Seven Essays

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MĀJU, HOWRAHY
Estd. 1902.
HERBERT SPENCER'S ESSAYS
FUBLIC
LIBRARY
AJU
(A SELECTION)

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SEVEN ESSAYS
SELECTED FROM THE WORKS
OF
HERBERT SPENCER
[ISSUED FOR THE RATIONALIST PRESS ASSOCIATION, LIMITEI), BY ARRANGEMENT
WITI MR. HERBERT SPENCER'S TRUSTEES)
LONDON:
WATTS & CO.,
17 JOHNSON'S COURT, FLEET STREET, E.C.
1907

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Of the Essays here reprinted, five were written in the decade between 1850 and 1860, when Spencer was gradually working his way along many converging lines of investigation to the fundamental principles of the Synthetic Philosophy. That on “The Development Hypothesis" (1852) is historically important as his first declaration of adherence to the evolutionary view. In " Progress : Its Law and Cause" (1857), the theory of evolution as a universal process is set forthºat length, and, though only a single aspect of this process is recognised in it--that of the change from homogeneity to heterogeneity. -the essay remains an illuminating exposition of one side of the Spencerian formula (sce first Principles, Pt. II., chap. XV., and especially $ 119, notc). The “Genesis of Science" (1854) and “Manners and Fashion" (1854) illustrate the writer's habit of approaching every subject he handled from the evolutionary point of view. In the suggestive little paper on “Usc and Beauty" (1852) the reader will find a capital example of Spencer's power of lighting up afresh every topic he touched. The two remaining essays, belonging to the years of the Synthetic Philosophy, are polemical. That on “Morals and Moral Sentiments" (1871) is directed against misrepresentations of certain of his ethical principles. That on “Mill zuersus Hamilton" (1865) forms par of an "amicable controversy” with Mill on the ultimate test of truth, and is thus closely connected with the Psychology. (1853) on “The Universal Postulate” (the general doctrine of which was afterwards embodied in the Psychology, Pt. VII., chaps. xi., xii.), Spencer had challenged Mill's position in thr matter. His rejoinder in the present essay to Mill's reply is particularly important because it serves to bring out the difference between his psychological principles and methods and those of the older empiricist school. In an essay

CONTENTS
PAGE
PROGRESS : Its LAW AND CAUSE -
7
7
THE DEVELOPMENT HYPOTHESIS
35
THE GENESIS OF SCIENCE
38
MORALS AND MORAL SENTIMENTS
74
MANNERS AND FASHION
85
MILL versus HAMILTON ---THE TEST OF TRUTH -
IIO
USE AND BEAUTY
125

ESSAYS BY HERBERT SPENCER PROGRESS: ITS LAW AND CAUSE (1857) The current conception of progress is , rightly understood, social progress conshifting and indefinite. Sometimes it sists in those changes of structure in the comprehends little more than simple social organism which have entailed growth---as of a nation in the number of these consequences. The current conits members and the extent of territory ception is a telcological one. The over which it spreads. Sometimes it phenomena are contemplated solely as has reference to quantity of material bearing on human happiness. Only products-as when the advance of agri- those changes are held to constitute culture and manufactures is the topic. progress which directly or indirectly Sometimes the superior quality of these tend to heighten human happiness; and products is contemplated ; and some- they are thought to constitute progress times the nuw or improved appliances simply because they tend to heighten by which they are produced. When, I human happiness. But rightly to underagain, we speak of moral or intellectual stand progress, we must learn the nature progress, we refer to states of the indi- of these changes, considered apart from vidual or people exhibiting it; while, our interests. Ccasing, for example, to when the progress of Science, or Art, is regard the successive geological modificommented upon, we have in view cations that have taken place in the certain abstract results of human thought Earth, as modifications that have graduand action. Not only, however, is the ally fitted it for the habitation of Man, current conception of progress more or and as therefore constituting geological less vague, but it is in great measure progress, we must ascertain the character erroneous. It takes in not so much the common to these modifications--the law reality of progress as its accompaniments to which they all conform. And simi- --not so much the substance as the | larly in every other case. Leaving out shadow. * That progress in intelligence of sight concomitants and beneficial seen during the growth of the child into consequences, let us ask what progress the man, or the savage into the philo- is in itself. sopher, is commonly regarded as con In respect to that progress which sisting in the greater number of facts individual organisms display in the known and laws understood; whereas course of their evolution, this question the actual progress consists in those has been answered by the Germans, internal modifications of which, this | The investigations of Wolff , Goethe, and larger knowledge is the expression, von Baer, have established the truth Social progress is supposed to consist that the series of changes gone through in the making of a greater quantity and during the development of a seed into a variety of the articles required for satis- tree, or an ovum into an animal, constifying men's wants; in the increasing tute an advance from homogencity of security of person and property; in structure to heterogeneity of structure. widening freedom of action; whereas, . In its primary stage, every germ consists .7 8 PROGRESS: ITS LAW AND CAUSE now of a substance that is uniform through- almost homogeneous in density, in temoui, both in texture and chemical com- perature, and in other physical attributes. position. The first step is the appear. The first change in the direction of ance of a difference between two parts increased aggregation, brought a conof this substance; or, as the pheno- trast in density and a contrast in tem-. menon is called in physiological lan- perature, between the interior and the guage, a differentiation. Each of these exterior of this mass. Simultaneously differentiated divisions presently begins the drawing in of outer parts caused itself to exhibit some contrast of parts: motions ending in rotation round a and by and by these secondary differen- centre with various angular velocities. tiations become as definite as the These diff:rentiations increased in original one. This process is connumber and degree until there was tinuously repeated --is simultaneously evolved the organized group of sun, , going on in all parts of the growing planets, and satellites, which we embryo; and by endless such differen-know-a group which presents numerous tiations there is finally produced that contrasts of structure and action among complex 'combination of tissues and its members. There are the immense organs constituting the adult animal or contrasts between the sun and the plant. This is the history of all planets, in bulk and in weight; as well organisms whatever. It is settled beyond as the subordinate contrasts between dispute that organic progress consists in one planet and another, and between a change from the homogeneous to the the planets and their satellites. There heterogeneous. is the similarly-marked contrast between Now, we propose in the first place to the sun as almost stationary (relatively show, that this law of organic progress is to the other members of the Solar the law of all progress. Whether it be System), and the planets as moving in the development of the Earth, in the round him with great velocity: while development of Life upon its surface, in there are the secondary contrasts between the development of Society, of Govern- the velocities and periods of the several ment, of lanufactures, of Commerce, planets, and between their simple revoof Language, Literature, Science, Art, lutions and the double ones of their this same evolution of the simple into satellites, which have to move round the complex, through successive differen- their primaries while moving round the tiations, holds throughout. From the There is the yet further strong earliest traceable cosmical changes down contrast between the and the to the latest results of civilization, we planets in respect of temperaturgas and shall find that the transformation of the there is good reason to suppose that the homogeneous into the heterogeneous, planets and satellites differ from cach is that in which progress essentially other in their proper heats, as well as in consists. the amounts of heat they receive from With the view of showing that if the the sun. When we bear in mind that, Nebular Hypothesis be true, the genesis in addition to these various contrasts, of the solar system supplies One illus- the planets and satellites also differ in tration of this law, let us assume that respect to their distances from each the matter of which the sun and planets other and their primary ; in respect to consist was once in a diffused form ; the inclinations of their orbits, the incliand that from the gravitation of its nations of their axes, their times of rotaatoms there resulted a gradual concen tion on their axes, their specific gravities, tration. By the hypothesis, the solar and their physical constitutions; we see system in its nascent state existed as what a high degree of heterogeneity the an indefinitely extended and nearly solar system exhibits, when compared homogeneous medium -- a medium with the almost complete homogeneity sun. sun PROGRESS: I7S LAW AND CAUSE 9 Ocean. of the nebulous mass out of which it is mentary strata which form its crust; supposed to have originated. also, that it has been becoming more Passing from this hypothetical illus- heterogeneous in respect of the compositration, which must be taken for what it tion of these strata, the later of which, is worth, without prejudice to the general being made from the detritus of the argument, let us descend to a more earlier, are many of them rendered certain order of evidence. It is now highly complex by the mixture of generally agreed among geologists and materials they contain ; and further, physicists that the Earth was at one that this heterogeneity has been vastly time a mass of molten matter. If so, it increased by the action of the Earth's was at that time relatively lomogeneous still molten nucleus upon its envelope, in consistence, and, in virtue of the whence have resulted not only many circulation which takes place in heated kinds of igneous rocks, but the tilting up fluids, must have been comparatively of sedimentary strata at all angles, the homogeneous in temperature, and it formation of faults and metallic veins, must have been surrounded by an atmo the production of endless dislocations sphere consisting partly of the clements and irregularities. Yet again, geologists of air and water, and partly of those teach us that the Earth's surface has various other elements which are among been growing more varied in elevationthe more ready to assume gaseous forms that the most ancient mountain systems at high temperatures. That slow cooling are the smallest, and the Andes and by radiation which is still going on at an Himalayas the most modern; while in inappreciable rate, and which, though all probability there have been corresoriginally far more rapid than now, ponding changes in the bed of the necessarily required an immense time to As a consequence of these produce any decided change, must ulti- ceaseless differentiations, we now find mately have resulted in the solidification that no considerable portion of the of the portion most able to part with its Earth's exposed surface is like any other heat--nainely, the surface. In the thin portion, either in contour, in geologic crust thus formed we have the first structure, or in chenical composition; inarked differentiation. A still further and that in most parts it changes from cooling, a consequent thickening of this mile to mile in all these characters. crust, and an accompanying deposition Moreover, there has been simultaneously of all solidifiable clements contained in going on a differentiation of climates. the atmosphere, must finally have been As fast as the Earth cooled and its crust followed by the condensation of the solidified, there arose appreciable differwater previously existing as vapour. A ences in temperature between those second marked differentiation must thus parts of its surface more exposed to the have arisen ; and as the condensation sun and those less exposed. As the must have taken place on the coolest parts cooling progressed, these differences of the surface-namely, about the poles became more pronounced ; until there --there must thus have resulted the first finally resulted those marked contrasts geographical distinction of parts. To between regions of perpetual ice and these illustrations of growing hetero- snow, regions where winter and summer geneity, which, though deducede from alternately reign for periods varying known physical laws, may be regarded according to the latitude, and regions as more or less hypothetical, Geology. where summer follow's summer with adds arf extensive series that have been scarcely an appreciable variation. At inductively established. Investigations the same time the many and varied show that the Earth has been continu- elevations and subsidences of portions of ally becoming more heterogeneous in the Earth's crust, bringing about the virtue of the multiplication of sedi-present irregular distribution of land PROGRESS: IT'S LAW AND CAUSE ; and sea, have entailed modifications of explored that a new series of strata has climate beyond those dependent on been added within these four years,-it latitude; while a yet further series of is impossible for us to say with certainty such modifications have been produced what creatures have, and what have not, by increasing differences of elevation in existed at any particular period. Conthe land, which have in sundry places sidering the perishable nature of many of brought arctic, temperate, and tropical the lower organic forms, the metamorclimates to within a few miles of one phosis of numerous sedimentary strata, another. And the general outcome of and the great gaps occurring among the these changes is, that not only has every rest, we shall see further reason for disextensive region its own meteorologic trusting ouy deductions. On the one conditions, but that every locality in hand, the repeated discovery of verteeach region differs more or less from brate remains in strata previously supothers in those conditions ; as in its posed to contain none, -of reptiles structure, its contour, its soil. Thus, where only fish were thought to exist,- between our existing Earth, the pheno- of mammals where it was believed there mena of whose crust neither geographers, were no creatures higher than reptiles,- geologists, mineralogists, nor meteorometeoro- renders it daily more manifest how small logists have yet enumerated, and the is the value of negative evidence. On molten globe out of which it was the other hand, the worthlessness of the evolved, the contrast in heterogeneity is assumption that we have discovered the extreme. earliest, or anything like the earliest, When from the Earth itself we turn to organic remains, is becoming equally the plants and animals which have lived, clear. That the oldest known sedimenor still live, upon its surface, we find our tary rocks have been greatly changed by selves in some difficulty from lack of igneous action, and that still older ones facts. That every existing organism has have been totally transformed by it, is been developed out of the simple into beconing undeniable. And the fact the complex, is indeed the first estab- that sedimentary strata earlief than any lished truth of all; and that every we know, have been melted up, being organism which existed in past times was admitted, it must also be admitted that similarly developed, is an inference no we cannot say how far back in time this physiologist will hesitate to draw. But destruction of sedimentary strata has when we pass from individual forms of been going on. Thus the title Paleozoic, life to Life in general, and inquire as applied to the earliest known fossiliwhether the same law is seen in the ferous strata, involves a petitio principii ; ensemble of its manifestations, --whether and, for aught we know to the contrary, modem plants and animals are of more only the last few chapters of the Earth's heterogeneous structure than ancient biological history may have come down ones, and whether the Earth's present to us. On neither side, therefore, is the Flora and Fauna are more heterogeneous evidence conclusive. Nevertheless we than the Flora and Fauna of the past, cannot but think that, scanty as they we find the evidence so fragmentary, are, the facts, taken altogether, tend to that every conclusion is open to dispute. show both that the more heterogeneous Three-fifths of the Earth's surface being organisms have been evolved in the later covered by water ; a great part of the geologic periods, and that Life in general exposed land being inaccessible to, or has been more heterogeneously maniuntravelled by, the geologist; the greater fested as time has advanced. Let us part of the remainder having been cite, in illustration, the one case of the scarcely more than glanced at; and Vertebrata. The earliest known verteeven the most familiar portions, as brate remains are those of Fishes; and England, having been so imperfectly Fishes are the most homogeneous of the PROGRESS: IT'S LAW AND CAUSE It vertebrata. Later and more hetero- which now people it.” Or we might geneous are Reptiles. Later still, and quote, as decisive, the judgment of more heterogeneous still, are Birds and Professor Owen, who holds that the Mammals. If it be said that the earlier examples of cach group of Palæozoic deposits, 'not being estuary creatures severally departed less widely deposits, are not likely to contain the from archetypal generality than the later temains of terrestrial vertebrata, which examples--were severally less unlike the may nevertheless have existed at that fundamental form common to the group era, we reply that we are merely pointing as a whole; and thus constituted a less to the leading facts, such as they are. heterogeneous group of creatures. But But to avoid any such criticism, let us in deference to an authority for whom take the mammalian sub-division only. we have the highest respect, who con- The earliest known remains of mammals siders that the evidence at present are those of small marsupials, which are obtained does not. justify: a verdict the lowest of the mammalian type; while, either way, we are content to leave the conversely, the highest of the mammalian question open.' type-Man-is the most recent. The Whether an advance from the homoevidence that the vertebrate fauna, as a geneous to the heterogeneous is or is whole, has become more heterogeneous, not displayed in the biological history of is considerably stronger. To the argu- the globe, it is clearly enough displayed ment that the vertebrate fauna of the in the progress of the latest and most Palæozoic period, consisting, so far as heterogeneous creature-Man. It is we know, entirely of Fishes, was less true alike that, during the period in heterogeneous than the modern verte which the Earth has been peopled, the brate fauna, which includes Reptiles, human organism has grown more hetero- Birds, and Mammals, of multitudinous geneous among the civilized divisions of genera, it may be replied, as before, that the species; and that the species, as a estuary deposits of the Palæozoic period, whole, has been growing more heterocould we find them, might contain other geneous in virtue of the multiplication of orders of vertebrata. But no such reply races and the differentiation of these can be made to the argument that races from each other. In proof of the whereas the marine vertebrata of the first of these positions, we may cite the Palæozoic period consisted entirely of fact that, in the relative development of cartilaginous fishes, the marine verte- the limbs, the civilized man departs brata of later periods include numerous more widely from the general type of genera of osseous fishes; and that, the placental mammalia than do the therefore, the later marine vertebrate lower human races. While often possessfaunas are more heterogeneous than the ing well-developed body and arms, the oldest known one. Nor, again, can any Nor, again, can any Australian has very small legs : thus such reply be made to the fact that there reminding us of the chimpanzee and the are far more numcrous orders and gorilla, which present no great contrasts genera of mammalian remains in the in size between the hind and fore limbs. tertiary formations than in the secondary formations. Did Did we wish merely to ? Since this was written (in 1857) the make out the best case, we might dwell advance of paleontological discovery, especially upon the opinion of Dr. Carpenter, who in America, has shown conclusively, in respect of certain groups of vertebrates, that higher says the general facts of Palæonto- types have arisen by modifications of lower; so logy appear to sanction the belief, thắt that, in common with others, Prof. Huxley, to the same plan may be traced out in what whom the above allusion is made, now admits, may be called the general Mfe of the or rather asserts, biological progression, and, by implication, that there have arisen more heteroglobe, as in the individual life of every geneous organic forms and a more heterogeneous one of the forms of organized being assemblage of organic forms. that so 12 PROGRESS: ITS LAW AND CAUSE once was. But in the European, the greater length whole, have become more heterogeneous and massiveness of the legs have become -is so obvious as scarcely to need marked--the fore and hind limbs are illustration. Every work on Ethnology, more heterogeneous. Again, the greater by its divisions and subdivisions of races, ratio which the cranial bones bcar to the bears testimony to it. Even were we facial bones illustrates the same truth. to admit the hypothesis that Mankind Among the vertebrata in general, pro- originated from several separate stocks, gress is marked by an increasing hetero- it would still remain true, that as, from geneity in the vertebral column, and each of these stocks, there have sprung more especially in the segments consti- many now widely-different tribes, which tuting the skull: the higher forms being are proved by philological evidence to distinguished by the relatively larger have had a common origin, the race as a size of the bones which cover the brain, whole is far less homogeneous than it and the relatively smaller size of those Add to which, that we have, which form the jaws, &c. Now this in the Anglo-American, an example of a characteristic, which is stronger in Man now variety arising within these few than in any other creature, is stronger in generations; and that, if we may trust the European than in the savage. More to the descriptions of observers, we are over, judging from the greater extent likely soon to have another such example and variety of faculty he exhibits, we in Australia. may infer that the civilized man has On passing from Humanity under its also a more complex or heterogeneous individual form to Humanity as socially nervous system than the uncivilized embodied, we find the general law still man : and, indeed, the fact is in part more variously exemplified. The change visible in the increased ratio which his from the homogeneous to the heterocerebrum bears to the subjacent ganglia, geneous is displayed in the progress of as well as in the wider departure from civilization as a whole, as well as in the symmetry in its convolutions. If further progress of every nation ; and is still elucidation be needed, we may find it in going on with increasing rapidity. As every nursery. The infant European we see in existing barbarous tribes, has sundry marked points of resem-society in its first and lowest form is a blance to the lower human races; as in homogeneous aggregation of individuals the flatness of the alæ of the nose, the having like powers and like functions : depression of its bridge, the divergence the only marked difference of function and forward opening of the nostrils, the being that which accompanies difference form of the lips, the absence of a frontal of sex. Every man is warrior, hunter, sinus, the width between the eyes, the fisherman, tool-maker, builder ; every smallness of the legs. Now, as the woman performs the same drudgerics. developmental process by which these Very carly, however, in the course of traits are turned into those of the adult social evolution, there arises an incipient European, is a continuation of that differentiation between the governing change from the homogeneous to the and the governed. Some kind of chiefheterogeneous displayed during the pre- tainship seems coeval with the first vious evolution of the embryo, which advance from the state of separate every anatomist will admit; it follows wandering families to that of a nomadic that the parallel developmental process tribe. The authority of the strongest or by which the like traits of the barbarous the most cunning makes itself felt among races have been turned into those of the a body of savages as in a herd of civilized races, has also been a continua- animals, or a posse of schoolboys. At tion of the change from the homogeneous first, however, it is indefinite, uncertain; to the heterogeneous. The truth of the is shared by others of scarcely inferior second position—that Mankind, as a power ; 'and is unaccompanied by any are PROGRESS: ITS LAW AND CAUSE 13 difference in occupation or style of prisoners to their conqueror, or from living: the first ruler kills his own subjects to their ruler, either human.or game, makes his own weapons, builds divine-expressions which were afterhis own hut, and, economically con- wards used to propitiate subordinate sidered, does not differ from others of authorities, and slowly descended into his tribe. Gradually, as the tribe pro- ordinary iņtercourse. All modes of gresses, the contrast between the govern- salutation were once obeisances made ing and the governed grows more before the monarch and used in worship decided, Supreme power becomes of him after his death. Presently others hereditary in one family; the head of of the god-descended race were similarly that family, ceasing to provide for his saluted; and by degrees some of the own wants, is served by others; and he salutations have become the due of all." begins to assume the sole office of Thus, no sooner does the originallyruling. At the same time there has homogeneous social mass differentiate been arising. a co-ordinate species of into the governed and the governing government—that of Religion. As all parts, than this last exhibits an incipient ancient records and traditions prove, differentiation into religious and secular the earliest rulers are regarded as divine --Church and State ; while at the same personages. The maxims and commands time there begins to be differentiated they uttered during their lives are held from both, that less definite, species of sacred after their deaths, and government which rules our daily interenforced by their divinely-dlescended course-a species of government which, successors; who in their turns are pro as we may, see in hcralds' colleges, in moted to the pantheon of the race, here books of the peerage, in masters of to be worshipped and propitiated along ceremonies, is not without a certain with their predecessors: the most embodiment of its own. Each of these ancient of whom is the supreme god, is itself subject to successive differentiaand the rest subordinate gods. For a tions. In the course of ages, there long time these these connate forms of arises, as among ourselves, a highly comgovernment-civil and religious---remain plex political organization of monarch, closely associated. For many genera- i ministers, lords and commons, with their tions the king continues to be the chief | subordinate administrative departments, priest, and the priesthood to be mem courts of justice, revenue offices, &c., bers of the royal race. For many ages supplemented in the provinces by religious law continues to include more municipal governments, county governor less of civil regulation, and civil law ments, parish or union governments--all to possess more or less of religious of them more or less elaborated. sanction; and even among the most side there grows up a highly complex advanced nations these two controlling religious organization, with its various agencies are by no means completely grades of officials, from archbishops separated from each other. Having a down to sextons, its colleges, convocacommon root with these, and gradually tions, ecclesiastical courts, &c.; to all diverging front them, we find yet which must be added the ever-multianother controlling agency - that of plying independent sects, each with its Ceremonial usages. All titles of honour general and local authorities. And at are originally the names of the god the same time there is developed a king; afterwards of the god and the highly complex aggregation of customs, king; still later of persons of high rank ; manners, and temporary fashions, enand finally comt, some of them, to be forced by society at large, and serving to used between man and All forms of complimentary address were at first For cletailed proof of these assertions see the expressions of submission from essay on “Manners and Fashion." By its mun.

14 PROGRESS: IT'S LAW AND CAUSE control those minor transactions between that in each district the same occupa: man and man which are not regulated tions are pursued. But when roads and by civil and religious law. Moreover, it other means of transit become numerous is to be observed that this increasing and good, the different districts begin heterogeneity in the governmental appli- to assume different functions, and to ances of each nation, has been accom- become mutually dependent. The calico panied by an increasing heterogeneity in manufacture locates itself in this county, the assemblage of governmental appli- the woollen-cloth manufacture in that; ances of different nations: all nations silks are produced here, lace there ; being more or less unlike in their stockings in one place, shoes in another; political systems and legislation, in their pottery, hardware, cutlery, come to have creeds and religious institutions, in their their special towns; and ultimately every customs and ceremonial usages. locality becomes more or less distin- Simultaneously there has been going guished from the rest by the leading on a second differentiation of a more occupation carried on in it. This subfamiliar kind ; that, namely, by which division of functions shows itself not the mass of the community has been only among the different parts of the segregated into distinct classes and classes and same nation, but among different nations. orders of workers. While the governing That exchange of commodities which part has undergone the complex develop- free-trade is increasing so largely, will ment above detailed, the governed part ultimately have the effect of specializing, has undergone an equally complex in a greater or less degree, the industry development, which has resulted in that of each people. So that, beginning with minute division of labour characterizing a barbarous tribc, almost if not quite advanced nations. It is needless to homogeneous in the functions of its trace out this progress from its first members, the progress has been, and stages, up through the caste-divisions of still is, towards an economic aggregation the East and the incorporated guilds of of the whole human race; growing ever Europe, to the elaborate producing and more heterogeneous in respect of the distributing organization existing among separate functions assumed by separate ourselves. It has been an evolution nations, the separate functions assumed which, beginning with a tribe whose | by the local sections of each nation, the members severally perform the same separate functions assumed by the many actions each for himself, ends with a kinds of makers and traders in each civilized community whose members town, and the separate functions assumed severally perform different actions for by the workers united in producing each each other; and an evolution which has commodity. transformed the solitary producer of any The law thus clearly exemplified in one commodity into a combination of the evolution of the social organism, is producers who, united under a master, exemplified with equal clearness in the take separate parts in the manufacture evolution of all products of human of such commodity. But there are yet thought and action; whether concrete or other and higher phases of this advance abstract, real or ideal. Let us take from the homogeneous to the hetero- Language as our first illustration. geneous in the industrial organization of The lowest form of language is the society. Long after considerable pro- exclamation, by which an entire idea is gress has been made in the division of vaguely conveyed through a single labour among different classes of workers, I sound, as among the lower animals. there is still little or no division of labour That human language ever consisted among the widely separated parts of the solely of exclamations, and so community: the nation continues com-. strictly homogeneous in respect of its paratively homogeneous in the respect parts of speech, we have no evidence, was .

PROGRESS: IT'S LAW AND CAUSE 15 But that language can be traced down to led to differentiations of race, has simulà form in which nouns and verbs are its taneously led to differentiations of speech: only elements, is an established fact. a truth which we see further illustrated In the gradual multiplication of parts of in each nation by the distinct dialects speech out of these primary ones-in found in separate districts. Thus the the differentiation of verbs into active progress of Language conforms to the and passive, of nouns into abstract and general law, alike in the evolution of concrete in the rise of distinctions of languages, in the evolution of families of mood, tense, person, of number and words, and in the evolution of parts of case in the formation of auxiliary verbs, speech. of adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, prepo On passing from spoken to written sitions, articles--in the divergence of language, we come upon several classes those orders, genera, species, and varie- of facts, having similar implications. ties of parts of speech by which civilized Written language is connate with Paintraces express minute modifications of ing and Sculpture ; and at first all three meaning---we see a change from the are appendages of Architecture, and homogeneous to the heterogeneous. have a direct connection with the Another aspect under which we may primary form of all Government--the trace the development of language is the theocratic. Merely noting by the way divergence of words having common the fact that sundry wild races, as for origins. Philology early disclosed the example the Australians and the tribes truth that in all languages words may be of South Africa, are given to depicting grouped into families, the members of personages and events upon the walls of cach of which are allied by their derivil- caves, which are probably regarded as tion. Names springing from a primitive sacred places, let us pass to the case of root, themselves become the parents of the Egyptians. Among them, as also other names still further modified. And among the Assyrians, we find mural by the aid of those systematic modes paintings used to decorate the temple of which presently arise, of making deriva- the god and the palace of the king tives and forming compound terms, (which were, indeed, originally identical); there is finally developed a tribe of and as such they were governmental words so heterogeneous in sound and appliances in the same sense as statemeaning, that to the uninitiated it seems pageants and religious feasts were. They incredible they should be nearly related. were governmental appliances in another Meanwhile from other roots there are way: representing as they did the worbeing evolved other such tribes, until ship of the god, the triumphs of the there results a language of some sixty god-king, the submission of his subjects, thousand or more unlike works, signi- and the punishment of the rebellious. fying as many unlike objects, qualities, l'urther, they were governmental, as acts. Yet another way in which lan-being the products of an art reverenced guage in general advances from the by the people as a sacred mystery. homogeneous to the heterogeneous, is From the habitual use of this pictorial in the multiplication of languages. representation there grew up the but- Whether all langưages have grown from slightly - modified practice of pictureone stock, or whether, as some philolo- writing--a practice which was found gists think, they have grown from two or still extant among North American more stocks, it is clear that since large peoples at the time they were discovered. groups of languages, as the Indo- By abbreviations analogous to those still European, are of one parentage, they going on in our own written language, have become distinct through a process the most frequently-recurring of these of continuous divergence. The same dif-, pictured figures were successively simplifusion over the Earth's surface which has fied; and ultimately there grew up a 16 PROGRESS: IT'S LAW AND CAUSE system of symbols, most of which had to form a species of work intermediate but distant resemblances to the things between intaglio and bas-relief. In other for which they stood. The inference cases we see an advance upon this: the that the hieroglyphics of the Egyptians raised spaces between the figures being were thus produced, is confirmed by chiselled off , and the figures themselves. the fact that the picture-writing of the appropriately tinted, a painted bas-relief Mexicans was found to have given birth was produced. The restored Assyrian to a like family of ideographic forms; architecture at Sydenham exhibits this and among them, as among the Egyp- style of art carried to greater perfection tians, these had been partially differen---the persons and things represented, tiated into the kuriologicul or imitative, though still barbarously coloured, are and the tropical or symbolic; which carved out with more truth and in were, however, used together in the greater detail: and in the winged lions same record. In Egypt, written lan- and bulls used for the angles of gateguage . underwent a further differentiaways, we may see a considerable advance tion, whence resulted the hieratic and towards a completely sculptured figure; the epistolographic or enchorial ; both of which, nevertheless, is still coloured, which are derived from the original and still forms part of the building hieroglyphic. At the same time we find But while in Assyria the production of a that for the expression of proper names, statue proper secms to have been little, which could not be otherwise conveyed, if at all, attempted, we may trace in signs having phonetic values were em- Egyptian art the gradual separation of ployed; and though it is alleged that the sculptured figure from the wall. A the Egyptians never achieved complete walk through the collection in the alphabetic writing, yet it can scarcely be British Museum shows this; while at doubted that these phonetic symbols, the same time it affords an opportunity occasionally used in aid of their ideo of observing the traces which the indegraphic ones, were the germs of an pendent statues bear of their derivation alphabetic system. Once having become from bas-relief : seeing that nearly all of separate from hieroglyphics, alphabetic them not only display that fusion of the writing itself underwent numerous dif- legs with one another and of the arms ferentiations ---multiplied alphabets were with the body which is characteristic of produced; between most of which, how bas-relief, but have the back united from ever, more or less connection can still be head to foot with a block which stands traced. And in each civilized nation in place of the original wall. Greece there has now grown up, for the repre-repeated the leading stages of this prosentation of one set of sounds, several gress. On the friezes of Greek Temples, sets of written signs used for distinct were coloured bas-relicts representing purposes. Finally, from writing diverged 'sacrifices, battles, processions, games-- printing; which, uniform in kind as it all in some sort religious. The pediwas at first, has since become multiform. ments contained painted sculptures While written language was passing more or less united with the tympanum, through its first stages of development, and having for subjects the triumphs of the mural decoration which contained gouls or herues. Even statues definitely its root was being differentiated into separated from buildings were coloured ; Painting and Sculpture. The gods, , and only in the later periods of Greek kings, men, and animals represented, civilization does the differentiation of were originally marked by indented out- Sculpture from Painting appear to have lines and coloured. In most cases these become complete. In Christian art we outlines were of such depth, and the may trace a parallel re-genesis. All object they circumscribed so far rounded carly works of art throughout Europe and marked out in its leading parts, as were rehgious in subject.- represented PROGRESS: IT'S LAW AND CAUSE 17 (ne. Christs, crucifixions, virgins, holý, coins, the signs over shops, the coat of families, apostles, saints. They formed arms outside the carriage panel, and the integral parts of church architecture, placards inside the omnibus, are, in and were among the means of excit common with dolls and paper-hangings, ing worship; as in Roman Catholic lineally descended from the rude sculpcountries they still are. Moreover, the ture-paintings in which ancient peoples sculptured figures of Christ on the cross, represented the triumphs and worship of of virgins, of saints, were coloured ; and their god-kings. Perhaps no example it needs but to call to mind the painted' can be given which more vividly illusmadonnas still abundant in continental trates the multiplicity and heterogeneity churches and highways, to perceive the of the products that in course of time significant fact that Painting and Sculp- may arise by successive differentiations ture continue in closest connection with from a common stock. each other where they continue in Before passing to other classes of closest connection with their parent. facts, it should be observed that the Even when Christian sculpture became evolution of the homogeneous into the differentiated from painting, it was still neterogeneous is displayed not only in religious and governmental in its sub- the separation of Painting and Sculpture jects-was used for tombs in churches from Architecture and from each other, and statues of kings; while, at the same and in the greater variety of subjects time, painting, where not purely cccle- they embody, but it is further shown in siastical, was applied to the decoration the structure of cach work. A modern of palaces, and besides representing picture or statue is of far more heteroroyal personages, was mostly devoted geneous nature than an ancient to sacred legends. Only in recent times An Egyptian sculpture-fresco usually have painting and sculpture become represents all its figures as at the same quite separate and mainly secular. Only distance from the eye; and so is less within these few centuries has Painting heterogeneous than a painting that been divided into historical, landscapc, represents them as at various distances marine, architectural, genre, animal, from the eye. It exhibits all objects as still-life, &c.; and Sculpture grown exposed to the same degree of light; heterogeneous in respect of the variety and so is less heterogeneous than a of real and idcal subjects with which it painting which exhibits its different occupies itself. objects and different parts of each object Strange as it seems then, we find that as in different degrees of light. It uses all forms of written language, of Paint- chiefly the primary colours, and these ing, and of Sculpture, have a common in their full intensities; and so is less root in the politico-religious decorations heterogeneous than a painting which, of ancient temples and palaces, Little introducing the primary colours but resemblance as they now have, the sparingly, employs numerous intermclandscape that hangs against the wall, diate tints, each of heterogeneous comand the copy of the Times lying on the position, and differing from the rest not table, are reniotely akin. The brazen only in quality but in strength. Moreface of the knocker which the postman over, we see in these early works great has just liſted, is related not only do the uniformity of conception. The same woodcuts of the Illustrated London arrangement of figures is perpetually Nows which he is delivering, but to the reproduced--the same actions, attitudes, characters of the billet-doux which accom- faces, dresses. In Egypt the modes of : panies it. Between the painted window, representation were so fixed that it was the prayer-book on which its light falls, sacrilege to introduce a novelty. The and the adjacent monument thcfe is Assyrian bas - reliefs display parallel consanguinity. The effigies on our i characters. Deities, kings, attendants, 18 PROGRESS: 175 LAW AND CAUSE winged-ligures and animals, are time in sounds, and rhythm in motions, were after time depicted in like positions, in the beginning parts of the same thing, holding like implements, doing like and have only in process of time things, and with like expression or non become separate things. Among existexpression of face. If a palm-grove is ing barbarous tribes we find them still introduced, all the trees are of the same united. The dances of savages are height, have the same number of leaves, accompanied by some kind of monoto and are equidistant. When water is nous chant, the clapping of hands, the imitated, each wave is a counterpart of' striking of rude instruments : there are the rest; and the fish, almost always of measured movements, measured words, one kind, are evenly distributed over and measured tones. The early records the surface. The beards of the kings, of historic races similarly show these the gods, and the winged figures, are three forms of metrical action united everywhere similar ; as are the manes of in religious festivals. In the Hebrew the lions, and equally so those of the writings we read that the triumphal ode horses. Hair is represented throughout composed by Moses on the defeat of the by one form of curl. The king's heard Egyptians, was sung to an accompaniis quite architecturally built up of com ment of dancing and timbrels. The pound tiers of uniform curls, alternating Israelites danced and sung “at the with twisted tiers placed in a transverse inauguration of the golden calf. And direction, and arranged with perfect as it is generally agreed that this repreregularity; and the terminal tufts of sentation of the Deity was borrowed the bulls' tails are represented in exactly from the mysteries of Apis, it is probable the same manner. Without tracing out that the dancing was copied from that analogous facts in early Christian art, in of the Egyptians on those occasions." which, though less striking, they are Again, in Greece the like relation is still visible, the advance in heterogeneity everywhere seen: the original type will be sufficiently manifest on remem- being there, as probably in other cases, bering that in the pictures of our own a simultaneous chanting and mimetic day the composition is endlessly varied; representation of the life and adventhe attitudes, faces, expressions, unlike; turcs of the hero or the god. The the subordinate objects different in sizes, Spartan dances were accompanied by forms, 'textures, and more or less of hymns and songs; and in general the contrast even in the smallest details. Greeks had "no festivals or religious Or, if we compare an Egyptian statue, assemblies but what were accompanied seated bolt upright on a block, with with songs and dances”-both of them hands on knces, fingers parallel, eyes being forms of worship used before looking straight forward, and the two altars. Among the Romans, too, there sides perfectly symmetrical in every were Sacred dances: the Salian and particular, with a statue of the advanced Lupercalian being named as of that Greek school or the modern school, kind. And even in Christian countries, which is asymmetrical in respect of the as at Limoges, in comparatively recent attitude of the head, the body, the times, the people have danced in the limbs, the arrangement of the hair, choir' in honour of a saint. The dress, appendages, and in its relations to incipient separation of these once-united neighbouring objects, we shall see the arts from each other and from religion, change from the homogeneous to the was early visible in Greece. Probably heterogeneous clearly manifested. diverging from dances partly religious, In the co-ordinate origin and gradual partly warlike, as the Corybantian, came differentiation of Poetry, Music, and the war-dances proper, of which there Dancing, we have another series of were various kinds. Meanwhile Music illustrations. Rhythm in words, rhythm and Poetry, though still united, came to PROGRESS: ITS LAW AND CAUSE 19 - no have an existence separate from Dancing. stituting their tetrachord. In course of The primitive Greek poems, religious in some centuries lyres of seven and eight subject, were not recited but chanted; strings were employed; and, by the and though at first the chant of the poet expiration of a thousand years, they had was accompanied by the dance of the advanced to their “ great system” of chorus, it ultimately grew into indepen the double octave. Through all which dence. Later still, when the poem had changes there of course arose a greater been differentiated into epic and lyric. heterogeneity of melody. Simultaneously -when it became the custom to sing there came into use the different modes the lyric and recite the epic-poetry --Dorian, Ionian, Phrygian, Æolian, and proper was born. As during the same Lydian-answering to our keys; and of period musical instruments were being these there were ultimately fifteen. As multiplied, we may presume that music yet, however, there was but little heterocame to have an existence apart from geneity in the time of their music. words. And both of them were begin- Instrumental music being at first merely ning to assume other forms besides the the accompaniment of vocal music, and religious. Facts having like implications vocal music being subordinated to words, might be cited from the histories of later --the singer being also the poet, chanttimes and peoples; as the practices of ing his own compositions and making our own early minstrels, who sang to the the lengths of his notes agree with the harp heroic narratives versified by them- feet of his verses, -there resulted a tireselves to music of their own composi- some uniformity of measure, which, as tion: thus uniting the now separate Dr. Burney says, resources of offices of poct, composer, vocalist, and melody could disguise." Lacking the instrumentalist. But, without further complex rhythm obtained by our equal illustration, the common origin and bars and unequal notes, the only rhythm gradual differentiation of Dancing, Poetry, was that produced by the quantity of the and Music will be sufficiently manifest. syllables, and was of necessity compara- The advance from the homogeneous tively monotonous. And further, it may to the heterogeneous is displayed not be observed that the chant thus resultonly in the separation of these arts from ing, being like recitative, was much each other and from religion, but also less clearly differentiated from ordinary in the multiplied differentiations which speech than is our modern song. Nevereach of them afterwards undergoes, theless, in virtue of the extended range Not to dwell upon the numberless kinds of notes in use, the variety of modes, of dancing that have, in course of time, the occasional variations of time consecome into use : and not to occupy space quent on changes of metre, and the in detailing the progress of poetry, as multiplication of instruments, music had, seen in the development of the various towards the close of Greek civilization, forms of metre, of rhyme, and of general attained to considerable heterogeneityorganization ; let us confine our atten not indeed as compared with our music, tion to music as a type of the group. but as compared with that which pre- As implied by the customs of still extant ceded it. Still, there existed nothing barbarous races, the first musical instru- but melody: harmony was unknown, ments were, without doubt, percussive-It was not until Christian church-music sticks, calabashes, tom-toms--and were had reached some development, that used simply to mark the time of the music in parts was evolved ; and then it dance; and in this constant repetition of came into existence through a very unthe same sound, we see music in its obtrusive differentiation. Difficult as it most homogeneous form. The Egyp- may be to conceive a priori how the tians had a lyre with three strings. The advance from melody to harmony could early lyre of the Greeks had four, con- | take place without a sudden leap, it is 20 PROGRESS: ITS LAW AND CAUSE SO none the less true that it did so. The the variations of strength with which circumstance which prepared the way for they are sounded and sung, but in it was the employment of two choirs respect of the changes of key, the singing alternately the same air. After- changes of time, the changes of timbre wards it became the practice-very of the voice, and the many other modifipossibly first suggested by a mistake cations of expression. While between for the second choir to commence the old monotonous dance-chant and a before the first had ceased ; thus pro- grand opera of our own day, with its ducing a fugue. With the simple airs endless orchestral complexities and vocal then in use, a partially-harmonious ſugue combinations, the contrast in heteromight not improbably thus result: and a geneity is so extreme that it seems very partially-harmonious fugue satisfied scarcely crédible that the one should the ears of that age, as we know from have been the ancestor of the other. still preserved examples. The idea Were they needed, many further illushaving once been given, the composing trations might be cited. Going back to of airs productive of fugal harmony the early time when the deeds of the would naturally grow up, as in some god-king were recorded in pictureway it did grow up, out of this alternate writings on the walls of temples and choir-singing. And from the fugue to palaces, and constituted a rude concerted music of two, three, four, and literature, we might trace the developmore parts, the transition was Cusy. ment of Literature through phases in Without pointing out in out in detail the which, as in the Hebrew Scriptures, it increasing complexity that resulted from presents in one work theology, cosintroducing notes of various lengths, mogony, history, biography, law, ethics, from the multiplication of keys, from poetry; down to its present heterothe use of accidentals, from varieties of geneous development, in which its time, and so forth, it needs but to separated divisions and subdivisions arc contrast music as it is, with music as it so nunierous and varied as to defy comwas, to see how immense is the incrcase plete classification. Or we might trace of heterogeneity. We see this if, looking out the evolution of Science ; beginning at music in its ensemble, we enumerate its with the era in which it was not yet many different genera and species--if we differentiated from Art, and was, in consider the divisions into vocal, instru- union with Art, the handmaid of Relimental, and mixed; and their sub- gion; passing through the era in which divisions into music for different voices the sciences were so few and rudimenand different instruments---if we observe tary, as to be simultaneously cultivated the many forms of sacred music, from by the same men; and ending with the the simple hymn, the chant, the canon, era in which the genera and species are motet, anthem, &c., up to the oratorio so numerous that few can cnumerate and the still more numerous forms of them, and no one can adequately grasp secular music, from the ballad up to the even one genus. Or we might do the serenata, from the instrumental solo up like with Architecture, with the Drama, to the symphony. Again, the same truth with Dress. But doubtless the reader is is seen on comparing any one sample of already weary of illustrations; and our aboriginal music with a sample of modern promise has been amply fulfilled. Abunmusic-even an ordinary song for the dant proof has been given that the law piano; which we find to be relatively of organic development formulated by very heterogeneous, not only in respect von Baer, is the law of all develupment. of the variety in the pitches and in the The advance from the simple to the lengths of the notes, the number of complex, through a process of successive different notes sounding at the same differentiations, is seen alike in the instant in company with the voice, and I earliest changes of the Universe to, PROGRESS: ITS LAW AND CAUSE 21 can which we reason our way back, attribute of things be assignable as the and in the earliest changes which we cause of each of the groups of phenocan inductively establish; it is seen in mena generalized in the foregoing pages. the geologic and climatic evolution of We may be able to affiliate all these the Earth; it is seen in the unfolding of varied evolutions of the homogeneous every single organism on its surface, into the heterogeneous, upon certain and in the multiplication of kinds of facts of immediate experience, which, in organisms; it is seen in the evolution of virtue of endless repetition, we regard as Humanity, whether contemplated in the necessary. civilized individual, or in the aggregate The probability of a common cause, of races; it is seen in the evolution of and the possibility of formulating it, Society in respect alike of its political, being granted, it will be well, first, to its religious, and its economical organi- ask what must be the general characzation, and it is seen in the evolution of teristics of such cause, and in what all those endless concrete and abstract direction we ought to look for it. We products of human activity which consti can with certainty predict that it has a tute the environment of our daily life. high degree of abstractness ; seeing that From the remotest past which Science it is common to such infinitely-varied can fathom, up to the novelties of phenomena. We need not expect to yesterday, that in which progress essen sce in it an obvious solution of this or tially consists, is the transformation of that form of progress; because it is the homogeneous into the the hetero- equally concerned with forms of progress geneous. bearing little apparent resemblance to them : its association with multiforni And now, must not this uniformity of orders of facts, involves its dissociation procedure be a consequence of some from any particular order of facts. fundamental necessity? May we not Being that which determines progress rationally seek for some all-pervading of every kind-astronomic, geologic, principle which determines this all organic, ethnologic, social, economic, pervading process of things? Does not artistic, &c.--- it must be involved with the universality of the law imply a some fundamental trait displayed in universal cause ? common by these; and must be expres- That we can comprehend such cause, sible in terms of this fundamental trait. noumenally considered, is not to be The only obvious respect in which all supposed. To do this would be to kinds of progress are alike, is, that they solve that ultimate mystery which must are modes of change ; and hence, in ever transcend human intelligence. But some characteristic of changes in general, it still may be possible for us to reduce the desired solution will probably be the law of all progress, above set forth, found. We may suspect a priori that in from the condition of an empirical some universal law of change lies the generalization, to the condition of a explanation of this universal transformarational generalization. Just as it was tion of the homogeneous into the heteropossible to interpret Kepler's laws as geneous. necessary consequences of the law of Thus much premised, we pass at once gravitation; so it may be possible to to the statement of the law, which is interpret this law of progress, in its this :-Every active force produces more multiform manifestations, as the neces than one change--every cause produces sary consequence of some similarly more than one effect. universal principle. As gravitation was To make this proposition compreassignable as the cause of cach of the hensible, a few examples must be given. groups of phenomena which Kepler When one body strikes another, that generalized; so may some equally simple. which we usually regard as the effect, is .

PROGRESS: 17'S LAW AND CÀUSE 22 a change of position or motion in one or densed: altering the temperature of the both bodies. But a moment's thought surface it covers. The heat given out shows us that this is a very incomplete melts the subjacent tallow, and expands view of the matter. Besides the visible whatever it warms. The light, falling on mechanical result, sound is produced; various substances, calls forth from them or, to speak accurately, a vibration in reactions by which its composition is one or both bodies, which is communi- modified; and so divers colours are cated to the surrounding air; and under produced. Similarly even with these some circumstances we call this the secondary actions, which may be traced effect. Moreover, the air has not only out into ever-multiplying ramifications, been made to undulate, but has had until they become too minute to be currents caused in it by the transit of the appreciated. And thus it is with all bodies. Further, there is a disarrange-changes whatever. No case can be ment of the particles of the two bodies named in which an active force does in the neighbourhood of their point of not evolve forces of several kinds, and collision ; amounting, in some cases, to each of these, other groups of forces, a visible condensation. Yet more, this Universally the effect is more complex condensation is accompanied by the dis- than the cause. engagement of heat. In some cases a Doubtless the reader already foresees spark--that, is, light-results from the the course of our argument. This multiincandescence of a portion struck off; plication of effects, which is displayed in and sometimes this incandescence is every event of to-day, has been going on associated with chemical combination from the beginning; and is true of the Thus, by the mechanical force expended grandest phenomena of the universe as in the collision, at least five, and often of the most insignificant. From the law more, different kinds of changes have that every active force produces more been produced. Take, again, the light than one change, it is an inevitable ing of a candle. Primarily this is a corollary that during the past there has chemical change consequent on a rise been an ever-growing complication of of temperature. The process of combi- things. Throughout creation there must nation having once been started by have gone on, and must still go on, extraneous heat, there is a continued a never-ceasing transformation of the formation of carbonic acid, water, &c. homogeneous into the heterogeneous. in itself a result more complex than the Let us trace this truth in detail. extraneous heat that first caused it. Without committing ourselves to it as ' But accompanying this process of con more than a speculation, though a highly bination there is a production of heat; probable one, let us again commence there is a production of light; there is with the evolution of the Solar System an ascending column of hot gases gene- out of a nebulous meclium. The hyporated; there are inflowing currents set thesis is that from the niutual attraction going in the surrounding air. More of the molecules of a diffused mass over, the complicating of effects does whose form is unsymmetrical, there not end here : cach of the scveral results not only condensation but rotachanges produced becomes the parent tion. While the condensation and the of further changes. The carbonic acid rate of rotation go on increasing, the given off will by and by combine with approach of the molecules is necessarily some base; or under the influence of accompanied by an increasing temperasunshine give up its carbon to the leaf of ture. As the temperature rires, light a plant. Pa water will modify the begins to be evolved ; and ultimately hygromeikie state of the air around; or, there results a revolving sphere of fluid if the curreut of hot gases containing it matter radiating intense heat and light comes against a cold body, will be con- There are reasons for believing a surl.

PROGRESS: IT'S LAW AND CAUSE 23 that, in consequence of the higher again refer to them merely to point out tangential velocity originally possessed that they are simultaneous effects of the by the outer parts of the condensing one cause, diminishing heat. Let us nebulous mass, there will be occasional now, however, observe the multiplied detachments of rotating rings; and that, changes afterwards arising from the confrom the breaking up of these nebulous tinuance of this one cause. The cooling rings, there will arise masses which in of the Earth involves its contraction. the course of their condensation repeat Hence the solid crust first formed is the actions of the parent mass, and so presently too large for the shrinking produce planets and their satellites-an nucleus; and as it cannot support itself , inference strongly supported by the still inevitably follows the nucleus. But a extant rings of Saturn. Should it here- spheroidal envelope cannot sink down after be satisfactorily shown that planets into contact. with a smaller internal and satellites were thus generated, a spheroid, without disruption : it must striking illustration will be afforded of run into wrinkles as the rind of an apple the highly heterogeneous effects pro- docs when the bulk of its interior duced by the primary homogeneous decreases from evaporation. As the cause; but it will serve our present cooling progresses and the envelope purpose to point to the fact that from thickens, the ridges consequent on these the mutual attraction of the particles of contractions will become greater, rising an irregular nebulous mass there result ultimately into hills and mountains; and condensation, rotation, heat, and light. the later systems of mountains thus pro- It follows as a corollary from the duceti will not only be higher, as we find Nebular Hypothesis, that the Earth them to be, but will be longer, as we must once have been incandescent; also find them to be. Thus, leaving out and whether the Nebular Hypothesis be of view other modifying forces, we see true or not, this original incandescence what immense heterogeneity of surface of the Earth is now inductively estah. has arisen from the one cause, loss of Tished-or, if not established, at least heat-a heterogeneity which the telerendered so highly probable that it is an scope shows us to be paralleled on the accepted gcological doctrine. Let us face of Mars, and which in the moon look first at the astronomical attributes too, where aqueous and atmospheric of this once molten globe. From its agencies have been absent, it reveals rotation there result the oblateness of its under a somewhat different form. But form, the alternations of day and night, we have yet to notice another kind of and (under the influence of the moon heterogeneity of surface similarly and and in a smaller degree the sun) the simultaneously caused. While the Earth's tides, aqueous and atmospheric. From crust was still thin, the ridges produced the inclination of its axis, there result by its contraction must not only have the many differences of the seasons, been small, but the spaces between both simultaneous and successive, that these ridges must have rested with great pervade its surface, and from the same evenness upon the subjacent liquid cause joined with the action of the spheroid; and the water in those arctic moon on the equatorial protuberance and antarctic regions in which it first there results the precession of the condensed, must have been evenly disequinoxes. Thus the multiplication of tributed. But as fast as the crust effects is obvious. Several of the dif- thickened and gained corresponding ferentiations due to the gradual cooling strength, the lines of fracture from time of the Earth have been already noticed to time caused in it, mus have occurred as the formation of a crust, the solidi- at greater distances apart; the interfication of sublimed elements, the pre- mediate surfaces must have followed the cipitation of water, &c., and we here contracting nucleus with less uniformity;

24 PROGRESS: ITS LAW AND CAUSE it up and there must have resulted larger quartz and mica, and deposit them in areas of land and water. If any one, separate beds, fluviatile and marine. after wrapping up an orange in tissue when the exposed land consists of paper, and observing not only how small several unlike kinds of sedimentary are the wrinkles, but how evenly the strata, or igneous rocks, or both, denudaintervening spaces lie upon the surface of tion produces changes proportionably the orange, will then wrap in thick more heterogeneous. The formations cartridge - paper, and note both the being disintegrable in different degrees, greater height of the ridges and the there follows an increased irregularity of larger spaces throughout which the surface. The areas drained by different paper does not touch the orange, he will rivers being differently constituted, these realize the fact that, as the Earth's solid rivers carry down to the sea different envelope grew thicker, the areas of eleva combinations of ingredients; and so tion and depression increased. In place sundry new strata of unlike compositions of islands homogeneously dispersed amid are formed. And here we may see very an all-embracing sea, there must have simply illustrated, the truth, which we gradually arisen heterogeneous arrange- shall presently have to trace out in more ments of continent and ocean. Once involved cases, that in proportion to the more, this double change in the extent heterogeneity of the object or objects on and in the elevation of the lands, which any force expends itself, is the involved yet another species of hetero- heterogeneity of the effects. A continent geneity-that of coast-line. A tolerably of complex structure, exposing many even surface raised out of the accan strata irregularly distributed, raised to must have a simple, regular sea-margin ; various levels, tilted up at all angles, but a surface varied by table-lands and will, under the same denuding agencies, intersected by mountain-chains must, give origin to innumerable and involved, when raised out of the ocean, have an results : cach district must be differently outline extremely irregular both in its modified ; cach river must carry down a leading features and in its details. Thus, different kind of detritus ; each deposit multitudinous geological and geogra- must be differently distributed by the phical results are slowly brought about entangled currents, tidal and other, hy this one cause the contraction of which wash the contorted shores; and the Earth. this multiplication of results must mani- When we pass from the agency termed festly be greatest where the complexity igneous, to aqueous and atmospheric of surface is greatest. agencies, we see the like ever-growing Here we might show how the general complications of effects. The denuding truth, that every active force produces actions of air and water, joined with more than onc change, is again exemthose of changing temperature, have, plified in the highly-involved flow of the from the beginning, been modifyingtides, in the ocean currents, in the every exposed surface. Oxidation, heat, winds, in the distribution of rain, in the wind, frost, rain, glaciers, rivers, tides, distribution of heat, and so forth. But waves, have been unceasingly producing not to dwell upon these, let us, for the disintegration; varying in kind and fuller elucidation of this truth in relation amount according to local circumstances. to the inorganic world, consider what Acting upon a tract of granite, they here would be the consequences of some work scarcely an appreciable effect; extensive cosmical catastrophe--say the there cause exfoliations of the surface, subsidence of Central America. The and a resulting heap of débris and immediate results of the disturbance boulders;' and elsewhere, after decom- would themselves be sufficiently composing the feldspar into a white clay, plex. Besides the numberless dislocacarry away this and the accompanying tions of strata, the ejections of igneous PROGRESS: ITS LAW AND CAUSE 25 matter, the propagation of carthquake wrought out the heterogeneity of the vibrations thousands of miles around, Earth, physically considered, have simulthe loud explosions, and the escape of tancously wrought out its chemical heterogases; there would be the rush of the geneity. There is every reason to believe Atlantic and Pacific Oceans to fill the that at an extreme heat the elements vacant space, the subsequent recoil of cannot combine. Even under such heat enormous waves, which would traverse as can be artificially produced, some very both these oceans and produce myriads strong affinities yield, as, for instance, of changes along their shores, the corres- that of oxygen for hydrogen ; and the ponding atmospheric waves complicated great majority of chemical compounds by the currents surrounding each volcanic are decomposed at much lower temperavent, and the electrical disciarges with turcs. But without insisting on the which such disturbances are accom- highly probable inference, that when the panied But these temporary effects Earth was in its first state of incanwould be insignificant compared with descence there were no chemical combithe permanent ones. The currents of nations at all, it will suffice for our the Atlantic and Pacific would be altered purpose to point to the unquestionable in their dircctions and amounts. The fact that the compounds which can exist clistribution of heat achieved by these at the highest temperatures, and which ocean currents would be different from must, therefore, have been the first that what it is. The arrangement of the were formed as the Earth cooled, are isothermal lines, not only on neighbour those of the simplest constitutions. The ing continents, but even throughout protoxides--including under that head Europe, would be changed. The tides the alkalies, earths, &c.--are, as a class, would flow differently from what they the most stable compounds we know : do now. There would be more or less most of them resisting decomposition by modification of the winds in their any heat we can generate. These are periods, strengths, directions, qualities. combinations of the simplest order-are Rain would fall scarcely anywhere at the but one degree less homogeneous than same times and in the same quantities the elements themselves. More heteroas at present. In short, the meteoro-geneous, less stable, and therefore later logical conditions thousands of miles off, in the larth's history, are the deutoxides, on all sides, would be more or less revo- tritoxides, peroxidles, &c. ; in which two, lutionized. Thus, without taking into three, four, or more atoms of oxygen are account the infinitude of modifications united with one atom of metal or other which these changes would produce clement. lligher than these in heteroupon the flora and fauna, both of land geneity are the hydrates; in which an and sea, the reader will perceive the oxide of hydrogen, united with an oxide immense heterogeneity of the results of some other element, forms a substance wrought out by one force, when that whose atoms severally contain at least force expends itself upon a previously four ultimate atoms of three different complicated area; and he will draw the kinds. Yet more heterogeneous and corollary that from the beginning the less stable still are the salts; which complication has advanced at an in- present us with molecules cach made up creasing rate. of five, six, seven, cight, ten, twelve, or Before going on to show how organic more atoms, of three, if not more, kinds. progress also depends on the law that Then there are the hydrated salts, of a every force produces more than one yet greater heterogeneity, which undergo change, we have to notice the manifesta partial decomposition much lower tion of this law in yet another species of temperatures. After them come the inorganic progress-namely, chemical. . further complicated supersalts and double The same general causes that have salts, having a stability again decreased ;

26 PROGRESS: IT'S LAW AND CAUSE and so throughout. Without entering less compound; as indeed are nearly all into qualifications for which space fails, causes with which we are acquainted. we believe no chemist will deny it to be Scarcely any change can rightly be a general law of these inorganic combi- ascribed to one agency alone, to the nations that, other things equal, the neglect of the permanent or temporary stability decreases as the complexity conditions under which only this agency increases. When we pass to the com- produces the change. But as it does pounds of organic chemistry, we find not materially affect our argument, we this general law still further exemplified: prefer, for simplicity's sake; to use we find much greater complexity and throughout the popular mode of expresmuch less stability. A molecule of sion. Perhaps it will be further objected, albumen, for instance, consists of 482 that to assign loss of heat as the cause of ultimate atoms of five different kinds. any changes, is to attribute these changes Fibrine, still more intricate in constitu- not to a force, but to the absence of a tion, contains in each molecule, 298 force. And this is true. Strictly speakatoms of carbon, 49 of nitrogen, 2 of ing, the changes should be attributed to ,sulphur, 228 of hydrogen, and 92 of those forces which come into action oxygen--in all, 669 atoms; or, more when the antagonist force is withdrawn. . strictly speaking, equivalents. And these But though there is inaccuracy in saying two substarces are so unstable as to that the freezing of water is due to the decomposę at quite ordinary tempera- loss of its heat, no practical error arises tures; as that to which the outside of a from it ; nor will a parallel laxity of joint of roast meat is exposed. Thus it expression vitiate our statements respectis manifest that the present chemical ing the multiplication of effects. Indeed, heterogeneity of the Earth's surface has the objection serves but to draw attenarisen by degrees, as the decrease of tion to the fact, that not only does the heat has permitted ; and that it has exertion of a force produce more than shown itself in three forms-first, in the one change, but the withdrawal of a multiplication of chemical compounds; force produces more than one change. second, in the greater number of dif Returning to the thread of our exposiferent elements contained in the more tion, we have next to trace, throughout modern of these compounds : and third, organic progress, this same all-pervading in the higher and more varied multiples principle. And here, where the evoluin which these more numerous elements tion of the homogeneous into the heterocombine. geneous was first observed, the produc- To say that this advance in chemical tion of many effects by one cause is least heterogeneity is due to the one cause, easy to demonstrate. The development diminution of the Earth's temperature, of a seed into a plant, or an ovum into would be to say too much; for it is clear an animal, is so gradual, while the forces that aqucous and atmospheric agencies which determine it are so involved, and have been concerned ; and further, that at the same time so unobtrusive, that it the affinities of the elements themselves is difficult to detect the multiplication of are implied. The cause has all along cffects which is elsewhere so obvious. been a composite one : the cooling of But, guided by indirect evidence, we the Earth having been simply the most may safely conclude that here too the general of the concurrent causes, or law holds. Note, first, how numerous assemblage of conditions. And here, are the changes which any marked action indeed, it may be remarked that in the works upon an adult organism-s human several classes of facts already dealt with being, for instance: An alarming sound (excepting, på haps, the first), and still or sight,"hesides the impressions on the more in those with which we shall organs of sense and the nerves, may presently deal, the causes are more or produce a start, a scream, a distortion of PROGRESS: ITS LAW AND CAUSE 27 the face, a trembling consequent on modify the nutrition of all the other general muscular relaxation, a burst of tissues. The heart's action, implying as perspiration, a rush of blood to the it does a certain waste, necessitates an brain, followed possibly by arrest of the addition to the blood of effete matters, Heart's action and by syncope ; and if | which must influence the rest of the the subject be feeble, an indisposition system, and perhaps, as some think, with its long train of complicated cause the formation of excretory organs. symptoms may set in. Similarly in 'The nervous connexions established cases of disease. A minute portion of among the viscera must further multiply the small-pox virus introduced into the their mutual influences; and so continusystem, will, in a severe case, cause, ally. Still stronger becomes the probaduring the first stage, rigors, heat of bility of this view when we call to mind skin, accelerated pulse, furred tongue, the fact, that the same germ may be loss of appetite, thirst, epigastric uneasi- evolved into different forms according to ness, vomiting, headache, pains in the circumstances. Thus, during its earlier back and limbs, muscular weakness, stages, cvery embryo is sexless-becomes convulsions, delirium, &c.; in the second either male or female as the balance of stage, cutaneous eruption, itching, ting forces acting on it determines. Again, ling, sore throat, swelled fauces, saliva- . it is a well-established fact that the larva tion, cough, hoarseness, dyspnæa, &c.; of a working-bee will dervlop into a and in the third stage, cedematous queen-bee, if, before it is too late, its inflammations, pneumonia, pneumonia, pleurisy, food be changed to that on which the diarrhoea, inflammation of the brain, larvæ of queen-bees are ſed. All which ophthalmia, erysipelas, &c. : each of instances suggest that the proximate which enumerated symptoms is itself cause of each advance in embryonic more or less complex. Medicines, special complication is the action of incident foods, better air, might in like manner forces upon the complication previously be instanced as producing multipled existing. Indeed, we may find a priori results. Now it needs only to consider reason to think that the evolution prothat the many changes thus wrought by ceeds after this manner. For since no one force upon an adult organism, will gern, animal or vegetal, contains the be in part paralleled in an embryo slightest rudiment or indication of the organism, to understand how here also, future organism--since the microscope the evolution of the homogeneous into has shown us that the first process set the heterogeneous may be due to the up in every fertilized germ, is a process production of many effects by one cause. of repeated spontaneous fissions ending The external heat, which, falling on a in the production of a mass of cells, matter having special proclivities, deter- not one of which exhibits any special mines the first complications of the character; there seems no alternative germ, may, by acting on these, super- but to suppose that the partial organizainduce further complications ; upon tion at any moment existing in a growing these still higher and more numerous embryo, is transformed by the agencies ones; and SO on continually: each acting upon it into the succeeding phase organ as it is developed serving, by its of organization, and this into the next, actions and reactions on the rost, to until through ever-increasing initiate new complexities. The first plexities, the ultimate form is reached. pulsations of the foetal heart must simul. ÎNot indeed that we can thus really taneously aid the unfolding of every explain the production pf any plant or part. The growth of each tissue, by animal. We are still in the dark taking from the blood special propor- respecting those mysterity properties in tions of elements, must modify the con- virtue of which the germ, when subject stitution of the blood ; and so must to fit influences, undergoes the special 28 PROGRESS: ITS LAW AND CAUSE Was more changes that begin the series of trans to their distance from the axis of elevaformations. All we aim to show, is, that tion. Plants, growing only on the seagiven a germ possessing those particular shore in special localities, might become proclivities distinguishing the species to extinct. Others, living only in swamps which it belongs, and the evolution of an of a certain humidity, would, if they organism from it, probably depends on survived at all, probably undergo visible that multiplication of effects which we changes of appearance. While still have seen to be the cause of progress in greater alterations would occur in the general, so far as we have yet traced it. plants gradually spreading over the When, leaving the development of lands newly raised above the sea. Thc single plants and animals, we pass to animals und insects living on these that of the Earth's flora and fauna, the modified plants, would themselves be in course of our argument 'again becomes some degree modified by change of food, clear and simple. Though, as as well as by change of climate; and admitted in the first part of this article, the modification would be more marked the fragmentary facts Paleontology has where, from the dwindling or disaccumulated, do not clearly warrant us appearance of one kind of plant, an in saying that, in the lapse of geologic allied kind was eaten. In the lapse of time, there have been evolved more the many generations arising before the heterogenevus organisms, and next upheaval, the sensible or insensible heterogeneous assemblages of organisms, alterations thus produced in each species yet we shall now see that there must would become organized—there would ever have been a tendency towards be a more or less complete adaptation these results. We shall find that the to the new conditions. The next upproduction of many effects by one cause, heaval would superinduce further organic which, as already shown, has been all changes, implying wider divergences along increasing the physical hetero from the primary forms; and so regeneity of the Earth, has further involved peateelly. But now let it be observed an increasing heterogeneity in its flora that the revolution thus resulting would and fauna, individually and collectively. not be a substitution of a thousand more An illustration will make this clear. or less modified species for the thousand Suppose that by a series of upheavals, original species; but in place of the occurring, as they are now known to do, thousand original species there would at long intervals, the East Indian Archi- arise several thousand species, or variepelago were to be, step by step, raised ties, or changed forms. Each species into a continent, and a chain of moun- being distributed over an area of some tains formed along the axis of elevation. extent, and tending continually to By the first of these upheavals, the colonize the new area exposed, its plants and animals inhabiting Borneo, different members would be subject to Sumatra, New Guinea, and the rest, different sets of changes. Plants and would be subjected to slightly modified animals spreading towards the equator sets of conditions, The climate in would not be affected in the same way gencral would be altered in temperature, as others spreading from it. Those in humidity, and in its periodical varia- spreading towards the new shores would tions; while the local differences would undergo changes unlike the changes be multiplied. These modifications undergone by those spreading into the would affect, perhaps inappreciably, the mountains. Thus, each original, race of entire flora and fauna of the region. organisms, would become the root from The change f level would produce which diverged several races differing additional mlifications: varying in dif more or less from it and from each ferent species, and also in different other; and while some of these might members of the same species, according subşequently disappear, probably more PROGRESS: ITS LAW AND CAUSE 29 .. . seen. than one would survive in the next | Thus, in the natural course of things, geologic period : the yery dispersion there will from time to time arise an itself increasing the chances of survival. increased heterogeneity both of the Not only would there be certain modifi- Earth's flora and fauna, and of individual *cations thus caused by change of physical races included in them. Omitting conditions and food, but also in some detailed explanations, and allowing for cases other modifications caused by the qualifications which cannot here be change of habit. The fauna of each specified, we think it is clear that island, peopling, step by step, the newly- geological mutations have all along raised tracts, would eventually come in tended to complicate the forms of life, contact with the faunas of other islands; whether regarded separately or collecand some members of these other faunas tively. The same causes which have would be unlike any creatures before led to the evolution of the Earth's crust Herbivores meeting with new from the simple into the complex, have beasts of pity, would, in some cases, be simultaneously led to a parallel evolution led into modes of defence or escape of the Life upon its surface. In this differing from those previously used ; case, as in previous ones, we see that and simultaneously the beasts of prey the transformation of the homogeneous would modify their modes of pursuit and into the heterogeneous is consequent attack. We know that when circum- upon the universal principle, that every stances demand it, such changes of active force produces more than one habit do take place in animals; and we change. know that if the new habits become the The deduction here drawn from the dominant ones, they must eventually in established truths of geology and the some degree alter the organization. general laws of life, gains immensely in Observe now, however, a further conse- weight on finding it to be in harmony quence. There must arise not simply a with an induction drawn from direct tendency towards the differentiation of experience. Just that divergence of cach race of organisms into several many races from one race, which we races; but also a tendency to the inferred must have been continually occasional production of a somewhat occurring during geologic time, we know higher organism. "Taken in the mass to have occurred during the pre-historic these divergent varieties which have and historic periods, in and been caused by fresh physical conditions domestic animals. And just that multiand habits of life, will exhibit changes plication of effects which we concluded quite indefinite in kind and degree; and must have produced the first, we see changes that do not necessarily consti- has produced the last. Single causes, tute an advance. Probably in as famine, pressure of population, war, cases the modified type will be neither have periodically led to further dispermore nor less heterogeneous than the sions of mankind and of dependent original one. In some cases the habits creatures: each such dispersion initiating of life adopted being simpler than before, new modifications, new varieties of type. a less heterogeneous structure will result: Whether all the human races be or be there will be a retrogradation. But it not derived from one stock, philology must now and then occur, that some makes it clear that whole division of a species, falling into circum races now easily distinguishable from stances which give it rather more com each other, were originally one race, plex experiences, and demand actions that the diffusion of one race into sumewhat more involved, will have different climates and conditions of certain of its organs further differentiated existence, has produced any modified in proportionately small degrexs, ---will forms of it. Similarly vith domestic become slightly more "heterogeneous. animals. Though in some cases--as nian most oups of 30 PROGRESS: 17'S LAW AND CAUSE that of dogs--community of origin will heterogeneity is traceable to the producperhaps be disputed, yet in other cases tion of many effects by one cause, still as that of the sheep or the cattle of more clearly may the advance of Society our own country--it will not be ques towards greater heterogeneity be so tioned that local differences of climate, explained. Consider the growth of an food, and treatment, have transformed industrial organization. When, as must one original breed into numerous breeds occasionally happen, some member of now become so far distinct as to produce a tribe displays unusual aptitude for unstable hybrids. Moreover, through making an article of general use--a the complication of effects flowing from weapon, for instance-which was before single causes, we here find, what we made by each man for himself, there before inferred, not only an increase of arises a tendency towards the differengeneral heterogeneity, but also of specialtiation of that member into a maker heterogeneity. While of the divergent of such weapon. His companions--- divisions and subdivisions of the human warriors and hunters all of them, race many have undergone changes not severally feel the importance of having constituting an advance ; while in some the best weapons that can be made ; the type may have degraded; in others and are therefore certain to offer strong it has become decidedly more hetero- inducements to this skilled individual to geneous. The civilized European departs make weapons for them. He, on the more widely from the vertebrate arche other hand, having not only an unusual type than does the savage. Thus, both faculty, but an unusual liking, for making the law and the cause of progress, which, such weapons (the talent and the desire from lack of evidence, can be but hypo- for any occupation being commonly assothetically substantiated in respect of the ciated), is predisposed to fulfil each earlier forms of life on our globe, can be commission on the offer of an adequate actually substantiated in respect of the reward : especially as his love of distinclatest forms. tion is also gratified and his living facili- If the advance of Man towards greater tated. This first specialization of function, once commenced, tends ever to become I The argument concerning organic evolution more decided. On the side of the contained in this paragraph and the one pre weapon-maker practice gives increased ceding it, stands verbatim as it did when first skill--increased superiority to his propublished in the Westminster Review for April, ducts. On the side of his clients, 1857. I have thus left it without the alteration of a word that it may slow the view I then heki cessation of practice entails decreased concerning the origin of species. The sole skill. Thus the influences which detercause recognized is that of direct adaptation of mine this division of labour grow stronger constitution to conditions consequent on inheritance of the molifications of structure resulting in both ways; and the incipient heterofrom use and clisuse. There is no recognition of geneity is, on the average of cases, likely that further cause disclosed in Mr. Darwin's to become permanent for that generawork, published two and a half years later---the tion if no longer. This process not only indireci adaptation resulting from the natural differentiates the social mass into two selection of favourable variations. The multiplication of effects is, however, cqually illus- parts, the one monopolizing, or almost trated in whatever way the alaptation to chang- monopolizing, the performance of a ing conditions is effected, or if it is effected in ccrtaisi function, and the other losing both ways, as I hold. I may add that there is indicated the view that the succession of organic the habit, and in some measure the forms is not serial but proccess by perpetual power, of performing that function; but divergence and divergence that there has it tends to initiate other differentiations. been a continual “divergence of many races The advance described implies the from one race reach species being a introduction of barter, the maker of from which seal other species branch out ; and the growth a tree being thus the implied weaponks has, on cach occasion, to be syinbol. paid in such other articles as he agrees ; root PROGRESS: ITS LAW AND CAUSE 31 to take in exchange. He will not arise. Competent workers, ever aiming habitually take in exchange one kind of to produce improved articles, occasionarticle, but many kinds. He does not ally discover better processes or raw want mats only, or skins, or fishing-gear, materials. The substitution of bronze but he wants all these, and on each for stone entails on him who first makes occasion will bargain for the particular it a great increase of demand ; so that things he most needs. What follows ? he or his successor eventually finds all If among his fellows there exist - any his time occupied in making the bronze slight differences of skill in the manufac- for the articles he sells, and is obliged to ture of these various things, as there depute the fashioning of these articles to are almost sure to do, the weapon-maker others; and, eventually, the making of will take from each one the thing which bronze, thus differentiated from a prethat one excels in making : he will existing occupation, becomes an occupaexchange for mats with him whose mats tion by itself. But now mark the are superior and will bargain for the ramified changes which follow this fishing-gear of him who has the best. change. Bronze presently replaces stone, But he who has bartered away his mats not only in the articles it was first used or his fishing-gear, must make other for, but in many others-in arms, tools, mats or fishing-gear for himself; and in and utensils of various kinds: and so so doing must, in some degree, further affects the manufacture of them. Further, develop his aptitude. Thus it results, it affects the processes which these that the small specialities of faculty utensils subserve, and the resulting possessed by various members of the products,--modifies buildings, carvings, tribe, will tend to grow more decided. personal decorations. Yet again, it sets And whether or not there ensue distinct going manufactures which were before differentiations of other individuals into impossible, from lack of a material fit makers of particular articles, it is clear for the requisite implements. And all that incipient differentiations take place these changes react on the people-- throughout the tribe: the one original increase their manipulative skill, their cause produces not only the first dual intelligence, their comfort,---refine their effect, but a number of secondary dual habits and tastes. Thus the evolution effects, like in kind, but minor in of a homogeneous society into a heterodegree. This process, of which traces geneous one, is clearly consequent on may be seen among schoolboys, cannot the general principle, that many effects. well produce lasting effects in an un are produced by one cause. settled tribe ; but where there grows up Space permitting, we might show how a fixed and multiplying community, such the localization of special industries in differentiations become permanent, and special parts of a kingdom, as well as increase with each generation. The the minute subdivision of labour in the enhanced demand for every commodity, inaking of each commodity; are similarly intensifies the functional activity of cach determined. Or, turning to a somewhat specialized person or class; and this different order of illustrations, we might renders the specialization inore definite dwell on the multitudinous changes-- where it already exists, and establishes it material, intellectual, moral-caused by where it is but nascent. By increasing printing; or the further extensive series the pressure on the means of subsistence of changes wrought by gunpowder. But a larger population again augments these leaving the intermediate phases of social results ; seeing that each person is forced development, let us take a few illustramore and more to contine himself to tions from its most recer, and its passing that which he can do best, and by which phases. To trace the lects of steamhe can gain most. Presently under power, in its manifoldpplications to these same stimuli, new occupations | mining, navigation, and manufactures of 32 PROGRESS: ITS LAW AND CAUSE all kinds, would carry us into unmanage ever the industries of different districts able detail. Let us confine ourselves to --to confine each manufacture to the the latest embodiment of steam power-parts in which, from local advantages, the locomotive engine. This, as the it can be best carried on. Further, the proximate cause of our railway system, fall in freights, facilitating distribution, has changed the face of the country, the equalizes prices, and also, on the average, course of trade, and the habits of the lowers prices : thus bringing divers people. Consider, first, the complicated articles within the means of those before sets of changes that precede the making unable to buy them, and so increasing of every railway--the provisional arrange their comforts and improving their habits. ments, the meetings, the registration, the At the same time the practice of traveltrial section, the parliamentary survey, ling is inímensely extended. People the lithographed plans, the books of who never before dreamed of it, take reference, the local deposits and notices, trips to the sea; visit their distant the application to Parliament, the pass-relations ; make tours ; ard so we are ing Standing Orders Committee, the benefited in body, feelings, and ideas. first, second, and third readings : each The more prompt transmission of letters of which brief heads indicates a multi- ! and of news produces other marked plicity of transactions, and the extra changes--makes the pulse of the nation development of sundry occupations--as faster. Once more, there arises a wide those of engineers, surveyors, litho- dissemination of cheap literature through graphers, parliamentary agents, share- railway book-stalls, and of advertisements brokers; and the creation of sundry in railway carriages: both of them aiding others--as those of traffic takers, refer- ulterior progress. And the countless ence-takers, Consider, next, the yet changes here briefly indicated are consemore marked changes implied in railway ! quent on the invention of the locomotive construction—the cuttings, embankings, engine. The social organism has been tunnelings, diversions of roads; the rendered more heterogeneous in virtue building of bridges and stations, the of the many new occupations introduced, laying down of ballast, sleepers, and and the many old ones further specialized; rails; the making of engines, tenders, prices of nearly all things in every place carriages, and waggons: which processes, have been altered; cach trader has acting on numerous trades, increase the modified his way of doing business; and importation of timber, the quarrying of every person has been affected in his stone, the manufacture of iron, the actions, thoughts, emotions. mining of coal, the burning of bricks; Illustrations to the same effect might stitute a variety of special manufac- be indefinitely accumulated, but they are tures weekly advertised in the Railwar needless. The only further fact demand- Times; and, finally, open the way to ing notice, is, that we here see still more sundry new Occupations, as those of clearly the truth before pointed out, that drivers, stokers, cleaners, plate-layers, in proportion as the area on which any &C., &c. And then consider the changes, force expends itself becomes heterostill more numerous and involved, which geneous, the results are in a yet higher railways in action produce on the com- degree multiplicd in number and kind. munity at large. Business agencies are While among the simple tribes to whom established where previously they would it was first known, caoutchouc caused not have paid ; goods are obtained from but few changes, among ourselves the remote wholesale houses instead of near changes have been so many an:) varied retail ones; a commodities are used that the history of them occupies a which distances once rendered inacces volume, Upon the small, homosible. Again the diminished cost of carriage tend to specialize more than “ Personal Narrative of the Origin of the PROGRESS : ITS LAW AND CAUSE 33 geneous community inhabiting one of -exercises upon other schools; the the Hebrides, the electric telegraph hints which all kinds of pictorial art are would produce, were it used, scarcely deriving from Photography; the complex any results; but in England the results results of new critical doctrines, as those it. produces are multitudinous. The of Mr. Ruskin, might severally be dwelt comparatively simple organization under upon as displaying the like multiplication which our ancestors lived five centuries of effects. ago, could have undergone but few But we venture to think our case is modifications from an event like the already made out. The imperfections recent one at Canton ; but now, the of statement which brevity has necessilegislative decision respecting it sets up tated, do not, we believe, invalidate the many hundreds of complex 'modifica propositions laid down. The qualifications, each of which will be the parent tions here and there demanded would of numerous future ones. not, if made, affect the inferences. Space permitting, we could willingly | Though, in tracing the genesis of prohave pursued the argument in relation to gress, we have frequently spoken of all the subtler results of civilization. As complex causes as if they were simple before we showed that the law of pro-ones; it still remains true that such gress to which the organic and inor causes are far less complex than their ganic worlds conform, is also conformed results. Detailed criticisms do not affect to by Language, the plastic arts, Music, our main position. Endless facts go to &c. ; so might we here show that the show that every kind of progress is from cause which we have hitherto found to the homogeneous to the heterogeneous ; determine progress holds in these cases and that it is so because each change is also. Instances might be given proving followed by many changes. And it is ho in Science, an advance of one significant that where the facts are mo division presently advances other divi- accessible and abundant, there these sions--how Astronomy has been im- truths are most manifest. mensely forwarded by discoveries in However, to avoid committing our- Optics, while other optical discoveries selves to more than is yet proved, we have initiated Microscopic Anatomy, must be content with saying that such and greatly aided the growth of Physio- are the law and the cause of all progress logy-how Chemistry has indirectly that is known to us. Should the Nebular increased our knowledge of Electricity, Hypothesis ever be established, then it Magnetism, Biology, Geology-how will become manifest that the Universe Electricity has reacted on Chemistry at large, like every organism, was once and Magnetism, and has developed our homogencous; that as a whole, and in views of Light and Heat. In Literature every detail, it has unceasingly advanced the same truth might be exhibited in the towards greater heterogeneity. It wili manifold effects of the primitive mystery- be seen that as in cach event of to-day, play, as originating the modern drama, so from the beginning, the decomposiwhich has variously branched; or in the tion of every expended force into still multiplying forms of periodical several forces has been perpetually proliterature which have descended from ducing a higher complication ; that the the first newspaper, and which have increase of heterogeneity so brought Severally acted and reacted on other about is still going on and must conforms of literature and on each other. tinue to go on; and that thus progress The influmce which a new school of is not an accident, not a thing within Painting--as that of the pre-Raffaelites human control, but a beneficht necessity. ) Caoutchouc, or Inclia-Rubber Manufactutc in England." By Thomas Ilancock. A few words must be ad ed on the ontological bearings of our argument.

34 PROGRESS: 17'S LAW AND CAUSE Probably not a few will conclude that commenced, and he cannot examine the here is an attempted solution of the consciousness at any moment existing ; great questions with which Philosophy for only a state of consciousness which in all ages has perplexed itself. Let is already past can become the object of none thus deceive themselves. After thought, and never one which is passing. all that has been said, the ultimate When, again, he turns from the succesmystery remains just as it was. The sion of phenomena, external or internal, explanation of that which is explicable, to their essential nature, he is equally does but bring out into greater clear at fault. Though he may succeed in ness the inexplicableness of that which resolving all properties of objects into remains behind. Little as it seems to manifestations of force, he is not thereby do so, fearless inquiry tends continually enabled to conceive what force is; but to give a firmer basis to all true Reli- finds, on the contrary, that the more he gion. The timid sectarian, obliged to thinks about it, the more he is baffled. abandon one by one the superstitions Similarly, though analysis of mental bequeathed to him, and daily finding actions may finally bring him down to his cherished beliefs more and more sensations as the original materials out shaken, secretly fears that all things of which all thought is. woven, he is may some day be explained; and has a none the forwarder; for he cannot in corresponding dread of Science: thus the least comprehend sensation. Inward evincing the profoundest of all infidelity and outward things he thus discovers --the fear lest the truth be bad. On to be alike inscrutable in their ultimate the other hand, the sincere man of genesis and nature. He sees that the science, content to follow wherever the Materialist and Spiritualist controversy evidence leads him, becomes by each is a mere war of words; the disputants new inquiry more profoundly convinced being equally absurd-each believing he that the Universe is an insoluble problem. understands that which it is impossible Alike in the external and the internal for any man to understand. In all worlds, he sees himself in the midst of directions his investigations eventually ceaseless changes, of which he can bring him face to face with the unknowdiscover neither beginning nor end. able; and he ever more clearly perceives If, tracing back the evolution of things, it to be the unknowable. He learns at he allows himself to entertain the hypo- once the greatness and the littleness of thesis that all matter once existed in a human intellect--its power in dealing diffused form, he finds it impossible to with all that comes within the range of conceive how this came to be so; and experience; its impotence in dealing equally, he speculates on the future, with all that transcends experience. He he can assign no limit to the grand feels more vividly than any others can succession of phenomena ever unfolding feel, the utter icomprehensibleness of themselves before him. Similarly, if he the simplest fact, considered in itself. looks inward, he perceives that both He alonc truly sees that absolute knowterminations of the thread of conscious- ledge is impossible. He alone knows ness are beyond his grasp: he cannot that under all things there lies an remember when or how consciousness impenetrable mystery.

THE DEVELOPMENT HYPOTHESIS 35 THE DEVELOPMENT HYPOTHESIS (1852) IN a debate upon the Development than they can conceive that ten millions Hypothesis, lately narrated to me by of varieties have arisen by successive a friend, one of the disputants was modifications. All such, however, will described as arguing that as, in all our find, on inquiry, that they are under an experience, we know no such pheno- illusion. This is one of the many cases mena as transmutation of species, it is in which men do not really believe, but unphilosophical to assume that trans- rather believe they believe. It is not that mutation of species ever takes place. thcy can truly conceive ten millions of Had I been present, I think that, special creations to have taken place, passing over his assertion, which is open but that they think they can do so. to criticism, I should have replied that, Careful introspection will show them as in all our experience we have never that they have never yet realized to known a species created, it was, by his themselves the creation of even one own showing, unphilosophical to assume species. If they have formed a definite that any species ever had been created. conception of the process, let them tell Those who cavalierly reject the Theory us how a new species is constructed, of Evolution as not being adequately and how it makes its appearance. Is it supported by facts, seem to forget that thrown down from the clouds ? or must their own theory is supported by no we hold to the notion that it struggles up facts at all. Like the majority of men out of the ground? Do its limbs and who are born to a given belief, they viscera rush together from all the points demand the most rigorous proof of any of the compass ? or must we receive the adverse belief, but assume that their old Hebrew idea, that God takes clay own needs none. Here we find, scattered and moulds a new creature? If they over the globe, vegetable and animal say that a new creature is produced in organisms numbering, of the one kind none of these modes, which are too (according to Humboldt), sone 320,000 absurd to be believed, then they are species, and of the other, some 2,000,000 required to describe the mode in which species (see Carpenter); and if to these a new creature may be produced-a we add the numbers of animal and mode which does not seem absurd ; and vegetable species which have become such a mode they will find that they extinct, we may safely estimate the neither have conceived nor can conceive. number of species that have existed, and Should the believers in special creaare existing, on the Earth, at not less than tions consider it unfair thus to call upon ten millions. Well, which is the most them to describe how special creations rational theory about these ten millions take place, I reply that this is far less of species? Is it most likely that than they demand from the supporters there have been ten millions of special of the Development Hypothesis. They creations ? or is it most likely that by are merely asked to point out a concciucontinual modifications due to change of able mode. On the other hand, they circumstances, ten millions of yarieties ask, not simply for a conceivable mode, have bean produced, as varieties are but for the actual mode. They do not being produced still ? say-Show us how this me take place; Doubtless many will reply that they but they say—Show us w. this does can more easily conceive ten millions of take place. So far from its being special creations to have taken place, | unreasonable to put the abi e question, 36 THE DEVELOPMENT HYPOTHESIS it would be reasonable to ask not only moral, or intellectual, according to the for a possible mode of special creation, use made of it--are all explicable on but for an ascertained mode; seeing that this same principle. And thus they can this is no greater a demand than they show that throughout all organic nature make upon their opponents. there is at work a modifying influence of And here we may perceive how much the kind they assign as the cause of more defensible the new doctrine is than these specific differences : an influence the old one. Even could the supporters which, though slow in its action, does, of the Development Hypothesis merely in time, if the circumstances demand it, show that the origination of species by produce marked changes--an influence the process of modification is conceiv- which, to all appearance, would produce able, they would be in a better position in the millions of years, and under the than their opponents. But they can do great varieties of condition which geomuch more than this. They can show logical records imply, any amount of that the process of modification has change. effected, and is effecting, decided Which, then, is the host rational changes in all organisms subject to hypothesis ?-that of special creations, modifying influences. Though, from which has neither a fact to support it nor the impossibility of getting at a suffi- is even definitely conceivable'; or that of ciency of facts, they are unable to trace modification, which is not only definitely the many phases through which any conceivable, but is countenanced by the existing species has passed in arriving habitudes of every existing organism? at its present form, or to identify the That by any series of changes a protoinfluences' which caused the successive zoon should ever become a mammal, modifications; yet, they can show that seems to those who are not familiar with any existing species--animal or vege-zoology, and who have not seen how table--when placed under conditions clear becomes the relationship between different from its previous ones, imme- the simplest and the most complex diately begins to undergo certain changes forms when intermediate forms are fitting it for the new conditions. They examined, a very grotesque notion. can show that in successive generations Habitually, looking at things rather in these changes continue; until, ulti- their statical aspect than in their mately, the new conditions become the dynamical aspect, they never realize the natural ones. They can show that in fact that, by small increments of modificultivated plants, in domesticatedanimals, cation, any amount of modification may and in the several races of men, such in time be generated. That surprise alterations have taken p'ace. They can which they feel on finding one whom show that the degrees of difference so they last saw as a boy, grown into a produced are often, as in dogs, greater man, becomes incredulity when the than those on which distinctions of degree of change is greater. Neverspecies are in other cases founded. / theless, abundant instances are at hand They can show that it is a matter of of the mode in which we may pass to dispute whether some of these modified the most diverse forms by insensible forms are varieties or separate species. gradations. Arguing the matter some They can show, too, that the changes time since with a learned professor, I daily taking place in ourselves-the illustrated my position thus :-You admit facility that attends long practice, and that there is no apparent relationship the loss of aptitude that begins when between a circle and an hyperbola. The practice ceas—the strengthening of one is a finite curve; the other is an passions hatually gratified, and the infinita onc. All parts of the one are weakening those habitually curbedalike; of the other no parts are alike the developent of every faculty, bodily, ] [save "parts on its opposite sides). The THE DEVELOPMENT HYPOTHESIS 37 а. .one incloses a space; the other will not contrasted than a newly-born child and inclose a space though produced for the small, semi-transparent spherule ever. Yet opposite as are these curves constituting the human ovum? The in all their properties, they may be infant is so complex in structure that a connected together by a series of inter-cyclopædia is needed to describe its mediate curves, no one of which differs constituent parts. The germinal vesicle from the adjacent ones in any appre- is so simple that it may be defined in ciable degree. Thus, if a cone be cut a line. Nevertheless few months by a plane at right angles to its axis suffice to develop the one out of the we get a circle. If, instead of being other; and that, too, by a series of perfectly at right angles, the plane modifications so small, that were the subtends with the axis an angle of embryo examined at successive minutes, 89° 59', we have an ellipse which no even a microscope would with difficulty human eye, even when aided by an disclose any 'sensible changes. That accurate pair of compasses, can distin- the uneducated and the ill-educated guish from à circle. Decreasing the should think the hypothesis that all angle minute by minute, the ellipse races of beings, man inclusive, may in becomes first perceptibly eccentric, then process of time have been evolved from manifestly so, and by and by acquires so the simplest monad, a ludicrous one, is immensely elongated a form, as to bear not to be wondered at. But for the no recognizable resemblance to a circle. physiologist, who knows that every indi- By continuing this process, the ellipse vidual being is so evolved ---who knows, passes insensibly into a parabola ; and, further, that in their earliest condition ultimately, by still further diminishing the germs of all plants and animals the angle, into an hyperbola. Now whatever are so similar, that there is here we have four different species of no appreciable distinction amongst them, curve-circle, ellipse, parabola, parabola, and which would enable it to be determined hyperbola--each having its peculiar pro- whether a particular molecule is the perties and its separate equation, and germ of a Conferva or of an Oak, of a the first and last of which are quite Zoophyte or of a Man";!--for him to opposite in nature, connected together make a difficulty of the matter is inexas members of one series, all producible cusable. Surely if a single cell may, by a single process of insensible modifi- when subjected to certain influences, cation. become a man in the space of twenty But the blindness of those who think | years; there is nothing absurd in the it absurd to suppose that complex hypothesis that under certain other organic forms may have arisen" by influences, a cell may, in the course of successive modifications out of simple millions of years, give origin to the ones, becomes astonishing when human race. remember that complex organic forms We have, indeed, in the part taken by are daily being thus produced. A tree many scientific men in this controversy differs from a seed immeasurably in of "Law versus Miracle," a good illusevery respect--in bulk, in structure, in tration of the tenacious vitality of supercolour, in form, in chemical composi- stitions. Ask one of our leading geolotion : differs so greatly that no visible gists or physiologists whether he believes resemblance of any kind can be pointed in the Mosaic account of the creation, out between them. Yet is the one and he will take the question as next to changed, in the course of a few years an insult. Either he rejects the narrainto the other : changed so gradually, tive entirely, or understan is it in some that at no moment can it be said Now the seed ceases to be, and the tree . Carpenter, Principles of Com rative Physio. exists. What be more widely I logy, p. 474. we . can 38 THE GENESIS OF SCIENCE vague non-natural sense. Yet one part reasoning by which it may be estabof it he unconsciously adopts; and that, lished. Catechize him, and he will be too, literally. For whence has he got forced to confess that the notion was put this notion of "special creations," which into his mind in childhood as part of a he thinks so reasonable, and fights for so story which he now thinks absurd. And vigorously? Evidently he can trace it why, after rejecting all the rest of the back to no other source than this myth story, he should strenuously defend this which he repudiates. He has not a last remnant of it, as though he had single fact in nature to cite in proof of it ; received it on valid authority, he would nor is he prepared with any chain of l be puzzled to say. THE GENESIS OF SCIENCE (1854) THERE still prevails among men a vague includes much that is foreign to science notion that scientific knowledge differs in its ordinary acceptation : for example, in nature from ordinary knowledge. By a child's knowledge of an apple. This, the Greeks, with whom Mathematics as far as it goes, consists in previsions. literally things learnt --was alone con When a child sees a certain form and sidered as knowledge proper, the dis- colours, it knows that if it puts out its tinction must have been strongly felt; hand it will have certain impressions of and it has ever since maintained itself in resistance, and roundness, and smooththe general mind. Though, considering ness; and if it bites, a certain taste. the contrast between the achievements And manifestly its general acquaintance of science and those of daily unmethodic with surrounding objects is of like nature thinking, it is not surprising that such a is made up of facts concerning them, distinction has been assumed; yet it grouped so that any part of a group needs but to rise a little above the being perceived, the existence of the common point of view, to see that it is other facts included in it is foreseen. If, but a superficial distinction. The same once more, we say that science is exact faculties are employed in both cases; prevision, we still fail to establish the and in both cases their mode of opera supposed difference. Not only do we tion is fundamentally the same. find that much of what we call science say that science is organized knowledge, is not exact, and that some of it, as we are met by the truth that all know- physiology, can never become exact ; ledge is organized in a greater or less į but we find further, that many of the degree -- that the commonest actions of previsions constituting the common the household and the field presuppose stock alike of wise and foolish, are exact. facts colligated, inferences drawn, results That an unsupported body will fall; expected; and that the general success that a lighted candle will go out when of these actions proves the data by which immersed in water; that ice will melt they were guided to have been correctly when thrown on the fire-these, and put together. If, again, we say that many lịke predictions relating to the science is prgvision is a seeing hefore familiar properties of things, have as hand-is a knowing in what times, high a degree of accuracy as predictions places, cortinations, sequences, are capable of. It is true that the results specified pinoinena will be found; we foreseen are of a very general character; are obliged confess that the definition but it is none the less true that they are If we or THE GENESIS OF SCIENCE 39 correct as far as they go; and this is all in some of them the connexion between that is requisite to fulfil the definition. antecedents and consequents is estab- There is perfect accordance between the lished only by an elaborate series of anticipated phenomena and the actual inferences. A broad distinction, thereones; and no more than this can be fore, between scientific knowledge and said of the highest achievements of the common knowledge is its remoteness sciences specially characterized as exact. from perception. from perception. If we regard the cases Seeing thus that the assumed distinc in their most general aspect, we see that tion between scientific knowledge and the labourer who, on hearing certain common knowledge cannot be sustained; notes in the adjacent hedge, can describe and yet feeling, as we must, that how the particular form and colours of the ever impossible it may be to draw a line bird making them, and the astronomer between them, the two are not practi- who, having calculated a transit of cally identical; there arises the question Venus, can delincate the black spot What is the relationship between entering on the sun's disc, as it will them? A partial answer to this ques appear through the telescope, at a specition may be drawn from the illustrations ficd hour, do essentially the same thing. just given. On reconsidering them, it Each knows that on fulfilling the requisite will be observed that those portions of conditions, he shall have a preconceived ordinary knowledge which are identical impression--that after a dufinite series in character with scientific knowledge, of actions will come a group of sensacomprehend only such combinations of tions of a foreknown kind. The differphenomena as are directly cognizable by ence, then, is neither in the fundamental the senses, and are of simple, invariable character of the mental acts; nor in the nature. That the smoke from a fire correctness of the previsions accomwhich she is lighting will ascend, and plished by them ; but in the complexity that the fire will presently boil the water of the processes required to achieve the placed over it, are provisions which the previsions. Much of our common knowservant-girl makes equally well with the ledge is, as far as it goes, precise. Science most learned physicist; but they are does not increase its precision. What previsions concerning phenomena in then does it do? It reduces other constant and direct relation-phenomena knowledge to the same degree of precithat follow visibly and immediately after sion. That certainty which direct pertheir antecedents-phenomena of which ception gives us respecting coexistences the causation is neither remote nor and sequences of the simplest and most obscure-phenomena which may be accessible kind, science gives us respectpredicted by the simplest possible act of ing coexistences and sequences, complex reasoning. If, now, we pass to the pre- in their dependencies, or inaccessible visions constituting science.--that an to immediate observation. In brief, eclipse of the moon will happen at a regarded from this point of view, science specified time; that when a barometer may be called an extension of the percepis taken to the top of a mountain of tions by means of reasoning. known height, thit mercurial column will On further considering the matter, descend a stated number of inches; however, it will perhaps be felt that this that the poles of a galvanic battery definition does not express the whole immersed in water will give off, the one fact that inseparable as science may be an inflammable and the other. an in- from common knowledge, and completely flaming gas, in definite ratio---we per- ) as we may fill up the gang between the ceive that the relations involved are not simplest previsions of the hild and the of a kind habitually presented to our most recondite cnes of the physicist, by senses. They depend, some of athem, interposing a series of evisions in on special combinations of causes; and which the complexity reasoning 40 THE GENESIS OF SCIENCE was involved is greater and greater, there is ence which leads us to consider certain yet a difference between the two beyond orders of knowledge as especially scienthat above described. And this is true. tific when contrasted with knowledge in But the difference is still not such as general. Are the phenomena measurenables us to draw the assumed line of able? is the test which we unconsciously demarcation. It is a difference not employ. Space is measurable: hence between conimon knowledge and scien- Geometry. Force and space are measurtific knowledge ; but between the succes- able: hence Statics. Time, force, and sive phases of science itself, or know- space are measurable: hence Dynamics. ledge itself-whichever we choose to call The invention of the barometer enabled it. In its earlier phases science attains men to extend the principles of mechanics only to certainty of foresight; in its later to the atmosphere ; and Aerostatics phases it further attains to completeness. existed. When a thermometer We begin by discovering « relation ; we devised there arose a science of heat end by discovering the relation. Our which was before impossible. Of such first achievement is to furetell the kind of external agents as we have found no phenomenon which will occur under measures but our sensations we have no specified conditions ; our last achieve sciences. We have no science of smells; ment is to foretell not only the kind but nor have we one of tastes. We have a the amount. Or, to reduce the proposi- science of the relations of sounds differtion to its most definite form-unde- ing in pitch, because we have discovered veloped science is qualitative prevision; a way to ineasure these relations; but developed science is quantitative pre we have no science of sounds in respect vision. to their loudness or their timbre, because This will at once be perceived to we have got no measures of loudness express the remaining distinction between and timbre. Obviously it is this reducthe lower and the higher stages of positive tion of the sensible phenomena it knowledge. The prediction that a piere presents, to relations of magnitude, of lead will take more force to liſt it which gives to any division of knowthan a piece of wood of equal size, ledige its specially scientific character. exhibits certainty, but not completeness, Originally men's knowledge of weights of foresight. The kind of effect in which and fo.ces was like their present knowthe one body will exceed the other is ledge of smells and tastes -a knowledge foreseen; but not the amount by which not extending beyond that given by the it will exceed. There is qualitative pre- unaided sensations; and it remained so vision only. On the other hand, the until weighing instruments and dynamopredictions that at a stated time two meters invented. Before there particular planets will be in conjunction; were hour-glasses and clepsydras, most that by means of a lever having arms in phenomena could be estimated as to a given ratio, a known force will raise thcir durations and intervals, with no just so many pounds; that to decompose grcater precision than degrees of harda given quantity of sulphate of iron hy ness can be estimated by the fingers. carbonate of soda will require so many Until a thermometric scale was contrived, grains-these predictions show foreknow- men's judgments respecting relative ledge, not only of the nature of the amovints of heat stood on the same footeffects to be produced, but of the magni- ing with their present judgments respecttude, either of the effects themselves, of ing relative amounts of sound. And as the agencies Aroducing them, or of the in these initial stages, with 18 aids to distance in t le or space at which they observation, only the roughest comwill be proceed. There is both quali- parisons of cases could be made, and tative prev on and quantitative pre: only the most marked differences pervision. And this is the unexpressed differ-1 ceived, it resulted that only the most werc THE GENESIS OF SCIENCE 41 an simple laws of dependence could be broad contrast between the extreme ascertained-only those laws which, forms of the two, they yet lead us to being uncomplicated with others, and recognize their essential identity, and not disturbed in their manifestations, once more prove the difference to be one required no niceties of observation to of degree only. For, on the one hand, disentangle them. Whence it appears much of our common knowledge is to not only that in proportion as knowledge some extent quantitative; seeing that becomes quantitative do its provisions the amount of the foreseen result is become complete as well as certain, but known within certain wide limits. And, that until its assumption of a quantitative on the other hand, the highest quantitacharacter it is necessarily confined to the tive prevision does not reach the exact most elementary relations. truth, but only a near approach to it. Moreover it is to be remarked that Without clocks the savage knows that while, on the one hand, we can discover the day is longer in the summer than in the laws of the greater part of phenomena the winter; without scales he knows only by investigating them quantitatively; that stone is heavier than flesh; that is, on the other hand we can extend the he can foresce respecting certain results range of our quantitative previsions only that their amounts will exceed these, and as fast as we detect the laws of the results be less than those he knows about what we predict. For clearly the ability to they will be. And, with his most delispecify the magnitude of a result inac cate instruments and most elaborate cessible to direct measurement, implies calculations, all that the man of science knowledge of its mode of dependence on can do, is to reduce the difference something which can be measured -- between the foreseen and the actual implies that we know the particular fact results to unimportant quantity. dealt with to be an instance of some Moreover, it must be borne in mind not more general fact. Thus the extent to only that all the sciences are qualitative which our quantitative previsions have in their first stages, -not only that some been carried in any direction, indicates of them, as Chemistry, have but lately the depth to which our knowledge reached the quantitative stage--but that reaches in that direction. And here, as the most advanced sciences have attained another aspect of the same fact, it may to their present power of determining be observed that as we pass from quali- quantities not present to the senses, or tative to quantitative prevision, we pass not directly measurable, by a slow profrom inductive science to deductive cess of improvement extending through science. Science while purely inductive thousands of years. So that science and is purely qualitative; when inaccurately the knowledge of the uncultured are quantitative it usually consists of part alike in the nature of their previsions, induction, part deduction; and it becomes widely as they differ in range; they accurately quantitative only when wholly possess a common imperfection, though deductive. We do not mean that the this is immensely greater in the last deductive and the quantitative are coex than in the first; and the transition from tensive; for there is manifestly much the one to the other has been through a deduction that is qualitative only. We series of steps by which the imperfection mean that all quantitative prevision is has been rendered continually less, and reached deductively; and that induction the range continually wider. can achieve only qualitative prevision. These facts, that science and ordinary Still, showever, it must not be sup knowledge are allied in nature, and that posed that these distinctions enable us the one is but a perfectecand extended to separate ordinary knowledge from form of the other, must necessarily underscience ; much as they seem to do so. lie the whole theory of sence, its pro- While they show in what consists the gress, and the relations its parts to THE GENESIS OF SCIENCE each other. There must be incomplete generalizations essentially artificial; and ness in any history of the sciences, which, we shall not be deceived. Some illustraleaving out of view the first steps of tions of this may here be fitly introduced, their genesis, commences with them only by way of preliminary to a brief sketch when they assume definite forms. There of the genesis of science from the point must be grave defects, if not a general of view indicated. And we cannot more untruth, in a philosophy of the sciences readily find such illustrations than by considered in their interdependence and glancing at a few of the various classifidevelopment, which neglects the inquiry cations of the sciences that have from how they came to be distinct sciences, time to time been proposed. To conand how they were severally evolved out sider all of them would take too much of the chaos of primitive ideas. Not space: we'must content ourselves with only a direct consideration of the matter, some of the latest. but all analogy, goes to show that in the earlier and simpler stages must be sought Commencing with those which may be the key to all subsequent intricacies. soonest disposed of, let us notice, first, The time was when the anatomy and the arrangement propounded by Oken. physiology of the human being were An abstract of it runs thus : studied by themselves when the adult man was analyzed and the relations of Part I. MATHESIS. --- Pneumatogeny: Primary Act, l'rimary Consciousness, God, Primary parts and of functions investigated, with- Rest, Time, Polarity, Motion, Man, out reference either to the relations Space, Point, Line, Surface, Globe, exhibited in the embryo or to the Rotation.-Hylogeny: Gravity, Matter, homologous relations existing in other Ether, Ileavenly Bodies, Light, Heat, Hire. creatures. Now, however, it has become manifest that no true conceptions are (Ile explains that MATHESIS is the doctrine of the whole ; Pneumatogeny being the docpossible under such conditions. Anato trine of immaterial totalities, and Hylogeny mists and physiologists find that the real that of material totalitics.) natures of organs and tissues can be l'art II. ONTOLOGY. ---Cosmogeny: Rest, Centre, ascertained only by tracing their early Motion, Line, Planets, form, Planetary evolution ; and that the affinities between System, Comets. - Stöchingniny: Conden. existing gencra can be satisfactorily made sation), Simple Matter, Elements, Air, out only by examining the fossil genera Water, Earth.---- Slöchiology : Functions of the Elements, &c., &c:--ħingdoms of to which they are akin. Well, is it not Nalur: Individuals. clear that the like must be true concern- (lle says in explanation that “ ONTOLOGY ing all things that undergo development? teaches us the phenomena of matter. The Is not science a growth? Has not first of these are the heavenly bodies comprehended by Cosmorny. These divide into science, too, its embryology? And must elements --Slöchioginy. The earth element not the neglect of its embryology lead to divides into minerals--1/incralogy. These a misunderstanding of the principles of unite into one collective body-Ceogeny. The its evolution and of its existing organizawhole in singulars is the living, or Organic, tion? which again divides into plants and animals. There are a priori reasons, therefore, Biology', thereforc, divides into Organogeny, Phylosophy, loosophy.") for doubting the truth of all philosophies of the sciences which tacitly proceed FIRST KINGDOM.- MINERALS. Mineralogy, Geology. upon the common notion that scientific knowledge and ordinary knowledge arc Part III. BIOLOXY.--Organosophy, Phytogeny, separate, instead of commencing, as Phyto-physiology, Phytology, Zoogeny, Physiology, zoology, I'sychology. they should, affiliating the one upon the other, an showing how it gradually A glånce over this confused scheme came to be distinguishable from the shows that it is an attempt to classify other. We may expect to find their knowledge, not after the order in which THE GENESIS OF SCIENCE 43 * "it has been, or may be, built up in the “The highest mathematical idea, or human consciousness; but after an the fundamental principle of all matheassumed order of creation. It is a matics is the zero o. pseudo-scientific cosmogony, akin to “Zero is in itself nothing. Mathethose which men have enunciated from matics is based upon nothing, and, con the earliest times downwards; and only sequently, arises out of nothing. a little more respectable. As such it "Out of nothing, therefore, it is will not be thought worthy of much con possible for something to arise ; for sideration by those who, like ourselves, mathematics, consisting of propositions, hold that experience is the sole origin of is a something in relation to o." knowledge. Otherwise, it might have By such “consequentlys " and "therebeen needful to dwell on the incongrui- fores” it is, that men philosophize when ties of the arrangement--to ask how they “re-think the great thought of motion can be treated of before space? Creation." By dogmas that pretend to how there carf be rotation without matter be reasons, nothing is made to generate to rotate? how polarity can be dealt mathematics; and by clothing mathewith without involving points and lines? matics with matter, we have the universe 1 But it will serve our present purpose If now we deny, as we do deny, that the just to indicate a few of the absurditics highest mathematical idea is the zeroresulting from the doctrine which Oken if, on the other hand, we 'assert, as we seems to hold in common with Hegel, do assert, that the fundamental idea that "to philosophize on Nature is to underlying all mathematics, is that of re-think the great thought of Creation.” equality; the whole of Oken's cosmo- Here is a sample: gony disappears. And here, indeed, we “Mathematics is the universal science; may see illustrated, the distinctive pecuso also is Physio-philosophy, although it liarity of the German method of proceis only a part, or rather but a condition dure in these matters—the bastard a of the universe ; both are one, or priori method, as it may be termed. mutually congruent. The legitimate a priori method sets out “Mathematics is, however, a science with propositions of which the negation of mere forms without substance, Physio- is inconceivable; the a priori method as philosophy is, therefore, mathematics illegitimately applied, sets out either with endowed with substance. propositions of which the negation is From the English point of view it is not inconceivable, or with propositions sufficiently amusing to find such a dogma like Oken’s, of which the affirmation is not only gravely stated, but stated as an inconceivable. unquestionable truth. Here we see the It is needless to proceed further with experiences of quantitative relations the analysis; else might we detail the which men have gathered from sur steps by which Oken arrives at the conrounding bodies and generalized (expe- clusions that the planets are coagulated riences which had been scarcely at all colours, for they are coagulated light”; generalized at the beginning of the that “the sphere is the expanded historic period)-we find these gene- nothing”; that gravity is "a weighty ralized experiences, these intellectual nothing, a heavy essence, striving towards abstractions, elevated into concrete actu a centre"; that “the earth is the idenalities, projected back into Nature, and tical, water the indifferent, air the difconsidered as the internal frame-work of. ferent; or the first the centre, the things--the skeleton by which matter is second the radius, the last the periphery sustained. But this new form of the old of the general globe or bf fire." To realism, is by no means the most startling comment on them would be nearly as of the physio-philosophic principles. We absurd as are the proportions them. presently read that, 1 selves. Let us pass ont another of 44 "THE GENESIS OF SCIENCE the German systems of knowledge—that such premises, and reasoning after this of Hegel. fashion, Hegel finds his way to strange The simple fact that Hegel puts Jacob conclusions. Out of space and time he Bohme on a par with Bacon, suffices proceeds to build up motion, matter, alone to show that his stand-point is far repulsion, attraction, weight, and inertia. remote from the one usually regarded as He then goes on to logically evolve the scientific: so far remote, indeed, that it solar system. In doing this he widely is not easy to find any common basis on diverges from the Newtonian theory; which to found a criticism. Those who reaches by syllogism the conviction that hold that the mind is moulded into con- the planets are the most perfect celestial formity with surrounding things by the bodies; and, not being able to bring the agency of surrounding things, are neces stars within his theory, says that they are sarily at a loss how to deal with those mere formal existences and not living who, like Schelling and Hegel, assert matter, and that as compared with the that surrounding things are solidified solar system they are as little admirable mind--that Nature is “petrified intelli as a cutaneous eruption or a swarm of gence." However, let us briefly glance fies. Results so absurd might be left at Hegel's classification. He divides as self-disproved, were it not that specuphilosophy into three parts :- lators of this class are not alarmed by 1. Logic, of the science of the idea in any amount of incongruity with estabitself, the pure idea. lished beliefs. The only efficient mode 2. The Philosophy of Nature, or the of treating systems like this of Hegel, is science of the idea considered under its to show that they are self-destructive-- other form of the idea as Nature. that by their first steps they ignore that 3. The Philosophy of the Mind, or the authority on which all their subsequent science of the idea in its return to itself. steps depend. If Hegel professes, as he Of these, the second is divided into manifestly does, to develop his scheme the natural sciences, commonly so-called; by reasoning—if he presents successive so that in its more detailed form the inferences as necessarily following from series runs thus :- Logic, Mechanics, certain premises; he implies the postu- Physics, Organic Physics, Psychology. late that a belief which necessarily Now, if we believe with Hegel, first, follows after certain antecedents is a true that thought is the true essence of man; belief; and did an opponent reply to second, that thought is the essence of one of his inferences that, though it was the world; and that, therefore, there is impossible to think the opposite, yet the nothing but thought; his classification, opposite was true, he would consider the beginning with the science of pure reply irrational. The procedure, howthought, may be acceptable. But other-ever, which he would thus condemn as wise, it is an obvious objection to his destructive of all thinking whatever, is arrangement, that thought implies things just the procedure exhibited in the enunthought of-that there can be no logical ciation of his own first principles. Manforms without the substance of experi- kind find themselves unable to conceive ence--that the science of ideas and the that there can be thought without things science of things must have a simul- thought of. Hegel, however, asserts taneous origin. Hegel, however, antici- that there can be thought without things pates this objection, and, in his obstinate thought of. That ultimate test of a true idealism, replies, that the contrary is proposition--the inability of the human true. He affyms that all contained in mind to conceive the negation of itthe forms, to become something, requires to be though, and that logical forms. Plurality of Worlds," with quite other aims, " It is' curious that the author of "The are the foun.tions of all things. .should have persuaded himself into similar con- It is not itprising that, starting from clusions.

THE GENESIS OF SCIENCE 45 which in all the successive steps of his trines, in the belief that, if true, they arguments he considers valid, he con- will prosper by conquering objectors-mit siders invalid where it suits his conve- needs but to test his leading doctrines nience to do so; and yet at the same either by other facts than those he cites, time denies the right of an opponent to or by his own facts differently applied, to follow his example. If it is competent show that they will not stand. We will for him to posit dogmas which are the proceed thus to deal with the general direct negations of what human con- principle on which he bases his hierarchy sciousness recognizes ; then is it also of the sciences. competent for his antagonists to stop in the condensed translation of the him at any moment by saying, that Positive Philosophy, by Miss Martineau, though the particular inference he is M. Comte says : -"Our problem is, drawing seems to his mind, and to all then, to find the one rational order, minds, necessarily to follow from the amongst a host of possible systems."...... premises, yet it is not true, but the con- “This order is determined by the degree trary inference is true. Or, to state the of simplicity, or, what comes to the same dilemma in another form If he sets thing, of generality of their phenomena." out with inconceivable propositions, then And the arrangement he deduces runs may be with equal propriety make all thus : Mathematics, Astronomy, Physics, his succeeding propositions inconceivable Chemistry, Physiology, Social Physics. ones--may at every step throughout his This he asserts to be “the true filiation reasoning draw the opposite conclusion of the sciences.” He asserts further, to that which seems involved. that the principle of progression from a Hegel's mode of procedure being thus greater to a less degree of generality, essentially suicidal, the Hegelian classifi “which gives this order to the whole cation which depends upon it, falls to body of science, arranges the parts of the ground. Let us consider next that each science.” And, finally, he asserts of M. Comte. that the gradations thus established a As all his readers must admit, M. priori among the sciences and the parts Comte presents us with a scheme of the of each science, “is in essential consciences which, unlike the foregoing formity with the order which has sponones, demands respectful consideration. taneously taken place among the branches Widely as we differ from him, we cheer- of natural philosophy"; or, in other fully bear witness to the largeness of his words--corresponds with the order of views, the clearness of his reasoning, and historic development. the value of his speculations as contri Let us compare these assertions with buting to intellectual progress. Did we the facts. That there may be perfect believe a serial arrangement of the fairness, let us make no choice, but take sciences to be possible, that of M. Comte as the field for our comparison, the would certainly be the one we should succeeding section treating of the first adopt. His fundamental propositions science-Mathematics; and let us use are thoroughly intelligible; and, if not none but M. Comte's own facts, and his true, have a great semblance of truth. own admissions. Confining ourselves to His successive steps are logically co- this one science, we are limited to comordinated ; and he supports his conclu- parisons between its several parts. M. sions by a considerable amount of Comte says, that the parts of each science evidence-evidence which, so long as it must be arranged in the order of their is not critically examined, or not met by decreasing generality; and that this order counter evidence, seems to substantiate of decreasing generality agrees with the his positions. But it only heeds to order of historic deve.gpment. Our assume that antagonistic attitude which inquiry will be, then, who fer the history ought to be assumed towards new doc-' of mathematics copfirms is statement.

46 THE GENESIS OF SCIENCE we read Carrying out his principle, M. Comte But may it not be that though abstract divides Mathematics into " Abstract and concrete mathematics took their rise Mathematics, or the Calculus (taking at the same time, the one afterwards the word in its most extended sense) developed more rapidly than the other ; and Concrete Mathematics, which is and has ever since remained in advance, composed of General Geometry and of of it? No: and again we call M. Comte Rational Mechanics." The subject- himself as witness. Fortunately for his matter of the first of these is number; argument he has said nothing respecting the subject matter of the second includes the early stages of the concrete and space, time, motion, force. The one abstract divisions after their divergence possesses the highest possible degree of from a common root; otherwise the generality; for all things whatever admit advent of Algebra long after the Greek of enumeration. The others are less geometry had reached a high developgeneral ; seeing that there are endless ment, would have been an inconvenient phenomena that are not cognizable either fact for him to deal with. , But passing by general geometry or rational mechanics. over this, and limiting ourselves to his In conformity with the alleged law, there own statements, we find, at the opening fore, the evolution of the calculus must of the next chapter, the admission, that throughout have preceded the evolution “the historical development of the of the concrete sub-sciences. Now abstract portion of mathematical science somewhat awkwardly for him, the first has, since the time of Descartes, been remark M. Conte makes bearing on this for the most part determined by that of point is, that “from an historical point the concrete." Further on of view, mathematical analysis appears to respecting algebraic functions that "most have arisen out of the contemplation of functions were concrete in their origingeometrical and mechanical facts." even those which are at present the most True, he goes on to say that, “it is not purely abstract; and the ancients disthe less independent of these sciences covered only through geometrical definilogically speaking;" for that "analytical tions elementary algebraic properties of ideas are, above all others, universal, functions to which a numerical value was abstract, and simple; and geometrical not attached till long afterwards, renderconceptions are necessarily founded on ing abstract to us what was concrete to We will not take advantage of the old geometers.” How do these this last passage to charge M. Comte statements tally with his doctrine ? with teaching, after the fashion of Hegel, Again, having divided the calculus into that there can be thought without things algebraic and arithmetical, M. Comte thought of. We are content simply to admits, as perforce he must, that the compare the assertion, that analysis arose algebraic is more general than the arithout of the contemplation of geometrical metical ; yet he will not say that algebra and mechanical facts, with the assertion preceded arithmetic in point of time. that geometrical conceptions are founded And again, having divided the calculus upon analytical ones. Literally inter- of functions into the calculus of direct preted they exactly cancel each other. functions (common algebra) and the Interpreted, however, in a liberal sense, calculus of indirect functions (transcenthey imply, what we believe to be demon- dental analysis), he is obliged to speak strable, that the two had a simultaneous of this last as possessing a higher geneorigin. The passage is either nonsense, rality than the first; yet it is far more or it is an admission that abstract and modern. Indeed, by implication M. concrete mathe natics are coeval. Thus, Comte himself confesses this inconat the very first step, the alleged con- gruity; for he says :-"It might seem gruity between he order of generality and that the transcendental analysis ought to the order of elution does not hold good. I be studied before the ordinary, as it them.'s THE GENESIS OF SCIENCE 47 we provides the equations which the other | in fact, be imore philosophical to refer has to resolve. But though the tran- dynamics to statics, as has since been scendental is logically independent of the done." Sundry discoveries are afterordinary, it is best to follow the usual wards detailed, showing how completely method of study, taking the ordinary the development of statics has been first.' In all these cases, then, as well achieved by considering its problems as at the close of the section where he dynamically; and before the close of predicts that mathematicians will in time the section M. Comte remarks that "create procedures of a wider gene- "before hydrostatics could be comprerality," M. Comte makes admissions hended under statics, it was necessary that are diametrically opposed to the that the abstract theory of equilibrium alleged law. should be made so general as to apply In the succeeding chapters treating of directly to fluids as well as solids. This the concrete department of mathematics, was accomplished when Lagrange supfind similar contradictions. M. plied, as the basis of the whole of rational Comte himself names the geometry of mechanics, the single principle of virtual the ancients special geometry, and that velocities." In which statement we have of the moderns general geometry. He He two facts directly at variance with M. admits that while “the ancients studied Comte's doctrine ;-first, that the simpler geometry with reference to the bodies science, statics, reached its present under notice, or specially; the moderns development only by the aid of the study it with reference to the phenomena principle of virtual velocities, which to be considered, or generally." He belongs to the more complex science, admits that while "the ancients extracted dynamics; and that this a single prinall they could out of one line or surface ciple" underlying all rational mechanics before passing to another," "the moderns, --this most general form which includes since Descartes, employ themselves on alike the relations of statical, hydroquestions which relate to any figure statical, and dynamical and dynamical forces—was whatever." These facts are the reverse reached so late as the time of Lagrange. of what, according to his theory, they Thus it is not true that the historical should be. So, too, in mechanics. succession of the divisions of mathe- Before dividing it into statics and matics has corresponded with the order dynamics, M. Comte treats of the three of decreasing generality. It is not true laws of motion, and is obliged to do so; that abstract mathematics was evolved for statics, the more general of the two antecedently to, and independently of, divisions, though it does not involve concrete mathematics. It is not true motion, is impossible as a science until that of the sub-divisions of abstract the laws of inotion are ascertained. Yet mathematics, the more general came the laws of motion pertain to dynamics, before the more special. And it is not the more special of the divisions. Further true that concrete mathematics, in either on he points out that after Archimedes, of its two sections, began with the most who discovered the law of equilibrium of abstract and advanced to the less abstract the lever, staties made no progress until truths. the establishment of dynamics enabled It may be well to mention, parentheus to seek "the conditions of equilibrium tically, that, in defending his alleged law through the laws of the composition of of progression from the general to the forces." And he adds--." At this day special, M. Comte somewhere comments this is the method universally employed. upon the two meanings of the word At the first glance it does not appear the general, and the resulting liability to conmost rational-dynamics being more fusion. Without now diçcussing whether complicated than statics, and precedence, the asserted distinction exists in other being natural to the simpler. It would, 1 cases, it is manifest that does not exist 48 THE.GENESIS OF SCIENCE here. In sundry of the instances above our comment is simply that it is a mis, quoted, the endeavours made by M. representation based upon an arbitrary Comte himself to disguise, or to explain misuse of words-a mere verbal artifice. away, the precedence of the special over By choosing to exclude from terrestrial the general, clearly indicate that the physics those laws of magnitude, motion, generality spoken of is of the kind meant and position, which he includes in celes: by his formula. And it needs but a tial physics, M. Comte makes it appear brief consideration of the matter to show that the last owes nothing to the first. that, even did he attempt it, he could Not only is this unwarrantable, but it is not distinguish this generality which, as radically inconsistent with his own scheme above proved, frequently comes last, from of divisions. At the outset he says-and the gencrality which he says always as the point is important we quote from comes first. For what is the nature of the original—“Pour la physique inorthat mental process by which objects, ganique nous voyons d'abord, en nous dimensions, weights, times, and the rest, conformant toujours à l'ordre de généare found capable of having their rela- ralité et de dépendance des phénomènes, tions expressed numerically? It is the qu'elle doit être partagée en deux sections formation of certain abstract conceptions distinctes, suivant qu'elle considère les of unity, duality, and multiplicity, which phénomènes généraux de l'univers, ou, are applicable to all things alike. It is en particulier, ceux que présentent les the invention of gencral symbols serving corps terrestres. . D'où la physique to express the numerical relations of céleste, ou l'astronomie, soit géoméentities, whatever be their special char- trique, soit mechanique; et la physique actors. And what is the nature of the terrestre." Here then we have inorganic mental process by which numbers are physics clearly divided into celestial found capable of having their relations physics and terrestrial physics ---- the expressed algebraically? It is the same. phenomena presented by the universe, It is the formation of certain abstract and the phenomena presented by earthly conceptions of numerical functions which bodies. "If now celestial bodies and are constant whatever be the magnitudes terrestrial bodies exhibit sundry leading of the numbers. It is the invention of phenomena in common, as they do, how general symbols serving to express the can the generalization of these common relations between numbers, as numbers phenomena be considered as pertaining express the relations between things. to the one class rather than to the other? Just as arithmetic deals with the common If inorganic physics includes geometry properties of lines, areas, bulks, forces, ! (which M. Comte has made it do by periods ; so does algebra deal with the comprehending geometrical astronomy in common properties of the numbers which its sub-section, celestial physics); and if arithmetic presents. its other sub-section, terrestrial physics, Having shown that M. Comte's alleged treats of things having geometrical prolaw of progression does not hold among perties; how can the laws of geometrical the several parts of the same science, let relations be excluded from terrestrial us see how it agrees with the facts when physics ? Cicarly, if celestial physics applied to the separate sciences. "Astro- includes the geometry of objects in the nomy," says M. Comte (Positive Philo- heavens, terrestrial physics includes the sophy, Book III.), a positive geometry of objects on the earth. And science, in its geometrical aspect, from if terrestrial physics includes terrestrial the earliest days of the school of Alexan- geometry, while celestial physics includes dria ; but Physics, which we are now to celestial geometry, then the geometrical consider, had no positive character at part of terrestrial physics precedes the all till Galileo ade his great discoveries geometrical part of celestial physics on the fall of heavy bodies.” On this, l' seeing that geometry gained its first was THE GENESIS OF SCIENCE 49 ideas from surrounding objects. Until | ciates. While he asserts that the rational men had learnt geometrical relations order of the sciences, like the order of from bodies on the earth, it was impos- their historic development, "is detersible for them to understand the geome- mined by the degree of simplicity, or, trical relations of bodies in the heavens. what comes to the same thing, of gene- 'So, too, with celestial mechanics, which rality of their phenomena ;" it might had terrestrial mechanics for its parent. contrariwise be asserted that, commenc- The very conception of force, which ing with the complex and the special, underlies the whole of mechanical astro-mankind have progressed step by step to nomy, is borrowed from our earthly a knowledge of greater simplicity and experiences; and the leading laws of wider generality. So much evidence is mechanical action as exhibited in scales, there of this as to have drawn from levers, projectiles, &c., had to be ascer- Whewell, in his History of the Inductive tained before the dynamics of the Solar Sciences, the femark that “the reader System could be entered upon. What has already seen repeatedly in the course were the laws made use of by Newton in of this history, complex and derivative working out his grand discovery? The principles presenting themselves to men's law of falling bodies disclosed by Galileo ; minds before simple and elementary that of the composition of forces also ones.” Even from M. Comte's own disclosed by Galileo; and that of centri- work, numerous facts, admissions, and fugal force found out by Huyghens--all arguments, might be picked out, tending of them generalizations of terrestrial to show this. We have already quoted physics. Yet, with facts like these his words in proof that both abstract before him, M. Comte places astronomy and concrete mathematics have probefore physics in order of evolution ! gressed towards a higher degree of He does not compare the geometrical generality, and that he looks forward parts of the two together, and the to a higher generality still. Just to mechanical parts of the two together; strengthen this adverse hypothesis, let us for this would by no means suit his take a further instance. From the parhypothesis. But he compares the geome- ticular case of the scales, the law of trical part of the one with the mechanical equilibrium of which was familiar to the part of the other, and so gives a sem earliest nations known, Archimedes blance of truth to his position. He is advanced to the more general case of led away by a verbal illusion. Had he the lever of which the arms may or may confined his attention to the things and not be equal; the law of equilibrium of disregarded the words, he would have which includes that of the scales. By seen that before mankind scientifically the help of Galileo's discovery concernco-ordinated any one class of phenomena ing the composition of forces, D'Alemdisplayed in the heavens, they had pre- bert “established, for the first time, the viously co-ordinated a parallel class of equations of equilibrium of any system phenomena displayed on the surface of of forces applied to the different points the earth. of a solid body”-equations which Were it needful we could fill a score include all cases of levers and an infinity pages with the incongruities of M. of cases besides. Clearly this is progress Comte's scheme. But the foregoing towards a higher generality-towards a samples will suffice. So far is his law knowledge more independent of special of evolution of the sciences from being circumstances towards a study of phenotenable, that, by following his example, mena "the most disengaged from the and arbitrarily ignoring one class of facts, incidents of particular cases; which is it would be possible to present, with M. Comte's definition of "the most great plausibility, just the opposite simple phenomena." Docit not indeed generalization to that which he enun- follow from the admitt fact, that 50 THE GENESIS OF SCIENCE mental advance is from the concrete to organisms, has been not only a specialithe abstract, from the particular to the zation of functions, but a continuous general, that the universal and therefore helping of each division by all the others, most simple truths are the last to be and of all by each. Every particular discovered ? Should we ever succeed in class of inquirers has, as it were, secreted. reducing all orders of phenomena to its own particular order of truths from some single law-say of atomic action, the general mass of material which obseras M. Comte suggests-must not that vation accumulates; and all other classes law answer to his test of being indepen- of inquirers have made use of these truths dent of all others, and therefore most as fast as they were elaborated, with the simple? And would not such a law effect of enabling them the better to generalize the phenomena of gravity, elaborate each its own order of truths. cohesion, atomic affinity, and electric | It was thus in sundry of the cases we repulsion, just as the laws of number have quoted as at variance with M. generalize the quantitative phenomena of Comte's doctrine. It was thus with the space, time and force? application of Huyghens's optical dis- The possibility of saying so much in covery to astronomical observation by support of an hypothesis the very reverse Galileo. It was thus with the application of M. Comte's, at once proves that his of the isochronism of the pendulum to generalization is only a half-truth. The the making of instruments for measuring fact is that neither proposition is correct intervals, astronomical and other. It by itself; and the actuality is expressed was thus when the discovery that the only by putting the two together. The refraction and dispersion of light did not progress of science is duplex, It is at follow the same law of variation, affected once from the special to the general, and both astronomy and physiology by giving from the general to the special. It is us achromatic telescopes and microanalytical and synthetical at the same scopes. It was thus when Bradley's time. discovery of the aberration of light M. Comte himself observes that the enabled him to make the first step evolution of science has been accom- towards ascertaining the motions of the plished by the division of labour ; but he stars. It was thus when Cavendish's quite misstates the mode in which this torsion-balance experiment determined division of labour has operated. As he the specific gravity of the Earth, and so describes it, it has been simply an gave a datuni for calculating the specific arrangement of phenomena into classes, gravities of the Sun and Planets. It and the study of each class by itself. was thus when tables of atmospheric He does not recognize the effect of pro- refraction enabled observers to write gress in each class upon all other classes : down the real places of the heavenly he recognizes only the effect on the class bodies instead of their apparent places. succeeding it in his hierarchical scale. It was thus when the discovery of the Or if he occasionally admits collatcral different expansibilities of metals by heat influences and intercommunications, he gave us the means of correcting our does it so grudgingly, and so quickly chronometrical measurements of astroputs the admissions out of sight and nomical periods. It was thus when the forgets them, as to leave the impression lines of the prismatic spectrum were used that, with but trifling exceptions, the to distinguish the heavenly bodies that sciences aid one another only in the are of like nature with the sun from order of their alleged succession. The those which are not. It was thaus when, fact is, however, that the division of as recently, an electro-telegraphic instrulabour in science, like the division of ment was invented for the more accurate labour in so ety, and like the "physio- registration of meridional transits. It logiral divi: n of labour" in individual was thus when the difference in the THE GENESIS OF SCIENCE 51 Tates of a clock at the equator, and M. Comte admits, such a classification nearer the poles, gave data for calculating " will always involve something, if not the oblateness of the earth, and account- arbitrary, at least artificial ;” it is not, as ing for the precession of the equinoxes. he would have us believe, that, neglect- It was thus-but it is needless to con- ing minor imperfections, such a classificatinue. Here within our own limited tion may be substantially true; but it is knowledge of its history, we have named that any grouping of the sciences in a ten additional cases in which the single succession gives a radically erroneous science of astronomy has owed its idea of their genesis and their depenadvance to sciences coming after it in dencies. There is no “one rational M. Comte's series. Not only its minor order among a host of possible systems.” changes, but its greatest revolutions have There is no "true filiation of the been thus determined. Kepler could sciences.” The whole hypothesis is not have discovered his celebrated laws fundamentally false. Indeed, it needs had it not been for Tycho Brahe's but a glance at its origin to see at once accurate observations; and it was only how baseless it is. Why a series? What after some progress in physical and reason have we to suppose that the chemical science that the improved sciences admit of a linear arrangement ? instruments with which those observa- Where is our warrant for assuming that tions were made, became possible. The there is some succession in which they heliocentric theory of the Solar System can be placed? There is no reason; no had to wait until the invention of the warrant. Whence then has arisen the telescope before it could be finally estab- supposition? To use M. Comte's own lished. Nay, even the grand discovery phraseology, we should say, it is a metaof all--the law of gravitation-depended physical conception. It adds another to for its proof upon an operation of physical the cases constantly occurring, of the science, the measurement of a degree human mind being made the measure of on the Earth's surface. So completely, Nature. We are obliged to think in indeed, did it thus depend, that Newton' sequence; it is a law of our minds that had actually abandoned his hypothesis we must consider subjects separately, because the length of a degree, as then one after another : therefore Nature must stated, brought out wrong results; and be serial---therefore the sciences must be it was only after Picart's more exact classifiable in a succession. See here measurement was published, that he the birth of the notion, and the sole returned to his calculations and proved evidence of its truth. Men have been his great generalization. Now this con- obliged, when arranging in books their stant intercommunion which, for brevity's schemes of education and systems of sake, we have illustrated in the case of knowledge, to choose some order or other. one science only, has been taking place And from inquiring what is the best with all the sciences. Throughout the order, have fallen into the belief that whole course of their evolution there has there is an order which truly represents been a continuous consensus of the the facts--have persevered in seeking sciences—a consensus exhibiting a general such an order ; quite overlooking the correspondence with the consensus of the previous question whether it is likely faculties in each phase of mental develop- that Nature has consulted the convement; the one being an objective registry nience of book-making. For German of the subjective state of the other. philosophers, who hold that Nature is "petrified intelligence," and that logical From our present point of view, then, forms are the foundations of all things, it becomes obvious that the conception, it is a consistent hypothesis that as of a serial arrangement of the sciences is thought is serial, Nature serial; but a vicious one. It is not simply that, as that M. Comte, who is it bitter an 52 THE GENESIS OF SCIENCE We propose opponent of all anthropomorphism, even gradual outgrowth from common knowin its most evanescent shapes, should ledge-an extension of the perceptions have committed the mistake of imposing by the aid of the reason. upon the external world an arrangement to treat it as a psychological process which so obviously springs from a limi- historically displayed; tracing at the tation of the human consciousness, is same time the advance from qualitative somewhat strange. And it is the more to quantitative prevision; the progress strange when we call to mind how, at from concrete facts to abstract facts, and the outset, M. Comte remarks that in the application of such abstract facts to the beginning "toutes les sciences sont the analysis of new orders of concrete cultivées simultanément par les mêmes facts; the simultaneous advance in esprits"; that this is “inévitable et même generalization and specialization; the indispensable”; and how he further continually increasing subdivision and remarks that the different sciences are reunion of the sciences; and their concomme les diverses branches d'un tronc stantly improving consensus. unique." Were it not accounted for by the distorting influence of a cherished To trace out scientific evolution from hypothesis, it would be scarcely possible its deepest roots would, of course, involve to understand how, after recognizing a complete analysis of the mind. For truths like these, M, Comte should have as science is a development of that persisted in attempting to construct common knowledge acquired by the sune échelle encyclopédique." unaided senses and uncultured reason, The metaphor which M. Comte has so is that common knowledge itself here so inconsistently used to express gradually built up out of the simplest the relations of the sciences-branches perceptions. We must, therefore, begin of one trunk—is an approximation to somewhere abruptly; and the most the truth, though not the truth itself. It appropriate stage to take for our point suggests the facts that the sciences had a of departure will be the adult mind of common origin; that they have been the savage. developing simultaneously; and that they Commencing thus, without a proper have been from time to time dividing preliminary analysis, we are naturally and sub-dividing. But it fails to suggest somewhat at a loss how to present, in a the fact, that the divisions and sub- satisfactory manner, those fundamental divisions thus arising do not remain processes of thought out of which science separate, but now and again re-unite in originates. Perhaps our argument may direct and indirect ways. They inoscu-be best initiated by the proposition, that late; they severally send off and receive all intelligent action whatever depends connecting growths; and the intercom- upon the discerning of distinctions among munion has been ever becoming more surrounding things. The condition frequent, more intricate, more widely under which only it is possible for any ramified. There has all along been creature to obtain food and avoid danger, higher specialization, that there might be is, that it shall be differently affected by a larger generalization; and a deeper different objects--that it shall be led to analysis, that there might be a better act in one way by one object, and in synthesis. Each larger generalization another way by another. In the lower has lifted sundry specializations still orders of creatures this condition is fulhigher; and each better synthesis has filled by means of an apparatus which prepared the way for still deeper acts automatically. In the higher orders analysis. the actjons are partly automatic, partly And here we may fitly enter upon the conscious. And in man they are almost task awhile Ince indicated-a sketch of wholly conscious. Throughout, however, the Genesis of Science, regarded as a 'there must necessarily exist a certain THE GENESIS OF SCIENCE 53 classification of things according to their classes are formed and arranged accordproperties—a classification which is ing to the degrees of unlikeness. Things either organically registered in the strongly contrasted are alone distinsystem, as in the inferior creation, or guished in the lower stages of mental is formed by conscious experience, as evolution; as may be any day observed in ourselves. And it may be further in an infant. And gradually as the remarked, that the extent to which this powers of discrimination increase, the classification is carried, roughly indicates strongly-contrasted classes at first distinthe height of intelligence-that, while guished, come to be each divided into the lowest organisms are able to do little sub-classes, differing from each other less more than discriminate organic from than the classes differ; and these subinorganic matter; while the generality of classes are again divided after the same animals carry their classifications no manner. By the continuance of which further than to a limited number of process, things are gradually arranged plants or creatures serving for food, a into groups, the members of which are limited number of beasts of prey, and a less and less unlike; ending, finally, in limited number of places and materials; groups whose members differ only as the most degraded of the human race individuals, and not specifically. And possess a knowledge of the distinctive thus there tends ultimately to arise the natures of a great variety of substances, notion of complete likeness. For raniplants, animals, tools, persons, &c.; not festly, it is impossible that groups should only as classes but as individuals. continue to be sub-divided in virtue of What now is the mental process by smaller and smaller differences, without which classification is cffected ? Mani- there being a simultaneous approximafestly it is a recognition of the likeness or tion to the notion of no difference. unlikeness of things, either in respect of Let us next notice that the recognition their sizes, colours, forms, weights, tex of likeness and unlikeness, which undertures, tastes, &c., or in respect of their lies classification, and out of which conmodes of action. By some special mark, tinued classification evolves the idea of sound, or motion, the savage identifies a complete likeness-let us next notice certain four-legged creature hc secs, as that it also underlies the process of one that is good for food, and to be naming, and by consequence language. caught in a particular way; or as one For all language consists, at the outset, that is dangerous; and acts accordingly. of symbols which are as like to the He has classed together all the creatures things symbolized as it is practicable to that are alike in this particular. And make them. The language of signs is a manifestly in choosing the wood out of means of conveying ideas by mimicking which to form his bow, the plant with the actions or peculiarities of the things which to poison his arrows, the bone referred to. Verbal language also, in its from which to make his fish-hooks, he first stage, is a mode of suggesting objects identifies them through their chief or acts by imitating the sounds which sensible properties as belonging to the the objects make, or with which the acts general classes, wood, plant, and bone, are accompanied. Originally these two but distinguishes them as belonging to languages were used simultaneously. It sub-classes by virtue of certain properties needs but to watch the gesticulations in which they are unlike the rest of the with which the savage accompanies his general classes they belong tor; and so speech-to see a Bushman dramatizing forms genera and species. before an audience his mode of catching And here it becomes manifest that game-or to note the extreme paucity of not only is classification carried on by words in primitive vocabularies; to infer grouping together in the mind things that in the beginning, attitades, gestures, that are like; but that classes and sub: I and sounds, were all Jombined to $4 THE GENESIS OF SCIENCE root; produce as good a likeness as possible of sently abbreviated; and, passing through the things, animals, persons, or events the hieroglyphic and ideographic phases, described ; and that as the sounds came the symbols lost all apparent relation to to be understood by themselves the the things signified: just as the majority gestures fell into disuse : leaving traces, of our spoken words have done. however, in the manners of the more Observe, again, that the same thing in excitable civilized races. But be this as true respecting the genesis of reasoning. it may, it suffices simply to observe, how The likeness which is perceived to exist many of the words current among between cases, is the essence of all early barbarous peoples are like the sounds reasoning and of much of our present appertaining to the things signified; how reasoning. The savage, having by expemany of our own oldest and simplest rience discovered a relation between a words have the same peculiarity; how certain object and a certain act, infers children habitually invent imitative that the like relation will be found in words; and how the sign-language spon- future. And the expressions we use in taneously formed by deaf mutes is based our arguments --"analogy implies," "the on imitative actions to be convinced cases are not parallel," “by parity of that the notion of likeness is that from reasoning,” “there is no similarity,"-- which the nomenclature of objects takes show how constantly the idea of likeness its rise. Were there space we might go underlies our ratiocinative processes. on to point out how this law of likeness Still more clearly will this be seen on is traceable, not only in the origin but in recognizing the fact that there is a close the development of language; how in connexion between reasoning and classiprimitive tongues the plural is made by fication; that the two have a common a duplication of the singular, which is a and that neither can go on without multiplication of the word to make it the other, the other. For on the one hand, it is like the multiplicity of the things; how a familiar truth that the attributing to a the use of metaphor---that prolific source body in consequence of some of its of new words--is a suggesting of ideas properties, all those other properties in which are like the ideas to be conveyed virtue of which it is referred to a parin some respect or other; and how, in ticular class, is an act of inference. And, the copious use of simile, fable, and on the other hand, the forming of a allegory among uncivilized races, we see generalization is the putting together in that complex conceptions which there is one class, all those cases which present no direct language for, are rendered, hy like relations; while the drawing a deducpresenting known conceptions more or tion is essentially the perception that a less like them. particular case belongs to a certain class This view is confirmed, and the pre- of cases previously generalized. So that dominance of this notion of likeness in as classification is a grouping together of primitive thought further illustrated, by of like things; reasoning is a grouping the fact that our system of presenting together of like relations among things. ideas to the eye originated after the same Add to which, that while the perfection fashion. Writing and printing have gradually achieved in classification condescended from picture-language. The sists in the formation of groups of objects earliest mode of permanently registering which are completely alike; the perfection a fact was by depicting it on a skin and gradually achieved in reasoning consists afterwards on a wall; that is by exhibit in the formation of groups of cases which ing something as like to the thing to are completely alike. be remembered as it could be made. Once more we may contemplate this Gradually, as the practice grew habitual dominant idea of likeness as exhibited in and extensive the most frequently art. All art, çivilized as well as savage, repeated forifs became fixed, and pre. I consists almost wholly in the making of THE GENESIS OF SCIENCE 55 objects like other objects ; either as found | animal kingdom has been grouped not in Nature, or as produced by previous merely into quadrupeds, birds, fishes, art. If we trace back the varied art and insects, but each of these divided products now existing, we find that at into kinds --when there come to be each stage the divergence from previous classes, in each of which the members patterns is but small when compared differ only as individuals, and not speciwith the agreement; and in the earliest fically; it is clear that there must freart the persistency of imitation is yet qucntly occur an observation of objects more conspicuous. The old forms and which differ so little as to be indistinornaments and symbols were held sacred, guishable. Among Among several creatures and perpetually copied. Indeed, the which the savage has killed and carried strong imitative tendency notoriously home, it must often happen that some displayed by the lowest human races one, which he wished to identify, is so often seeming to be half automatic, exactly like another that he cannot tell ensures among them a constant repro- which is which. Thus, then, there origiduction of likenesses of things, forms, nates the notion of equality. The things signs, sounds, actions and whatever else which among ourselves are called equal is imitable; and we may even suspect --whether lines, angles, weights, tempera. that this aboriginal peculiarity is in some tures, sounds tures, sounds or colours are things way connected with the culture and which produce in us sensations which development of this general conception, cannot be distinguished from each other, which we have found so deep and wide- It is true that we now apply the word spread in its applications. equal chiefly to the separate traits or And now let us go on to consider how, relations which objects exhibit, and not by a further unfolding of this same funda- to those combinations of them constitutmental notion, there is a gradual forna ing our conceptions of the objects; but tion of the first germs of Science. This this limitation of the idea has evidently idea of likeness which underlies classifi- arisen by analysis. "That the notion of cation, nomenclature, language spoken equality originated as alleged, will, we and written, reasoning, and art, and think, become obvious on remembering which plays so important a part because that as there were no artificial objects all acts of intelligence are made possible from which it could have been abstracted, only by distinguishing among surround it must have been abstracted from natural ing things, or grouping them into like objects; and that the various families of and unlike ;-this idea we shall find to the animal kingdom chiefly furnish those be the one of which science is the natural objects which display the requisite especial product. Already during the exactitude of likeness. stage we have been describing, there has The experiences out of which this existed qualitative prevision in respect general idea of equality is evolved, give to the commoner phenomenal with which birth at the same time to a more complex savage life is familiar : and we have now idea of equality; or, rather, the process to inquire how the elements of quantita- just described generates an idea of tive prevision art evolved. We shall find equality which further experience sepathat they originate by the perfecting of rates into two ideas-equality of thing's this same idea of likeness--that they | and equality of relations. While organic have their rise in that conception of forms occasionally exhibit this perfection complete likeness which, as we have seen, of likeness out of which the notion of necessarily results from the continued simple equality arises, they more freprocess of classification, . quently exhibit only that kind of likeness For when the process of classification which we call similarity; and which is has been carried as far as it is possible. really compound equality. For the for the uncivilized to carry it--when the similarity of two creature of the same 56 THE GENESIS OF SCIENCE species but of different sizes, is of the from a single part of a creature, as a same nature as the similarity of two tooth, construct the rest by a process of geometrical figures. In either case, any reasoning based on this equality of relatwo parts of the one bear the same ratio tions, they will see that the two things to one another, as the homologous parts are intimately connected, remote as they of the other. Given, in a species, the at first seem. But we anticipate. What proportions found to exist among the it concerns us here to observe is, that bones, and we may, and zoologists do, from familiarity with organic forms there predict from any one, the dimensions of simultaneously arose the ideas of simple the rest ; just as, when knowing the pro- cquality, and equality of relations. portions subsisting among the parts of a At the same time, too, and out of the geometrical figure, we may, from the same mental processes, came the first length of one, calculate the others. And distinct ideas of number. In the earliest if, in the case of similar geometrical stages, the presentation of several like figures, the similarity can be established objects produced merely an indefinite only by proving exactness of proportion conception of multiplicity; as it still does among the homologous parts-if we among Australians, and Bushmen, and express this relation between two parts Damaras, when the number presented in the one, and the corresponding parts exceeds three or four. With such a fact in the other, by the formula A is to B as before us we may safely infer that the a is to b; if we otherwise write this, first clear numerical conception was that A to B = a to b; if, consequently, the of duality as contrasted with unity. And fact we prove is that the relation of A to this notion of duality must necessarily B equals the relation of a to b; then it have grown up side by side with those is manifest that the fundamental concep- of likeness and equality; secing that it tion of similarity is equality of relations. is impossible to recognize the likeness of With this explanation we shall be under two things without also perceiving that stood when we say that the notion of there are two). From the very beginning equality of relations is the basis of all the conception of number must have exact reasoning. Already it has been been, as it is still, associated with likeshown that reasoning in general is a ness or equality of the things numbered; recognition of likeness of relations; and and for the purposes of calculation, an here we further find that while the notion ideal equality of the things is assumed. of likeness of things ultimately evolves Before any absolutely true numerical the idea of simple equality, the notion of results can be reached, it is requisite that likeness of relations evolves the idea of the units be absolutely equal. The only equality of relations : of which the one is way in which we can establish a numerical the concrete germ of exact science, while relationship between things that do not the other is its abstract germ. Those yield us like impressions, is to divide who cannot understand how the recogni- them into parts that do yield us like tion of similarity in creatures of the same impressions. Two unlike magnitudes of kind, can have any alliance with reason- extension, force, time, weight, or what ing, will get over the difficulty on remem not, can have their relative amounts bering that the phenomena among which estimated, only by means of some small equality of relations is thus perceived, unit that is contained many times in are phenomena of the same order and both; and cven if we finally write down are present to the senses at the same the greater one as a unit and the other time; while those among which developed as a fraction of it, we state, in the denoreason perceives relations, are generally minator of the fraction, the number of neither of the same order, nor simulta- parts into which the unit must be divided neously present. And if, further, they. to be comparable with the fraction. It will call to mind how Cuvier and Owen, l.is, indeed, true, that by a modern process THE GENESIS OF SCIENCE 57 of abstraction, we occasionally apply tolerably clear that the earliest mode of numbers to unequal units, as the furni-conveying the idea of a number of things, ture at a sale or the various animals on was by holding up as many fingers as a farm, simply as so many separate there were things; that is, by using a entities; but no exact quantitative result symbol which was equal, in respect of can be brought out by calculation with multiplicity, to the group symbolized. units of this order. And, indeed, it is for which inference there is, indeed, the distinctive peculiarity of the calculus strong confirmation in the statement in general, that it proceeds on the hypo- that our own soldiers spontaneously thesis of that absolute equality of its adopted this device in their dealings abstract units, which no real units with the Turks during the Crimean War. possess; and that the exactness of its And here it should be remarked that in results holds only in virtue of this hypo- this re-combination of the notion of thesis. The first ideas of number must equality with that of multiplicity, by necessarily then have been derived from which the first steps in numeration are like or equal magnitudes as seen chiefly effected, we may see one of the earliest in organic objects; and as the like like of those inosculations between the divergmagnitudes most frequently observed ing branches of science, which are afterwere magnitudes of extension, it follows wards of perpetual occurrence. that geometry and arithmetic had a As this observation suggests, it will be simultaneous origin. well, before tracing the mode in which Not only are the first distinct ideas of exact science emerges from the inexact number co-ordinate with ideas of like- judgments of the senses, and showing ness and equality, but the first efforts at the non-serial evolution of its divisions, numeration display the same relation- to note the non-serial character of those ship. On reading accounts of savage preliminary processes of which all after tribes, we find that the method of count- development is a continuation. ing by the fingers, still followed by considering them it will be seen that not many children, is the aboriginal method. only are they divergent branches from a Neglecting the several cases in which common root,—not only are they simulthe ability to enumerate does not reach tancous in their growth ; but that they even to the number of fingers on one are mutual aids; and that none can hand, there are many cases in which it advance without the rest. That progress does not extend beyond ten-the limit of classification for which the unfolding of the simple finger notation. The fact of the perceptions paves the way, is that in so many instances, remote, and impossible without a corresponding proseemingly unrelated nations, have adopted gress in language, by which greater ten as their basic number; together with varictics of objects are thinkable and the fact that in the remaining instances expressible. On the one hand classificathe basic number is either five (the tion cannot be carried far without names fingers of one hand) or twenty (the by which to designate the classes; and fingers and toes); of themselves show on the other hand language cannot be that the fingers Were the original units of made faster than things are classified. numeration. The still surviving use of Again, the multiplication of classes and the word digit, as the general name for a the consequent narrowing of each class, figure in arithmetic, is significant; and it itself involves a greater likeness among is even said that our word ten (Sax. tyn; the things classed together; and the con- Dutch, tien; German, zehn) means in its sequent approach towards the notion of primitive expanded form treio hands. So complete likeness itself allows classificathat, originally, to sảy there were ten. tion to be carried higher. Moreover, things, was to say there were two hands classification necessarily advances pari of them. From all which evidence it is. passu with rationality--tho-classification On re- 58 THE GENESIS OF SCIENCE of things with the classification of rela- stage of mental development. But how. tions. For things that belong to the ever this may be, it is clear that as fast same class are, by implication, things as the notion of equality gained definiteof which the properties and modes ness, so fast did that lowest kind of of behaviour--the co-existences and quantitative prevision which is achieved sequences are more or less the same; without any instrumental aid, become and the recognition of this sameness of possible. The ability to estimate, howco-existences and sequences is reasoning. ever roughly, the amount of a foreseen Whence it follows that the advance of result, implies the conception that it will classification is necessarily proportionate be equal to a certain imagined quantity; to the advance of generalizations. Yet and the correctness of the estimate will ſurther, the notion of likeness, both in manifestly depend on the precision which things and relations, simultaneously the perceptions of sensible equality have evolves by one process of culture the reached. A savage with a piece of stone ideas of equality of things and equality of in his hand, and another piece lying relations; which are the respective bases before him of greater bulk but of the of exact concrete reasoning and exact same kind (sameness of kind being abstract reasoning -Mathematics and inferred from the equality of the two in Logic. And once more, this idea of colour and texture), knows about what equality, in the very process of being effort he must put forth to raise this formed, necessarily gives origin to two other piece; and he judges accurately in series of relations--those of magnitude proportion to the accuracy with which he and those of number; from which arise perceives that the one is twice, three geometry and the calculus. Thus the times, four times, &c., as large as the process throughout is one of perpetual other; that is--in proportion to the presubdivision and perpetual intercommuni- cision of his ideas of equality and numcation of the divisions. From the very ber. From the very ber. And here let us not omit to notice first there has been that consensus of that even in these vaguest of quantitative different kinds of knowledge, answering previsions, the conception of equality of to the consensus of the intellectual facul- relations is also involved. For it is only ties, which, as already said, must exist in virtue of an undefined consciousness among the sciences. that the relation between bulk and weight Let us now go on to observe how, out in one stone is equal to the relation of the notions of equality and number, as between bulk and weight in the other, arrived at in the manner described, there that even the roughest approximation can gradually arose the elements of quantita- be made. tive prevision. But bow came the transition from those Equality, once having come to be uncertain perceptions of equality which definitely conceived, was recognizable the unaided senses give, to the certain among other phenomena than those of ones with which science deals? It came magnitude. Being predicable of all by placing the things compared in juxtathings producing indistinguishable im- position. Equality being asserted of pressions, there naturally grew up ideas things which give us indistinguishable of equality in weights, sounds, colours, impressions, and no distinct comparison &c.; and, indeed, it can scarcely be of impressions being possible unless they doubted that the occasional experience occur in immediate succession, it results of equal weights, sounds, and colours , that exactness of equality is ascertainable had a share in developing the abstract in proportion to the closeness of the comconception of equality--that the ideas of pared things. Hence the fact that when equality in sizes, relations, forces, resist we wisho judge of two shades of colour ances, and sensible properties in whether they are alike or not, we place general, were evolved during the same them side by side; hence the fact that THE GENESIS OF SCIENCE 59 we cannot, with any precision, say which upon a group of facts which afford a solid of two allied sounds is the louder, or the basis to the remainder of our argument; higher in pitch, unless we hear the one while they also furnish strong evidence immediately after the other; hence the in support of the foregoing speculations. fact that to estimate the ratio of weights, Those who look sceptically on this we take one in each hand, that we may attempted rehabilitation of early mental compare their pressures by rapidly alter development, and who think that the nating in thought from the one to the derivation of so many primary notions other; hence the fact, that in a piece of from organic forms is somewhat strained, music, we can continue to make equal will perhaps see more probability in the beats when the first beat has been given, hypotheses which have been ventured, but cannot ensure commencing with the on discovering that all measures of extensame length of beat on a future occasion; sion and force originated from the lengths and hence, lastly, the fact, that of all and weights of organic bodies, and all magnitudes, those of linear extension are measures of time from the periodic those of which the equality is most pre- phenomena of either organic or inorganic cisely ascertainable, and those to which, bodies. by consequence, all others have to be Thus, among linear measures, the reduced. For it is the peculiarity of cubit of the Hebrews was the length of linear extension that it alone allows its the forearn from the elbow to the end magnitudes to be placed in absolute of the middle finger; and the smaller juxtaposition, or, rather, in coincident scriptural dimensions are expressed in position; it alone can test the equality hand-breadths and spans. The Egyptian of two magnitudes by observing whether cubit, which was similarly derived, was they will coalesce, as two equal mathe- divided into digits, which were fingermatical lines do, when placed between breadths ; and each finger-breadth was the same points ; it alone can test more definitely expressed as being equal equality by trying whether it will become to four grains of harley placed breadthidentity. Hence, then, the fact, that all wise. Other ancient measures were the exact science is reducible, by an ultimate orgyia or stretch of the arms, the pace, analysis, to results measured in equal and the palm. So persistent has been units of linear extension. the use of these natural units of length Still it remains to be noticed in what in the East, that even now some Arabs manner this determination of equality by mete out cloth by the forearm. So, too, comparison of linear magnitudes origi- is it with European measures. The foot nated. Once more may we perceive prevails as a dimension throughout that surrounding natural objects supplied Europe, and has done so since the time the needful lessons. From the begin of the Romans, by whom, also, it was ning there must have been a constant used: its lengths in different places experience of like things placed side by varying not much more than men's feet .side---men standing and walking toge- vary. "The heights of horses are still ther; animals from the same herd; fish expressed in hands. The inch is the from the same skoal. And the ceaseless length of the terminal joint of the repetition of these experiences could not | thumb; as is clearly shown in France, fail to suggest the observation, that the where pouce means both thumb and nearer together any objects were the inch. Then we have the inch divided more visible became any inequality into three harley-corns. So completely, between them. Hence the obvious indeed, have these orgánic dimensions device of putting in apposition, things served as the substrata of mensuration, of which it was desired to ascertain the that it is only by means of them that we relative magnitudes. Hence the idea of".can form any estimate of some of the measure. And here we suddenly come. ancient distances. For example, the 60 THE GENESIS OF SCIENCE arm. length of a degree on the Earth's surface, in the first stages of progress for estimat , as determined by the Arabian astro ing epochs. The simplest unit of time, nomers shortly after the death of the day, nature supplies ready made. Haroun-al-Raschid, was fifty-six of their The next simplest period, the moneth or miles. We know nothing of their mile month, is also thrust upon men's notice further than that it was 4,000 cubits; and by the conspicuous changes constituting whether these were sacred cubits or a lunation. For larger divisions than common cubits, would remain doubtful, these, the phenomena of the seasons, but that the length of the cubit is given and the chief events from time to time as twenty-seven inches, and each inch occurring, have been used by early and defined as the thickness of six barley- uncivilized races. Among the Egyptians grains. Thus one of the earliest measure the rising of the Nile served as a mark. ments of a degree comes down to us in The New Zealanders were found to barley-grains. Not only did organic begin their year from the reappearance lengths furnish those approximate of the Pleiades above the sea. One of measures which satisfied men's needs in the uses ascribed to birds, by the Greeks, ruder ages, but they furnished also the was to indicate the seasons by their standard measures required in later migrations. Barrow describes the aboritimes. One instance occurs in our own ginal Hottentot as expressing dates by history. To remedy the irregularities the number of moons before or after the then prevailing, Henry I. commanded ripening of one of his chief articles of that the ulna, or ancient ell, which food. He further states that the Kaffir answers to the modern yard, should be chronology is kept by the moon, and is made of the exact length of his own registered by notches on sticks--the death of a favourite chief, or the gaining Measures of weight had a kindred of a victory, serving for a new era. By derivation. Seeds seem commonly to which last fact, we are at once reminded have supplied the units. The criginal that in early history, events are commonly of the carat used for weighing in India recorded as occurring in certain reigns, is a small bean, Our own systems, both and in certain years of certain reigns : a troy and avoirdupois, are derived pri- proceeding which made a king's reign marily from wheat-corns. Our smallest a rude measure of duration. And, as weight, the grain, is a grain of wheat. further illustrating the tendency to divide This is not a speculation; it is an time by natural phenomena and natural historically-registered fact. Henry III. events, it may be noticed that even by enacted that an ounce should be the our own peasantry the definite divisions weight of 640 dry grains of wheat from of months and years are but little used; the middle of the ear. And as all the and that they habitually refer to occurother weights are multiples or sub rences as "before sheep-shearing, multiples of this, it follows that the grain "after harvest," or "about the time when of wheat is the basis of our scale. So the squire died." It is manifest, therenatural is it to use organic bodies as fore, that the approximately equal periods weights, before artificial weights have perceived in Nature gaye the first units been established, or where they are not of measure for time; as did Nature's to be had, that in some of the remoter approximately equal lengths and weights parts of Ireland the people are said to be give the first units of measure for space in the habit, even now, of putting a man and force. into the scales to serve as a measure for It remains only to obserye, that heavy commodities. measures of value were similarly derived. Similarly with time. Astronomical Barter, in one form or other, is found periodicity, and the periodicity of animal among all but the very lowest human and vegetal life, are simultaneously used | races. It is obviously based upon the or THE GENESIS OF SCIENCE 61 notion of equality of worth. And as it social progress it is known that the moon gradually merges into trade by the intro- goes through her changes in nearly duction of some kind of currency, we thirty days, and that in rather more than find that the measures of worth, consti- twelve moons the seasons return this tuting this currency, are organic bodies ; fact that chronological astronomy assumes in some cases cowries, in others cocoa a certain scientific character even before nuts, in others cattle, in others pigs ; geometry does; while it is partly due to among the American Indians peltry or the circumstance that the astronomical skins, and in Iceland dried fish. divisions, day, month, and year, are Notions of exact equality and of ready made for us, is partly due to the measure having been reached, there further circumstances that agricultural arose definite ideas of magnitudes as and other operations were at first regubeing multiples one of another ; whence lated astronomically, and that from the the practice of measurement by direct supposed diving nature of the heavenly apposition of a measure. The deter- bodies their motions determined the mination of linear extensions by this periodical religious festivals. As inprocess can scarcely be called science, stances of the one we have the observathough it is a step towards it; but the tion of the Egyptians, that the rising of determination of lengths of time by an the Nile corresponded with the heliacal analogous process may be considered as rising of Sirius ; the directions given by one of the earliest samples of quantitative Hesiod for reaping and ploughing, accordprevision. For when it is first ascer- ing to the positions of the Pleiades; and tained that the moon completes the his maxim that "fifty days after the cycle of her changes in about thirty turning of the sun is a seasonable time days-a fact known to most uncivilized for beginning a voyage.” As instances tribes that can count bcyond the number of the other, we have the naming of the of their fingers-it is manifest that it days after the sun, moon, and planets; becomes possible to say in what number the early attempts among Eastern nations of days any specified phase of the moon to regulate the calendar so that the gods will recur; and it is also manifest that might not be offended by the displacethis prevision is cffected by an apposi- ment of their sacrifices; and the fixing tion of two times, after the same manner of the great annual festival of the Peruthat linear space is mcasured by the vians by the position of the sun. In all apposition of two lines. For to express which facts we see that, at first, science the moon's period in days, is to say how was simply an appliance of religion and many of these units of measure are con- industry. tained in the period to be measựred-—is After the discoveries that a lunation to ascertain the distance between two occupies nearly thirty days, and that points in time by means of a scale of some twelve lunations occupy a year-- days, just as we ascertain the distance discoveries which we may infer were the between two points in space by a scale ' earliest, from the fact that existing unof feet or inches; and in each case the civilized races have made them-we scale coincides with the thing measured - come to the first known astronomical mentally in the one, visibly in the other records, which are those of eclipses. The So that in this simplest, and perhaps Chaldeans were able to predict these. earliest case of quantitative prevision, "These they did, probably," says Dr. the phenomena are not only thrust daily Whewell in his useful history, from which upon men's notice, but Nature*is , as it most of the materials we are about to were, perpetually repeating that process use will be drawn, "by means of their of measurement by observing which the cycle of 233 months, or about eighteen prevision is effected. · years; for, at the end of this time, the This fact, that in very early st&ges of l 'éclipses of the moon begin to return, at 62 THE GENESIS OF SCIENCE the same intervals and in the same order less the years, months, and days between as at the beginning." Now this method eclipses. Consequently there must have of calculating eclipses by means of a been a mode of registering numbers; recurring cycle,--the Saros as they called probably even a system of numerals. it-is a more complex case of prevision The earliest numerical records, if we by means of coincidence of measures. may judge by the practices of the less For by what observations must the civilized races now existing, were probably Chaldeans have discovered this cycle? kept by notches cut on sticks, or strokes Obviously, as Delambre infers, by inspect- marked on walls; much as public-house ing their registers; by comparing the scores are kept now. And there is reason successive intervals; by finding that to think that the first numerals used were some of the intervals were alike; by simply groups of straight strokes, as some seeing that these equal intervals were of the still-extant Roman ones are ; leadeighteen years apart; by discovering ing us to suspect that these groups of that all the intervals that were eighteen strokes were used to represent groups of years apart were equal; by ascertaining fingers, as the groups of fingers had been that the intervals formed a series which used to represent groups of objects-a repeated itself, so that if one of the supposition harmonizing with the aboricycles of intervals were superposed on ginal practice of picture writing. Be this another the divisions would lit. And so or not, however, it is manifest that this being once perceived, it became before the Chaldeans discovered their possible to use the cycle as a scale of Saros, they must have had both a set of time by which to measure out future written symbols serving for an extensive periods of recurrence. Seeing thus that numeration, and a familiarity with the the process of so predicting eclipses, is simpler rules of arithmetic. in essence the same as that of predicting Not only must abstract mathematics the moon's monthly changes by observ- have made some progress, but concrete ing the number of days after which they mathematics also. It is scarcely possible repeat---seeing that the two differ only that the buildings belonging to this era in the extent and irregularity of the should have been laid out and erected intervals ; it is not difficult to under- without any knowledge of geometry. stand how such an amount of know any rate, there must have existed that ledge should so early have been reached. elementary geometry which deals with And we shall be the less surprised on direct measurement—with the apposition remembering that the only thingsinvolved of lines; and it seems that only after the in these previsions were time and num- discovery of those simple proceedings, ber; and that the time was in a manner by whigh right angles are drawn, and self-numbered. relative positions fixed, could so regular Still, the ability to predict events an architecture be executed. In the case recurring only after so long a period as of the other division of concrete mathe . eighteen years, implies a considerable matics --- mechanics, we have definite advance in civilization a considerable evidence of progress. We know that development of general knowledge; and the lever and the inclined plane were we have now to inquire what progress in employed during this period : implying other sciences accompanied, and was that there was a qualitative prevision of necessary to, these astronomical pre- their effects, if not a quantitative one. visions. In the first place, there must But we know more. We, read of weights have been a tolerably efficient system of in the earliest records; and we find calculation. Mere finger-counting, niere weights in ruins of the highest antiquity. head-reckoning, even with the aid of a Weight« imply scales, of which we have decimal notation, could not have sufficed, also mention; and scales involve the for numbering the days in a year; much primary theorem of mechanics in its At THE GENESIS OF SCIENCE 63 ; least complicated form-involve not a zation respecting the recurrence of qualitative but a quantitative prevision eclipses; so are the first generalizations of mechanical effects. And here we may of every science. notice how mechanics, in common with Respecting the simultaneous advance the other exact sciences, took its rise of the sciences during this early epoch, from the simplest application of the idea it remains to point out that even the of equality. For the mechanical propo- most complex of them must have made sition which the scales involve, is, that if some progress. For under what condia lever with equal arms, have equal tions only were the foregoing developweights suspended from them, the weights ments possible? The conditions furwill remain at equal altitudes. And we nished by an established and organized may further notice how, in this first step social system. A long continued registry of rational mechanics, we see illustrated of eclipses; the building of palaces; the the truth awhile since named, that as use of scales; the practice of metallurgy magnitudes of linear extension are the -alike imply a settled and populous only ones of which the equality is exactly nation. The existence of such a nation ascertainable, the equalities of other not only presupposes laws and some magnitudes have at the outset to be administration of justice, which we know determined by means of them. For the existed, but it presupposes successful equality of the weights which balance laws--laws conforming in some degree each other in scales, depends on the to the conditions of social stability-laws equality of the arms : we can know that enacted because it was found that the the weights are equal only by proving actions forbidden by them were dangerous that the arms are equal. And when by to the State. We do not by any means this means we have obtained a system say that all, or even the greater part, of of weights,-a set of equal units of force the laws were of this nature; but we do and definite multiples of then, then does say, that the fundamental ones were. It a science of mechanics become possible. cannot be denied that the laws affecting Whence, indeed, it follows, that rational life and property were such. It cannot mechanics could not possibly have any be denied that, however little these were other starting-point than the scales. enforced between class and class, they Let us further remember that during were to a considerable extent enforced this same period there was some know between members of the same class. It ledge of chemistry. Sundry of the arts can scarcely be questioned, that the which we know to have been carried on, administration of them between members were made possible only by a generalized of the same class was seen by rulers to experience of the modes in which certain be necessary for keeping society together. bodies affect cach other under special But supposition aside, it is clear that the conditions. In metallurgy, which was habitual recognition of these claims in extensively practised, this is abundantly their laws, implied some prevision of illustrated. And we even have evidence social phenomena. That same idea of that in some cases the knowledge cquality, whicli, as we have seen, underpossessed was, in a sense, quantitative.lies other science, underlies also morals For, as we find by analysis that the hard and sociology. The conception of alloy of which the Egyptians made their justice, which is the primary one in cutting tools, was composed of copper morals; and the administration of justice, and tin in fixed proportions, there must which is the vital condition to social have beon an established prevision that existence; are impossible without the such an alloy was to be obtained only recognition of a certain likeness in by mixing them in these proportions. men's claims, in virtue of their common It is true this was but a simple empirical humanity: Equity literally means equalgeneralization ; bụt' so was the generalis ness; and if it be admitted that there 7 64 THE GENESIS OF SCIENCE were even the vaguest ideas of equity in changing position of the shadow it daily these primitive eras, it must be admitted throws, to make the first step in geomethat there was some appreciation of the trical astronomy. How small this first equalness of men's liberties to pursue step was, may be seen in the fact that the objects of life-some appreciation, the only things ascertained at the outset therefore, of the essential principle of were the periods of the summer and national equilibrium. winter solstices, which corresponded Thus in this initial stage of the positive with the least and greatest lengths of sciences, before geometry had yet done the mid-day shadow; and to fix which, more than evolve a few empirical rules_ it was needful merely to mark the point before mechanics had passed beyond its to which each day's shadow reached. first theorem-before astronomy had And now let it not be overlooked that advanced from its merely chronological in the observing at what time during phase into the geometrical ; the most the next year this extreme limit of the involved of the sciences had reached a shadow was again reached, and in the certain degree of development-a devel-inference that the sun had then arrived opment without which no progress in at the same turning point in his annual other sciences was possible. course, we have one of the simplest Only noting as we pass, how, thus instances of that combined use of equal early, we may see that the progress of magnitudes and equal relations, by which exact science was not only towards an all exact science, all quantitative preincreasing number of previsions, but vision, is reached. For the relation towards previsions more accurately quan- observed was between the length of the titative-how, in astronomy, the recurring gnomon's shadow and the sun's position period of the moon's motions was by in the heavens; and the inference drawn and by more correctly ascertained to be was that when, next year, the extremity two hundred and thirty-five lunations ; of the shadow came to the same point, how Callipus further corrected this he occupied the same place. That is, Metonic cycle, by leaving out a day at the ideas involved were, the equality of the end of every seventy-six years; and the shadows, and the equality of the how these successive advances implied a relations between shadow and sun in longer continued registry of observations, successive years. As in the case of the and the co-ordination of a greater number scales, the equality of relations here of facts ; let us go on to inquire how recognized is of the simplest order. It geometrical astronomy took its rise. The is not as those habitually dealt with in first astronomical instrument was the the higher kinds of scientific reasoning, gnomon. This was not only early in which answer to the general type--the use in the East, but it was found among relation between two and three equals the Mexicans; the sole astronomical the relation between six and nine ; but observations of the Peruvians were made it follows the type--the relation between by it; and we read that 1100 B.C., the two and three equals the relation between Chinese observed that, at a certain two and three : it is a case of not simply place, the length of the sun's shadow, equal relations, but coin'iding relations. at the summer solstice, was to the height And here, indeed, we may see beautiof the gnomon, as one and a half to fully illustrated how the idea of equal eight. Here again it is observable, both relations takes its rise after the same that the instrument is found ready-made, manner that that of equal magnitudes and that Nature is perpetually perform does. As already shown, the idea of ing the process of measurement. Any equal magnitudes arose from the observed fixed, erect object--a column, a pole, coincidence of two 'lengths placed togethe angle of a building-serves for a ther; and in this case we have not only gnomon; and it needs but to notice the two coincident lengths of shadows, but an THE GENESIS OF SCIENCE 65 two coincident relations between sun was not in the centre of their orbits; or and shadows. by supposing that they revolved in From the use of the gnomon there circles whose centres revolved round the naturally grew up the conception of earth; or by both. The discovery that angular measurements; and with the this would account for the appearances, advance of geometrical conceptions came was the discovery that in certain geomethe hemisphere of Berosus, the equi- trical diagrams the relations were such, noctial armil, the solstitial armil, and the that the uniform motion of points along quadrant of Ptolemy--all of them employ- curves conditioned in specified ways, ing shadows as indices of the sun's posi- would, when looked at from a particular tion, but in combination with angular position, present analogous irregularities; divisions. It is out of the question for and the calculations of Hipparchus us here to trace these details of progress. involved the belief that the relations It must suffice to remark that in all of subsisting among these geometrical them we may see that notion of equality curves were equal to the relations subof relations of a more complex kind, sisting among the celestial orbits. which is best illustrated in the astrolabe, Leaving here these details of astroinstrument which consisted of nomical progress, and the philosophy of it, circular rins, moveable one within the let us observe how the relatively concrete other, or about poles, and contained science of geometrical astronomy, having circles which were to be brought into been thus far helped forward by the the position of the ecliptic, and of a development of geometry in general, plane passing through the sun and the reacted upon geometry, caused it also to poles of the ecliptic"-an instrument, advance, and was again assisted by it. therefore, which represented, as hy a Hipparchus, before making his solar model, the relative positions of certain and lunar tables, had to discover rules imaginary lines and planes, in the for calculating the relations between the heavens, which was adjusted by putting sides and angles of triangles--trigonothese representative lines and planes metry, a subdivision of pure mathematics. into parallelism with the celestial ones; Further, the reduction of the doctrine of and which depended for its use on the the sphere to a quantitative form needed perception that the relations among for astronomical purposes, required the these representative lines and planes formation of a spherical trigonometry, were equal to the relations among those which was also achieved by Hipparchus. represented. We might go on to point Thus both plane and spherical trigonoout how the conception of the heavens metry, which are parts of the highly as a revolving hollow sphere, the explana- abstract and simple science of extension, tion of the moon's phases, and indeed remained undeveloped until the less all the successive steps taken, involved | abstract and more complex science of this same mental process. But we must the celestial motions had need of them. content ourselves with referring to the The fact admitted by M. Comte, that theory of eccentrics and epicycles, as a since Descartes the progress of the further marked millustration of it. As abstract division of mathematics has first suggested, and as proved by Hip been determined by that of the concrete parchus to afford an explanation of the division, is paralleled by the still more İcading irregularities in the celestial significant fact that even thus early the motions, this theory involved the percep-progress of mathematics was determined tion that shows progressions, retrogressions, by that of astronomy. And here, indeed, and variations of velocity seen in the we see exemplified the truth, which the heavenly bodies, might be reconciled subsequent history of science frequently with their assumed uniform movements illustrates, that before any more abstract in circles, by supposing that the earth division makes a further advance, some 66 THE GENESIS OF SCIENCE more concrete division suggests the simple deductions from this as - their necessity for that advance--presents the geometry sufficed for. In acoustics they new order of questions to be solved. ascertained the fact that three strings of Before astronomy put before Hipparchus equal lengths would yield the octave, the problem of solar tables, there was fifth and fourth, when strained by weights nothing to raise the question of the having certain definite ratios; and they relations between lines and angles: the did not progress much beyond this. In subject matter of trigonometry had not the one of which cases we see geometry been conceived. used in elucidation of the laws of light; Just incidentally noticing the circum- and in the other, geometry and arithstance that the epoch we are describing metic made to measure certain phenowitnessed the evolution of algebra, a mena of sound. comparatively abstract djvision of mathe While sundry sciences had thus matics, by the union of its less abstract reached the first stages of quantitative divisions, geometry and arithmetic (a prevision, others were progressing in fact proved by the earliest extant samples qualitative prevision. It must suffice of algebra, which are half algebraic, half just to note that some small generalizageometric), we go on to observe that tions were made respecting evaporation, during the era in which, mathematics and heat, and electricity, and magnetism, and astronomy were thus advancing, which, empirical as they were, did not in rational mechanics made its second that respect differ from the first generalistep; and something was done towards zations of every science; that the Greek giving a quantitative form to hydro- physicians had made advances in physiostatics, optics, and acoustics. In cach logy and pathology, which, considering casc we shall see how the idea of equality the great imperfection of our present underlies all quantitative prevision; and knowledge, are by no means to be in what simple forms this idea is first despised; that zoology had been so far applied. systematized by Aristotle, as, to some As already shown, the first theorem extent, enabled him from the presence established in mechanics was, that equal of certain organs, to predict the presence weights suspended from a lever with of others; that in Aristotle's Politics, is equal arms would remain in equilibrium. shown progress towards a scientific con- Archimedes discovered that a lever with ception of social phenomena, and sundry unequal arms was in equilibrium when previsions respecting them; and that in one weight was to its arin as the other the state of the Greek societies, as well arm to its weight; that is --when the as in the writings of Greek philosophers, numerical relation between one weight we may recognize both an increasing and its arm was equal to the numerical clearness in the conception of equity relation between the other arm and its and some appreciation of the fact that weight. social stability depends on the main- The first advance made in hydro-tenance of equitable relations. Space statics, which we also owe to Archimedes, permitting, we might dwell on the causes was the discovery that fluids press which retarded the development of some equally in all directions; and from this of the sciences, as, for example, chemistry; followed the solution of the problem of showing that relative complexity had floating bodies; namely, that they are in nothing to do with it--that the oxidation equilibrium when the upward and down- of a piece of iron is im simpler phenoward pressures are equal. menon than the recurrence of eclipses, In optics, again, the Greeks found and the discovery of carbonic acid less that the angle of incidence is equal to difficult than theft of the precession of the angle of reflection; and their know the equinoxes. The relatively slow ledge reached no further than to such advance of chemical knowledge might TILE GENESIS OF SCIENCE 67 be shown to be due, partly to the fact And now, but only now, physical that its phenomena were not daily. thrust astronomy became possible. The simple on men's notice as those of astronomy laws of force had been disentangled from were; partly to the fact that Nature does those of friction and atmospheric resist- •not habitually supply the means, and ance by which all their earthly manifessuggest the modes of investigation, as in tations are disguised. Progressing knowthe sciences dealing with time, extension, ledge of terrestrial physics had given a and force; partly to the fact that the dhe insight into these disturbing causes; great majority of the materials with and, by an effort of abstraction, it was which chemistry deals, instead of being perceived that all motion would be ready to hand, are made known only by uniform and rectilinear unless interfered the arts in their slow growth; and partly with by external forces. Geometry and to the fact that even when known, their mechanics having diverged from a chemical properties are not self-exhibited, common root in men's sensible expebut have to be sought out by experiment. riences, and having, with occasional Merely indicating these considerations, inosculations, been separately developed, however, let us go on to contemplate the the one partly in connexion with astroprogress and mutual influence of the nomy, the other solely by analyzing sciences in modern days; only paren- terrestrial movements, now join in the thetically noticing how, on the revival investigations of Newton to create a true of the scientific spirit, the successive theory of the celestial motions. And stages achieved exhibit the dominance here, also, we have to notice the imporof the law hitherto traced-how the tant fact that, in the very process of primary idea in dynamics, a uniform being brought jointly to bear upon force, was defined by Galileo to be a astronomical problems, they are themforce which generates equal velocities in selves raised to a higher phase of developequal successive times—how the uniform ment. For it was in dealing with the action of gravity was first experimentally questions raised by celestial dynamics determined by showing that the time that the then incipient infinitesimal elapsing before a body thrown up, calculus was unfolded by Newton and stopped, was equal to the time it took to his Continental successors; and it was fall-how the first fact in compound from inquiries into the mechanics of the motion which Galilco ascertained was, solar system that the general theorems that a body projected horizontally, will of mechanics contained in the Principia describe equal horizontal spaces in equal ---many of them of purely terrestrial times, compounded vertical spaces application---took their rise. Thus, as described which increase by equal in- in the case of Hipparchus, the presentacrements in equal times-how his dis- tion of a new order of concrete facts to covery respecting the pendulum was, be analyzed, led to the discovery of new that its oscillations occupy equal intervals abstract facts; and these abstract facts of time whatever their lengths-how the then became instruments of access to law which he established that in any endless groups of concrete facts premachine the weights that balance each viously beyond quantitative treatment. other, are reciprocally as their virtual Meanwhile, physics had been carrying velocities implies that the relation of one further that progress without which, as set of weights to their velocities equals just shown, rational mechanics could the relation of the other set of velocities not be disentangled. In hydrostatics, to their weights ;--and how thus his Stevinus had extended and applied the achievements consisted in showing the discovery of Archimedes. Torricelli had equalities of certain magnitudes and rela- proved atmospheric pressure," hy show. tions, whose equalities had not been ing that this pressure sustained different previously recognized. liquids at heights inversely proportional 68 THE GENESIS OF SCIENCE to their densities ;" and Pascal "estab- had led to the invention of the air-pump lished the necessary diminution of this by Otto Guericke; and after it had pressure at increasing heights in the become known that evaporation increases atmosphere": discoveries which in part in rapidity as atmospheric pressure reduced this branch of science to a decreases; it became possible for Leslie, quantitative form. Something had been by evaporation in a vacuum, to produce done by Daniel Bernouilli towards the the greatest cold known; and so to dynamics of fluids. The thermometer extend our knowledge of thermology by had been invented; and sundry small showing that there is no zero within generalizations reached by it. Huyghens reach of our researches. When Fourier and Newton had made considerable pro- had determined the laws of conduction" gress in optics; Newton had approxi- of heat, and when the Earth's temperamately calculated the rate of transmis- ture had been found to increase below sion of sound; and the Continental the surface one degree in every forty mathematicians had ascertained some of yards, there were data for inferring the the laws of sonorous vibrations. Mag- past condition of our globe; the vast netism and electricity had been con- period it has taken to cool down to its siderably advanced by Gilbert. Chemis-present state ; and the immense age of try had got as far as the mutual neutra the solar system-a purely astronomical lization of acids and alkalies. And consideration. Chemistry having ad- Leonardo da Vinci had advanced in vanced sufficiently to supply the needful geology to the conclusion that the depo- materials, and a physiological experisition of animal remains in marine strata ment having furnished the requisite hint, is the origin of fossils. Our present there came the discovery of galvanic elecpurpose does not require that we should tricity. Galvanism reacting on chemistry give particulars. Here it only concerns disclosed the metallic bases of the alkalies us to illustrate the consensus subsisting in and earths, and inaugurated the electrothis stage of growth, and afterwards. chemical theory; in the hands of Oersted Let us look at a few cases. and Ampère it led to the laws of magnetic The theoretic law of the velocity of action; and by its aid Faraday has sound deduced by Newton from purely detected significant facts relative to the mechanical data, was found wrong by constitution of light. Brewster's disone-sixth. The error remained unac coveries respecting double refraction and counted for until the time of Laplace, dipolarization proved the essential truth who, suspecting that the heat disengaged of the classification of crystalline forms by the compression of the undulating according to the number of axes, by strata of the air, gave additional clasticity, showing that the molecular constitution and so produced the difference, made depends on the axes. Now in these and the needful calculations and found he in numerous other cases, the mutual was right. Thus acoustics was arrested influence of the sciences has been quite until thermology overtook and aided it. I independent of any supposed hierarchical When Boyle and Marriot had discovered order. Often, too, their interactions are the relation between the densities of more complex than as thus instancedgases and the pressures they are subject involve more sciences than two. One to; and when it thus became possible to illustration of this must suffice. We calculate the rate of decreasing density quote it in full from the History of the in the upper parts of the atmosphere; it Inductive Sciences. In Book XI., chap. also became possible to make approxi- 11., on "The Progress of the lectrical mate tables of the atmospheric refraction Theory," Dr. Whewell writes :- of light. Thus optics, and with it astronomy, advanced with barology. After behind experiment, and a problem was pro- Thus at that period, mathematics was the discovery of atmospheric pressure posed, in which theoretical numerical results THE GENESIS OF SCIENCE 69 were wanted for comparison with observation, solution of water in air, assumed that the but could not be accurately obtained ; as was the case in astronomy also, till the time of the the relation between water and a disrelation between water and air is like approximate solution of the problem of three bodies, and the consequent formation of the solved solid; and could never have been tables of the moon and planets, on the theory of conceived if relations like that between universal gravitation. After some time, electrical theory was relieved from this reproach, mainly salt and water had not been previously in consequence of the progress which astronomy known. Similarly the received theory of had occasioned in pure mathematics. About About evaporation--that it is a diffusion of the 1801 there appeared in the Bulletin des Sciences, particles of the evaporating fluid in virtue an exact solution of the problem of the distribution of electric fluid on a spheroid, obtained by of their atomic repulsion-could not have Biot, by the application of the peculiar methods been entertained without a foregoing which Laplace had invented for the problein of experience of magnetic and electric the figure of the planets. And, in 1811, M. rcpulsions. So complete in recent days Poisson applied Laplace's artifices to the case of has become this consensus among the two spheres acting upon one another in contact: sciences, caused cither by the natural a case to which many of Coulomb's experiments were referrible ; and the agreement of the results entanglement of their phenomena, or by of theory and observation, thus extricated from analogies between the relations of their Coulomb's numbers obtained above forty years phenomena, that scarcely any considerpreviously, was very striking and convincing. able discovery concerning one order of Not only do the sciences affect each facts now takes place, without shortly other after this direct manner, but they leading to discoveries concerning other affect each other indirectly. Where orders. there is no dependence, there is yet To produce a complete conception of analogy-- likeness of relations, and the this process of scientific evolution it discovery of the relations subsisting would be needful to go back to the among one set of phenomena, constantly beginning, and trace in detail the growth suggests a search for similar relations of classifications and nomenclatures; and among another set. Thus the established to show how, as subsidiary to science, fact that the force of gravitation varies they have acted upon it while it has inversely as the square of the distance, reacted upon them. We can only now being recognized as a necessary charac remark that, on the one hand, classificateristic of all influences procecding from tions and nomenclatures have aided a centre, raised the suspicion that heat science by subdividing the subject matter and light follow the same law ; which of research, and giving fixity and diſfusion proved to be the case-a suspicion and to the truths disclosed; and that on the a confirmation which were repeated in other hand, they have caught from it respect to the electric and magnetic that increasing quantitativeness, and that forces. Thus, again, the discovery of progress from considerations touching the polarization of light led to experi- single phenomena to considerations ments which ended in the discovery of touching the relations among many the polarization of heat-a discovery phenomena, which have been that could never have been made without describing. Of this last influence a few the antecedent one. Thus, too, the illustrations must be given. In chemisknown refrangibility of light and heat try it is seen in the facts that the dividing lately produced the inquiry whether of matter into the four elements was sound also is not refrangible; which on ostensibly based on the single property trial it turns odit to be. In some cases, of weight, that the first truly chemical indeed, it is only by the aid of concep- division into acid and alkaline bodies, tions derived from one class of pheno- grouped together bodies which had not mena that hypotheses respecting other simply one property in common but in classes can be formed. The theory, at which one property was constantly one time favoured, that evaporation is al related to many others, and that the we 90 THE GENESIS OF SCIENCE .. classification now current, places together approximate towards equality in various in the groups supporters of combustion, degrees. metallic and non-metallic bases, acids, Without further argument it will, we salts, &c., bodies which are often quite think, be admitted that the sciences are unlike in sensible qualities, but which none of them separately evolved--are are like in the majority of their relations none of them independent either logically to other bodies. In mineralogy again, or historically; but that all of them have, the first classifications were based on in a greater or less degree, required aid differences in aspect, texture, and other and reciprocated it. Indeed, it needs. physical attributes. Berzelius made two but to throw aside hypotheses, and conattempts at a classification based solely template the mixed character of surroundon chemical constitution. That now ing phenomena, to see at once that these current recognizes, as far as possible, the notions of division and succession in the relations between physical and chemical kinds of knowledge are simply scientific characters. In botany the earliest fictions : good, if regarded merely as aids classes formed were trees, shrubs, and to study; bad, if regarded as representherbs : magnitude being the basis of ing realities in Nature. No facts whatdistinction. Dioscorides divided vege ever are presented to our senses uncomtables into aromatic, alimentary', medi- bined with other facts--no facts whatanal, and vinous : a division of chemical ever but are in some degree disguised by character. Cæsalpinus classified them accompanying facts: disguised in such a by the seeds and seed-vessels, which he manner that all must be partially underpreferred because of the relations found stood before any one can be understood. to subsist between the character of the If it be said, as by M. Comte, that gravifructification and the general character tating force should be treated of before of the other parts. While the “natural other forces, seeing that all things are system " since developed, carrying out subject to it, it may on like grounds be the doctrine of Linnæus, that the said that heat should be first dealt with; natural orders must be fornied by atten- seeing that thermal forces are everywhere tion not to one or two, but to all the in action. Nay more, it may parts of plants," bases its divisions on that the ability of any portion of matter like peculiarities which are found to be to manifest visible gravitative phenomena constantly related to the greatest number depends on its state of aggregation, which of other like peculiarities. And similarly is determined by heat ; that only by the in zoology, the successive classifications, i aid of thermology can we explain those from having been originally determined apparent exceptions to the gravitating by external and often subordinate charac- tendency which are presented by steam ters not indicative of the essential nature, and smoke, and so establish its univerhave been more and more determined sality; and that, indeed, the very existby those internal and fundamental differ ence of the Solar System in a solid form ences, which have uniform relations to is just as much a question of heat as it is the greatest number of other differences. one of gravitation. Take other cases Nor shall we be surprised at this analogy All phenomena recognized by the eyes, between the modes of progress of through which only are the data of exact positive science and classification, when science ascertainable, are complicated we bear in mind that both proceed with optical phenomena, and cannot be by making generalizations; that both exhaustively known until optical princienable us to make previsions, differing ples are known. The burning of a only in their precision; and that while candle cannot be explained without the one deals with equal properties, involving chemistry, mechanics, thermomagnitudes, and relations, the other logy. Every wind that blows is deterdeals with properties and relations which mined by influences partly solar, partly be urged THE GENESIS OF SCIENCE 71 lunar, partly hygrometric; and implies upper atmospheric strata, of the law of considerations of fluid equilibrium and decreasing temperature and the influence physical geography. The direction, dip, of this on the density, and of hygrometric and variations of the magnetic needle, laws as also affecting density. So that, are facts half terrestrial, half celestial to get materials for further advance, are caused by earthly forces which have astronomy requires not only the indirect cycles of change corresponding with aid of the sciences which have presided astronomical periods. The flowing of over the making of its improved instruthe Gulf Stream and the annual migration ments, but the direct aid of an advanced of icebergs towards the equator, involve optics , of barology, of thermology, of in their explanation the Earth's rotation hygrometry; and if we remember that and spheroidal form, the laws of hydro- these delicate observations are in some statics, the relative densities of cold and cases registered electrically, and that warm water, and the doctrines of evapora- they are further corrected for the "pertion. It is no doubt true, as M. Comte sonal equation"-the time elapsing says, that "our position in the Solar between seeing and registering, which System, and the motions, form, size, and differs with different observers--we may equilibrium of the mass of our world even add electricity and psychology. Anong the planets, must be known And here, before leaving these illustrabefore we can understand the phenomena tions, and especially this last one, let us going on at its surface.” But, fatally for not omit to notice how well they exhibit his hypothesis, it is also true that we that increasingly active consensus of the must understand a great part of the sciences which characterizes their advancphenomena going on at its surface before ing development. Besides finding that we can know its position, &c., in the in these later times a discovery in one Solar System. It is not simply that, as science commonly causes progress in already shown, those geometrical and others; besides finding that a great part mechanical principles by which celestial of the questions with which modern appearances are explained, were first science deals are so mixed as to require generalized from terrestrial experiences; the co-operation of many sciences for but it is that even the obtainment of their solution; we find that, to make a correct data on which to base astrono- single good observation in the purest of mical generalizations, implies advanced the natural sciences, requires the comterrestrial physics. Until after optics bined aid of half a dozen other sciences. had made considerable advance, the Perhaps the clearest comprehension of Copernican system remained but a the interconnected growth of the sciences speculation. A single modern observa- may be obtained by contemplating that tion on a star has to undergo a careful of the arts, to which it is strictly analoanalysis by the combined aid of various gous, and with which it is bound up. sciences has to be digested by the Most intelligent persons must have been organism of the sciences, which have occasionally struck with the numerous severally to assimilate their respective antecedents pre-supposed by one of our parts of the observation, before the processes of manufacture. Let him trace essential fact it contains is available for the production of a printed cotton, and the further development of astronomy. consider all that is implied by it. There It has to be corrected not only for are the many successive improvements nutation of the Earth's axis and for through which the power-looms reached precession of the equinoxes, but for their present perfection; there is the aberration and for refraction; and the steam-engine that drives them, having its formation of the tables by which refrac long, history from Papin downwards; tion is calculated, presupposes kilowledge there are the lathes in which its cylinder of the law of decreasing density in the was bored, and the string of ancestral 72 THE GENESIS OF SCIENCE lathes from which those lathes proceeded; complex web of the arts; and are only there is the steam-hammer under which conventionally independent of it. Origiits crank shaft was welded; there are nally the two were one. How to fix the the puddling furnaces, the blast-furnaces, religious festivals ; when to sow; how to the coal-mines and the iron-mines need weigh commodities; and in what manner ful for producing the raw material; there to measure ground; were the purely are the slowly improved appliances by practical questions out of which arose which the factory was built, and lighted, astronomy, mechanics, geometry. Since and ventilated; there are the printing then there has been a perpetual inoscuengine, and the dye-house, and the lation of the sciences and the arts. colour-laboratory with its stock of Science has been supplying art with truer materials from all parts of the world, generalizations and more completely implying cochineal-culture, logwood- quantitative previsions. Art has been cutting, indigo-growing; there are the supplying science with better materials, implements used by the producers of and more perfect instruments. And all cotton, the gins by which it is cleaned, along the interdependence has been the elaborate machines by which it is growing closer, not only between art and spun; there are the vessels in which science, but among the arts themselves, cotton is imported, with the building and among the sciences themselves. How slips, the rope-yards, the sail-cloth fac- completely the analogy holds throughout, tories, the anchor-forges, needful for becomes yet clearer when we recognize making them; and besides all these the fact that the sciences are arts to one directly necessary antecedents, each of another. If, as occurs in almost every them involving many others, there are case, the fact to be analyzed by any the institutions which have developed science, has first to be prepared to be the requisite intelligence, the printing disentangled from disturbing facts by and publishing arrangements which have the afore discovered methods of other spread the necessary information, the sciences; the other sciences so used, social organization which has rendered stand in the position of arts. If, in possible such a complex co-operation of solving a dynamical problem, a paralleloagencies. Further analysis would show gram is drawn, of which the sides and that the many arts thus concerned in the diagonal represent forces, and by putting economical production of a child's frock, magnitudes of extension for magnitudes have cach been brought to its present of force a measurable relation is estabefficiency by slow steps which the other lished between quantities not else to be arts have aided ; and that from the dealt with; it may be fairly said that beginning this reciprocity has been on geometry plays towards mechanics much the increase. It needs but on the one the same part that the fire of the founder hand to consider how impossible it is for plays towards the metal he is going to the savage, even withore and coal cast. If, in analyzing the phenomena of ready, to produce so simple a thing as the coloured rings surrounding the point an iron hatchet; and then to consider, of contact between two lenses, a Newton on the other hand, that it would have ascertains by calculation the amount of been impracticable among ourselves, certain interposed spaces, far too minute even a century ago, to raise the tubes for actual measurement; he employs the of the Britannia bridge from lack of the science of number for essentially the hydraulic press; to see how mutually same purpose as that for which the dependent are the arts, and howall must watchmaker employs tools. if, before advance that each may advance. Well, calculating the orbit of a comet from its the sciences are involved with each other observed position, the astronomer has to in just the same manner. They are, in separake all the errors of observation, it fact, inextricably woven into this same " is manifest that the refraction-tables, and THE GENESIS OF SCIENCE 73 logarithm-books, and formula, which he serial. Nevertheless, we believe the successively uses, serve him much as evidence assigned suffices to substantiate retorts, and filters, and cupels serve the the leading propositions with which we assayer who wishes to separate the pure set out. Inquiry into the first stages of gold from all accompanying ingredients. science confirms the conclusion drawn So close, indeed, is the relationship, that from analysis of science as now existing, it is impossible to say where science that it is not distinct from common begins and art ends. All the instruments knowledge, but an outgrowth from itof the natural philosopher are the pro- an extension of perception by means of ducts of art ; the adjusting one of them reason. That more specific characteristic for use is an art; there is art in making of scientific previsions, which was analyan observation with one of them; it tically shown to distinguish them from requires art properly to treat the facts the previsions of uncultured intelligence ascertained ; nay, even the employing their quantitativeness--we also see to established generalizations to open the have been the characteristic alike of the way to new generalizations, may be con- initial steps in science, and of all the sidered as art. In each of these cases steps succeeding them. The facts and previously organized knowledge becomes admissions cited in disproof of the asserthe implement by which new knowledge is tion that the sciences follow one another, got at: and whether that previously orga- both logically and historically, in the nized knowledge is embodicdin a tangible order of their decreasing generality, have apparatus or in a formula, matters not in been enforced by the instances we have so far as its essential relation to the new met with, showing that a more general knowledge is concerned. If art is applied science as much owes its progress to the knowledge, then such portion of a presentation of new problems by a more scientific investigation as consists of special science, as the more special applied knowledge is art. Hence we science owes its progress to the solutions may even say that as soon as any prevision which the more general science is thus in science passes out of its originally led to attempt-instances, therefore, passive state, and is employed for reach- illustrating the position that scientific ing other previsions, it passes from thcory advance is as much from the special to into practice-becomes science in action the general as from the general to the becomes art. And after contemplat- special. Quite in harmony with this ing these facts, we shall the more clearly position we find to be the admissions perceive that as the connexion of the that the sciences are as branches of one arts with each other has been becoming trunk, and that they were at first cultimore intimate; as the help given by vated simultaneously. This harmony sciences to arts and by arts to sciences, becomes the more marked on finding, as has been age by age increasing ; so the we have done, not only that the sciences interdependence of the sciences them- have a common root, but that science in selves has been ever growing greater, general has a common root with lantheir relations more involved, involved, their guage, classification, reasoning, art; that consensus more'active. throughout civilization these have advanced together, acting and reacting In here ending our sketch of the upon each other just as the separate Genesis of Science, we are conscious of sciences have done ; and that thus the having done, the subject but, scant jus- development of intelligence in all its tice. Difficulties have stood in our divisions and sub-divisions has conformed way: one, the having to touch on so to this same law which we have shown many points in such small space; the that the sciences conform to. From all other, the necessity of treating din serial which we may perceive that the sciences arrangement a process which is not can with no greater propriety be arranged MORALS AND MORAL SENTIMENTS in a succession, than language, classifica-science, without recognizing the necessity tion, reasoning, art, and science, can be of the processes through which those arranged in a succession; that, however stages were reached a necessity which, needful a succession may be for the con- in respect to the leading truths, may venience of books and catalogues, it likewise be traced in all after stages. must be recognized as merely a conven- This necessity, originating in the very tion; and that so far from its being the nature of the phenomena to be analyzed function of a philosophy of the sciences and the faculties to be employed, parto establish a nierarchy, it is its function tially applies to the mind of the child as to show that the linear arrangements to that of the savage. We say partially, required for literary purposes, have none because the correspondence is not of them any basis either in Nature or special but general only. Were the History. environment the same in both cases, the There is one further reñark we must correspondence would be complete. not omit :-a remark touching the impor- But though the surrounding material tance of the question that has been dis- out of which science is to be organized, cussed. Topics of this abstract nature is, in many cases, the same to the juvenile are commonly slighted as of no practical mind and the aboriginal mind, it is not moment; and, doubtless, many will so throughout; as, for instance, in the think it of little consequence what theory case of chemistry, the phenonena of respecting the genesis of science may be which are accessible to the one, but were entertained. But the value of truths is inaccessible to the other. Hence, in often great, in proportion as their gene- proportion as the environment differs, rality is wide. And it must be so here. the course of evolution must differ, A correct theory of the development of After admitting exceptions, however, the sciences must have an important there remains a substantial parallelism; effect on education; and, through educa- and, if so, it is of moment to ascertain tion, on civilization. Much as we differ what really has been the process of from him in other respects, we agree scientific evolution. The establishment with M. Comte in the belief that, rightly of an erroneous theory must be disastrous conducted, the education of the indi- in its educational results; while the vidual must have a certain correspon- establishment of a true one must be dence with the evolution of the race. No fertile in school-reforms and consequent one can contemplate the facts we have social benefits. cited in illustration of the early stages of MORALS AND MORAL SENTIMENTS (1871) IF a writer who discusses unsettled controversy as much as possible, even at questions takes up every gauntlet thrown the cost of being seriously misunderdown to him, polemical writing, will stood. Hence it resulted what when in absorb much of his energy. Harring a Macmillan's Magazine, for jening 1869, power of work which unfortunately does Mr. Richard Hutton published, under not suffice for executing with anything the title of "A Questionable Parentage like due rapidity the task I have under for Moraes," a criticism on a doctrine of taken, I have made it a policy to avoid | mine, I decided to let his misrepresenta- MORALS AND MORAL SENTIMENTS 75 tions pass unnoticed until, in the course for it, and proceeds to show that they of my work, I arrived at the stage where, are unsatisfactory. by a full exposition of this doctrine, they If, in his anxiety to suppress what he would be set aside. It did not occur doubtless regards as a pernicious docto me that, in the meantime, these trine, Mr. Hutton could not wait until I erroneous statements, accepted as true had explained myself, it might have statements, would be repeated by other been expected that he would use whatwriters, and my views commented upon ever information was to be bad conas untenable. This, however, has hap cerning it. So far from seeking out pened. In more periodicals than one, I such information, however, he has, in a have seen it asserted that Mr. Hutton way for which I cannot account, ignored has effectually disposed of my hypothesis. the information immediately before him. Supposing that this hypothesis has been The title which Mr. Hutton has rightly expressed by Mr. Hutton, Sir chosen for his criticism is, "A Ques- John Lubbock, in his Origin of Civilisa- tionable Parentage for Morals.” Now tion, &c., has been led to express a he has ample means of knowing that I partial dissent; which I think he would allege a primary basis of Morals, quite not have expressed had my own exposi- independent of that which he describes tion been before him. Mr. Mivart, too, and rejects. I do not refer merely to in his recent Genesis of Species, has been the fact that having, when he reviewed similarly betrayed into misapprehensions. Social Statics,' expressed his very decided And now Sir Alexander Grant, following dissent from this primary basis, he must the same lead, has conveyed to the have been aware that I alleged it; for readers of the Fortnightly Review another he may say that in the many years which of these conceptions, which is but very have since elapsed he had forgotten all partially true. Thus I find myself com- about it. But I refer to the distinct pelled to say as much as will serve to enunciation of this primary basis in that prevent further spread of the mischief. letter to Mr. Mill from which he quotes. In a preceding paragraph of the letter, I If a general doctrine concerning a have explained that, while I accept utilihighly - involved class of phenomena tarianism in the abstract, I do not accept could be adequately presented in a that current utilitarianism which recogsingle paragraph of a letter, the writing nizes for the guidance of conduct nothing of books would be superfluous. In the beyond empirical generalizations; and I brief exposition of certain ethical doc- have contended that, trines held by me, which is given in Morality, properly so-called--the science of Professor Bain's Mental and Moral right conduct-has for its object to determine Science, it is stated that they arehow and why certain modes of conduct are detrimental, and certain other modes beneficial. as yet, nowhere fully expressed. They form These good and bad results cannot be accidental, part of the more general Joctrine of Evolution but must be necessary consequences of the con. which he is engaged in working out ; and they stitution of things; and I conceive it to be the are at present to be gathered only from scattered business of Moral Science to deduce, from the passages. It is true that, in his first work, laws of life and the conditions of existence, what Social Statics, he presented what he then kinds of action necessarily tend to produce regarded as a tolerably complete view of one happiness, and what kinds to produce unhappidivision of Morals, But without abandoning Having done this, its deductions are to this view, he now regards it as inadequate be recognised as laws of conduct ; and are to be more especially in respect of its basis. conformed to irrespective of a direct estimation Mr. Hon, however, taking the bare of happiness or misery. enunciation of one part of this basis, Nor is this the only enunciation of deals with it critically; and, in the what I conceive to be the primary basis absence of any exposition by he, sets forth what he supposes to be my grounds See Prospective ReAiew for January, 1852. ness.

76 MORALS AND MORAL SENTIMENTS I (ccurs of morals, contained in this same letter. I likely to do me by spreading this one- A subsequent paragraph separated by sided statement. four lines only from that which Mr. Hutton extracts, commences thus :- pass now to the particular question at issue not the 'parentage for, Progressing civilization, which is of necessity morals," but the parentage of moral a succession of compromises between old and new, requires a perpetual re-adjustment of the sentiments. In describing my view on compromise between the ideal and the practic this more special doctrine, Mr. Hutton able in social arrangements : to which end, both has similarly, I regret to say, neglected elements of the coinpromise must be kept in the data which would have helped him view. If it is true that pure rectitude prescribes a system of things far too good for men as they to draw an approximately true outline of are, it is not less true that mere expediency does it. It cannot well be that the existence not of itself tend to establish a system of things of such data was unknown to him. any better than that which exists. While They are contained in the Principles of absolute morality owes to expediency the checks which prevent it from rushing into Utopian Psychology; and Mr. Hutton reviewed absurdities, expediency is indebted to absolute that work when it was first published.” morality for all stimulus to improvement. | In a chapter on the Feelings, which Granted that we are chictly interested in ascertaining what is relatively, right, it still follow's sketched out a process of evolution by near the end of it, there is that we must first consider what is absolutely right; since the one conception pre-supposes the no means like thai which Mr. Hutton other. indicates; and had he turned to that chapter he would have seen that his I do not see how there could well be description of the genesis of moral a more emphatic assertion that there sentiments out of organized experiences exists a primary basis of morals indepen- is not such a one as I should have dent of, and in a sense antecedent to, given. Let me quote a passage from that which is furnished by experiences that chapterof utility; and consequently, indepen- Not only are those emotions which form the dent of, and in a sense antecedent to, immediate stimuli to actions, thus explicable ; those moral sentiments which I con but the like explanation applies to the emotions ceive to be generated by such experi- that leave the subject of them comparatively cnces, Yet no one could gather from passive : as, for instance, the emotion produced Mr. Hutton's article that I assert this ; complexity in the groups of sensations and ideas The gradually increasing or would even find reasons for a faint co-ordinated, ends in the co-ordination of those suspicion that I do so. From the refer vast aggregations of them which a grand landence made to my further views, he would scape excites and suggests. The infant taken into the midst of mountains, is totally unaffected infer my acceptance of that empirical by them ; but is delighted with the small group utilitarianism which I have expressly of attributes and relations presented in a toy. repudiated. And the title which Mr. The child can appreciate, and be pleased with, Hutton gives to his paper clearly asserts, objects and localities, the garden, the field, and the more complicated relations of household by implication, that I recognize no the street. But it is only in youth and mature "parentage for morals” beyond that of age, when individual things and small assemthe accumulation and organisation of blages of them have become familiar and autothe effects of experience. I cannot blages which landscapes present can be ade; matically cognizable, that those immense assen. believe that Mr. Hutton intended to quately grasped, and the highly aggregated convey this erroneous impression. He states of consciousness produced by them, expewas, suppose, too much absorbcd rienced. Then, however, the various minor in contemplating the proposition he groups of states that have beert en carlier days severally procluced by trees, by mulds, by combats to observe, or, at least, to attach any weight to, the propositions · His criticism will be found in the National which accompany it. it. But I am sorry he : Review f&c January, 1856, under the title did not perceive the mischief he was "Atheism." I MORALS AND MORAL SENTIMENTS 77 streams, by cascades, by rocks, by precipices, by they of sounds, colours, touches, tastes, mountains, by clouds, are aroused together. Along with the sensations immediately received, or be they of the special objects which there are partially excited the myriads of sensacombine many of these into groups, tions that have been in times past received from have so much in common that each, objects such as those presented ; further, there when it occurs, can be definitely thought are partially excited the various incidental feel of as like those which preceded it. But ings that were experienced on all these countless past occasions; and there are probably also in the genesis of an emotion the succesexcited certain deeper, but now vague combina- sive experiences so far differ that each tions of states, that were organized in the race of them, when it occurs, suggests past during barbarous times, when its pleasurable experiences which are not specifically activities were chiefly among the woods and waters. And out of all these excitations, some similar, but have only a general simiof them actual but most of them nascent, is larity; and, at the same time, it suggests composed the emotion which a fine landscape benefits or evils in past experience produces in us. which likewise are various in their It is, I think, amply manifest that the special natures, though they have a processes here indicated are not to be certain community in general nature. taken as intellectual processes ---not as Hence it results that the consciousness processes in which recognized relations aroused is a multitudinous, confused between pleasures and their antecedents, consciousness, in which, along with a or intelligent adaptations of means to certain kind of combination among the ends, form the dominant elements. The impressions received from without, there state of mind produced by an aggregate is à vague cloud of ideal combinations of picturesque objects is not one resolv- akin to them, and a vague mass of ideal able into propositions. The sentiment feelings of pleasure or pain which were does not contain within itself any con associated with these. IVe have abunsciousness of causes and consequences dant proof that feelings grow up without of happiness. The vague recollections reference to recognized causes and conof other beautiful scenes and other sequences, and without the possessor of delightful days which it dimly rouses, them being able to say why they have are not aroused because of any rational grown up; though analysis, nevertheless, co-ordinations of ideas that have been shows that they have been formed out of formed in bygone years. Mr. Hutton, connected experiences. The familiar however, assumes that in speaking of the fact that a kind of jam which was, genesis of moral feelings as due to during childhood, repeatedly taken after inherited experiences of the pleasures medicine, may become, by simple assoand pains caused by certain modes of ciation of sensations, so nauseous that it conduct, I am speaking of reasoned-out cannot be tolerated in after-life, illusexperiences -- experiences consciously trates clearly the way in which repugaccumulated and generalized. He over nances may be established by habitual looks the fact that the genesis of association of feelings, without any belief emotions is distinguished from the in causal connexion ; or rather, in spite genesis of ideas in this; that whereas of the knowledge that there is no causal the ideas are composed of elements that connexion. Similarly with pleasurable are simple, definitely related, and (in the emotions. The cawing of rooks is not case of general ideas) constantly related, in itself an agreeable sound : musiemotions are composed of enormously cally considered, it is very much the complex aggregates of elements that are contrary. Yet the cawing of rooks never twipe alike, and which stand in usually produces in people feelings of relations that are never twice alike. a grateful kind-feelings which most of The difference in the resulting modes of them suppose to result from the quality consciousness is this :-In the genesis.of of the sound itself. Only the few who an idea the successive expenences, .be . are given to self-analysis are aware that ..

78 MORALS AND MORAL SENTIMENTS the cawing of rooks is agreeable to them and so interpreted it on my behalf , as to because it has been connected with count- make me appear to mean that moral less of their greatest gratifications--with sentiment is formed out of conscious the gathering of wild flowers in child- generalizations respecting what is benehood; with Saturday afternoon excursions ficial and what detrimental. Were such in school-boy days; with midsummer my hypothesis, his criticisms would be holidays in the country, when books very much to the point; but as such is were thrown aside and lessons were not my hypothesis, they fall to the replaced by games and adventures in ground. The experiences of utility I the fields; with fresh, sunny mornings in refer to are those which become regisafter years, when a walking excursion tered, not as distinctly recognized conwas an immense relief from toil. As it nexions between certain kinds of acts is, this sound, though not causally and certain kinds of remote results, but related to all these multitudinous and those which become registered in the varied past delights, but only often shape of associations between groups associated with them, can no more be of feelings that have often recurred heard without rousing a dim conscious- together, though the relation between ness of these delights, than the voice of them has not been consciously genean old friend unexpectedly coming into ralized-associations the origin of which the house can be heard without suddenly may be as little perceived as is the raising a wave of that feeling that has origin of the pleasure given by the resulted from the pleasures of past com sounds of a rookery; but which, neverpanionship. If we are to understand theless, have arisen in the course of daily the genesis of cmotions, either in the converse with things, and serve as incenindividual or in the race, we must take tives or deterrents. account of this all-important process. In the paragraph which Mr. Hutton Mr. Hutton, however, apparently over- has extracted from my letter to Mr. Mill, looking it, and not having reminded I have indicated an analogy between himself, by referring to the Principles of those effects of cmotional experiences Psychology, that I insist upon it, repre- out of which I believe moral sentiments sents my hypothesis to be that a certain have been developed, and those effects sentiment results from the consolidation of intellectual experiences out of which of intellectual conclusions ! He speaks I believe space-intuitions have been of me as believing that “what seem to developed. Rightly considering that the now the necessary' intuitions and first of these hypotheses cannot stand if a priori assumptions of human nature, the last is disproved, Mr. Hutton has are likely to prove, when scientifically directed part of his attack against this analysed, nothing but a similar con last. But would it not have been well glomeration of our ancestors' best obser- if he had referred to the Principles of vations and most useful empirical rules." Psychology, where this last hypothesis is He supposes me to think that men set forth at length, before criticising it? having, in past times, come to see that Would it not have been well to give an truthfulness was useful, “the habit of abstract of my own description of the approving truth-speaking and fidelity to process, instead of substituting what he engagements, which was first based on supposes my description niust be? Any this ground of utility, became so rooted, one who turns to the Principles of that the utilitarian ground of it was Psychology (first edition, pp. 218–245), forgotten, and we find ourselves springing and reads 'the two chapters. The Perto the belief in truth-speaking and ception of Body as presenting Statical fidelity to engagements from an inherited Attributes," and "The Perception of tendency." Similarly throughout, Mr. Space,” (ill find that Mr. Hutton's Hutton has so used the word "utility,” account of my view on this matter has Us MORALS AND MORAL SENTIMENT'S 79 some given him no notion of the view as it is because, in the past experiences of the expressed by me; and will, perhaps, be human race, smiles and gentle tones in less inclined to smile than he was when those around have been the habitual he read Mr. Hutton's account. I cannot accompaniments of pleasurable feelings; here do more than thus imply the while pains of many kinds, immediate invalidity of such part of Mr. Hutton's and more or less remote, have been argument as proceeds upon this incorrect continually associated with the impres-. representation. The pages which would sions received from knit brows, and set be required for properly explaining the teeth, and grating voice. Much deeper doctrine that space-intuitions result from down than the history of the human organized experiences may be better race must we go to find the beginnings used for explaining this analogous doc of these connexions. The appearances trine at present before us. This I will and sounds which excite in the infant now endeavour to do; not indirectly by a vague dread, indicate danger; and do correcting misapprehensions, but directly so because they are the physiological by an exposition which shall be as brief accompaniments of destructive actionas the extremely involved nature of the some of them common to man and process allows. inferior mammals, and consequently An infant in arms, when old enough understood by inferior mammals, as to gaze at objects around with some every puppy shows us. What we call vague recognition, smiles in response to the natural language of anger, is due to the laughing face and soft caressing a partial contraction of those muscles voice of its mother. Let there come which actual combat would call into one who, with an angry face, play; and all marks of irritation, down speaks to it in loud, harsh tones. The to that passing shade over the brow smile disappears, the features contract which accompanies slight annoyance, into an expression of pain, and, begin- are incipient stages of these same conning to cry, it turns away its head, and tractions. Conversely with the natural makes such movements of escape as are language of pleasure, and of that state of possible. What is the meaning of these mind which we call amicable feeling : facts? Why does not the frown make it this, too, has a physiological interpretasmile, and the mother's laugh make it tion." weep? There is but one answer. Already Let lis pass now from the infant in in its developing brain there is coming arms to the children in the nursery. into play the structure through which one What have the experiences of cach been cluster of visual and auditory impressions doing in aid of the emotional developexcites pleasurable feelings, and the ment we are considering? While its structure through which another cluster limbs have been growing more agile by of visual and auditory impressions excites exercise, its manipulative skill increasing painful feelings. The infant knows no by practice, its perceptions of objects more about the relation existing between growing by use quicker, more accurate, a ferocious expression of face, and the more comprehensive; the associations evils which may follow perception of it, between these two sets of impressions than the young bird just out of its nest received from those around, and the knows of the possible pain and death pleasures and pains received along with which may be inflicted by a man coming them, or after them, have been by towards it; and as certainly in the one case as in other, the alarm.felt is due * Ilereafter I hope to elucidatc at length to a partially-established nervous struc- these phenomena of expression. For the present, tạre. Why does this partially-established I can refer only to such further indications as are contained in two essays on "The Physiology nervous structure betray its presence thus of Laughter” and “The Origin and Function early in the human being ? Simply of Music.”

80 MORALS AND MORAL SENTIMENTS as frequent repetition made stronger, and particular circumstances suggest their adjustments better. The dim likely sense of pain and the vague glow of What must be the working of this delight which the infant felt , have, in process under the conditions of aboriginal the urchin, severally taken shapes that life? The emotions given to the young are more definite. The angry voice of a savage by the natural language of love -nursemaid no longer arouses only a and hate in the members of his tribe, formless feeling of dread, but also a gain first a partial definiteness in respect specific idea of the slap that may follow. to his intercourse with his family and The frown on the face of a bigger playmates; and he learns by experience brother, along with the primitive, in the utility, in so far as his own ends are definable sense of ill, brings the ideas of concerned, of avoiding courses which ills that are definable as kicks, and cuffs, call from others manifestations of anger, and pullings of hair, and losses of toys. and taking courses which call from them The faces of parents, looking now sunny, manifestations of pleasure. Not that he now gloomy, have grown to be respec- consciously generalizes. He does not tively associated with multitudinous at that age, probably not at any age, forms of gratification and multitudinous formulate his experiences in the general forms of discomfort or privation. Hence principle that it is well for him to do these appearances and sounds, which things which bring smiles, and to avoid imply amity or cnmity in those around, doing things which bring frowns. What become symbolic of happiness and happens is that having, in the way misery; so that eventually, perception of shown, inherited this connexion between the one set or the other can scarcely the perception of anger in others and occur without raising a wave of pleasur- the feeling of dread, and having disable feeling or of painful feeling. The covered that certain acts of his bring on body of this wave is still substantially of this anger, he cannot subsequently think the same nature as it was at first ; for of committing one of these acts without though in each of these multitudinous thinking of the resulting anger and feeling experiences a special set of facial and more or less of the resulting dread. He vocal signs has been connected with a has no thought of the utility or inutility of special set of pleasures or pains; yet the act itself: the deterrent is the mainly since these pleasures or pains have been vague, but partially definite, fear of evil immensely varied in their kinds and that may follow. So understood, the coinbinations, and since the signs that deterring emotion is one which has preceded them were in no two cases quite grown out of experiences of utility, using alike, it results that even to the end the that word in its ethical sense; and if we consciousness produced remains as vague ask why this dreaded anger is called as it is voluminous. The thousands of forth from others, we shall habitually partially-aroused ideas resulting from find that it is because the forbidden act past experiences are massed together entails pain somewhere is negatived and superposed, so as to form an aggre- by utility. On passing from domestic gate in which nothing is distinct, but injunctions to injunctions current in the which has the character of being pleasur-tribe, we see no less clearly how these able or painful according to the nature emotions produced by approbation and of its original components: the chief reprobation come to be connected in difference between this developed feeling experience with actions which are beneand the feeling aroused in the infant ficial to the tribe, and actions which are being, that on bright or dark 'back- detrimental to the tribe ; and how there ground forming the body of it, may consequently grow up incentives to the now be sketched out in thought. one class of actions and prejudices against particular pleasures or pains which the l 'the other class. From early boyhood the MORALS AND MORAL SENTIMENTS 81 the young savage hears recounted the vaguely-imagined but fearful evil, or give daring deeds of his chief-hears them in some great help, becomes a powerful words of praise, and sees all faces incentive or deterrent. Especially does glowing with admiration. From time to this happen when the story is of a chief, time also he listens while some one's distinguished for his strength, his ferocity, cowardice is described in tones of scorn, his persistence in that revenge on enemies and with contemptuous metaphors, and which the experiences of the savage sees him meet with derision and insult make him regard as beneficial and whenever he appears. That is to say, virtuous. The consciousne that such one of the things that come to be asso a chief, dreaded by neighbouring tribes, ciated in his mind with smiling faces, and dreaded, too, by members of his which are symbolical of pleasures in own tribe, may reappear and punish general, is courage; and one of the those who have disregarded his injuncthings that come to be associated in his tions, becomes a powerful motive. But mind with frowns and other marks of it is clear, in the first place, that the enmity, which form his symbol of un- imagined anger and the imagined satishappiness, is cowardice. These feelings faction of this deified chief, are simply are not formed in him because he has transfigured forms of the anger and reasoned his way to the truth that satisfaction displayed by those around; courage is useful to the tribe, and, by and that the feelings accompanying such implication, to himself, or to the truth imaginations have the same original root that cowardice is a cause of evil. In in the experiences which have associated adult life he may perhaps see this; but an average of painful results with the he certainly does not see it at the time manifestation of another's anger, and an when bravery is thus joined in his con- average of pleasurable results with the sciousness with all that is good, and manifestation of another's satisfaction. cowardice with all that is bad. Similarly And it is clear, in the second place, there are produced in him feelings of that the actions thus forbidden and inclination or repugnance towards other encouraged must be mostly actions that lines of conduct that have become estab- are respectively detrimental and benelished or interdicted, because they are ficial to the tribe ; since the successful beneficial or injurious to the tribe ; chief is usually a better judge than the though neither the young nor the adults rest, and has the preservation of the know why they have become established tribe at heart. Hence experiences of or interdicted. Instance the praise utility, consciously or unconsciously worthiness of wife-stealing, and the organized, underlie his injunctions; and viciousness of marrying within the tribe. the sentiments which prompt obedience We may now ascend a stage to an are, though very indirectly and without order of incentives and restraints derived the knowledge of those who feel them, from these. The primitive belief is that referable to experiences of utility. every dead man becomes a demon, who This transfigured form of restraint, is often somewhere at hand, may at differing at first but little from the any moment return, may give aid or original form, admits of immense do mischief, and has to be continu- development. Accumulating traditions, ally propitiated. Hence, among other growing in grandeur as they are repeated agents whose approbation or reprobation from generation to generation, make are contemplated by the savage as conse more and more superhuman the earlyquences of 13"conduct, are the spirits of recorded hero of the race. his ancestors. When a child he is told of inflicting punishment and giving of their deeds, now in•triumphant tones, happiness become ever greater, more now in whispers of horror ; aild the multitudinous, and more varied; so that instilled belief that they may inflict some the dread of divine displeasure, and the His powers 82 MORALS AND MORAL SENTIMENT'S a desire to obtain divine approbation, moral obligation save the will of God as acquire a certain largeness and generality, expressed in the current creed. And: Still the conceptions remain anthropo- yet a further is, that while in sermons morphic. The revengeful deity con- the torments of the damned and the joys tinues to be thought of in terms of of the blessed are set forth as the human emotions, and continues to be dominant deterrents and incentives, and represented as displaying these emotions while we have prepared for us printed in human ways. Moreover, the senti- instructions "how to make the best of ments of right and duty, so far as they both worlds," it cannot be denied that have become developed, refer mainly to the feelings which impel and restrain divine commands and interdicts and men are still still largely composed of have little reference to the natures of clements like those operative on the the acts commanded or interdicted. In savage : the dread, partly vague, partly the intended offering-up of Isaac, in the specific, associated with the idea of sacrifice of Jephthah's daughter, and in reprobation, human and divine. the hewing to pieces of Agay, as much But during the growth of that civilizaas in the countless atrocities committed tion which has been made possible by from religious motives by various early these ego-altruistic sentiments, there historic races, as by some existing savage have been slowly evolving the altruistic races, we see that the morality and sentiments. Development of these has immorality of actions, as we understand gone on only as fast as society has them, are at first little recognized; and advanced to state in which the that the feelings, chiefly of dread, which activities are mainly peaceful. The root serve in place of them, are feelings felt of all the altruistic sentiments is symtowards the unseen beings supposed to pathy; and sympathy could become issue the commands and interdicts. dominant only when the mode of life, Here it will be said that, as just instead of being one that habitually admitted, these are not the moral senti- inflicted direct pain, became one which ments properly so called. They are conferred direct and indirect benefits : simply sentiments that precede and the pains inflicted being mainly incimake possible those highest sentiments dental and indirect. Adam Smith made which do not refer either to personal a large step towards this truth when he benefits or evils to be expected from recognized sympathy as giving rise to men, or to more remote rewards and these superior controlling emotions. His punishments. Several comments are, Theory of Moral Sentiments, however, however, called forth by this criticism, requires to be supplemented in two One is, that if we glance back at past ways. The natural process by which beliefs and their correlative feelings, as sympathy becomes developed into a shown in Dante's poen, in the mystery niore and more important element of plays of the middle ages, in St. Bar- human nature has to be explained ; and tholomew massacres, in burnings for there has also to be explained the heresy, we get proof that in compara process by which sympathy produces tively modern times right and wrong the highest and most complex of the meant little else than subordination altruistic sentiments----that of justice. or insubordination-to a divine ruler Respecting the first process, I can here primarily, and under him to a human do to more than say that sympathy may ruler. Another is, that down to our own be proved, both inductively and deducday this conception largely prevails, and tively, to be the concomitarf gregariis even embodied in elaborate ethical ousness : the two having all along works --- instance the Essays on the increased by reciprocal aid. Multiplica- Principles of Morality, by Jonathan tion*his ever tended to force into an Dymond, which recognises no ground of association, more or less close, all MORALS AND MORAL SENTIMENTS 83 SO creatures having kinds of food and himself when again tempted to those supplies of food that permit associa acts, the restraint is of like nature. Contion; and established psychological laws versely with the pleasure-giving acts : warrant the inference that some sym- repetitions of kind deeds, and experipathy will inevitably result from habitual ences of the sympathetic gratifications månifestations of feelings in presence of that follow, tend continually to make one another, and that the gregariousness stronger the association between such being augmented by the increase of deeds and feelings of happiness. sympathy, further facilitates the develop Eventually these experiences may be ment of sympathy. But there are nega- consciously generalized, and there may tive and positive checks upon this result a deliberate pursuit of sympathetic development-negative, because sym- gratifications. There may also come to pathy cannot advance faster than intelli- be distinctly recognized the truths that gence advances, since it presupposes the the remoter results, kind and unkind power of interpreting the natural lan-conduct, are respectively beneficial and guage of the various feelings, and of detrimental—that due regard for others mentally representing those feelings ; is conducive to ultimate personal welfare, positive, because the immediate needs of and disregard of others to ultimate self-preservation are often at variance personal disaster; and then there may with its promptings, as, for example, become current such summations of during the predatory stages of human experience as “honesty is the best progress. For explanations of the second policy.” But far from regarding process, I must refer to the Principles of these intellectual recognitions of utility Psychology ($ 202, first edition, and $215, as preceding and causing the moral second edition) and to Social Statics, sentiment, I regard the moral sentiment part ii., chapter V. Asking that in as preceding such recognitions of utility, default of space these explanations may and making them possible. The pleasures be taken for granted, let me here point and pains directly resulting in experience out in what sense cven sympathy, and from sympathetic and unsympathetic the sentiments that result from it, are actions, had first to be slowly associated due to experiences of utility. If we with such actions, and the resulting suppose all thought of rewards or punish- incentives and deterrents frequently ments, immediate or remote, to be left obeyed, before there could arise the out of consideration, it is clear that any perceptions that sympathetic and unone who hesitates to inflict a pain sympathetic actions are remotely benebecause of the vivid representation of ficial or detrimental to the actor; and that pain which rises in his conscious- they had to be obeyed still longer and ness, is restrained, not by any sense of more generally before there could arise obligation or by any formulated doctrine the perceptions that they are socially of utility, but by the painful association beneficial or detrimental. When, howestablished in him. And it is clear that ever, the remote effects, personal and if, after repeated experiences of the moral social, have gained general recognition, discomfort he has felt from witnessing are expressed in current maxims, and the unhappiness indirectly caused by lead to injunctions having the religious some of his acts, he is led to check sanction, the sentiments that prompt sympathetic actions and check unsympamay add that in Social Statics, chap. XXX., thetic ones are immensely strengthened I have indicated and a general way, the causes of by their alliances. Approbation and the development of sympathy, and the restraints reprobation, divine and human, come to upon its development-confining the discussion, be associated in thought with the sympahowever, to the case of the human rare, my thetic and unsympathetic actions subject limiting me to that. The accomp nying respecteleology I now disclaim, gively. The commands of the creed, I 84 MORALS AND MORAL SENTIMENTS the legal penalties, and the code of creed which ascribes such attributes and social conduct, unitedly enforce them; acts, and every child as it grows up, daily has Much that is required to make this impressed on it by the words and faces hypothesis complete must stand over and voices of those around the authority until, at the close of the second volume of these highest principles of conduct of the Principles of Psychology, I have And now we may see why there arises a space for a full exposition. What I have belief in the special sacredness of these said will make it sufficiently clear that highest principles, and a sense of the two fundamental errors have been made supreme authority of the altruistic senti- in the interpretation put upon it. Both ments answering to theni. Many of the Utility and Experience have been conactions which, in early social stages, strued in senses much too too narrow. received the religious sanction and Utility, convenient a word as it is from gained public approbation, had the its comprehensiveness, has very incondrawback that such sympathies as venient and misleading implications. existed were outraged, and there was It vividly suggests uses, and means, and hence an imperfect satisfaction. Whereas proximate ends, but very faintly suggests these altruistic actions, while similarly the pleasures, positive or negative, which having the religious sanction and gaining are the ultimate ends, and which, in the public approbation, bring a sympathetic ethical meaning of the word, arc dione consciousness of pleasure given or of considered; and, further, it implies pain prevented; and, beyond this, bring conscious recognition of means and ends a sympathetic consciousness of human -- implies the deliberate taking of some welfare at large, as being furthered by course to gain a perceived benefit. making altruistic actions habitual. Both Experience, too, in its ordinary acceptathis special and this general sympathetic tion, connotes definite perceptions of consciousness become stronger and wider causes and consequences, as standing in in proportion as the power of mental observed relations, and is not taken to representation increases, and the imagi- include the connexions formed in connation of consequences, immediate and sciousness between states that recur remote, grows more vivid and compre- together, when the relation between hensive. Until at length these altruistic them, causal or other, is not perceived. sentiments begin to call in question the It is in their widest senses, however, that authority of those ego-altruistic senti- I habitually use these words, as will be ments which once ruled unchallenged. manifest to every one who reads the They prompt resistance to laws that do Principles of Psychology ; and it is in not fulfil the conception of justice, their widest senses that I have used encourage men to brave the frowns of them in the letter to Mr. Mill. I think their fellows by pursuing a course at I have shown above that, when they are variance with customs that are perceived so understood, the hypothesis briefly set to be socially injurious, and even cause forth in that letter is by no means so dissent from the current religion ; either indefensible as is supposed. to the extent of disbelief in those rate, I have shown-what seemed for alleged divine attributes and acts not the present needful to show that Mr. approved by this supreme moral arbiter, Hutton's versions of my views must not or to the extent of entire rejection of a be accepted as correct. --- : : At any MANNERS AND FASHION 85 MANNERS AND FASHION name (1854) WHOEVER has studied the physiognomy republicanism is everywhere distinof political meetings, cannot fail to have guished by its hirsuteness. The authoremarked a connexion between demo- rities of Prussia, Austria, and Italy, alike cratic opinions and peculiarities of recognize certain forms of hat as indicacostume. At a Chartist demonstration, tive of disaffection, and fulminate against a lecture on Socialism, or a soirée of the them accordingly. In some places the Friends of Italy, there will be seen many wearer of a blouse runs a risk of being among the audience, and a still larger classed among the suspects, and in ratio among the speakers, who get them- others, he who would avoid the bureau selves up in a style more or less unusual. of police must beware how he goes out One gentleman on the platform divides in any but the ordinary colours. Thus, his hair down the centre, instead of on democracy abroad, as at home, tends ong side ; another brushes it back off towards personal singularity. Nor is the forehead, in the fashion known as this association of characteristics peculiar " bringing out the intellect"; a third has to modern times, or to reformers of the so long forsworn the scissors, that his State. It has always existed; and it locks sweep his shoulders. A sprinkling has been manifested as much in religious of moustaches may be observed; here agitations as in political ones. The and there an imperial ; and occasionally Puritans, disapproving of the long curls some courageous breaker of conventions of the Cavaliers, as of their principles, exhibits a full-grown beard. This non cut their own hair short, and so gained conformity in hair is countenanced by the of “Roundheads." The various nonconformities in dress, shown marked religious nonconformity of the by others of the assemblage. Bare Quakers was accompanied by an equallynecks, shirt collars à la Byron, waist- marked nonconformity of manners.in coats cut Quaker fashion, wonderfully attire, in speech, in salutation. The shaggy great coats, numerous Oddities in early Moravians not only believed difform and colour, destroy the monotony ferently, but at the same time dressed usual in crowds. Even those exhibiting differently, and lived differently, from no conspicuous peculiarity, frequently their fellow Christians. That the assoindicate by something in the pattern of ciation between political independence their clothes, that they pay small regard and independence of personal conduct to what their tailors tell them about the is not a phenomenon of to-day only, prevailing taste. And when the gather- we may see alike in the appearance ing breaks up, the varieties of head gear of Franklin at the French court in plain displayed--the number of caps, and the clothes, and in the white hats worn by abundance of felt hats-suffice to prove the last generation of radicals. Origithat were the world at large like-minded, nality of nature is sure to show itself in the black cylinders which tyrannize over more ways than one. The mention of us would soon be deposed. George Fox's suit of leather, or Pesta- This relationship between political lozzi's school name, “ Harry Oddity," discontent.md disregard of customs will at once suggest the remembrance exists on the Continent also. Red that men who have in great things diverged from the beaten track, have ! This was written before moustaches and 1.frequently done so in small things beards had becone general. . likewise. Minor illustrations may be 86 MANNERS AND FASHION or gathered in almost every circle. We its reason, and reject it if it fails to believe that whoever will number up his justify itself? And must not the minds reforming and rationalist acquaintances, thus contrasted tend to become respecwill find among them more than the tively conformist and nonconformist, not usual proportion of those who in dress only in politics and religion, but in or behaviour exhibit some degree of other things ? Submission, whether to a what the world calls eccentricity. government, to the dogmas of eccle- If it be a fact that men of revolu- siastics, or to that code of behaviour tionary aims in politics or religion are which society at large has set up, is commonly revolutionists in custom also, essentially of the same nature; and the it is not less a fact that those whose sentiment which induces resistance to office it is to uphold established arrange the despotism of rulers, civil ments in State and Church, are also spiritual, likewise induces resistance to those who most adhere to the social the despotism of the world's usages. forms and observances bequeathed to us | All enactments, alike of the legislature, by past generations. Practices elsewhere the consistory, and the saloon—all extinct still linger about the head regulations, formal or virtual, have a quarters of government. The monarch common character: they are all limitastill gives assent to Acts of Parliament tions of men's freedom. “Do this in the old French of the Normans; and Refrain from that," are the blank forms Norman French terms are still used in into which they may severally be written; law. Wigs, such as those we see and throughout the understanding is depicied in old portraits, may yet be that obedience will bring approbation found on the heads of judges and here and paradise hereafter ; while disbarristers. The Beefeaters at the Tower obedience will entail imprisonment, or wear the costume of Henry VIIth's sending to Coventry, or eternal torments, body-guard. The University dress of as the case may be. And if restraints, the present year varies but little from however named, and through whatever that worn soon after the Reformation. apparatus of means exercised, are one in The claret-coloured coat, knee-breeches, their action upon men, it must happen lace shirt-frills, white silk stockings, and that those who are patient under one buckled shoes, which once formed the kind of restraint, are likely to be patient usual attire of a gentleman, still survive under another; and conversely, that as the court-dress. And it need scarcely those impatient of restraint in general, be said that at lerées and drawing-rooms, will, on the average, tend to show their the ceremonies are prescribed with an impatience in all directions. exactness, and enforced with a rigour, That Law, Religion, and Manners are not elsewhere to be found. thus related, and that they have in Can we consider these two series of certain contrasted characteristics of men coincidences as accidental and unmean conimon support and a common ing? Must we not rather conclude that danger, will, however, be most clearly necessary relationship obtains scen on discovering that they have a between them? Are there not such common origin. Little as from present things as a constitutional conservatism, appearances we should suppose it, we and a constitutional tendency to change? shall yet find that at first, the control of Is there not a class which clings to the religion, the control of laws, and the old in all things; and another class so in control of manners, were all one control. love with progress as often to mistake Strange as it now seems, believe it novelty for improvement? Do we not to be demonstrable that the rules of find some men ready to bow to estab- etiquette, the provisions of the statutelished authority of whatever kind; while' | book, and the commands of the decaothers demand of every such authority { logue, have grown from the same root, а some MANNERS AND FASHION 87 Cases are If we go far enough back into the ages gods were conceived as men of specific of primeval Fetishism, it becomes mani- aspects dressed in specific ways--how fest that originally Deity, Chief, and their names were literally "the strong,' Master of the Ceremonies were identical. “the destroyer," "the powerful one, ". To make good these positions, and to how, according to the Scandinavian show their bearing on what is to follow, mythology, the “sacred duty of bloodit will be necessary here to traverse revenge was acted on by the gods ground that is in part somewhat beaten, themselves ---and how they were and at first sight irrelevant to our topic. only human in their vindictiveness, their We will pass over it as quickly as consists cruelty, and their quarrels with each with the exigencies of the argument. other, but were supposed to have amours on earth, and to consume the viands That the earliest social aggregations placed on their altars. Add to which, were ruled solely by the will of the that in various • mythologies, Greek, strong man, few dispute. That from Scandinavian, and others, the oldest the strong man proceeded not only beings are giants ; that according to a Monarchy, but the conception of a God, traditional genealogy the gods, demifew admit: much as Carlyle and others gods, and in men, have said in evidence of it. If, however, descended from these after the human those who are unable to believe this, fashion; and that while in the East we will lay aside the ideas of God and man hear of sons of God who saw the in which they have been educated, and daughters of men that they were fair, the study the aboriginal ideas of them, they Teutonic myths tell of unions between will at least see some probability in the the sons of men and the daughters of hypothesis. Let them remember that the gods. Let them remember, too, before experience had yet taught men to that at first the idea of death differed distinguish between the possible and the widely from that which we have; that impossible; and while they were ready there are still tribes who, on the decease on the slightest suggestion to ascribe of one of their number, attempt to make unknown powers to any object and the corpse stand, and put food into its make a fetish of it; their conceptions of mouth ; that the Peruvians had feasts at humanity and its capacities were neces which the mummies of their dead Incas sarily vague, and without specific limits. presided, when, as Prescott says, they The man who by unusual strength, paid attention “to these insensible or cunning, achieved something that remains as if they were instinct with others had failed to achieve, or some life;" that among the Fijians it is thing which they did not understand, believed that every enemy has to be was considered by them as differing killed twice; that the Eastern Pagans from themselves; and, as we see in the give extension and figure to the soul, belief of some Polynesians that only and attribute to it all the same members, their chiefs have souls, or in that of the all the same substances, both solid and ancient Peruvians that their nobles were liquid, of which our bodies are comdivine by birth, the ascribed difference posed ; and that it is the custom among was apt to be not one of degree only, most barbarous races to bury food, but one of kind. Let them remember weapons, and trinkets along with the next, how gross were the notions of God, dead body, under the manifest belief or rather of gods, prevalent during the that it will presently need them. Lastly, same era and Kerwards-how concretely let them remember that the other world, as originally conceived, is simply some * The few who disputed it would be right distant part of this world—some Elysian which chiefly power becomes establishel"; and Tjelds, some happy hunting - ground, in many cases it never does become established. .accessible even to the living, and to --- Once the gods, is fully explained. Thesen 88 MANNERS AND FASHION which, after death, men travel in antici- them by adoption, “but was born among pation of a life analogous in general the Vanes, a somewhat mysterious other character to that which they led before. dynasty of gods, who had been con- Then, co-ordinating these general facts quered and superseded by the stronger --the ascription of unknown powers to and more warlike Odin dynasty." It chiefs and medicine men; the belief in harmonizes, too, with the belief that deities having human forms, passions, there are different gods to different and behaviour; the imperfect compre- territories and nations, as there were hension of death as distinguished from different chiefs; that these gods contend life; and the proximity of the future fur supremacy as chiefs.do; and it gives abode to the present, both in position | mcaning to the boast of neighbouring and character--let then reflect whether tribes-"Our god is greater than your they do not almost unavoidably suggest god.” It is confirmed by the notion the conclusion that the aboriginal god is universally current in early times, that the dead chief: the chief not dead in the gods come from this pther abode, in our sense, but gone away, carrying with which they commonly live, and appear him food and weapons to some rumoured among men-speak to them, help them, region of plenty, some promised land, punish them. And remembering this, it whither he had long intended to lead becomes manifest that the prayers put his followers, and whence he will up by primitive peoples to their gods for presently return to fetch them. This aid in battle, are meant literally—that hypothesis once entertained, is seen to their gods are expected to come back harmonize with all primitive ideas and from the other kingdom they are reigning practices. The sons of the dcified chief over, and more fight the old reigning after him, it necessarily happens enemies they had before warred against that all early kings are held descendants so implacably; and it needs but to of the gods; and the fact that alike name the Iliad, to remind every one in Assyria, Egypt, among the Jews, how thoroughly they believed the expec- Phoenicians, and ancient Britons, kings' tation fulfilled. names were formed out of the names of All government, then, being originally of Polytheism out of Fetishism, by the a fetish by some manifestation of successive migrations of the race of god. superiority, there arises, at his deathkings to the other world--a genesis his supposed departure on a longillustrated in the Greek mythology, alike hy the precise genealogy of the * In this paragraph, which I have purposely deities, and by the specifically-asserted left standing word for word as it did when apothcosis of the later ones-tends republished with other essays in Dec. 1857, will be seen the outline of the ghost-theory. Though further to bear it out. It explains the there are references to fetishism as a primitive fact that in the old crecds, as in the still form of belieſ, and though at that time I had cxtant creed of the Otaheitans, every passively accepted the current theory though family has its guardian spirit, who is never with satisfaction, for the origin of fetishism as then conceived seemed incomprehensible) supposed to be one of their departed yet the belief that inanimate objects may possess relatives; and that they sacrifice to these supernatural powers (which is what was then as minor gods-a practice still pursued understood as fetishism) is not dwelt upon as a by the Chinese and even by the Russians. prinzitive belief. The one thing which is dwelt It is perfectly congruous with the upon is the belief in the double of the dead man as continuing to exist, and as becoming an Grecian myths concerning the wars of object of propitiation and eventuat: of worship. the Gods with the Titans and their final There are clearly marked out the rudiments usurpation; and it similarly agrees with which, when supplied with the mass of facts the fact that among the Teutonic gods into thd doctrine elaborated in Part I. of The proper was one freir who came among Principles of Sociology.

MANNERS AND FASHION 89 our projected expedition, in which he is been little by little separating itself from accompanied by the slaves and con the civil, both in its essence and in its cubines sacrificed at his tomb there forms. While from the God-king of the arises, then, the incipient division of barbarian have arisen in one direction religious from political control, of secular rulers who, age by age, have spiritual rule from civil. His son been losing the sacred attributes men becomes deputed chief during his ascribed to them; there has arisen in absence; his authority is cited as that another direction, the conception of a by which his son acts ; his vengeance is deity, who, at first human in all things, invoked on all who disobey his son; and has been gradually losing human matehis commands, as previously known or riality, human form, human passions, as asserted by his son, become the germ human modes of action : until now, of a moral code: a fact we shall the anthropomorphism has become a remore clearly perceive if we remember, proach. Along with this wide diverthat early moral codes inculcate mainly gence in men's ideas of the divine and the virtues of the warrior, and the duty civil ruler has been taking place a of exterminating some neighbouring corresponding divergence in the codes tribe whose existence is an offence to the of conduct respectively proceeding from deisy. From this point onwards, these them. While the king was a deputytwo kinds of authority, at first compli- goda governor such as the Jews cated together as those of principal and looked for in the Messiah-a governor agent, become slowly more and more considered, as the Czar still is, distinct. As experience accumulates, God upon earth,”--it, of course, followed and ideas of causation grow more that his commands were the supreme precise, kings lose their supernatural rules. But as men ceased to believe in attributes; and, instead of God-king, his supernatural origin and nature, his become God-descended king, God commands ceased to be the highest; appointed king, the Lord's anointed, the and there arose a distinction between vicegerent of Heaven, ruler reigning by the regulations made by him, and the Divine right. The old theory, however, regulations handed down from the old long clings to men in feeling, after it has god-kings, who were rendered ever more disappeared in name; and "such divinity sacred by time and the accumulation of doth hedge a king,” that even now, myths. Hence came respectively, Law many, on first seeing one, feel a secret and Morality: the one growing ever surprise at finding him an ordinary inore concrete, the other more abstract; sample of humanity. The sacredness the authority of the one ever attaching to royalty attaches afterwards decrease, that of the other ever on the to its appended institutions-to legisla- increase ; originally the same, but now tures, to laws. Legal and illegal are placed daily in more marked antagonism. synonymous with right and wrong; the Simultaneously there has been going on authority of Parliament is held un a separation of the institutions adminislimited ; and a lingering faith in govern- tering these two codes of conduct. mental power continually generates un While they were yet one, of course founded hopes from its enactments. Church and State were one: the king Political scepticism, however, having was arch-priest, not nominally, but destroyed the divine prestige of royalty, really-alike the giver of new commands goes on ever-jncreasing, and promises and the chief interpreter of the old ultimately iv reduce the State to a purely commands; and the deputy - priests secular institution, whose regulations are coming out of his family were thus limited in their sphere, and have no simply expounders of the dictates of other authority than the general will. | their ancestry: at first as recollected, Meanwhile, the religious control has. and afterwards as ascestained by professed on the 90 MANNERS AND FASHION w interviews with them. This union of behaviour to the god-king. Our between sacred and secular--which still commonest titles have been derived existed practically during the middle from his names. And all salutations ages, when the authority of kings was were primarily worship paid to 'him: mixed up with the authority of the pope, Let us trace out these truths in detail, when there were bishop-rulers having all beginning with titles. the powers of feudal lords, and when The fact already noticed, that the priests punished by penances-has been, names of early kings among divers races step by step, becoming less close. are formed by the addition of certain Though monarchs are still "defenders syllables to the names of their gods of the faith," and ecclesiastical chiefs, which certain syllables, like our Mac they are but nominally such. Though and Fitz, probably mean “son of," or bishops still have civil power, it is not descended from at once gives what they once had. Protestantism meaning to the term Father as a divine shook loose the bonds of union; Dissent title. And when we read, in Seiden, has long been busy in organizing a that “the composition out of these mechanism for religious control, wholly names of Deities was not only proper to independent of law; in America, a sepa- Kings: their Grandes and more honorrate organization for that purpose already able subjects" (no doubt members of exists; and if anything is to be hoped the royal race) “had sometimes the from the Anti-State-Church Association like”; we see how the term Father, -or, as it has been newly named, “The properly used by these also, and by Society for the Liberation of Religion their multiplying descendants, came to from State Patronage and Control"-webe a title used by the people in general. shall presently have a separate organiza- As bearing on this point, it is significant tion here also. Thus, in authority, in that in the least advanced country of essence, and in form, political and Europe, where belief in the divine spiritual rule have been ever nature of the ruler still lingers, Father widely diverging from the same root. in this higher sense, is still a regal That increasing division of labour which distinction. When, again, we remember marks the progress of society in other how the divinity at first ascribed to things, narks it also in this separation of kings was not a complimentary fiction government into civil and religious ; | but a supposed fact ; and how, further, and if we observe how the morality the celestial bodies were believed to be which now forms the substance of reli- personages who once lived among men; gions in general, is beginning to be we see that the appellations of oriental purified from the associated creeds, we rulers, "Brother to the Sun," &c., were may anticipate that this division will be probably once expressive of a genuine ultimately carried much further. belief; and have simply, like many Passing now to the third species of other things, continued in use after all control ---that of Manners--we shall find meaning has gone out of them. We that this, too, while it had a common may infer, too, that the titles God, Lord, genesis with the others, has gradually Divinity, were given to primitive rulers come to have a distinct sphere and literally--that the nostra divinitas applied a special embodiment. Among early to the Roman emperors, and the various aggregations of men before yet social sacred designations that have been observances existeil, the sole forms of borne hy monarchs, dean to the still courtesy known were the signs of sub- extant phrase, “Our Lorthe King," mission to the strong man; as the sole are the dead and dying forms of what law was his will, and the sole, religion were once living facts. From these the awe of his supposed supernatural namel, God, Father, Lord, Divinity, ness. Originally, cremonies were modes originally belonging to the God-king, more MANNERS AND FASHION 91 and afterwards to God and the king, the compliment -- and that in barbarous derivation of Jur commonest titles of times, when the wish to propitiate was respect is traceable. There is reason to stronger than now, this effect must have think that these titles were originally been greater ; we shall see that there proper names. Not only do we see naturally arose from this cause an extenamong the Egyptians, where Pharaoh sive misuse of all early distinctions. was synonymous with king, and among Hence the facts that the Jews called the Romans, where to be Cæsar meant Herod a god; that Father, in its higher to be Emperor, that the proper names sense, was a term used among them by of the greatest men were transferred to servants to masters; that Lord was their successors, and so became class- applicable to any person of worth and names; but in the Scandinavian mytho- power. Hence, too, the fact that, in logy we may trace a human title of the later periods of the Roman Empire, honour up to the proper name of every man saluted his neighbour as a divine personage. In Anglo-Saxon Dominus or Rex. But it is in the titles bealdor, or baldor, means Lord; and of the middle ages, and in the growth of Balder is the name of the favourite of our modern ones out of them, that the Odin's sons. How these names of process is most clearly seen. Herr, honour became general is easily under- Don, Signor, Seigneur, Señor, were all stood. The relatives of the primitive originally descriptive names of rulers. kings--the grandes described by Selden By the complimentary use of these as having names formed on those of the names to all who could, on any pretence, gods, and shown by this to be members be supposed to merit them, and by of the divine race--necessarily shared in successive descents to still lower grades, the epithets descriptive of superhuman they have come to be common forms of relationships and nature. Their ever- Their ever- address. At first the phrase in which a multiplying offspring inheriting, these, serf accosted his despotic chief, inein gradually rendered them comparatively Herr is familiarly applied in common. And then tlrey came to be Germany to ordinary people. The applied to every man of power: partly Spanish title Don, once proper proper to from the fact that, in those early days noblemen and gentlemen only, is now when men conceived divinity simply as a accorded to all classes. So, too, it is stronger kind of humanity, great persons with Signor in Italy. Seigneur and could be called by divine epithets with but Monseigneur, by contraction in Sieur and little exaggeration ; partly from the fact Monsieur, have produced the term of that the unusually potent were apt to be respect claimed by every Frenchman. considered as unrecognised or illegiti- And whether Sire be or be not a like mate descendants of “the strong, the contraction of Signor, it is clear that, destroyer, the powerful one”; and as it was borne by sundry of the ancient partly, also, from compliment and the feudal lords of France, who, as Selden desire to propitiate. As superstition says, "affected rather to bee stiled by diminished, this last became the sole the name of Sire than Baron, as Le Sire cause. And if we remember that it is de Montmorencie, Le Sire de Beaujeu, the nature of compliment, to attribute and the like," and as it has been more than is duem-that in the ever commonly used to monarchs, our word widening application of "esquire,” in the Sir, which is derived from it, originally perpetual repetition of your honour” meant lord or king. Thus, too, it is by the fawrinig Irishman, and in the use with feminine titles. Lady, which, accordof the name "gentleman” to any coal. ing to Horne Tookc, means exalted, and heaver or dustman by'the lower classes was at first given only to the few, is now of London, we have current examples of given to all women of education. Dame, the depreciation of titles consequent on once an honourable name to which, in now ! All I have is 92 MANNERS AND FASHION old books, we find the epithets of “high- the need for fresh ones. And if, within bom" and "stately" affixed, has now, the last thousand years, this process has by: repeated widenings of its application, worked results thus marked, we may become relatively a term of contenipt. readily conceive how, during previous And if we trace the compound of this, thousands, the titles of gods and demima Dame, through its contractions gods came to be used to all persons Madam, ma'am, mam, mum, we find exercising power; as they have since that the “ Yes'm” of Sally to her come to be used to persons of respectamistress is originally equivalent to “Yes, bility. my exalted," or "Yes, your highness. If from names of honour we turn to Throughout, therefore, the genesis of phrases of honour, we find similar facts. words of honour has been the same. The oriental styles of address, applied to Just as with the Jews and with the ordinary people--"I am your slave,” Romans, has it been 'with the modern yours," "I am your Europeans. Tracing these everyday sacrifice "attribute to she individual names to their primitive significations of spoken to the same greatness that lord and king, and remembering that in vſonsieur and My Lord do: they ascribe aboriginal societies these were applied to him the character of an all-powerful only to the gods and their descendants, ruler, so immeasurably superior to the we arrive at the conclusion that our speaker as to be his owner. So, likefamiliar Sir and Monsieur are, in their wise, with the Polish expressions of primary and expanded meanings, terms respect -.“I throw myself under your of adoration. feet," "I kiss your feet.” In our now Further to illustrate this gradual meaningless subscription to a formal depreciation of titles, and to confirm the letter " Your most obedient servant inference drawn, it may be well to notice --the same thing is visible. Nay, even in passing, that the oldest of them have, in the familiar signature "Yours faithas might be expected, been depreciated fully,” the "yours," if interpreted as to the greatest extent. Thus, Master originally meant, is the expression of a a word proved by its derivation, and by slave to his master. All these dead the similarity of the connate words in forms were once living embodiments of other languages (Fr., maître for maistre : fact ; were primarily the genuine indica- Dutch, meester; Dan., mester; Ger., tions of that submission to authority meister) to have been one of the earliest which they verbally assert; were afterin use for expressing lordship-has now wards naturally used by the weak and become applicable to children only, and, cowardly to propitiate those above them; under the modification of “Mister," to gradually grew to be considered the due persons next above the labourer. Again, of such ; and, by a continually wider knighthood, the oldest kind of dignity, misuse, have lost their meanings, as Sir is also the lowest; and knight Bachelor, and Master have done. That, like which is the lowest order of knighthood, titles, they were in the beginning used is more ancient than any other of the only to the God-king, is indicated by the orders. Similarly, too, with the peerage: fact that, like titles, they were subse- Baron is alike the earliest and least . quently used in common to God and elevated of its divisions. This continual the king. Religious worship has ever degradation of all names of honour has, largely consisted of professions of obedile tinte to time, made it requisite to cnce, of being God's servants, of belongintroduce new ones having the distin- ing to him to do what hewwill with. guishing effects which the originals had Like titles, therefore, these common lost by generality of use ; just as our. phrases of honour had a devotional habit of misapplying superlatives has, by origin. Perhaps, however, it is in the gradually destroying their force, entailed use of the word you as a singular pronoun MANNERS AND FASHION 93 * >> that the popularizing of what were once | if they had cast kisses, to turne the body supreme distinctions is most markedly on the same hand (which was the right illustrated. This addressing of a single forme of Adoration), it grew also by individual in the plural, was originally custom, first that the Emperors, being an.honour given only to the highest next to Deities, and by some accounted was the reciprocal of the imperial “we as Deities, had the like done to them in assumed by such. Yet now, by being acknowledgment of their Greatness.” applied to successively lower and lower If, now, we call to mind the awkward classes, it has become all but universal. salute of a village school-boy, 'made by Only by one sect of Christians, and in a putting his open hand up to his face few secluded districts, is the primitive and describing a semicircle with his thou still used. And the you, in becoming forearm ; and if we remember that the common to all ranks, has simultaneously salute thus used as a form of reverence lost every vestige of the distinction once in country districts, is most likely a attaching to it. rennant of the feudal times; we shall But the genesis of Manners out of see reason for thinking that our common forms of allegiance and worship, is above wave of the hand to a friend across the all shown in modes of salutation. Note street, represents what was primarily a first the significance of the word. Among devotional act. the Romans, the salutatio was a daily Similarly have originated all forms of homage paid by clients and inferiors to respect depending upon inclinations of their superiors. This was alike the case the body. Entire prostration is the with civilians and in the army. The aboriginal sign of submission. The very derivation of our word, therefore, is passage of Scripture--"Thou hast put suggestive of submission. Passing to all under his feet," and that other one, particular forms of obeisance (mark the so suggestive in its anthropomorphism word again), let us begin with the “The Lord said unto my Lord, sit thou Eastern one of baring the feet. This at my right hand, until I make thinc was, primarily, a mark of reverence, enemies thy footstool,” imply, what the alike to a god and a king. The act of Assyrian sculptures bcar out, that it was Moses before the burning bush, and the the practice of the ancient god-kings of the practice of Mahometans, who are sworn East to trample on the conquered. As the Koran with their shoes off, there are existing savages who signify exemplify the one employment of it ; submission by placing the neck under the custom of the Persians, who remove the foot of the person submitted to, it their shoes on entering the presence of becomes obvious that all prostration, their monarch, cxemplifies the other. especially when accompanied by kissing As usual, however, this homage, paid the foot, expressed a willingness to be next to inferior rulers, has descended trodden upon—was an attempt to mitifrom grade to grade. In India it is a gate wrath by saying, in signs, “Tread common mark of respect; the lower on me if you will." Remembering, too, orders of Turks never enter the presence that kissing the foot, as of the Pope and of their superiors but in their stockings; of a saint's statue, still continues in and in Japan, this baring of the feet is Europe to be a mark of extreme reveran ordinary salutation of man to man. cnce; that prostration to feudal lords Take another case. Selden, describing was once general, and that its disappearthe ceremonies of the Romans, says : ance must have taken place, not abruptly "For when as it was usuall either to but by gradual change into something kiss the Images of their Gods, or, else; we have ground for deriving from adoring them, to stand somewhat off these deepest of humiliations all inclinabefore them, solemnly moving the right tions of respect : especially as the transihand to the lips, and then, casting it as tion is traceable. The reverence of a on MANNERS AND FASHION Russian serf, who bends his head to the also is an evanescent form or the ground, and the salaam of the Hindoo, aboriginal prostration. In further eviare abridged prostrations; a bow is a dence of this it may be remarked, that short salaam, a nod is a short bow. there has but recently disappeared from Should any hesitate to admit this conclu- the salutations of men, an action having sion, then perhaps, on being reminded the same proximate derivation with the that the lowest of these obeisances are curtsy. That backward sweep of the common where the submission is most right foot with which the conventional abject; that among ourselves the pro- stage-sailor accompanies his bow-a fundity of the bow marks the amount of movement which prevailed generally in respect; and lastly, that the bow is even past generations, when "a bow and a now used devotionally in our churches scrape" went together, and which, within by Catholics to their altars, and by the memory of living persons, was made Protestants at the name of Christ--they by boys to their master when entering will see sufficient reason for thinking school, with the effect of wearing a hole that this salutation also was originally in the floor--is pretty clearly a preworship. liminary to going on one knee. A The same may be said, too, of the motion so ungainly could never have curtsy, or courtesy, as it is otherwise been intentionally introduced ; ever if written. Its derivation from courtoisie, the artificial introduction of obeisances courteousness, that is, behaviour like were possible. Hence we must regard that at court, at once shows that it was it as the remnant of something anteprimarily the reverence paid to a monarch. cedent: and that this something ante- And if we call to mind that falling on ceclent was humiliating may be inferred the knees, or on one knee, has been a from the phrase, "scraping an acquaintcommon obeisance of subjects to rulers; ance"; which, being used to denote the that in ancient manuscripts and tapes- gaining of favour by obsequiousness, , tries, servants are depicted as assuming implies that the scrape was considered a this attitude while offering the dishes to mark of servility--that is, of servile their masters at table; and that this position. same attitude is assumed towards our Consider, again, the uncovering of the own queen at every presentation ; we head. Almost everywhere this has been may infer, what the character of the a sign of reverence, alike in temples and curtsy itself suggests, that it is an before potentates; and it yet preserves abridged act of kneeling. As the word among us some of its original meaning. has been contracted from courtoisie into Whether it rains, hails, or shines, you curtsy ; so the motion has been con must keep your head bare while speaking tracted from a placing of the knee on to the monarch; and no one may keep the floor, to a lowering of the knee his hat on in a place of worship. As towards the floor. Morcover, when we usual, however, this ceremony, at first compare the curtsy of a lady with the a submission to gods and kings, has awkward one a peasant girl makes, become in process of time a common which, if continued, would bring her civility. Once an acknowledgment of down on both knees, we may see in this another's unlimited supremacy, the last a remnant of that greater reverence removal of the hat is now a salute required of serfs. And when, from con- accorded to very ordinary persons; and sidering that simple kneeling of the that ur.covering originally reserved for West, still represented by the curtsy, we cntrance into the house of God” or pass Eastward, and note the attitude of the residence of the ruler, good manners the Mahommedan worshipper, who not now dictates on entrance into a labourer's only kneels but bows his head to the cottage. ground, we may infer that the curtsy' Standing, too, as a mark of respect, MANNERS AND FASHION 95 has undergone like extensions in its meaning heaven, possibly heaven-bom; application. Shown, by the practice in that, before it became common, Sir or our churches, to be intermediate between Sire, as well as Father, was the distincthe humiliation signified by kneeling and tion of a priest ; that worship, originally the self-respect which sitting implies, worth-ship-a term of respect that has and used at courts as a form of homage been used commonly, as well as to when more active demonstrations of it magistrates is also our term for the act have been made, this posture is now of attributing greatness or worth to the employed in daily life to show considera- Deity; so that to ascribe worth-ship to tion; as seen alike in the attitude of a a man is to worship him. We might servant before a master, and in that make much of the evidence that all rising which politeness prescribes on the early governments are more or less disentrance of a visitor. tinctly theocratic; and that and that among Many other threads of evidence might ancient Eastern nations even the comhave been woven into our argument. monest forms and customs had reli- As, for example, the significant fact, that gious sanctions. We might enforce if we trace back our still existing law of our argument respecting the derivaprimogeniture--if we consider it as dis- tion of ceremonies, by tracing out the played by Scottish clans, in which not aboriginal obeisance made by putting only ownership but government devolved dust on the head, which symbolizes from the beginning on the eldest son of putting the head in the dust; by the eldest--if we look further back, and affiliating the practice found in certain observe that the old titles of lordship, tribes, of doing another honour by Signor, Seigneur, Señor, Sire, Sieur, all presenting him with a portion of hair originally mean senior, or elder--if we torn from the headman act which seems go Eastward, and find that Sheick has a tantamount to saying, “I am your like derivation, and that the Oriental slave”; by investigating the Oriental names for priests, as Pir, for instance, custom of giving to a visitor any object are literally interpreted old man-if we he speaks of admiringly, which is pretty note in Hebrew records how far back clearly a carrying out of the compliment, dates the ascribed superiority of the “All I have is yours.” first-born, how great the authority of Without enlarging, however, on these elders, and how sacred the memory of and minor facts, we venture to think patriarchs-and if, then, we remember that the evidence assigned is sufficient. that among divine titles are Ancient of Had the proofs been few, or of one Days," and " Father of Gods and men;" kind, little faith could have been placed we see how completely these facts in the inference. But numerous as they harmonize with the hypothesis, that the are, alike in the case of titles, in that of aboriginal god is the first man sufficiently complimentary phrases, and in that of great to become a tradition, the earliest salutes-similar and simultaneous, too, whose power and deeds made him as the process of depreciation has been remembered; that hence antiquity un in all of these; the evidences become avoidably became associated with supe- strong by mutual confirmation. And riority, and age with nearness in blood when we recollect, also, that not only to "the powerful one"; that so there have the results of this process been naturally arose that domination of the visible in various nations and in all eldest which characterizes the history of times, but that they are occurring among all the higher races, and that theory ourselves at the present moment, and of human degeneracy which even yet that the causes assigned for previous survives. We might further dwell on. depreciations may be seen daily working the facts, that Lord signifies high-born, out others--when we recollect this, it or, as the same root gives a word l becomes scarcely possible to doubt that 96 MANNERS AND FASHION the strong, the process has been as alleged ; and in the social organism for the better that our ordinary words, acts, and performance of the governmental office, phrases of civility originally expressed an apparatus of law-courts, judges, and submission to another's omnipotence. barristers; a national church, with its Thus the general doctrine, that all bishops and priests; and a system of kinds of government exercised over men caste, titles, and ceremonies, adminiswere at first one government--that the tered by society at large. By the first, political, the religious, and the cere overt aggressions are cognized and monial forms of control are divergent punished; by the second, the disposibranches of a general and once indi- tion to commit such aggressions is in visible control--begins to look tenable. some degree checked ; by the third, When, with the above facts fresh in those minor breaches of good conduct mind, we read that in Eastern traditions which the others do not notice, are Nimrod, among others, figures in all the denounced and chastised. Law and characters of hero, king, and divinity-- Religion control behaviour in its essenwhen we turn to the sculptures exhumed tials; Manners control it in its details. by Mr. Layard, and contemplating in For regulating those daily actions which then the effigies of kings driving over are too numerous and too unimportant enemies, and adored by prostrate slaves, to be officially directed there comes into then observe how their actions corres- play this subtler set of restraints. And pond to the primitive names for gods, when we consider what these restraints “the destroyer," "the are-when we analyze the words, and powerful one"-and when, lastly, we phrases, and movements employed, we discover that anong races of men still see that in origin as in effect, the system living, there are current superstitions is a setting up of temporary governments analogous to those which old records between all men who come in contact, and oki buildings indicate ; we begin to for the purpose of better managing the realize the probability of the hypothesis intercourse between them. that has been set forth. Representing to ourselves the conquering chief as From the proposition, that these several figured in ancient myths, and poems, kinds of government are essentially one, and ruins; we may see that all rules of both in genesis and function, may be conduct spring from his will. Alike deduced several important corollaries, legislator and judge, quarrels among his directly bearing on our special topic. subjects are decided by him; and his Let us first notice, that there is not words become the Law. Awe of him is only a common origin and office for all the incipient Religion; and his naxims forms of rule, but a common necessity furnish his first precepts. Submission is for them. Submission is for them. The aboriginal man, coming made to him in the forms he prescribes; fresh from the killing of hears and from and these give birth to Manners. From lying in ambush for his enemy, has, by the first, time developes political alle- the necessities of his condition, a nature giance and the administration of justice; requiring to be curbed in its every from the second, the worship of a being impulse. Alike in war and in the chase, whose personality becomes ever more his daily discipline has been that of vague, and the inculcation of precepts' sacrificing other creatures to his own more abstract; from the third, needs and passions. His character, forms and naines of honour and the bequeathed to him by ancestors who led rules of etiquette. In conformity with similar lives, is moulded by this discithe law of cvolution of all organized pline-is fitted to this existence. The bodies, that general functions are gradu- unlimited selfishness, the love of inflictally separated into the special fonctions ing pain, the bloodthirstiness, thus kept constituting them, there have grown up active, he brings with him into the social ever 'MANNERS ANI) FASHION 97 a same for ages ; staten These dispositions put him in the enforcement of them, and associated constant danger of conflict with his with which there is an equally stern equally savage neighbour. In small domestic despotism exercised by the things as in great, in words as in deeds, eldest surviving male of the family, he is aggressive; and is hourly liable to there exists a system of observances the aggressions of others like natured. alike complicated and rigid. There is Only, therefore, by rigorous control a tribunal of ceremonies. Previous to exercised over all actions, can the presentation at court, ambassadors pass primitive unions of men be maintained. many days in practising the required There must be a ruler strong, remorse fornis. Social intercourse is cumbered less, and of indomitable will; there by endless compliments and obeisances. must be a creed terrible in its threats Class distinctions are strongly marked to the disobedient; there must be by badges. And if there wants servile submission of inferiors to supe- definite measure of the respect paid to riors. The law must be cruel; the social ordinances, we have it in the religion must be stern ; the ceremonies torture to which ladies submit in having must be strict. The co-ordinate neces their feet crushed. In India, and sity for these several kinds of restraint indeed throughout the East, there exists might be largely illustrated from history a like connexion between the pitiless were there space. Suffice it to point tyranny of rulers, the dread terrors out that where the civil power has been of immemorial crceds, and the rigid weak, the multiplication of thieves, restraint of unchangeable customs. Caste assassins, and banditti, has indicated regulations continue still unalterable ; the approach of social dissolution; that the fashions of clothes and furniture when, from the corruptness of its minis- have remained the try, religion has lost its influence, as it suttecs are so ancient as to be mendid just before the Flagellants appeared, tioned by Strabo and Diodorus Siculus; the State has been endangered ; and justice is still administered at the palacethat the disregard of established social gates as of old ; in short, “every usage observances has ever been an accom is a precept of religion and a maxim of paniment of political revolutions. Who- jurisprudence." A similar relationship ever doubts the necessity for a govern- of phenomena was exhibited in Europe ment of manners proportionatein strength during the Middle Ages. While its to the co-existing political and religious governments, general and local, were governments, will be convinced on despotic, while the Church was unshorn calling to mind that until recently even of its power, while the criminal code claborate codes of behaviour failed to was full of horrors and the hell of the keep gentlemen from quarrelling in the popular creed full of terrors, the rules of streets and fighting duels in taverns ; behaviour were both and on remembering that even now and more carcfully conformed to than people exhibit at the doors of a theatre, Differences of dress marked diviwhere there is no ceremonial law to rule sions of rank. Men were limited by them, an aggressiveness which would law to certain widths of shoe-toes ; and prixluce confusion if carried into social no one below a specified degree might intercourse. wear a cloak less than so many inches As might be expected, we find that, long. The symbols on banners and having a common origin and like shields were carefully attended to. general functions, these several con- Heraldry.was an important branch of trolling agencies act during each era knowledge. Precedence was strictly with similar degrees of vigour. Under insisted on. And those various salutes the Chinese despotism, stringent and of which we now use the abridgments, multitudinous in its edicts and harsh in were gone through in full. Even during -- more numerous now.

98 MANNERS AND FASHION > our own last century, with its corrupt dislike to those who cringe and farin - House of Commons and little-curbed the feeling which makes us alike assert monarchs, we may mark a correspon- our own dignity and respect that of dence of social formalities. Gentlemen others--the feeling which thus leads us were still distinguished from lower more and more to discountenance forms classes by dress; and children addressed and names which confess inferiority and their parents as Sir and Madam. submission; is the same feeling which A further corollary naturally following resists despotic power and inaugurates this last, and almost, indeed, forming popular government, denies the authority part of it, is, that these several kinds of of the Church, and establishes the right government decrease in stringency at of private judgment. the same rate. Simultaneously with the A fourth fact, akin to the foregoing, decline in the influence of priesthoods, is, that with decreasing coerciveness in and in the fear of eternal torments these several kinds of government, their simultaneously with the mitigation of respective forms lose their meanings. political tyranny, the growth of popular The same process which has made our power, and the amelioration of criminal monarch put forth as his own acts what codes; has taken place that diminution are the acts of ministers approved by the of formalities and that fading of distinc- people, and has thus changed him from tive marks, now so observable. Looking master into agent--the same process at home, we may note that there is which, making attendance at church less attention to precedence than there very much a matter of respectability, used to be. No one in our day ends an has done away with the telling of beads, interview with the phrase "your humble the calling on saints, and the performservant. The employment of the word ance of penances; is a process by which Sir, once general in social intercourse, is titles and ceremonies that once had a at present considered bad breeding ; meaning and a power have been reduced and on the occasions calling for them, it to empty forms. Coats of arms which is held vulgar to use the words “Your served to distinguish men in battle, Majesty," or " “Your Royal Highness," now figure on the carriage panels of more than once in a conversation. | retired merchants. Once a badge of People no longer formally drink one high military rank, the shoulder-knot another's healths; and even the taking has become, on the modern footman, a wine with one another at dinner has mark of servitude. The name Banneret, ceased to be fashionable. It is remarked which originally marked a partiallyof us by foreigners, that we take off our created Baron-a Baron who had passed hats less than any other nation in his military "little go”-is now, under Europe--a remark which should be the modification of Baronet, applicable coupled with the other, that we are the to any one favoured by wealth or interest freest nation in Europe. As alrcady or party feeling. Knighthood has so far implied, this association of facts is not ceased' to be an honour, that men accidental. 'These modes of address honour themselves by declining it. The and titles and obeisances, bearing about military dignity Escuyer has, in the them, as they all do, something of that modern Esquire, become a wholly unservility which marks their origin, become military affix. distasteful in proportion as men become But perhaps it is in that class of social more independent themselves, and sym- observances comprehended under the pathize more with the independence of term Fashion (which we pust here others. The feeling which makes the discuss parenthetically) that this process modem gentleman tell the labourer, is seen with the greatest distinctness. standing bareheaded before him to put As contrasted with Manners, which on his hat--the feeling which gives usa | dictate our minor ácts in relation to MANNERS AND FASHION other persons, Fashion dictates our who hope to get livings; as legislators minor acts in relation to ourselves. and public functionaries do not become While the one prescribes that part of our such by virtue of their political insight deportment which directly affects our and power to rule, but by virtue of birth, neighbours; the other prescribes that acreage, and class influence; so, the part of our deportment which is pri- self-elected clique who set the fashion, marily personal, and in which our do this, not by force of nature, by neighbours are concerned only as spec- intellect, by higher worth or better tators. Thus distinguished as they are, taste, but solely by unchecked assump: however, the two have a common source. tion. Among the initiated are to be For while, as we have shown, Manners found neither the noblest in rank, the originate by imitation of the behaviour chief in power, the best cultured, the pursued towards the great; Fashion most refined, nor those of greatest genius, originates by imitation of the behaviour wit, or beauty; and their reunions, so of the great. While the one has its far from being superior to others, are derivation in the titles, phrases, and noted for their inanity. Yet, by the salutes used to those in power; the example of these sham great, and not by other is derived from the habits and that of the truly great, does society at appearances exhibited by those in power. large now regulate its habits, its dress, The Carib mother who squeezes her its small usages. As a natural consechild's head into a shape like that of the quence, these have generally little of chief; the young savage who makes that suitableness which the theory of marks on himself similar to the scars fashion implies they should have. carried by the warriors of his tribe ; the Instead of a progress towards greater Highlander who adopts the plaid worn by elegance and convenience, which might the head of his clan; the courtiers who be expected to occur did people copy affect greyness, or limp, or cover their the ways of the really best, or follow necks, in imitation of their king, and the their own ideas of propriety, we have a people who ape the courtiers; are alike reign of merc whim, of unreason, of acting under a kind of government change for the sake of change, of wanton connate with that of Manners, and, like oscillations from either extreme to the it too, primarily beneficial. For notwith-other. And so life à la mode, instead of standing the numberless absurdities into being life conducted in the most rational which this copying has led people, from manner, is life regulated by spendthrifts nose-rings to ear-rings, from painted and idlers, milliners and tailors, dandies faces to beauty spots, from shaven heads and silly women. to powdered wigs, from filed teeth and To these several corollaries--that the stained nails to bell-girdles, peaked various orders of control exercised over shoes, and breeches stuffed with bran, men have a common origin and a it must yet be concluded that as the common function, are called out by men of will, intelligence, and originality, co-ordinate necessities and co-exist in who have got to the top, are, on the like stringency, decline together and average, more likely to show judgment decay together it now only remains to in their habits and tastes than the mass, add that they simultaneously become the imitation of such is advantageous. less needful. The social discipline By, and by, however, Fashion, decaying which has already wrought out great like these other forms of rule, almost changes in men, must go on eventually wholly canses to be an imitation of the to work*sut greater ones. That daily best, and becomes an imitation of quite curbing of the lower nature and culture other than the best. As those who take of the higher, which out of cannibals orders are not those having a special and devil-worshippers has evolved philfitness for the priestly office, but those anthropists, lovers of Peace, and haters of I00 MANNERS AND FASHION superstition, may be expected to evolve reformer no institution is sacredono out of these, men as much superior to belief above criticism. Everything shall them as they are to their progenitors. conform itself to equity and reason; The causes that have produced past nothing shall be saved by its prestige. modifications are still in action; must Conceding to each man liberty to pursue continue in action as long as there exists his own ends and satisfy his own tastes, any incongruity between men's desires he demands for himself like liberty; and the requirements of the social state; and consents to no restrictions on this, and must eventually make them organi- save those which other men's equal cally fit for the social state. As it is claims involve. No matter whether it now needless to forbid man-eating, so be an ordinance of one man, or an will it ultimately become necdless to ordinance of all men, if it trenches on forbid murder, theft, and the minor his legitimate sphere of action, he denies offences of our criminal code. Along its validity. The tyranny that would with growth of human nature into impose on him a particular style of harmony with the moral law, there will dress and a set mode of behaviour, he go decreasing need for judges and resists equally with the tyranny that statute-books ; when the right course would limit his buyings and sellings, or has become the course spontaneously dictate his creed. Whether the regulachosen, prospects of future reward ortion be formally made by a legislature, punishment will not be wanted as incen or informally made by society at largetives; and when due regard for others whether the penalty for disobedience has become instinctive, there will need be imprisonment, or frowns and social no code of ceremonies to say how ostracism, he sees to be a question of behaviour shall be regulated. no moment. He will utter his belief notwithstanding the threatened punish- Thus, then, may be recognized the ment; he will break conventions spite meaning of those eccentricities of re of the petty persecutions that will be formers which we set out by describing. visited on him. Show him that his They are not accidental ; they are not actions are inimical to his fellow-men, mere personal caprices. They are inevi- and he will pause. Prove that he is table results of the law of relationship disregarding their legitimate claims, and above illustrated. That community of he will alter his course. But until you genesis, function, and decay which all do this---until you demonstrate that his forms of restraint exhibit, is simply the proceedings are essentially inconvenient obverse of the fact at first pointed out, or inelegant, essentially irrational, unjust, that they have in two sentiments of or ungenerous, he will persevere. human nature a common preserver and Some, indeed, argue that his conduct a common destroyer. Awe of power is unjust and ungenerous. They say originates and cherishes them all; love that he has no right to anmoy other of freedom undermines and weakens people by his whims; that the gentlethem all. The onc defends despotism man to whom his letter comes with no and asserts the supremacy of laws, "Esq." appended to the address, and adheres to old creeds and supports the lacly whose cvening party he enters ecclesiastical authority, pays respect to with gloveless hands, are vexed at what titles and conserves forms; the other, they consider his want of respect or putting rectitude above legality, achieves want of breeding; that thus his eccenperiodical instalments of political liberty, tricities cannot be indulged sove at the inaugurates Protestantism and works out ; cxpense of his neighbours' feelings; and its consequences, ignores the senseless that hence his nonconformity is in plain dictates of Fashion and emancipates terms selfishness. men from dead customs. To the true He answers that this position, if logi- MANNERS AND FASHION IOI cally developed, would deprive men of two widely-different classes of actions all liberty whatever. Each must conform the actions which are essentially disall his acts to the public taste, and not pleasurable to those around, with the his own. The public taste on every actions which are but incidentally dispoint having been once ascertained, pleasurable to them. He whose skin is men's habits must thenceforth remain so unclean as to offend the nostrils of for ever fixed ; seeing that no man can his neighbours, or he who talks so adopt other habits without sinning loudly as to disturb a whole, room, may against the public taste, and giving be justly complained of, and rightly people disagreeable feelings. Conse- excluded by society from its assemblies. quently, be it an era of pig-tails or high- But he who presents himself in a surtout heeled shoes, of starched ruffs or trunk in place of a dress-coat, or in brown hose, all must continue to wear pig-tails, trousers instead of black, gives offence high-heeled shoes, starched ruffs, or not to men's senses, or their innate trunk-hose to the crack of doom. tastes, but merely to their bigotry of If it be still urged that he is not convention. It cannot be said that his justified in breaking through others' costume is less elegant or less intrinsiforms that he may establish his own, and cally appropriate than the one preson sacrificing the wishes of many to the scribed; seeing that a few hours earlier wishes of one, he replies that all reli- in the day it is admired. It is the gious and political changes might be implied rebellion, therefore, which annoys. negatived on like grounds. He asks How little the cause of quarrel has to do whether Luther's sayings and doings with the dress itself, is seen in the fact were not extremely offensive to the mass that a century ago black clothes would of his cotemporaries; whether the resist- have been thought preposterous for ance of Hampden was not disgusting to hours of recreation, and that a few years the time-servers around him; whether hence some now forbidden style may be cvery reformer has not shocked men's nearer the requirements of Fashion than prejudices and given immense dis- the present one. Thus the reformer pleasure by the opinions he uttered. explains that it is not against the natural The affirmative answer he follows up by restraints, but against the artificial ones, demanding what right the reformer has, that he protests; and that manifestly then, to utter these opinions--whether the fire of angry glances which he has to he is not sacrificing the feelings of many bcar, is poured upon him because he to the feelings of one; and so he proves will not bow down to the idol which that, to be consistent, his antagonists society has set up. must condemn not only all noncon Should he be asked how we are to formity in actions, but all nonconformity distinguish between conduct which is in in beliefs. itself disagrceable to others, and conduct His antagonists rejoin that his position, which is disagreeable by its implication, too, may be pushed to an absurdity. he answers, that they will clistinguish They argue that if a man may offend by themselves, if men will let them. Actions the clisregard of some forms, he may as intrinsically repugnant will be legitimately do so by the disregard of frowned upon, and must ever remain as all'; and they inquire-Why should he exceptional as now. Actions not intrinsinot go out to dinner in a dirty shirt, and cally repugnant will establish themselves with an unshorn chin? Why should he as propcr. No relaxation of customs not spit son the drawing-room carpet, will intisduce the practice of going to a and stretch his heels up to the mantle party in muddy boots, and with unshelf? washed, hands for the dislike of dirt The convention-brcaker answers, that would continue were Fashion abolished to ask this, implies a confounding of tomorrow. That love of approbation ever 102 MANNERS AND FASHION sccns which now makes people solicitous to be Unamiable as seems this findKault en règle would still exist --would still mood, offensiye as is this defiant attitude, make them careful of their personal we must beware of overlooking the truths appearance-would still induce them enunciated, in dislike of the advocacy. to seek admiration by making them. It is an unfortunate hindrance to all selves ornamental-would still cause innovation, that in virtue of their very them to respect the natural laws of good function, the innovators stand in a posibehaviour, as they now do the artificial tion of antagonism; and the disagreelaws. The change would simply be able manners, and sayings, and doings, from a repulsive monotony to a pic- which this antagonism generates, are turesque variety. And if there be any commonly associated with the doctrines regulations respecting which it is un- promulgated. : Quite forgetting that certain whether they are based on whether the thing attacked be good or reality or on convention experiment will bad, the combative spirit is necessarily soon decide, if due scope be allowed. repulsive; and quite forgetting that the When at length the controversy conies toleration of abuses amiable round, as controversies often do, to the merely from its passivity ; the mass of point whence it started, and the “party men contract a hias against advanced of order " repeat their charge against the views, and in favour of stationary ones, rebel, that he is sacrificing the feelings from intercourse with their respective of others to gratify his own wilfulness, adherents. "Conservatism," as Emerson he replies once for all that they cheat says, “is debonair and social; reform themselves by mis - statements. He is individual and imperious, Anà this accuses them of being so despotic, that, remains true, however vicious the system not content with being masters over conserved, however righteous the reform their own ways and habits, they would to be effected. Nay, the indignation be masters over his also ; and grumble : of the purists is usually extreme in probecause he will not let them. He portion as the evils to be got rid of are, merely asks the same freedom which great. The more urgent the required they exercise ; they, however, propose to change, the more intemperate is the regulate his course as well as their own vehemence of its promoters. Let no to cut and clip his mode of life into onc, then, confound with the principles agreement with their approved pattern ; of this social nonconformity the acerbity and then charge him with wilfulness and ; and the disagreeable self-assertion of selfishness, because he does not quietly those who first display it. submit! He warns them that he shall resist, nevertheless; and that he shall dio The most plausible objection raised so, not only for the assertion of his own against resistance to conventions, is independence, but for their good. He grounded on its impolicy, considered tells them that they are slaves, and know even from the progressist's point of view. it not; that they are shackled, and kiss | It is urged by many of the more liberal their chains; that they have lived all i and intelligent-usually those who have their days in prison, and complain themselves shown some independence of because the walls are being broken 'behaviour in carlier days---that to rebel down. He says he must persevere, in these small matters is to destroy your however, with a view to his own release ; ; own power of helping on reform in and, in spite of their present expostula- greater matters. “If you show yourself tions, he prophesies that when they eccentric in manners or dess, the have recovered from the fright which world,” they say, “will not listen to you, the prospect of freedom produces, they. You will be considered as crotchety, will thank him for aiding in their emanci- and impracticable. The opinions you pation. express on important subjects, which MANNERS AND FASHION 103 might have been treated with respect count up the robbed tradesmen, the had you conformed on minor points, stinted goveritesses, the ill-educated will now inevitably be put down among children, the fleeced relatives, who have your singularities, and thus, by dissent- to suffer from it-if we mark the anxiety ing in trifles, you disable yourself from and the many moral delinquencies which spreading dissent in essentials." its perpetrators involve themselves in ; Only noting, as we pass, that this is we shall see that this regard for convenone of those anticipations which bring tions is not quite so innocent as it looks. about their own fulfilment that it is Again, it decreases the amount of because most who disapprove these con social intercourse. Passing over the ventions do not show their disapproval, reckless, and those who make a great that the few who do show it look display on speculation with the occaeccentric-and that did all act out their sional result of getting on in the world convictions, no such argument as the to the exclusion of better men, we come above would have force ;-noting this to the far larger class who, being prudent as we pass, we go on to reply that these and honest enough not to exceed their social restraints are not small evils but means, and yet wishing to be "respectamong the greatest Estimate their sumable,” are obliged to limit their entertotal, and we doubt whether they would tainments to the smallest possible numnot exceed most others. Could we add ber; and that each of these may be up the trouble, the cost, the jealousies, turned to the greatest advantage in vexations, misunderstandings, the loss of meeting the claims on their hospitality, time and the loss of pleasure, which issue their invitations with little or no these conventions entail ----We should regard to the comfort or mutual fitness perhaps come to the conclusion that the of their guests. A few inconvenientlytyranny of Mrs. Grundy is worse than large assemblies, made up of people any other tyranny. Let us look at a mostly strange to each other or but few of its hurtful results ; beginning with distantly acquainted, are niade to serve those of minor importance. in place of many small parties of friends It produces extravagance. The desire intinrate enough to have some bond of to be comme il fant, which underlies all sympathy. Thus the quantity of interconformities, whether of manners, dress, course is diminished, and the quality or styles of entertainment, is the desire deteriorated. Because it is the custom which makes inany a spendthrift and to make costly preparations and provide many a bankrupt. To "keep up appear-costly refreshments; and because it ances," to have a house in an approved entails both less expense and less quarter furnished in the latest taste, to trouble to do this for many persons on give expensive dinners and crowded few occasions than for few persons on soirées, is an ambition forming the many occasions; the reunions of our natural outcome of the conformist spirit. less wealthy classes are rendered alike It is needless to enlarge on these follies: infrequent and tedious. they have been satirized by hosts of Let it be further observed, that the writers, and in every drawing-room. All existing formalities of social intercourse which here concerns us, is to point out drive away many who most need its that the respect for social observances, refining influence; and drive them into which men think so praiseworthy, has injurious habits and associations. Not the same root with this effort to be a few men, and not the least sensible fashionable in mode of living; and that, men eit kér, give up in disgust this going other things equal,, the last cannot out to stately dinners and stiff eveningbe diminished without the first being parties.; and instead, seek society in diminished also. If, how, we consider clubs, and cigar-divans, and tavems. what this extravagance entails--if we * "I'm sick of this standing about in 104 MANNERS AND FASHION can I'll no SO drawing-rooms, talking nonsense, and indeed, much better at the core that the trying to look happy," widl answer one of men who are content with the inanities them when taxed with his desertion. of gloved and scented party-goers-mer “Why should I any longer waste time who feel no need to come morally and inoney, and temper? Once I was nearer to their fellow-creatures than they ready enough to rush home from the come while standing, tea-cup ir office to dress; I sported embroidered hand, answering trifles with trifles; and shirts, submitted to tight boots, and who, by feeling no such need, prove cared nothing for tailors' and haber- themselves shallow-thoughted and colddashers' bills. I know better now. My hearted. It is true that some who shun patience lasted a good while; for though drawing-rooms do so from inability to I found cach night pass stupidly, I bear the restraints prescribed by a always hoped the next would make genuine refinement, and that they would amends. But I'm undeceived. Cab- be greatly improved by being kept under hire and kid gloves cost more than any these restraints. these restraints. But it is not less true evening party pays for; or rather-it is that, by adding to the legitimate restraints, worth the cost of them to avoid the which are based on convenience and a party. No, no; more of it. regard for others, a host of factitious Why should I pay five shillings a time restraints based only on convention, the for the privilege of being bored?” If, refining discipline, which would else have now, we consider that this very common been borne with benefit, is rendered mood tends towards billiard - rooms, unbcarable, and misses its end. towards long sittings over cigars and Excess of government defeats itself by brandy-and-water, towards Evans's and driving away those to be governed. And the Coal Hole; it becomes a question if over all who desert its entertainments whether these precise observances which in disgust either at their emptiness or hamper our set meetings, have not to their formality, society thus loses its answer for much of the prevalent disso- salutary influence--if such not only fail luteness. Men must have excitements to receive that moral culture which the of some kind or other; and if debarred company of ladies, when rationally regufrom higher ones will fall back upon lated, would give them, but, in default of lower. It is not that those who thus ; other relaxation, are driven into habits take to irregular habits are essentially and companionships which often end in those of low tastes. Often it is quite gambling and drunkenness; must we the Among half a dozen mot say that here, too, is an evil not to intimate friends, abandoning formalities be passed over as insignificant ? and sitting at tase round the fire, none Then consider what a blighting effect will enter with greater enjoyment into these multitudinous preparations and the highest kind of social intercourse ceremonies have upon the pleasures the genuine communion of thought and they profess to subserve. Who, on feeling; and if the circle includes calling to mind the occasions of his women of intelligence and refinement, highest social enjoyments, does not find so much the greater is their pleasure them to have been wholly informal, It is because they will no longer be perhaps impromptu? How delightful a choked with the mere dry husks of pic-nic of friends, who forget all obseryconversation which society offers them, ances those dictated by good that they fly its assemblies, and seek nature ! . How pleasant the unpretendthose with whom they may have dis- ing gatherings of small bookesocieties, course that is at least real, though and the like; or those purely accidental unpolished. The men who thus long. meetings of a few'people well known to for substantial mental sympathy, and each other! Then, indeed, we may will go where they can get it, are often, I see that sharpeneth the reverse. save nian MANNERS IND FASHION 105 see ; countenance of his friend." Cheeks You see ladies sitting disconsolately, flush, and eyes sparkle. The witty grow waiting for some one to speak to them, brilliant, and even the dull are excited and wishing they had the wherewith to into saying good things. There is an occupy their fingers. You the overflow of topics; and the right thought, hostess standing about the doorway, and the right words to put it in, spring keeping a factitious smile on her face, up unsought. Grave alternates with gay: and racking her brain to find the now serious converse, and now jokes, requisite nothings with which to greet anecdotes, and playful raillery. Every- her guests as they enter. You see one's best nature is shown ; everyone's numberless traits of weariness and best feelings are in pleasurable activity ; embarrassment; and, if you have any and, for the time, life seems well worth fellow feeling, these cannot fail to having. Go now and dress for some produce a sense of discomfort. The half-past cight dinner, or some ten disorder is catching; and do what you o'clock “at home"; and present your will, you cannot resist the general self. in spotless attire, with every hair infection. You struggle against it; you arranged to perfection. How great the make spasmodic efforts to be lively; but difference! The enjoyment seems in none of your sallies or your good stories the inverse ratio of the preparation. do more than raise a simper or a forced These figures, got up with such finish laugh: intellect and feeling are alike and precision, appear but half alive. asphyxiated. And when, at length, They have frozen each other by their yielding to your disgust, you rush away, primness; and your faculties feel the how great is the relief when you get into numbing effects of the atmosphere the the fresh air, and see the stars How moment you enter it. All those thoughts, you “ Thank God, that's over !” and so nimble and so apt awhile since, have half resolve to avoid all such boredom disappeared-have suddenly acquired a for the future! What, now, is the secret preternatural power of eluding you. If of this perpetual miscarriage and disyou venture a remark to your neighbour, appointment? Does not the fault lie there comes a trite rejoinder, and there with these needless it ends. No subject you can hit upon claborate dressings, these set forms, outlives half a dozen sentences. Nothing these expensive preparations, these many that is said excites any real interest in devices and arrangements that imply you; and you feel that all you say is trouble and raise expectation? Who listened to to with apathy. By some that has lived thirty years in the world strange magic, things that usually give has not discovered that Pleasure is coy ; pleasure seem to have lost all charm. and must not be too directly pursued, You have a tastc for art. Wcary of but must be caught unawares ? An air frivolous talk, you turn to the table, and from a street-pianc, heard while at work, find that the book of engravings and the will often gratify more than the choicest portfolio of photographs are as flat as music played at a concert by the most the conversation. You You are fond of accomplished musicians. A single good music. Yet the singing, good as it is, picture seen in a dealer's window, may you hear with utter indifference; and give keener enjoyment than a whole say “ Thank you" with a sense of being exhibition gone through with catalogue a profound hypocrite. Wholly at tase and pencil. By the time we have got though you could be, for your own part, ready our elaborate apparatus by which you find that your sympathies will not to secure happiness, the happiness is let you. You see young gentlemen gone. It is too subtle to be contained feeling whether their tics are properly in these receivers, garnished with comadjusted, looking vacantly round, and pliments, and fenced round with etiquette. considering what they shall do next. | The more we multiply and complicate 106 MANNERS AND FASHION more numerous appliances, the more certain are we to before preserved. Old forms of governdrive it away. The reason is patent ment finally grow so oppressive, that enough. These higher emotions to they must be thrown off even at the risk which social intercourse ministers, are of reigns of terror. Old creeds end in of extremely complex nature; they con- being dead formulas, which no longer sequently depend for their production aid but distort and arrest the general upon very numerous conditions; the mind; while the State-churches administhe conditions, the tering them, come to be instruments for greater the liability that one or other of subsidizing conservatism and repressing them will not be fulfilled. It takes progress. Old schemes of education, a considerable misfortune to destroy incarnated in public schools and colleges, appetite; but cordial sympathy with continue filling the heads of new generathose around may be extinguished by a tions with what has become relatively look or a word. Hence it follows, that useless knowledge, and, by consequence, the more multiplied the unnecessary, excluding knowledge which is useful. requirements with which social inter- Not an organization of any kindcourse is surrounded, the less likely are political, religious, literary, philanthropic its pleasures to be achieved. It is -but-what, by its ever-multiplying regudifficult enough to fulfil continuously all lations, its accumulating wealth, its the essentials to a pleasurable com- yearly addition of officers, and the munion with others : how much niore creeping into it of patronage and party difficult, then, must it be continuously to feeling, eventually loses its original fulfil a host of non-essentials also! What spirit, and sinks into a lifeless mechanism, chance is there of getting any genuine worked with a view to private endsresponse from the lady who is thinking a mechanism which not merely fails of of your stupidity in taking her in to its first purpose, but is a positive dinner on the wrong arm? How are hindrance to it. Thus is it, too, with you likely to have agreeable converse social usages. We read of the Chinese with the gentleman who is funing inter- that they have "ponderous ceremonies nally because he is not placed next to transmitted froni time immemorial,” the hostess ? Formalities, familiar as which make social intercourse a burden. they may become, necessarily occupy The court forms prescribed by monarchs attention--necessarily multiply the occa for their own exaltation, have, in all sions for mistake, misunderstanding, and times and places, ended in consuming jealousy, on the part of one or other the comfort of their lives. And so the necessarily distract all minds from the artificial observances of the dining-room thoughts and feelings which should and saloon, in proportion as they are, occupy them -- necessarily, therefore, many and strici, extinguish that agreesubvert those conditions under which able communion which they were only any sterling intercourse is to be had. intended to secure. The dislike with And this, indecd, is the fatal mischief which people commonly speak of society which these conventions entail-a mis- that is " formal,” and “stiff," and "cerechief to which every other is secondary. monious,” implies a general recognition They destroy those pleasures which they of this fact; and this recognition involves profess to subscrve. All institutions are the inference that all usages of behaviour alike in this, that however useful, and | which are not based on natural requireneedful even, they originally were; they ments, are injurious. That these conin the end cease to be sor, huit often ventions' defeat their own ends is no become detrimental. While humanity now assertion. Swift, criticising the is growing, they continue fixed; daily manners of his day, says-"Wise men get more mechanical and unvitál; and are often more uneasy at the over-civility by and by tend 12 strangle what they s.of these refiners than they could possibly MANNERS AND FASHION pe in the conversation of peasants and they must than because they wish. No mechanics." wonder that the invited go less from the But it is not only in these details that expectation of pleasure than from fear of the self-defeating action of our arrange- giving offence. The whole thing is an ments is traceable ; it is traceable in the organized disappointment. very substance and nature of them. Our And then note, lastly, that in this social intercourse, as commonly managed, case, as in others, an organisation inis a merc semblance of the reality sought. operative for its proper purpose, it is What is it that we want? Some sympa- employed for quite other purposes. thetic converse with our fellow-creatures: What is the usual plea put in for giving Some converse that shall not be mere and attending these tedious assemblies? dead words, but the vehicle of living “I admit that they are dull and frivolous thoughts and feelings--converse in which enough,” replies every man to your the eyes and the face shall speak, and criticisms; “but then, you know, one the tones of the voice be full of meaning must keep up one's connexions." And -converse which shall make us feel no could you get from his wife a sincere longer alone, but shall draw us closer to answer, it would be-"Like you, I am others, and double our own emotions by sick of these formal parties; but then, adding their's to them. Who is there we must get our daughters married." that has not, from time to time, felt how The one knows that there is a profession cold and flat is all this talk about politics to push, a business to extend ; or parliaand science, and the new books and the mentary influence, or county patronage, new men, and how a genuine utterance or votes, or office, to be got : position, of fellow-fceling outweighs the whole of berths, favours, profit. The other's it? Mark the words of Bacon :-“For thoughts run upon husbands and settlea crowd is not company, and faces are ments, wives and dowries. Worthless but a gallery of pictures, and talk but a for their ostensible purpose of daily tinkling cymbal, where there is no love." bringing human beings into pleasurable If this be true, then it is only after relations with each other, these cumbrous acquaintance has grown into intimacy, appliances of our social intercourse are and intimacy has ripened into friendship, now perseveringly kept in action with a that the real communion which men view to the pecuniary and matrimonial need beconies possible. A rationally results which they indirectly produce. formed circle must consist almost wholly Who then shall say that the reform of of those on terms of familiarity and our system of observances is unimporregard, with but one or two strangers. tant? When we see how this system What folly, then, underlies the whole induces fashionable extravagance, with system of our grand dinners, our "at its occasional ruin--when we mark how homes, our cvening parties-crowds greatly it limits the amount of social made up of many who never met intercourse among the less wealthy before, many who just bow to one classes-when we find that many who another, many who though well known most need to be disciplined by mixing feel mutual indifference, with just a few with the refined are driven away by it, real friends lost in the general mass! and led into bad courses--when we You need but look round at the artificial count up the many minor evils it inflicts, expressions of face, to see at once how the extra work which its costliness entails it is. All have their disguises on; and on all professional and mercantile men, how can there be sympathy between the damage to public taste in dress and masks? No wonder that in private decoration by the setting up of its every one exclaims against the stupidity , absurdities as standards for imitation, of these gatherings. No wonder that, the injury to health indicated in the hostesses get them up rather because faces of its devotees at the close of the 108 MANNERS AND FASHION London season, the mortality of milliners : But what he means simply as a general and the like, which its sudden exigencies protest, he finds that ladies interpret yearly involve ; and when to all these into a personal disrespect. In other we add its fatal sin, that it withers up and cases his courage fails him. Such of his kills that high enjoyment it professedly unconventionalities as can be attributed ministers to-shall we not conclude that only to eccentricity, he has no qualms to rationalize etiquette and fashion, is an about ; for, on the whole, he feels rather aim yielding to few in urgency? complimented than otherwise in being considered a disregarder of public There needs, then, a protestantism in opinion. But when they are liable to social usages. Forms which have ceased be put down to ignorance, to ill-breeding, to facilitate and have become obstruc or to poverty, he becomes a coward. tive-have to be swept away. Signs are However clearly the recent innovation of not wanting that some change is at cating some kinds of fish with knife and hand. A host of satirists, led on by fork proves the fork-and-brcad practice Thackeray, have long been engaged in to have had little but caprice for its bringing our sham-festivities, and our basis, yet he dares not wholly ignore fashionable follies, into contempt; and that practice while fashion partly mainin their candid moods, most men' laugh tains it. Though he thinks that a silk at the frivolities with which they and the handkerchief is quite as appropriate for world in general are deluded. Ridicule drawing-room use as a white cambric has always been a revolutionary agent. one, he is not altogether at case in Institutions that have lost their roots in acting out his opinion. Then, too, he men's respect and faith are doomed; begins to perceive that his resistance and the day of their dissolution is not to prescription brings round disadvanfar off. The time is approaching, then, tageous results which he had not calcuwhen our system of social observances lated upon. He had expected that it must pass through some crisis, out of would save him from a great deal of social which it will come purified and compara intercourse of a frivolous kind--that it tively simple. would offend the silly people, but not the How this crisis will be brought about, sensible people; and so would serve as no one can say. Whether by the con a self-acting test by which those worth tinuance and increase of individual knowing would be separated from those protests, or whether by the union of not worth knowing. But the silly people many persons for the practice and prove to be so greatly in the majority diffusion of better usages, the future that, by offending them, he closes alone can decide. The influence of against himself nearly all the avenues dissentients acting without co-operation, through which the sensible people are to seems inadequate. Frowned on by con be reached. Thus he finds, that his formists, and expostulated with even by nonconformity is frequently misinterthose who secretly sympathize with preted; that there are but few directions them; subject to petty persecutions, in which he dares to carry it consistently and unable to trace any benefit pro- out; that the disadvantages it entails duced by their example, they are apt, are greater than he anticipated; and one by one, to give up their attempts that the chances of his doing any good as hopeless. The young convention are very remote. Hence he gradually breaker eventually finds that he pays too loses resolution, and lapses, step by step, heavily for his nonconformity. Hating, into the otdinary routine of observances. for example, everything that bears about Abortive as individual protests thus it any remnant of servility, he determines, in the ardour of his indepen- This was written before the introduction of dence, that he will uncover to no one. silver fish-knives.

MANNERS AND FASHION 109 way; for SO generally turn out, it may possibly be who before dictated creeds just as the that nothing effectual will be done until fundamental change which Democracy there arises some organized resistance to long ago commenced, was not from this this invisible despotism, by which our particular law to that, but from the modes and habits are dictated. It may despotism of one to the freedom of all; happen, that the government of Manners so, the parallel change yet to be wrought and Fashion will be rendered less out in this supplementary government of tyrannical, as the political and religious which we are treating, is not the replacing governments have been, by some antago- of absurd usages by sensible oncs, but nistic union. Alike in Church and State, the dethronement of that power which men's first emancipations from excesses now imposes our usages, and the asserof restriction were achieved by numbers, tion of the rights of individuals to choose bound together by a common creed or a their own usages. In rules of living, a common political faith. What remained West-end clique is our Pope; and we undone while there were but individual are all papists, with but a mere sprinkling schismatics or rebels, was effected when of heretics. On those who decisively there came to be many acting in concert. rebel, comes down the penalty of excom- It is tolerably clear that these carliest munication, with its long catalogue of instalments of freedom could not have disagreeable and, indeed, serious consehcen obtained in any other quences. The liberty of the subject long as the feeling of personal indlepen-asserted in our constitution, and ever on dence was weak and the rule strong, the increase, has yet to be wrested from there could never have been a sufficient this suhtler tyranny. The right of number of separate dissentients to pro- private judgment, which our ancestors duce the desired results. Only in these wrung from the church, remains to be later times, during which the secular and claimed from this dictator of our habits. spiritual controls have been growing less Or, as before said, to free us from these coercive, and the tendency towards idolatries and superstitious conformities, inclividual liberty greater, has it become there has still to come a protestantism in possible for smaller and sinaller sects social usages. Parallel, therefore, as is and parties to fight against established the change to be wrought out, it seems creeds and laws; until now men may not improbable that it may be wrought safely stand even alone in their antago out in an analogous way. That influence nism. The failure of individual noncon which solitary dissentients fail to gain, formity to customs, suggests that an and that perseverance which they lack, analogous series of changes may have to may come into existence when they be gone through in this case also. It is unite. That persecution which the world true that the lex non scripta differs from now visits upon them from mistaking the lex scripta in this, that, being un their nonconformity for ignorance or diswritten, it is more readily altered; and respect, may diminish when it is seen to that it has, from time to time, been result from principle. The penalty which quietly ameliorated. Nevertheless, we cxclusion now entails may disappear shall find that the analogy holds substan- when they become numerous enough to tially good. For in this case, as in the form visiting circles of their own. And others, the essential revolution is not the when a successful stand has been made, substituting of any one set of restraints and the brunt of the opposition has for any other, but the limiting or passed, that large anount of secret abolishing the authority which prescribes dislike to our observances which now restraints. Just as the fundamental pervades society, may manifest itself with change inaugurated by the Reformation, sufficient power to effect the desired was not a superscding of onc creed by emancipation. another, but an ignoring of the arbiter Whether, such will be the process, fio MILL VERSUS HAMILTON-THE TEST OF TRUTH time alone can decide. That comments, however named, are alike brought munity of origin, growth, supremacy, about by the humanity to be controlled; and decadence, which we have found from which may be drawn the inference among all kinds of government, suggests that, on the average, restrictions of every a community in modes of change also. kind cannot last much longer than they On the other hand, Nature often performs are wanted, and cannot be destroyed substantially similar operations, in ways much faster than they ought to be. apparently different. Hence these details Society, in all its developments, undercan never be foretold. goes the process of exuviation. These old forms which it successively throws Meanwhile, let us glance at the con- off, have all been once vitally united clusions that have been reached. On with it-have severally served as the the one side, government, originally one, protective envelopes within which a and afterwards subdivided for the better higher humanity was being evolved. fulfilment of its function, must be con- They are cast aside only, when they sidered as having ever been, in all its become hindrances-only 'when some branches-political, religious, and cere- inner and better envelope has been monial beneficial; and, indeed, abso-formed; and they bequeath to us all lutely necessary. On the other side, that there was in them of good. The government, under all its forms, must be periodical abolitions of tyrannical laws regarded as subserving an office, made have left the administration of justice needful by the unfitness of aboriginal not only uninjured, but purified. Dead humanity for social life; and the succes- and buried creeds have not carried with sive diminutions of its coerciveness in them the essential morality they con- State, in Church, and in Custom, must tained, which still exists, uncontaminated be looked upon accompanying the in- by the sloughs of superstition. And all creasing adaptation of humanity to its that there is of justice and kindness and conditions. To complete the concep- beauty, embodied in our cumbrous forms tion, there requires to be borne in mind of etiquette, will live perennially when the third fact, that the genesis, the main the forms themselves have been fortenance, and the decline of all govern- gotten. MILL VERSUS HAMILTON-THE TEST OF TRUTH (1865) BRITISH speculation, to which the chief views of Sir William Hamilton as texts, initial ideas and established truths of reconsiders sundry ultimate questions Modern Philosophy are due, is no that still remain unsettled. longer dormant. By his System of Logic, Among these questions is one of much Mr. Mill probably did more than any importance which has already been the other writer to re-awaken it. And to subject of controversy between Mr. Mill the great service he thus rendered some and others; and this question I Propose twenty years ago, he now adds by his to discuss afresh. . Before doing so, Examination of Sir William Hanniton's however, it will be desirable to glance Philosophy—a work which, taking the 'at two cardinal doctrines of the MILL VERSUS HAMILTON THE TEST OF TRUTH I Hamiltonian philosophy from whịch Mr. quantities or two relations are equal or Mill shows reasons for dissenting-desir- unequal--a consciousness for which no able, because comment on them will further evidence is assignable than that elucidate what is to follow. it exists in me. Nor, on finally getting In his fifth chapter, Mr. Mill points down to some axiom underlying the out that "what is rejected as knowledge whole fabric of demonstration, can say by Sir William Hamilton," is “brought more than that it is a truth of which I back by him under the name of belief.” am immediately conscious. But now The quotations justify this description of observe the confusion that has arisen, Sir W. Hamilton's position, and warrant The immense majority of truths which the assertion that the relativity of know we accept as beyond doubt, and from ledge was held by him but nominally. which our notion of unquestionable His inconsistency may, I think, be truth is abstracted, have this other trait traced to the use of the word “belief” in common-they are severally estabin two quite different senses. We com- lished by affiliation on deeper truths. monly say 'we “believe" “believe" a thing for These two characters have become so which we can assign preponderating associated, that one seems to imply the evidence, or concerning which we have other. For each truth of geometry we received some indefinable impression. are able to assign some wider truth in We believe that the next House of which it is involved; for that wider truth Commons will not abolish Church-rates; we are able, if required, to assign some or we believe that a person on whose still wider; and so on. This being the face we look is good-natured. That is, general nature of the demonstration by when we can give confessedly-inadequate which cxact knowledge is established, proofs or no proofs at all for the things there has arisen the illusion that knowwe: think, we call them “beliefs." And ledge so established is knowledge of it is the peculiarity of these beliefs, as higher validity than that immediate contrasted with cognitions, that their knowledge which has nothing deeper to connexions with antecedent states of rest on. The habit of asking for proof, consciousness may be easily severed, and having proof given, in all these instead of being difficult to sever. But, multitudinous cases, has produced the unhappily, the word "belief” is also implication that proof may be asked for applied to each of those temporarily or thosc ultimate dicta of consciousness permanently indissoluble connexions in into which all proof is resolvable. And consciousness, for the acceptance of then, because no proof of these can be which the only warrant is that it cannot given, there arises the vague feeling that be got rid of. Saying that I feel a pain, they are akin to other things of which or hear a sound, or see one line to be no proof can be given--that they are longer than anyther, is saying that there uncertain--that they have unsatisfactory has occurred in me a certain change of bases. This feeling is strengthened by state; and it is impossible for me to the accompanying misuse of words. give a stronger evidence of this fact than "Belief” having, as above pointed out, that it is present to my mind. Every become the name of an impression for argument, too, is resolvable into succes which we can give only a confessedly. sive affections of consciousness which inadequate reason, or no reason at all have no warrants beyond themselves. it happens that when pushed hard When asked why I assert some mediately respecting the warrant for any ultimate known truth, as that the three angles of dictum of consciousness, we say, in the a triangle are equal to two right angles, I absence of all assignable reason, that we find that the proof, may be decomposed believe it. Thus the two opposite poles into steps, each of which is an imme- of knowledge go under the same name; diate consciousness that certain two and by the reverse connotations of this II2 MILL VERSUS HAMILTON-THE TEST OF TRUTH name, as used for the most coherent and mented by another, which at once least coherent relations of thought, pro- suggests itself if from the words of Sir found misconceptions have been gene- William Hamilton's propositions we pass rated. Here, it seems to me, is the to the thoughts for which they are supsource of Sir William Hamilton's error. posed to stand. When remembering a Classing as "beliefs" those direct, un certain thing as in a certain place, the decomposable dicta of consciousness place and the thing are mentally reprewhich transcend proof, he asserts that sented together; while to think of the these are of higher authority than know non-existence of the thing in that place, ledge (meaning by knowledge that for implies a consciousness in which the which reasons can be given); and in place is represented but not the thing. asserting this he is fully justified. But Similarly, if, instead of thinking of an when he claims equal authority for those objcct as colourless, we think of it as affections of consciousness which go having colour, the change consists in the under the same name of “beliefs," but addition to the concept of an element differ in being extremely-indirect affec- that was before absent from it-the tions of consciousness, or not definite object cannot be thought of first as red affections of consciousness at all, the and then as not red, without one comclaim cannot be admitted. By his own ponent of the thought being expelled showing, no positive cognition answering from the mind by another. The docto the word " infinite” exists; while, trine of the Excluded Middle, then, is contrariwise, those cognitions which he simply a generalization of the universal rightly holds to be above question, are experience that some mental states are not only positive, but have the peculiarity directly destructive of other states. It that they cannot be suppressed. How, formulates a certain absolutely-constant then, can the two he grouped together as law, that no positive mode of consciousof like degrees of validity ? occur without excluding a Nearly allied in nature to this, is correlative negative mode; and that the .another Hamiltonian doctrine, which negative mode cannot occur without Mr. Mill effectively combats. I refer to excluding the correlative positive mode: the corollary respecting noumenal exis- the antithesis of positive and negative, tence which Sir William Hamilton draws being, indeed, merely an expression of from the law of the Excluded Middle, or, this experience. Hence it follows that as it might be more intelligibly called, if consciousness is not in one of the two the law of the Alternative Necessity. A modes, it must be in the other. But thing must either exist or not exist now, under what conditions only can must have a certain attribute or not this law of consciousness hold? It can have it: there is no third possibility. hold only so long as there are positive This is a postulate of all thought; and states of consciousness which can exclude in so far as it is alleged of phenomenal the negative states, and which the negaexistence, no one calls it in question. tive states can in their turn exclude. If But Sir William Hamilton, applying the we are not concerned with positive states formula beyond the limits of thought, of consciousness at all, no such mutual draws from it certain conclusions respect- exclusion takes place, and the law of the ing things as they are, apart from our Alternative Necessity does not apply. consciousness. He says, for example, Here, then, is the faw in Sir William that though we cannot conceive Space Hamilton's proposition. That Space as infinite or as finite, yet, “on the must be infinite or finite, are alternatives principle of the Excluded Middie, one of which we are not obliged to regard or other must be admitted." This inferone as necessary; seeing that we have ence Mr. Mill shows good reason for no state of consciousness answering to rejecting. His argument may be supple- either of these words as applied to the ness Can MILL VERSUS, HAMILTON-THE TEST OF TRUTH 113 or is totality of Space, and therefore no exclu- assignable for them. Throughout the sion of two antagonist states of con argument to which Mr. Mill replies, the sciousness by one another. Both alter- word is used by me only in the first of natives being unthinkable, the propo- these senses. The "invariably existent sition should be put thus : Space is beliefs,” the "indestructible beliefs," are cither ; neither of the indissoluble connexions in consciouswhich can be conceived, but one of ness-never the dissoluble ones. But which must be true. In this, as in some unbelievable implies the dissoluble ones. other cases, Sir William Hamilton con- By association with the other and more tinues to work out the forms of thought general meaning of the word belief, the when they no longer contain any sub- word unbelicvable suggests cases in which stance; and, of course, reaches nothing the proposition admits of being repremore than verbal conclusions. sented in thought, though it may be with Ending here these comments on doc- difficulty; and in which, consequently, trines of Sir William Hamilton, which the counter-proposition admits of being Mr. Mill rejects on grounds that will be (lecomposed. To be quite sure of our generally recognized as valid, let me ground, let us define and illustrate the now pass to a doctrine, partly held by meanings of inconceivable and unbelievable. Sir William Hamilton, and held by An inconceivable proposition is one of others in ways variously qualified and which the terms cannot, by any effort, variously cxtended a doctrine which, I be brought before consciousness in that think, may be successfully defended relation which the proposition asserts against Mr. Mill's attack. between them- a proposition of which the subject and the predicate offer an In the fourth and fifth editions of his insurmountable resistance to union in Logii, Mr. Mill treats, at considerable thought. An unbelievable proposition length, the question-Is inconceivability is one which admits of being framed in an evidence of untruth? --replying to thought, but is so much at variance criticisms previously made on his reasons with experience that its terms cannot be for asserting that it is not. The chief put in the alleged relation without effort. answers which he there makes to these Thus, it is unbelievable that a cannoncriticisms, turn upon the interpretation ball fired from England should reach of the word inconceivable. This word he America ; but it is not inconceivable. considers is used as the equivalent of Conversely, it is inconceivable that one the word unbelievable; and, translating side of a triangle is equal to the sum of it thus, readily disposes of sundry argu- the other two sides--not simply unments brought against him. Whether believable. The two sides cannot be any others who have used these words in represented in consciousness as becoming philosophical discussion, have made them cqual in their joint length to the third synonymous, I do not know; but that side, without the representation of a they are so used in those reasonings of triangle being destroyed ; and the conmy own which Mr. Mill combats, I was cept of a triangle cannot be framed not conscious, and was surprised to find without a simultaneous destruction of alleged. It is now manifest that I had a concept in which these magnitudes not adequately guarded myself against are represented as equal. That is to the misconstruction which is liable to say, the subject and predicate cannot be in word belief--a , " --a word which, we have sition is unthinkable. It is in this sense seen, is used for the most coherent and only that I have used the word inconthe least coherent connexions in conceivable; and only when rigorously sciousness, because they have the restrioted to this sense do I regard the test common character thầt no reason is l' of inconceivableness as having any value.

114 MILL VERSUS HAMILTON-THE TEST OF TRUTH I had concluded that when this expla- that it is not necessary. These nation was made, Mr. Mill's reasons for philosophers, therefore, and among them dissent would be removed. Passages in Sir William Hamilton, mistake altogether his recently-published volume, however, the true conditions of psychological show that, even restricting the use of the investigation, when, instead of proving a word inconceivable to the meaning here belief to be an original fact of consciousspecified, he still denies that a proposi- ness by showing that it could not have tion is proved to be true by the incon- been acquired, they conclude that it was ceivableness of its negation. To meet, not acquired, for the reason, often false, within any moderate compass, all the and never sufficiently substantiated, that issues which have grown out of the con our consciousness cannot get rid of it troversy, is difficult. Before passing to now." the essential question, however, I will This representation, in so far as it endeavour to clear the ground of certain concerns my own views, has somewhat minor questions. puzzled me. Considering that I have Describing Sir William Hamilton's avowed a general agreement with Mr. doctrine respecting the ultimate facts of Mill in the doctrine that all kpowledge consciousness, or those which are above is from experience, and have defended proof, Mr. Mill writes : the test of inconceivableness on the very " The only condition he requires is ground that it expresses "the net result that we be not able to reduce it (a fact of our experiences up to the present of this class] to a generalization from time” (Principles of Psychology, § 430)- experience. This condition is realized considering that, so far from asserting by its possessing the character of neces the distinction quoted from Sir William sity.' It must be impossible not to Hamilton, I have aimed to abolish such think of it. In fact, by, its necessity distinction-considering that I have alone can we recognize it as an original endeavoured to show how all our condatum of intelligence, and distinguish it ceptions, even down to those of Space from any mere result of generalization and Time, are “ acquired”-considering and custom.' In this Sir William that I have sought to interpret forms of Hamilton is at one. with the whole of thought (and by implication all intuihis own section of the philosophical tions) as products of organized and world ; with Reid, with Stewart, with inherited experiences (Principles of Cousin, with Whewell, we may add, Psychology, $ 208); I am taken aback with Kant, and even with Mr. Herbert at finding myself classed as in the above Spencer.. The test by which they all paragraph. Leaving the personal quesdecide belief to be a part of our tion, however, let me pass to the asserprimitive consciousness consciousness ---- an original tion that the difference of opinion intuition of the mind is the necessity respecting the test of necessity itself of thinking it. Their proof that we disproves the validity of the test. Two must always, from the beginning, have issues are here involved. First, if a had the belief, is the impossibility of particular proposition is by some getting rid of it now. This argument, accepted as a necessary belief, but by applied to any of the disputed questions one or more denied to be a necessary of philosophy, is doubly illegitimate : belief, is the validity of the test of neither the major nor the minor premise necessity thereby disproved in respect of is admissible. For in the first place, the that particular proposition? Second, if very fact that the question is disputed, the validity of the test is disproved in disproves the alleged the alleged impossibility. respect of that particular proposition, Those against whom it is needful to does it therefore follow that the test defend the belief which is affirmed to be cannot be depended on in other cases? necessary, are unmistakable examples - does it follow that there are no beliefs a MILL VERSUS HAMILTON THE TEST OF TRUTH 115 errs. are universally accepted as necessary, and whenever a particular belief is alleged in respect of which the test of necessity to be necessary, the existence of some is valid ? Each of these questions may, who profess themselves able to believe I think, be rightly answered in the otherwise, proves that this belief is not negative. necessary; must it be therefore admitted In alleging that if a belief is said by that the test of necessity is invalid ? I some to be necessary, but by others to think not. Men may mistake for necesbe not necessary, the test of necessity is sary, certain beliefs which are not thereby shown to be no test, Mr. Mill necessary; and yet it may remain true tacitly assumes that all men have powers that there are necessary beliefs, and that of introspection enabling them in all the necessity of such beliefs is our cases to say what consciousness testifies; warrant for them. Were conclusions whereas a great proportion of men are thus tested proved to be wrong in a incapable of correctly interpreting con- hundred cases, it would not follow that sciousness in any but its simplest modes, the test is an invalid one; any more and even the remainder are liable to than it would follow from a hundred mistake for dicta of consciousness what errors in the use of a logical formula, prove on closer examination not to be that the logical formula is invalid. If its dicta. Take the case of an arith- from the premise that all horned animals métical blunder. A boy adds up a ruminate, it were inferred that the column of figures, and brings out a rhinoceros, being a horned animal, wrong total. Again he does it and again ruminates; the error would furnish no His master asks him to go through argument against the worth of syllogisms the process aloud, and then hears him in general ---whatever their worth may say "35 and 9 are 46"-an error which be. Daily there thousands of he had repeated on each occasion. erroneous deductions which, by those Now without discussing the mental act who draw them, are supposed to be through which we know that 35 and 9 warranted by the data from which they are 44, and through which we recognize draw them; but no multiplication of the necessity of this relation, it is clear such erroneous deductions is regarded that the boy's misinterpretation of con as proving that there are no deductions sciousness, leading him tacitly to deny truly drawn, and that the drawing of this necessity by asserting that " 35 and decluctions is illegitimate. In these 9 are 46,” cannot be held to prove that cases, as in the case to which they are the relation is not necessary. This, and here paralleled, the only thing shown is kindred misjudgments daily made by the need for verification of data and accountants, merely show that there is a criticism of the acts of consciousness. liability to overlook what are necessary “ This argument," says Mr. Mill, connexions in our thoughts, and to referring to the argument of necessity, assume as necessary others which are "applied to any of the disputed quesnot. In these and hosts of cases, men tions of philosophy, is doubly illegitido not distinctly translate into their mate; . . the very fact that the equivalent states of consciousness the question is disputed, disproves the words they use. This negligence is alleged impossibility." Besides the forewith many so habitual, that they are going replies to this, there is another. unaware that they have not clearly Granting that there have been appeals represented to themselves the proposi- illegitimately made to this test---granting tions they assert ; and are then apt, that there are many questions too comquite sincerely though erroneously, to plex to Me settled by it, which men have assert that they can think things which nevertheless proposed to settle by it, and it is really impossible to think. have consequently got into controversy; But supposing it to be true that it may yet be truly asserted that in 116 MILL VERSUS HAMILTON-THE TEST OF TRUTH answer. respect of all, or almost all, questions moderately different, they are close legitimately brought to judgment by this together, and supposing the difference test, there is no dispute about the is but slight, I decide the question by From the earliest times on putting the lines in apposition when record down to our own, men have not they are movable, or by carrying a changed their beliefs concerning the movable line from one to the other if truths of number. The axiom that if they are fixed. But in any case, I equals be added to unequals the sums obtain in consciousness the testimony are unequal, was held by the Greeks no that the impression produced by the one less than by ourselves, as a. direct line differs from that produced by the verdict of consciousness, from which other. Of this difference I can give no there is no escape and no appeal. Each further evidence than that I am conof the propositions of Euclid appears to scious of it, and find it impossible, while us absolutely beyond doubt as it did to contemplating the lines, to get rid of the them. Each step in each demonstration consciousness. The proposition that the we accept, as they accepted it, because lines are unequal is a proposition of we immediately see that the alleged which the negation is inconceivable. . relation is as alleged, and that it is But now suppose it is asked whether impossible to conceive it otherwise. B and C are equal; or whether C and D But how are legitimate appeals to the are equal. No positive answer is possible. test to be distinguished? The answer Instead of its being inconceivable that is not difficult to find. Mr. Mill cites B is longer than C, or equal to it, or shorter, it is conceivable that it is any one of the three. Here an appeal to the direct verdict of consciousness is illegitimate, because on transferring the attention from B to C, or C to D), the changes in the other elements of the impressions so entangle the elements to be compared, as to prevent them from А B C D being put in apposition. If the question of relative length is to be deterthe belief in the antipodes as having mined, it must be by rectification of the been rejected by the Greeks because bent line; and this is done through a inconceivable, but as being held by series of steps, each one of which ourselves to be both conceivable and involves an immediate judgment akin to true. He has before given this instance, that by which A and B are compared. and I have before objected to it (Prin- Now as here, so in other cases, it is only ciples of Psychology', $ 428), for the simple percepts or concepts respecting reason that the states of consciousness the relations of which inmediate coninvolved in the judgment are too com sciousness can satisfactorily testify; and plex to admit of any trustworthy verdict as here, so in other cases, it is by resobeing given. An illustration will show lution into such simple percepts and the difference between a legitimate concepts, that true judgments respecting appeal to the test and an illegitimate complex percepts and concepts are appeal to it. A and B are two lines. reached. That things which are equal How is it decided that they are equal or to me same thing are equal to one not equal? No way is open but that of another, is a fact which can be known comparing the two impressions they by direct comparison of actual or ideal make on consciousness. I know them relations, and can be known in no other to be unequal by an immediate act, if way: the proposition is one of which the difference is great, or if, though only the negation is inconceivable, and is 19) - MILL VERSUS HAMILTON-THE TEST OF TRUTH 117 our righely asserted on that warrant. But i impossible if the existence of object and that the square of the hypotenuse of a subject be not admitted at the outset. right-angled triangle equals the sum of Agree with the Sceptic's doubt, and then the squares of the other two sides, propose to revise his argument so that it çannot be known immediately by con- may harmonize with his doubt. Of the parison of two states of consciousness. two alternatives between which he halts, Here the truth can be reached only assume, first, the reality of object and mediately, through a series of simple subject. His argument is practicable; judgments respecting the likenesses or whether valid or not. Now assume that unlikenesses of certain relations: each object and subject do not exist. He of which judgments is essentially of the cannot stir a step toward his conclusion same kind as that by which the above-nay, he cannot even state his conaxiom is known, and has the same clusion; for the word "impression warrant. Thus it becomes upparent that cannot be translated into thought without the fallacious result of the test of neces- assuming a thing impressing and a thing sity which Mr. Mill instances, is due to a impressed. misapplication of the test. Though Empiricism, as at present These preliminary explanations have understood, is not thus suicidal, it is served to make clear the question at ; open to an analogous criticism on its issue. Let is now pass to the essence method, similarly telling against the of it. validity of its inference. It proposes to account for so-called necessary Metaphysical reasoning is usually beliefs, as well as all our other beliefs ; vitiated by some covert petitio primipii . and to do this without postulating Either the thing to be provedl or the any one belief as necessary. Bringing thing to be disproved, is tacitly assumed forward abundant evidence that the to be true in the course of the proof or connexions among our states of condisproof. It is thus with the argument sciousness are determined by our experiof Idealism. Though the conclusion cnces--that two experiences frequently reached is that Mind and Ideas are the recurring together in consciousness, only existences; yet the steps by which become so coherent that one strongly this conclusion is reached, take for suggests the other, and that when their granted that external objects have just joint recurrence is perpetual and invarithe kind of independent existence which able, the connexion between them is eventually denied. If that extension becomes indissoluble; it argues that the which the Idealist contends is merely an indissolubility, so produced, is all that affection of consciousness, has nothing we mean by necessity. And then it out of consciousness answering to it; seeks to explain each of our so-called then, in each of his propositions con necessary beliefs as thus originated. cerning extension, the word should Now could pure Empiricism reach this always mean an affection of conscious- analysis and its subsequent synthesis ness and nothing more. But if wherever without taking any thing for granted, its he speaks of distances and dimensions arguments would be unobjectionable. we write ideas of distances and dimen- But it cannot do this. Examinc its sions, his propositions are reduced to phraseology, and there arises the quesnonsense. So, too, is it with Scepticism. tion, experiences of what? Translate The resolution of all knowledge into the word into thought, and it clearly "impressions” and “ideas," is effected involves something more than states of by an analysis which assumes at every mind and the connexions among them. step an objective reality producing the For if it does not, then the hypothesis is impressions and the subjective reality that states of mind are generated by the receiving them. The reasoning becomes experiences of states of mind; and if someonce. 118 MILL VERSUS HAMILTON THE TEST OF TRUTH - the inquiry be pursued, this ends with But that such assumptions may be made initial states of mind which are not legitimately, two things are required. accounted for--the hypothesis fails. In the first place they must not be Evidently, there is tacitly assumed some- multiplied step after step as occasion thing beyond the mind by which the requires; otherwise the conclusion “experiences" are produced reached might as well be assumed at thing in which exist the objective rela And in the second place, the tions to which the subjective relations fact that they are assumptions must not correspond --an external world. Refuse be lost sight of: the conclusions drawn thus to explain the word "experiences," must not be put forward as though they and the hypothesis becomes meaning, have a certainty which the premises less. But now, having thus postulated have not. Now pure Empiricism, in an external reality as the indispensable common with other theories of knowfoundation of its reasonings, pure ledge, is open to the criticism, that it Empiricism can subsequently neither neglects thus avowedly to recognize the prove nor disprove. its postulate. An nature of those primary assumptions attempt to disprove it, or to give it any which it lays down as provisionally valid, other meaning than that originally if it denies that they can be necessarily involved, is suicidal ; and an attempt valid. And it is open to the further to establish it by inference is reasoning criticism, that it goes on at every step in in a circle. What then are we to say of its argument making assumptions which this proposition on which Empiricism it neglects to specify as provisional; rests? Is it a necessary belief, or is it since they, too, cannot be known as not?' If necessary, the hypothesis in its necessary. Until it has assigned some pure form is abandoned. If not neces warrant for its original datum and for sary--if not posited a priori as abso- each of its subsequent inferences, or else lutely certain ---then the hypothesis rests has acknowledged them all to be but on an uncertainty; and the whole fabric hypothetical, it may be stopped either at of its argument is unstable. More than the outset or at any stage in its arguthis is true. Besides the insecurity ment. Against every “because” and implied by building on a foundation that every "therefore," an opponent may is confessedly not beyond question, enter a caveat, until he is told why it is there is the much greater insecurity asserted : contending, as he may, that if implied by raising proposition upon this inference is not necessary he is not proposition of which each is bound to accept it; and that if it is fessedly not beyond question. For to necessary it must be openly declared to say that there are no necessary truths, is be necessary, and some test must be to say that each successive inference is / assigned by which it is distinguished not necessarily involved in its premises from propositions that are not necessary. is an empirical judgment-a judgment These considerations will, I think, not certainly truc. Hence, applying make it obvious that the first step in a rigorously its own doctrine, we find that metaphysical argument, rightly carried pure Empiricism, starting from an un on, must be an examination of proposicertainty and progressing through a tions for the purpose of ascertaining series of uncertainties, cannot claim what character is common to those much certainty for its conclusions. which we call unquestionably true, and Doubtless, it may be replied that any is implied by asserting their unquestheory of human knowledge must set tionable truth. Further, to 'Garry on out with assumptions-either permanent this inquiry legitimately, we or provisional; and that the validity of restrict our analysis rigorously to states these assumptions is to be determined l of consciousness considered in theirby the results reached through them. relations to one another: wholly ignoring conmust MILL VERSUS HAMILTON_THE TEST OF TRUTH 119 anything beyond consciousness to which ness, he finds that they differ very these states and their relations may be greatly in respect of the facility with supposed to refer. For if, before we which the states of consciousness have ascertained by comparing proposi- are connected and disconnected. The tions what is the trait that leads us to mental state known as brown may be 'class some of them as certainly true, we united with those mental states which avowedly or tacitly take for granted the make up the figure known as bird, existence of something beyond con without appreciable effort, or may be sciousness; then, a particular proposi- separated from them without appretion is assumed to be certainly true ciable effort: the bird may easily be before we have ascertained what is the thought of as black, or green, or yellow. distinctive character of the propositions Contrariwise, such an assertion as “The which we call certainly true, and the ice was hot,” is one to which he finds analysis is vitiated. If we cannot tran much difficulty in making his mind scend consciousness--if, therefore, what respond. The Clements of the proposiwe know as truth must be some mental tion cannot be put together in thought state, or some combination of mental without great resistance. Between those states; it must be possible for us to other states of consciousness which the say in what way we distinguish this word ice connotes, and the state of state or these states. The definition of consciousness named cold, there is an truth must be expressible in terms of extremely strong cohesion--a cohesion consciousness; and, indeed, cannot measured by the resistance to be overotherwise be expressed if consciousness come in thinking of the ice as hot. cannot be transcended. Clearly, then, Further, he finds that in many cases the the metaphysician's first step must be to states of consciousness grouped together shut out from his investigation every cannot be separated at all. The idea of thing but what is subjective ; not taking pressure cannot be disconnected from for granted the existence of any thing ihe idea of something occupying space, objective corresponding to his ideas, Motion cannot be thought of without an until he has ascertained what property of object that moves being at the same his ideas it is which he predicates by time thought of. And then, besides calling them true. Let us note the these connexions in consciousness which result if he does this. remain absolute under all circumstances, there are others which remain absolute The words of a proposition are the under special circumstances. Between signs of certain states of consciousness; the elements of those more vivid states of and the thing alleged by a proposition is consciousness which the inquirer distinthe connexion or disconnexion of the guishes as perceptions, he finds that states of consciousness signified. When there is temporarily - indissoluble thinking is carried on with precision-- cohesion. Though when there arises in when the mental states which we call him that comparatively faint state of words, are translated into the mental consciousness which he calls the idea of states they symbolize (which they very a book, he can easily think of the book frequently are not)-thinking a proposi- as red, or brown, or green ; yet when he ion consists in the occurrence together has that much stronger consciousness in consciousness of the subject and which he calls seeing a book, he finds predicate. “The bird was brown," is a that so long as there continue certain proposition which implies the union in accompanying states of consciousness thought of a particular attribute with a which he calls the conditions to pergroup of other attributes. When the ception, those several states of coninquirer compares various propositions sciousness which make up the percepthus rendered into states of conscious: tion cannot be disunited-he, cannot а I 20 MILL VERSUS HAMILTON-THE TEST OF TRUTH think of the book as red, or green, orness, thus experimentally proved by the brown; but finds that, along with a difficulty of separating them, he finds to certain figure, there absolutely coheres a be what he calls a strong belief. Once certain colour. more, in response to the words- Still shutting himself up within these “Along with motion there is something limits, let us suppose the inquirer to ask that moves,” he represents to himself a himself what he thinks about these moving body; and, until he tries an various degrees of cohesion among his experiment upon it, he may suppose the states of consciousness-how he names elements of the representation to be them, and how he behaves toward them. united in the same way as those of the If there comes, no matter whence, the representations instanced above. But proposition—"The bird was brown,” supposing the proposition is modified subject and predicate answering to these into--“Along with motion there is words spring up together in conscious- necessarily something that moves,” the ness; and if there is no opposing propo- response made in thought to these sition, he unites the specified and words, discloses the fact that the states implied attributes without effort, and of consciousness called up in this case believes the proposition. If, however, are indissolubly connected in the way the proposition is--"The bird was alleged. He discovers this by trying * o necessarily brown,” he makes an experi- conceive the negation of the proposition ment like those above described, and --by trying to think of motion as not finding that he can separate the attributc having along with it something that of brownness, and can think of the bird moves; and his inability to conceive as green or yellow, he does not admit this negation is the obverse of his that the bird was necessarily brown. inability to tear asunder the states When such a proposition as “l'he ice of consciousness which constitute the was cold " arises in him, the elements of affirmation. Those propositions which the thought behave as before, and so survive this strain, are the propositions long as no test is applied, the union of he distinguishes as necessary. Whether the consciousness of cold with the or not he means any thing else by this accompanying states of consciousness, word, he evidently means that in his seems to be of the same nature as the consciousness the connexions they prediunion between those answering to the cate are, so far as he can ascertain, words broge'n and hird. But should the unalterable. The bare fact is that he proposition be changed into—“The ice submits to them because he has no was necessarily cold," quite a different choice. They rule his thoughts whether result happens from that which hap- he will or not. Leaving out all quespened in the previous case. The ideas tions concerning the origin of these answering to subject and predicate are connexions all thcories concerning here so coherent, that in the absence of their significations, there remains in the careful examination they might pass as inquirer the consciousness that certain inseparable, and the proposition be of his states of consciousness are so accepted. But suppose the proposition welded together that all other links in is deliberately tested by trying whether the chain of consciousness yield before ice can be thought of as not cold. these give way. Great resistance is offered in conscious Celtinuing rigorously to exclude ness to this. Still , by an effort, he can everything beyond consciousness, let imagine water to have its temperature him now ask himself what he mrans by of congelation higher than blood heat; reasoning? what is the essential nature and can so think of congealed water as of an argument ? what is the peculiarity hot instead of cold. Now the extremely of a conclusion ? Analysis soon shows strong cohesion of states of conscious. I him that reasoning is the formation of a MILL VERSUS HAMILTON-THE TEST OF TRUTH 121 cohetent series of states of conscious that the least coherent states of conness, He has found that the thoughts sciousness separate, while the most expressed by propositions, vary in the coherent remain together--form a propocohesions of their subjects and predi- sition of which the predicate persists in cates; and he finds that at every step in rising up in the mind along with its an argument, carefully carried on, he subject--constitute one of the contests the strengths of all the connexions nexions in thought which is distinguished asserted and implied. He considers as something known, or as something whether the object named really does believed, according to its strength. belong to the class in which it is What corollary may the inquirer draw, included-tries whether he can think of or rather what corollary must be draw, it as not like the things it is said to be on pushing the analysis to its limit? If like. He considers whether the attri- there are any indissoluble connexions, bute alleged is really possessed by all he is compelled, to accept them. If members of the class—tries to think of certain states of consciousness absolutely some member of the class that has not cohere in certain ways, he is obliged to the attribute--and he admits the pro- think them in those ways. The propoposition only on finding, by on finding, by this sition is an identical one, . To say that criticism, that there is a greater degree they are necessities of thought is merely of cohesion in thought between its another way of saying that their clements, than between the elements of elements cannot be torn asunder. No the counter proposition. Thus testing reasoning can give to these absolute the strength of each link in the argu- cohesions in thought any better warrant; ment, he at length reaches the con since all reasoning, being a process of clusion, which he tests in the same way. testing cohesions, is itself carried on by If he accepts it, he does so because the accepting the absolute cohesions; and argument has established in bim can, in the last resort, do nothing more indirect cohesion between states of c01 than present some absolute cohesions in sciousness that not directly justification of others--an act which coherent, or not so coherent directly unwarrantably assumes in the absolute as the argument makes them indirectly. cohesions it offers, a greater value than But hc accepts it only supposing that is allowed to the absolute cohesions it the connexion between the two states would justify. Here, then, the inquirer of consciousness composing it, is not comes down to an ultimate mental resisted by some stronger counter-con- uniformity - a universal law of his nexion. If there happens to be an thinking. How completely his thought opposing argument, of which the com is subordinated to this law, is shown by ponent thoughts are felt, when tested, to the fact that he cannot even represent be more coherent; or if, in the absence to himself the possibility of any other of an opposing argument, there exists law. To suppose the connexions among an opposing conclusion, of which the ' his states of consciousness to be otherelements have some direct cohesion wise determined, is to suppose a smaller greater than that which the proffered force overcoming a greater-a proposiargument indirectly gives; then the tion which may be expressed in words conclusion reached by this argument is but cannot be rendered into ideas. not admitted. Thus, a discussion in No matter what he calls these indestrucconsciousness proves to be, simply a tible relations, no matter what he suptrial of strength between different con poses to be their meanings, he is nexions in consciousness-a systematized completely fettered by them. Their struggle serving to determine which are indestructibility is the proof to him that the least coherent states of conscious his consciousness is imprisoned within And the result of the struggle is,' them; and supposing any of them to be an were ness.

122 MILL VERSUS HAMILTON-THE TEST OF TRUTH no as in some way destroyed, he perceives tions among his states of consciousness. that indestructibility would still be the Any secondary meanings which he distinctive character of the bounds that ascribes to thein must also be meanings remained--the test of those which he expressed in terms of consciousness, and must continue to think. therefore subordinate to the laws of These results the inquirer arrives at consciousness. Hence he has without assuming any other existence appeal from this ultimate dictum; and than that of his own consciousness. seeing this, he sees that the only They postulate nothing about mind or possible further achievement is the matter, subject or object. They leave reconciliation of the dicta of consciouswholly untouched the questions--what ness with one another-the bringing all does consciousness imply? and how is other dicta of consciousness into harmony thought generated ? There is not with this ultimate dictum. involved in the analysis any hypothesis respecting the origin of these relations Here, then, the inquire? discovers a between thoughts--how there come to warrant higher than that which any be feeble cohesions, strong cohesions, argument can give, for asserting an and absolute cohesions. Whatever objective existence. Mysterious some of the terms used may have seems the consciousness of something seemed to connote, it will be found, which is yet out of consciousness, he on examining each step, that nothing is finds that he alleges the reality of this essentially involved beyond states of something in virtue of the ultimate law mind and the connexions among them, -he is obliged to think it. There is an which are themselves other states of indissoluble cohesion between each of mind. Thus far, the argument is not those vivid and definite states of convitiated by any petitio principii. sciousness which he calls a sensation, Should the inquirer enter upon the and an indeſinable consciousness which question, How are these facts to be stands for a mode of being beyond explained? he must consider how any sensation, and separate from himself. further investigation is to be conducted, When grasping his fork and putting food and what is the possible degree of into his mouth, he is wholly unable to validity of its conclusions. Remember- expel from his mind the notion of someing that he cannot transcend conscious- thing which resists the force he is ness, he sees that anything in the shape conscious of using; and he cannot of an interpretation must be subordinate suppress the nascent thought of an to the laws of consciousness. Every independent existence keeping apart his hypothesis he entertains in trying to tongue and palate, and giving him that explain himself to himself, being an sensation of taste which he is unable to hypothesis which can be dealt with by generate in consciousness by his own him only in terms of his mental states, activity. Though self-criticism shows it follows that any process of explanation him that he cannot know what this is must itself be carried on by testing the which lies outside of him; and though cohesions among mental states, and he may infer that not being able to say accepting the absolute cohesions. His what it is, it is a fiction; he discovers conclusions, therefore, reached only by that such self-criticism utterly fails to repeated recognitions of this test of extinguish the consciousness of it as a absolute cohesion, can never have any reality. Any conclusion into which he higher validity than this test. It matters argues himself, that there is no objective not what name he gives to a conclusion existence connected with these subjec- --whether he calls it a belief, a theory, tive states, proves to be a mere verbal a fact, or a truth. These words can be conclusion to which his thoughts will themselves only names for certain rela- not respond. The relation survives MILL VERSUS HAMILTON-THE TEST OF TRUTH -123 á forms every effort to destroy it is proved by can base on it a satisfactory explanation experiment, repeated no matter how of what he calls knowledge. He finds often, to be one of which the negation sach an explanation possible. possible. The is inconceivable; and therefore one hypothesis that the more or less coherent having supreme authority. In vajn he relations among his states of consciousendeavours to give it any greater autho- ness, are generated by experience of the rity by reasoning; for whichever of the more or less constant relations in some. two alternatives he sets out with, leaves thing beyond his consciousness, furnishes him at the end just where he started. him with solutions of numerous facts of If, knowing nothing more than his own consciousness : not, however, of all, if states of consciousness, he declines to he assumes that this adjustment of inner acknowledge anything beyond con to outer relations has resulted from his sciousness until it is proved, he may go own experiences alone. Nevertheless, if on reasoning for ever without getting he allows himself to suppose that this any further; since the perpetual elabora- moulding of thoughts into correspontion of states of consciousness out of dence with things, has been going on states of consciousness, can never pro through countless preceding generations; duce anything more than states of con and that the effects of experiences have sciousness. if, contrariwise, he postu- been inherited in the shape of modified lates external existence, and considers it organic structures; then he is able to as merely postulated, then the whole interpret all the phenomena. It becomes fabric of his argument, standing upon possible to understand how these perthis postulate, has no greater validity sistent cohesions among states of conthan the postulate gives it, minus the sciousness, are themselves the products possible invalidity of the argument itself. of often-repeated experiences; and that The case must not be confounded with even what are known as of those cases in which an hypothesis, or thought," are but the absolute internal provisional assumption, is eventually uniformities generated by infinite repeproved true by its agreement with facts; titions of absolute external uniformities. for in these cases the facts with which it It becomes' possible also to understand is found to agree, are facts known in how, in the course of organizing of these other way than through the multiplying and widening experiences, hypothesis: a calculated eclipse of the there may arise partially-wrong conmoon serves as a verification of the nexions in thought, answering to limited hypothesis of gravitation, because its converse with things; and that these occurrence is observable without taking connexions in thought, temporarily taken for granted the hypothesis of gravitation for indissoluble ones, may afterwards be But when the external world is postu- made dissoluble by presentation of lated, and it is supposed that the external relations at variance with them. validity of the postulate may be shown But even when this occurs, it can by the explanation of mental phenomena afford no ground for questioning the which it furnishes, the vice is , that the test of indissolubility; since the process process of verification is itself possible by which some connexion previously only by assuming the thing to be proved. accepted as indissoluble, is broken is But now, recognizing the indissoluble simply the establishment of some antagocohesion between the consciousness of nistic connexion, which proves, on a self and an unknown not-self, as consti- trial of strength, to be the strongertuting dictum of consciousness which which remains indissoluble when pitted he is both compelled to accept and is againse®the other, while the other gives justified by analysis in accepting, it is way. And this leaves the test just competent for the inquirer to consider" | where it was; showing only that there is whether, setting out with this dictum, hea liability to error as to what are some 124 MILL VERSUS HAMILTON-THE TEST OF TRUTH indissoluble connexions. From the very question because not ultimate, There beginning, therefore, to the very end of comes the inevitable inquiry respecting the explanation, even down to the the test of ultimacy. On the other hand, criticism of its conclusions and the the reply that this truth is known only discovery of its errors, the validity of by inkluction from personal experiences, this test must be postulated. Whence it suggests the query-On what warrant is manifest, as before said, that the whole are personal experiences asserted? The business of explanation can be nothing testimony of experience is given only more than that of bringing all other through memory; and its worth depends dicta of consciousness into harmony with wholly on the trustworthiness of memory. this ultimate dictum. Is it, then, that the trustworthiness of niemory is less open to doubt than the. To the positive justification of a pro- immediate consciousness that two quanposition, may be added that negative tities must be unequal if they differ justification which is derived from the from a third quantity in unequal degrees? untenability of the counter-proposition. This can scarcely be alleged. , Memory When describir:g* the attitude of pure is notoriously uncertain. We sometimes Empiricism, some indications that its suppose ourselves to have said things counter-proposition is untenable were which it turns out we did not say; and given ; but it will be well here to state, we often forget seeing things which it is more specifically, the fundamental objec- proved we did sce. We speak of many tions to which it is open. passages of our lives as seening like If the ultimate test of truth is not dreams; and can vaguely imagine the that here alleged, then what is the whole past to be an illusion. We can ultimate test of truth? And if there is go much further toward concciving that *no ultimate test of truth, then what is our recollections do not answer to any the warrant for accepting certain propo- actualities, than we go toward sitions and rejecting others? An oppo-conceiving the non-existence of Space. . nent who denies the validity of this But even supposing the deliverances of test, may legitimately decline to furnish memory to be above criticism, the most any test himself, so long as he does not that can be said for the experiences to affirm any thing to be true ; but if he which memory testifies, is that we are affirms some things to be true and others obliged to think we have had themto be not true, his warrant for doing so cannot conceive the negation of the may fairly be demanded. Let us glance proposition that we have had them; and at the possible response to the demand. to say this is to assign the warrant which If asked why he holds it to be unques is repudiated. tionably truc that two quantities which A further counter-criticism may be differ in unequal degrees from a third made. Throughout the argument of quantity are themselves unequal, two pure Empiricism, it is tacitly assumed replies scem open to him : he may say that there may be a Philosophy in which that this is an ultimate fact of conscious- nothing is asserted but what is proved. ness, or that it is an induction from It proposes to admit into the coherent personal experiences.' The reply that it fabric of its conclusions, no conclusion is an ultimate fact of consciousness, that is incapable of being established by raises the question, How is an ultimate evidence; and it thus takes for granted fact of consciousness distinguished ? that not unly may all derivative truths All beliefs, all conclusions, all imagina- be proved, but also that proof may be tions even, are facts of consciousness; given of the truths from which they are and if some are to be accepted as derived, down to the very deepest. The beyond question because ultimate, while result of thus refusing to recognize some others are not to be accepted as beyond ( fundamental unproved truth, is simply can USE AND BEAUTY 125 to leave its fabric of conclusions without · The expression of divergence from a base. The giving proof of any special Mr. Mill on this fundamental question, proposition, is the assimilation of it to I have undertaken with reluctance, only some class of propositions known to be on finding it needful, both on personal true. If any doubt arises respecting the and on general grounds, that his stategeneral proposition which is cited in ments and arguments should be met. justification of this special proposition, For two reasons, especially, I regret the course is to show that this general having thus to contend against the docproposition is deducible from a pro- trine of one whose agreement I should position or propositions of still greater value more than that of any other generality; and if pressed for proof of thinker. In the first place, the differeach such still more general proposition, ence is, I believe, superficial rather than the only resource is to repeat the substantial; for it is in the interests process. Is this process endless? If of the Experience-Hypothesis that Mr. so, nothing can be proved—the whole Mill opposes the alleged criterion of series of propositions depends on some truth; while it is as harmonizing with unassignahle proposition. Has the pro- the Experience-Hypothdsis, and reconcess an end? If so, there must even- ! ciling it with all the facts, that, I defend tully be reached a widest proposition, this criterion. In the second place, one which cannot be justified by showing this lengthened exposition of it single that it is included by any wider-one point of difference, unaccompanied by which cannot be proved. Or to put the an exposition of the numerous points of argument otherwise : Every inference concurrence, unavoidably produces an depends on premises; every premise, if appearance of dissent very far greater it admits of proof, depends on other than that which exists. Mr. Mill, howpremises ; and if the proof of the proof ever, whose unswerving allegiance to be continually demanded, it must either truth is on all occasions so conspicuously end in an unproved promise, or in the displayed, will fully recognize the justifiacknowledgment that there cannot be cation for this utterance of disagreement reached any premise on which the entire on a matter of such profound imporseries of proofs depends. Hence Philo- tance, philosophically considered ; and sophy, if it does not avowedly stand on will not require any apology for the some datum underlying reason, must entire freedom with which I have critiacknowledge that it has nothing on cised his views while seeking to subwhich to stand. stantiate my own. ... USE AND BEAUTY (1852) In one of his essays, Emerson renparks, left behind, and become decorative that what Nature at one time provides nodes and spines. for use she afterwards turas to orna Ignoring the implied teleology, which ment; and he cites in illustration the does not here concern us, it has often structure of a Sca-Shell , in which the occurred to me that this same remark parts that have for a while formed the might be extended to the progress of mouth are at the next season of growth Humanity. Here, too, the appliances 1.26 USE. AND BEAUTY of one era serve as embellishments to exuviæ of past social states become the the next. Equally in institutions, creeds, ornaments of our landscapes; but that customs, and superstitions, we may trace past habits, manners, and arrangements , this evolution of beauty out of what was serve as ornamental elements in our once purely utilitarian. literafure. The tyrannies which, to the The contrast between the feeling with serfs who bore them, were harsh and which we regard portions of the Earth's dreary facts; the feuds which, to those surface still left in their original state, who took part in them, were very and the feeling with which the savage practical life - and - death affairs; the regarded them, is an instance that mailed, moated, sentinelled security comes first in order of time. If any one which was irksome to the nobles who walking over Hampstead Heath, will needed it; the imprisonments, and note how strongly its picturesqueness is tortures, and escapes, which were stern brought out by contrast with the sur- and quite prosaic realities to all conrounding cultivated fields and the cerned in them; have become to us masses of houses tying in the distance; material for romantic tales--material and will furthed reflect that, had this which, when woven into Ivanhoes and irregular gurise-covered surface extended Marmions, serves for amusement in on all sides to the horizon, it would leisure hours, and becomes poetical by have looked dreary and prosaic rather contrast with our daily lives. than pleasing ; he will see that to the Thus, also, is it with extinct creeds. primitive man a country so clothed Stonehenge, which in the hands of the presented no beauty at all. To him it Druids had a governmental influence was merely a haunt of wild animals, and over men, is in our day a place for a ground out of which roots might be antiquarian excursions; and its attendug. What have become for us places dant priests are worked up into an of relaxation and enjoyment--places for opera. Greck sculptures, preserved for afternoon strolls and for gathering flowers their beauty in our galleries of art, and were his places for labour and food, copied for the decoration of pleasure probably arousing in his mind none but grounds and entrance halls, once lived utilitarian associations. in men's minds as gods demanding Ruined castles. afford obvious inobedience; as did also the grotesque stances of this metamorphosis of the idols that now amuse the visitors to our useful into the beautiful. To feudal barons and their retainers, security was Equally marked is this change of the chief, if not the only end, sought in function in the case of minor superchoosing the sites and styles of their stitions. The fairy lore, which in past strongholds. Probably they aimed as times was matter of grave belief, and little at the picturesque as do the held sway over people's conduct, has builders of cheap brick houses in our since been transformed into ornament modern towns. Yet what were crected for A Midsummer Night's Dream, The for shelter and safety, and what in those Tempest, The Fairy Queen, and endless early days fulfilled an important function small tales and poems; and still affords in the social economy, Have now assumed subjects for children's story-books, themes a purely ornamental character. They for ballets, and plots for Planché's serve as scenes for picnics ; pictures of burlesques: Gnomes, and genii, and them decorate our drawing-rooms; and afrits, losing, their terrors, give piquancy each supplies its surrounding districts to the woodcuts in our illustrated edition with legends for Christmas Eve. " of the Arabian Nights. While ghost- On following out the train of thought stories, and tales oï ntàgic and witchsuggested by this last illustration, we craft, after serving to amuse boys and may see that not only do the material l girls in their leisure hours, become museums, . USE AND BEAUTY 127 matter for jocose allusions that enliven things that what has performed some tea-table conversation. active function in society during one era Even our serious literature and our becomes available for ornament in a speeches are relieved by ortaments subsequent one; it almost follows that; drawn from such sources. A freek conversely, whatever is performing some myth is often used as a parallel by which active function now, or has very recently to vary the monotony of some grave performed one, does not possess the argument. The lecturer breaks the ornamental character; and is,' consedead level of his practical discourse by quently, inapplicable to any Jurpose of illustrations drawn from bygone customs, which beauty is the cim, or of which it events, or beliefs. And metaphors, is a needful ingredient. similarly derived, give brilliancy to Still more reasonable will this conclupolitical orations, and to Times leading sion appear, when we consider the articles, nature of this process by which the Indeed, on,careful inquiry, I think it useful is changed into the ornamental. will be found that we turn to purposes An essential pre-requisite to all beauty is of beauty most bygone phenomena contrast. To obtain artistic effect, light which are at all conspicuous. The must be put in juxtaposition with shade, bits of great men in our libraries, and bright colours with dull colours, a fretted their tombs in our churches; the once surface with a plain onc. Forte passages useful but now purely ornamental in music must have piano passages to heraldic symbols; the monks, nuns, and relieve them; concerted pieces need convents, which give interest to a certain interspersing with solos; and rich chords class of novels; the "bronze mediaval must not be continuously repeated. In soldiers used for embellishing drawing- the drama we demand contrast of charrooms; the gilt Apollos which recline acters, of scenes, of sentiment, of style. on time-pieces; the narratives that serve In prose composition eloquent as plots for our great dramas; and the passage should have a comparatively events that afford subjects for historical plain setting; and in poems great effect pictures ;-—these and such like illus- is obtained by occasional change of trations of the metamorphosis of the versification. This general principle useful into the beautiful, are so numerous will, I think, explain the transformation as to suggest that, did we search dili- of the bygone useful into the present gently enough, we should find that in beautiful. It is by virtue of their some place, or under some circum contrast with our present modes of life, stance, nearly every notable product of that past modes of life look interesting the past has assumed a decorative and romantic. Just as a picnic, which character. is a temporary return to an aboriginal And here the mention of historical condition, derives, from its unfamiliarity, pictures reminds me that an inference a certain poetry which it would not have may be drawn from all this, bearing were it habitual, so, everything ancient directly on the practice of art. It has of gains, from its relative novelty to us, an late years been a frequent criticism upon element of interest. Gradually as, by our historical painters, that they err in the growth of society, we leave behind choosing their subjects from the past; the customs, manners, arrangements, and and that, would they found Åge gaine all the products, material and mental, of and vital school, they muqt Fender on a bygone age--gradually as we recede canvas the life and deeds and aims of from these so far that there arises a our own time. If, however, there be conspicuous difference between them any significance in the foregoing facts, it, and those we are familiar with ; so seems doubtful whether this criticism is gradually do they begin to assume to us a just one. For if it be the cou se a poetical aspect, and become applicable an

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for ornament. And hence it follows of art.
I say relatively because an
that things and events which are close incident of modern life or even of daily
to us, and which are accompanied by life may acquire adequate fitness for
associations of ideas not markedly con art purposes by an unusualness of some
trasted with our ordinary associations, other kind than that due to unlikeness
are relatively inappropriate for purposes i between past and present.
MAJU
H
Estd. 1902,
AJU, HOWDA
.

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Front matter

Seven Essays