29. In a phraseology hinting by means of a circumlocution: Kāl. Kum. 8, 51 kim na vetsi sahadharmacārinam cakrarākasamaortim ātmanah; in a less usual connection Mroch. 5, 5 samsattair iva cakravākamithunair hamsaiḥ pradinair iva ... tais tair akstivistarair anugatair meghaiḥ ..., where the notion of inseparability is expressed.? Of the two breasts of a woman pressed together: Ašv. Bc. 8, 29; Daņçin, Dskc. (NS. 1), p. 40, 1. 12.8 1 As for soc, see $ 56. * Cp. $$ 16ff.; 27. * I refer to my Stilistische Studie over Atharv&veda, $ 51. * See $ 14. * See e.g. DANDIN, Kävyäd. 1, 72; MAXMATA, Kavyapr. 8, 75. • Yamaks! 7 See also Kal. Me. 80; Hål. 5, 9. * Here I add some texts in which other similes spoken of in WALTL'S booklet are found: Iadradhvaja (W., pp. 11f.) Mbh. 7, 18, 70, 14; 92, 72; see MEYER, Trilogie III, p. 105; COWL, The Buddhacarita of A. Anecd. Oxon. 1893, p. XIV; like painted (W., pp. 19; 26; 30) Kal. Urv. 2, 0; Sak. 4, 1+; Märk. P. 81, 31; Sukas. t. omn.

·116 § 65. COLLECTIONS OF SIMILES Often the variety of the forms of a simile is quite interesting. Manu 4. 191 has: a fool sinks (into hell) as a cow into a bog: parke gaur ira sidati; the same 8, 21;. cp. 11, 112; Aśv. Bc. 6, 26 writes sidati me ceto nadipanka iva dvipah, S. 6, 32 quite simply pankävatirņera ca samsasāda; it is interesting to see that Mbh. 12, 174, 26 has a longer form soka pankārņave magnā jārņā ranagajā iza. $ 66. Of course, one might quote a great number of passages, p. 22, 15 ; the laughter of a river (W., pp. 13; 24; 28) cp. Asv. S. 4, 4; the serpent sloughing (W., pp. 15f.) Jaim. Br. 20.140 C.; Manu 2, 79; Bhåsa, Căr. 3, 5; cp. Vås. 4, 2; Mșcch. 3, 9; the moth etc. in the flame (W., pp. 16; 27) Mbh. 2, 17, 11; 6, 35, 29; 7, 22, 26; 9,3, 27; Bhāsa, Cons. 4, 5; see also Pet. Wtb. s.v. salabha-; Aurvågni (W., p. 27) cp. Mbh. 7, 15, 5; Rām. 4, 15, 19; Mārk. Pur. 21, 86; Kál. $. 3, 3; Bhar. Uttarar. 5, 8; cp. Dandin, Dákc. p. 49, 1. 21; the digit of the moon Bhāsa, Căr. 1, 27; Vās. 3, 0; Consecr. 2, 11 +; Prat. 7, 12; Av. 5, 11; Kål. Megh. 87; Kum. 4, 46; 5, 48; 7, 8; Harsa, Väg. 2, 8; Dandin, Dákc. p. 49, 10; Sukas. t. orn. p. 13, 35 +; for the bird tied to a string see JOHNSTON, ad Ašv. S. 11, 59; a garland being worn and thrown away (see also DIWEKAR, O.C., p. 89), cp. Mbh. 3, 269, 20; 4, 14, 11; Rām. 6, 99, 42; Ašv. Bc. 8, 83; Kál. Mal. 3,0+; Sak, 7, 24; & river that dashes or sweeps away the banks etc. Bhāsa, Av. 3, 17 +; Ašv. Bc. 13, 6; Kål. Kum. 3, 6; 4, 6; 7, 53; & woman like a gazelle Mbh. 4, 14, 10; 15, 21; Ašv. Bc. 5, 41; Bbasa, Cār. 1, 10; Mșcch. 1, 17; for hissing serpents etc. Mbh. cp. 1, 52, 5; 4, 17, 9; 5, 184, 11; Rām. 2, 20, 8; 23, 2; 6, 92, 42; 88 & thief at night R.V. 1, 191, 5; Ašv. Bc. 8, 38; shining, etc. like the sun RV. 8, 34, 17; Nals 2, 29; 5, 43; Ašv. Bc. 5, 43; Kāl. Kum. 3, 30; Märk. P. 69, 4; the osprey Nala 11, 20 (kurarim iva vāśatīm); Mbh. 1, 6, 12; 2, 70, 1; 11, 12, 10; 16, 18; Rām. 4, 19, 28; Ašv. Bc. 8, 51; Kal. R. 14, 68; Urv. 1, 2+; Bhāg. Pur. 10, 90, 15; to cross to the other side with a ship RV. 1, 97, 7; AV. 4, 33, 7; TĀ. 6, 11, 2; TS. 7, 5, 3, 2; Mbh. 4, 15, 21; 7, 1, 43; the moon, obscured or swal. lowed by Rāhu, Nala 16, 14; 17, 6; Bhase, Prat. 6, 12; 7, 6; Kāl. Māl. 2, 13+; a gazelle frightened by a lion or & tiger Mbh. 7, 22, 11; Bhase, Cär. 1, 9; Abhiş. 2, 13; the khadyoto- Mbh. 7, 15, 18; Bd. Pur. 1, 5, 7; 7, 4; the kadali ("ein Bild der Einfälligkeit", Pet. Wtb.) Mbh. 11, 17, 1; Asv. Bc. 8, 24; 14, 6; firm as a mountain etc. RV. 1, 52, 2; Mbh. 7, 14, 36; 15, 7; 25; Ašv. S. 3, 7; cp. Bc. 8, 36; 10, 41; 13, 57; Märk. Par. 15, 57; like an arrow smeared with poison AV. 5, 18, 15; Rām, 2, 30, 23; Kāl. K. 4, 25; princes like lions Nala 5, 3; Kål. R. 6, 3; face resembling a lotus Ašv. 4, 23; 6, 11; Bc. 8, 71; Kal. K. 8, 23; the bird cätaka- Mbh. 12, 360, 6; Kål. Mal. 2, 10+; Dandin, Dskc. p. 29, 10; the grass-stem of the munija- cp. Pet. Wtb. V, 821; & well-watered tree Manu 9, 255; Kál. R. I, 70; Ind. Sprüche II, 980; the coast keeping the sea in check e.g. Mbh. 7, 16, 21; 25, 15. See alao BÜHLER, Sitzungsberichte Wien, 192 (1890), XI, pp. 20; 25; 29; 42; 60; 63; 84.

·§ 66. POETICAL SIMILES 12 where the fancy of the author or poet', who no more than the general people is disinterested whilst describing reality, and who, no more than the ordinary speaker, knows the reserre which cultured man, intellectual man, imposes upon himself in speaking, has had an important share in creating the simile, eren (which is very often the case) when he makes use of savings and expressions that are already well-known. Then by adding one or more words, by elaborating the saying, by casting light on details, by using the simile in an unusual connection or by means of a happy variation, a paronomastic figure, a play on words, & different wording etc., he is able to put it in a new light, to give it a rub', to make it young or vivid again. "Plus une image est poussée dans le détail, plus aussi elle est concrète, sensible, imaginative, et nous ajoutons, plus elle repose sur une création individuelle". Just like the ordinary speaker, a poet or an author uses similes to make the description of his subject more responsive to his emo. tions and to the reactions which reality rouses in his feelings and which he intends to rouse in his hearers and readers. By means of the images he transforms reality with something of himself." The poet extends the innate ability of man to see resemblances. Reproducing reality as he sees it, he projects his inner life into it. Just like the people a true poet abandons the plain statement and "schweift hinüber in die Bahn von Analogievorstellungen''; especially poets possessing a rich imagination think in images and utter themselves by means of them when they intend to say exactly what they feel. "Seine (viz. of the poet) Anschauung ist sofort bereit, es auf ein Ähnliches oder Verwandtes in der Vorstellung zurückzuführen; es fällt ihn ... etwas dabei ein. In den poetischen Vergleichen begnügt sich der Dichter, die Eigenart der Erscheinung des Vorgangs in ein möglichst helles Licht zu setzen. Die lebhafte Phantasie geht gleichsam mit ihm durch's, Very often the author uses his image consciously, nay, deliberately with specific rhetorical intention; he adopts the originally 1 Of course, it is not possible to say where the poetical simile' begins! I CA. BALLY, Traité de stylistique françaiset, pp. 1989. See e.g. VÄXANA, KĀvy. 4, 2, 2. * See also W. SCHNEIDER, Ausdruckswerte der deutschen Sprache, 1931, p. 43. * E. ELSTER, Prinzipien der Literaturwissenschaft, II (1911), p. 119. * K. BOBINSKI, Deutsche Poetik, $ 37.

·118 § 67. COMMOX LANGUAGE AND POETICAL FICTION natural device as a deliberate means of enhancing the effect of bis work. Manya time it sprouts forth more from fancy and imagination' thau from feeling and sentimenta; often, however, its outstanding features are a greater depth, a greater extent and elaboration, & going into details. The manner in which an author builds on depends considerably on the bent of his nature and individual preference. The one has an inclination towards a broad delineating of his subject, on which the thoughts of the hearer may linger - and, in fact, the simile lends itself quite well to reflection - the other towards an unexpected typifying or characterizing, a third likes melody and harmony of sounds, another again a veiling of thoughts or exclusiveness or a far-fetched individualism. A number of authors like to rouse ever and anon parallels in nature or history, others always think and write statically and contemplatingly; others again readily elucidate or illustrate the things said, or strive after 'Steigerung'or excess, after show and parade. $ 67. But very often we are not able to distinguish between common language and poetical fiction. Thus, at first sight, we might consider Ašv. S. 2, 54 divi dundubhayo nedur divyatām marutām iva, "in the heavens drums thundered as if the storm gods were at play" as a nice example of individual creation, but, to my mind, it is very likely that our poet has borrowed it from the mouth of the people5. The sight of a lamp in darkness, Mșoch. 1, 10, which appears to be a product of 'poetical fiction, may be a popular image. And how about Aśv. S. 2, 52 sācalā pracacālorvī tarangābhihatera nauh?; has here only the adnominatio sprung from the poet's brain? 6, 37, however, the elaboration is undoubtedly a product of individual imagination: surrounded by women on the roof of the palace the very slender woman seemed like the crescent moon in an autumn cloud encircled by flashes of light- 4 1 See e.g. the examples bij VĀMANA, 1.c. * For Arabian and Persian poets see H. RITTER, Über die Bildersprache Nizāmis, Der Islam, Beiheft V (1927), p. 14. * See e.g. BALLY, O.C., $ 206. * Cp. also Moock, in Zs: für Ästhetik und Kunstwissenschaft 7 (1912); Groos, ibid. 9 (1914); KAINZ, ibid. 18 (1924). „Wie es in einem Volkslied der Faröer heißt: „Donner ist die rote Trommel, die durch alle Lande schlägt", Adwtb. d. deutschen Aberglaubens, II, p. 312.

·S 68. ARTIFICIAL SIMILES. TSED AS ORSAMENT: 119 ning: the like 2. 65: he de parted at night ... like a suan from a lake uchose lot uses have been destroyed icp. Bhāsa. Abhiş. 6.:4). Indivi. dual associations or elaborations also Asv. Bc. 5. 36: 6. 57: Kal. Megh. 19 (cp. Kum. 8, 69); 57; Rtus. 2.7: 3. 4; Jrcch. 3. 17:44 (with repetition of the same word): 5, 4 dhārā ... patati chinnā ivāmbara patasya dasāh patanti. Bhav., t'tt. 1, 18 we find an idea which might have been expressed in a simple way, with unusual wording and a well-considered order of words: samayah... yatra mām samanandayat... 'tara mürtimän iza mahotsaraḥ karaḥ. It is a matter of course that the long and elaborated simile in which the comparison has been sustained in detail is in the main a product of individual fancy; so much the more the similes consisting of a series of ambiguous words. I quote only one beautiful instance: Kāl. Kum. 3, 25 kuberaguptām disam uenaraimau gantum prarytte samayam rilanghya dig dakšiņā gandharaham mukhena vyalikaniśvāsam iroterisarja; Ragh. 11. 20. Modelled on § 14 and elaborated e.g. Bhār. Kir. 3, 43 kurvan prayāmaksayam āyatinām arkatrişām ahna itārasesaḥ. See also id, 8, 10; 9. 17: 10, 34, On the other hand it is not possible to draw the line with respect to chronology and the various provinces of literature. In the Mbh., for instance, 'poetical similes are met with?: 7.3, 1 Bhima lying on his couch made of arrows is mahārätasamühena samudram iva sositam; see also 3 sqq.; 2, 5 (long metre): 8, 27 (l.m.); 18, 16. It goes without saying that in India too there have been similes which were originally created by poets and other authors and then adopted by the people. $ 68. Further should be noticed that aesthetical impressions are not constant quantities. The well-known Indian comparisoi. with the full-moon, for instance, bas for & modern European reader sometimes a comical effect; in medieval German literature, however, this was not the case. The norm of florid language varies from people to people. Natural speoch, consequently also similes employed in & natural way, may contain outstanding zesthetical elements. "In the recorded texts of primitive tradi- 1 Compare also A. HILLEBRANDT, Kálidasa, 1921, p. 119. Soe also OLDENBERG, Mahabharatsy, p. 165. 3 O. WEISE, Ästhetik der deutschen Sprache (1903), p. 124f.

·120 $ 68. ARTIFICIAL SIMILES. USED AS ORXAMENTS tion and song there are many passages of unique vigor and beauty. The structure of the language often forces an assemblage of concepts that impresses us as a stylistic discovery”I. Now, this aesthetical value may be borne in upon the mind of man, and individuals may cultivate it consciously and deliberately. Then they practise 'linguistic art'. This art is rooted in ordinary speech. Although I made on the foregoing pages many a remark about similes which, in my opinion, appear to be used in an 'artificial way, I wish to state here once more that we must distinguish between similes used in natural speech and by real poets, with whom they are utterances of internal experiences, and the artificial similes which are made in or out of season as 'ornaments'. When a simile wears out and is no longer alive for the poet or author, when it is no longer the only true expression, springing from an inner urge, it develops into a traditional ornament. And when a poet 'gives it a rub' and elaborates it without being compelled by internal emotions, but only because he considers it proper, or because it is the fashion, or because the rules of a manual give him directions for adorning his work in this manner, or because of other external reasons, then the simile becomes an ornament as well; then it becomes a thing to be imposed on the language from a model, by preference from a classic one. Many a time this involves a conscious selection from the general store of expressions and possibilities of expressions of the language and an intentional contrasting with 'popular', 'common', 'vulgar idiom, with ordinary speech®; "such poetry is the work of poets clever in describing things in a manner passing the comprehension of ordinary men"?. We know that, also with regard to similes, Indian poetical art 1 E. SAPIB, Language, p. 244. * Cp. e.g. J. WARNECK, Studien über die Literatur der Toba-Batak, Mitteilungen des Seminars für oriental. Sprachen &. d. Universität Berlin, 1899, p. 115. * Cp.e.g. Anandavardhana, Dhvangāl. 2, 17; 18 (ZDMG. 56, pp. 809f.). • See eg. Ts. Plöss, Das Gleichnis in erzählender Dichtung, Festschrift zur 9. Versammlung deutscher Philologen und Schulmänner, Basel 1907, pp. 49ff. * Cp. e.g. MAMMATA, Kp. 8, 66. Cp. e.g. DANDIN, Kåvyåd. 2, 51 ff.; VĀHANA, Kávy. 4, 2, 2. ? MAXOLATA, 1, 2. $ ·§ 68 SSC SES :: 12: passed through a development, that e.g. the author of the Rudradāman-inscription did not arail himself of opportunities for making similes. which later poets without doubt would have utilized?, that authors living in former times often took 'poetic licenses', which younger generations would be consider as 'faults. But the possibility of such a derelopment exists from the moment when by reflection on linguistic phenomena people are forming an idea of 'correct speech'. 1 G. BUHLER, O.C. p. 51. ? See DIWEKAB, O.C., p. 86, § 3.

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