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·IMPERIAL GAZETTEER.
UNITED PROVINCES,
RIVERS, MOUNTAINS, LAKES, CANALS, AND
--HISTORIC-AREAS.
allah nund:
PRINTED AT TUL GOVCINAFNT 1 RLBS, UNIID IROVINCES
1905

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·RIVERS, MOUNTAINS, LAKES, CANALS, AND HISTORIC ARXAS. CONTENT. PACE. 1 30 141 .. v! I. 1 1 7 18. 8 ht #R 100 .16 RIVERS Ganges Solani Ramganga, West Kali Nadi, East Gumti Sai Tons, Southern Banganga... Tons, Eastern Karamnasa ... lao 140 > 1 13 10 30. 11 18. 16. 14 .. I. .. . . I. 10 1.t ... $. . 1 . IS PO . . .. 1. 1.! ... ** . 9 16 17 18. 18. 19 20 21 22 16. 23 16. 26 15. 26 27 it. .. .. . 0 at UUR Jumna Tong, Northern Hindan Kali Nadi, West Chambal... Banganga Betwa Dhasan Ken Sard& Chauka Kauriala Girwa Gogra Rapti Banganga Gandak, Great Gandak, Little MOUNTAINB Himalaya Mountains, Configuntiop Ilora and Faun3 Gcology Ethnology .. Siwalik Hills 10. .. 9. 1 .. ... . ... .. 1+ DIO 2.1 1 40 .. 000 510 15. 27 111 066 001 ut 40 ·CONTENTS. 1 PLE. $$$ } 32 33 fb. zl. !! 16. 35 36 Its 37 ... 2 1t ib, 38 $ mon 92 t. Vindhya Hillser (ieographicri client and position for Cragraphical fraturos Outlying 2014 Klevation aniràinige Gcological formatiul Forests Mythologica) 1. lsociations Hoimur Hills Satpuras, East Iun.. Coluna Dahar Lako... Baklira Tal Suraha Tai ... ** CAYAIS. Ganges Canal, Upper i G2105 Caual, Lowor Jumia Canal, Lasterd , Agra Canal ins LISTORIC ANAS. Age Province Bastardo Pundelkhand (British Physical featurae "" re The Bundolas word Population L. Agriculture Special logislation Bibliography.. Doab Hindustan Kosala Maoliya Desa WTaga na Filewat ... Ondh Physical 1spoots River system ani laks Sconory", " History -Logends lis Buddlisnis y Međiteyay pelind Early Iulit diadan póriod The Dugia' Lighteenth konturers ni 'History 16 4S 20. 62 > . 53 . 55 . et 66 1r & " 31 02 + 01 th $ -- ·iii CONTENTS. PAGC 15 35 996 I 11. 03 10. 10. 05 06 16. 67 68 69 ib 70 10. 71 38. 38. . Ondh-(concluded). Saadet Klan Safdar Jang Shujs-ud-daula Asaf ud-daula Saadat Ali Khan Later rulers Annexation Mutiny Arch wology Population-Density Religion Language Caste, tribe and race Communications Administration Land revcate Talukdars' Reljef Act, 1870 Setticd Estates Act, 1900 Subordinate rights Settlement Occupancy riguts The statutory tenant Judicial Bibliography Panchala Rohilkhand Physical features History Population Surasena pe 3. ** 74 76 36. 70 3. 77 78 79 38 .. . ... . 1.1 . co . . . .N. 80 16. 85 ... 20 10 is. 11 140 10 20 36.

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·RIVERS. *Ganges (Gang) - The great river in northern India which carrios off the drainage of the southorn Himalayas, and also & smaller volume received from the northern and eastern slopos of tho Vindhyas. It rises in the Tehri Stato, in 30° 55' N. and 79° 71 E., where it issues under the name of Bhāgirathi from an ico cave at the foot of a Himālayan snow-bod near Gangotri, 13,800 feet above the lovel of the sea. During its carlior course it recoives the Jāhnavi from the north-west, and subsequently tho Alaknandā, after which the united stream is callod Ganges. It pierces the Himālayas at Sukhi, and turns south-west to Hardwār. From this point it flows south and south-cast betweon the Meorut and Rohilkhand Divisions of the United Provinces, and then separates the latter from the Agra Division, and flows through the eastern part of the Farrukhābād District. It next forms tho south-western boundary of Oudh and then crosses tho Districts of Allahābād, Mirzāpur, Benaros, and Ghāzīpur, after which it divides the Districts of Ghazipur and Ballia from Bengal. The Ganges is a considerablo rivor oveu at Hardwār, where tho UPPER GANGES CANAL starts, and it is tapped again at Naraura for the LOWER GANGES CANAL. It thus supplies the largest irrigation works in the United Provinces, and is also the sourco of the watersupply of the large cities of Meerut (by a canal), Cawnpore, and Bouarcs. Tho largest tributaries are the RAMGANGA, (Farrukhjābād), Juana and Toxa (Allahābād), Guari (Ghāzīpur), and Goana (Balliñ), while smaller aflluents are the Mălin (Bijuor), * Bürhyanga (Aloorut), Mahiwa (Bu laun), Sot or Yar-i-Wafadar (Shāhjahīnpur), Burhgangi and Kili Nali (Farrukhābād), Isan (Cawnporo), Pindú (Fatehpur), Jirgo (Mirzīpur), Barna (Benares), Gangi and Basu (Ghizīpur), and Chhotī Surjū (Ballia), thich is called the Tons in its uppor portion. Tho principal towns on or noar its banks aro Srinagar (on tho Alakuanda branch), Hardnīr, Garhmuktesar, Anûpshahr, Soron, Farrukhābād (now left somo miles away), Kanauj, Bilhaur, Bithûr, Cownporo, Dalmau, Minikpur, Karī, Allahābūd, Sirsā, Mirzīpur, Chunīr, Benarcs, Ghazipur, and Balliā. • To be reproduced in the Bengal Provincial solume.-2. B. 1L

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·* RIVERS. Ganges (Gangā). The great river in noi thorn India which carries off the drainage of the southern Himīlayas, and also a smaller volume received from the northern and eastern slopes of the Viudhyas It rises in the Tehri Stato, in 30° 55' N. and 79° 7' E, where it issues under the name of Bhāgirathi from an ice cave at the foot of a Himalayan snow-bed near Gangotri, 13,800 feet above the level of the sea During its earlier course it recoives the Jahnavi from the porth-west, and subsequently the Alahnandi, after which the united stroam 18 called Ganges It pierces tho Hımīlayas at Sulhi, and turns south-west to Hardwār From this point it flops south and south east between the Meerut and Rohilkhand Divisions of the United Provinces, and then soparatos the latter from tho Agra Division, and flows through the eastern part of the Farrukhābād District. It next forms the south-western boundary of Oudh an'l then crosses the Districts of Allahībad, Mirzīpur, Bonaros, and Ghazīpur, after which it divides the Districts of Ghāzīpur and Ballii from Bengal Tho Ganges 18 a considerable river oven at Hardy ir, where tho UPPER GANGES CANAL starts, and it is tapped again at Naraura for the Lower: Ganars CANAL It thus supplies the largest irrigation works in the United Provincos, and 18 also the sourco of the watersupply of tho largo cities of Meerut (by a canal), Cawnpore, and Benares The largest tributaries are tho RAJGANGA, (Farrukhibid), Juuna and Toxs (Allahībād), GUATI (Ghazipur), and Goors (Ballıī), while smaller afluents are the Malin (Bijuor), Būrhyangi (locrut), Mahiira (Bu laun), Sot or Yár-1-Wafidár (Shihjahınpur), Būrhgangi and Kali Nali (Tarrahhrbūd), Isan (Cawnpore), Pındū (Tatehpur), Jirgo (Mirzīpur), Barni (Benaroq), Gangi and Basu (Ghizīpur), and Chhoti Sarjū (Ballıā), hich is callod tho Tons in its uppor portion. The principal towns on or near its banks are Srinagar (on the Alaknanda branch), Hordu ir, Garhmuktesar, Anūpshahr, Soron, l'arrukhibād (now left some miles away), Kanauj, Bilhaur, Bitbūr, Cauzpopo, Dalmau, Minibpur, Karī, Allahābād, Sirsā, Mirzipur, Chunīr, Bonares, Ghizipur, and Ballıă. To be reproduced in the Bengal Provincial rolanc.-R B IL ·NIVERS, w impinging on the Shülábad District in Bengal, in V. $:;° 52' E., the Ganges forms the boundary of District, separating it from the United Provinces, til ít ze is it tributary the GOGRA on the north bank. It ? mitowards receives another important tributery, the 80! the soutli, then pussos Patna, and obtains another * to its volume from the GANDAR, thich rises in Nepal. in the cast, it reccires the Kosi, and then, skirting | mnhil DJills, turns sharply to the south, passing near of the ruined city of Gaur. By this time it has ap to within 240 miles of the sea. About 20 miles fu tho Ganges begins to branch out oper the lerel com this spot marks the commencement of the delta 220 miles in a straight line, or nearly 300 by the of the river, from the Bay of Bengal. The prese chaunel, assuming the name of the PADMA, proseeds in eastorly direction past Pabna to Goalundo, where it by the Jamuna, the main stream of the BRAHMAPUTI bed is here sevoral miles wide, and the river is split several channels, flowing between constantly shifting san and islands. In the rains the current is very strong al steamers fiud difficulty in making headway against it. confluence of water rushes towards the sca, joining the MEGHNA estuary in 23° 13' N., and 90° 33' E., after the Gang had a course of 540 miles in Bengal, and 1,557 miles from its The Meghnă estuary, howevor, is only the larges most easterly of a great number of Ganges mouths which may be mentioned the HOOGHLY, Mātla, Raimi Mālancha and HARINGHATA. The most westerly and the important for navigation is the Hooghly, on which s Calcutta. This receives the water of the three yesteri distributary channels that start from the parent Gang or near Murshidābād District, and it is to this exit by channels of the Bhagirathi and Hooghly that the sanctit the river clings. Between the Hooghly on tho west and Meghnă on the east lies the Ganges delta. The uppor aj of this consists of the Districts of Murshidabad, Nadiá, Jes: and the 24-Parganas. These Districts have for the most been raised above the level of periodical inundation hoy TI

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·4 RIVERS. build any structure of a large or permanent character on the margin. The junction of two or more rivers, called Prayāg, is usually considered sacred, but that of the Ganges and Jumna at Allahābād, where according to popular belief the SARASWATI, which sinks away in the sands at Bhatner in Rājputāna, reappears from its subterranean course, is one of the most holy places in India. Here, on the spit of land below the fort, a large bathing festival is held annually in the month of Māgh (January). Every twelve years the fair is called the kumbh melä, as it is held when Jupiter is in Aquarius (kumbh), and the sun in Arics, and the efficacy of bathing is increased, large numbers of pilgrims from every part of India flocking to the junction. At the last Kumbh in 1894 the attendance at the fair was estimated at a million to a million and-a-half. The holiest places upon its banks, in Bengal, are SONPUR at its confluence with the Gandak, and SAGAR ISLAND at the month of the Hooghly. Both places are the scene of annual bathing festivals, which are frcquented by thousands of pilgrims from all parts of India. Even at the present day, the six years' pilgrimage from the source of the Ganges to the mouth, and back again, known as pradakshina, is performed by many; and a few fanatical devotees may yet be seen wearily accomplishing this meritorious penance by measuring their length. Most rivers in India have sanctity attached to them, but the Ganges is considered especially sacred. Its importance in Vedic literature is slight, but in the epics and Purānas it receives much attention. Sagar, the thirty-eighth king of tho Solar Dynasty, had performed the great horse sacrifice (Asvamedha) ninety-nine times. In this ceremony the horse wandered over the world, unhaltered and never guided or driven. Every country it entered was conquered by the folloiring army, and on its return it was sacrificed to the gods. When Sagar drove out a horse for the hundredth time, the god Indra stolo it and tied it up in Pātāl (the under world) near tho pilaco whero & sage, Kapila Muni, yas meditating. Sagar had tro trives, ono of whom borc Asmanjas, and the other had sixty thousand sons who were following the horse. The latter found it, and belioving Kapila was the thief abusod him, and woro consumod to aslıcs in ·RIVERS, 5 consequence of the sage's curse Ansmān, son of Asmanjas, had gone in search of his uncles, and finding the horso took at homo Garur, the mythical half man, half-bırd, king of the snakes, told him that the sin of those who had abused Kapıla could best bo romoted by bringing to earth the Ganges, which then flowed in heaven (Brahma Lok) In spite of much prayer and the practice of austerities by Ansmān and his son, Dalıp, this could not bo brought about, but Bhagirath, son of Dalıp, persuaded Brahma to grant him a boon, and he chose the long sought permission to allow the Ganges to flow on this world Brahmă agreed, but told Bhagirath that the earth could not sustain the shorl, and advised him to consult Siva, who consented to break the forco of the river by allowing it to fall on his head The 100- cayern beneath the glarier, from which the stream descends, 18 represented as tho tangled hair of Siva Ono branch, the Alandakını, still flows through Brahmı Lok, a second, which passes through Patil, washed away the sin of the sixty thousand, and the third branch is the Gangos * Besides the plares which have already been roferrod to, Gangotri, near the sourco, Deva Prayag, Garhmuhtosar, Soron, Dalmau, and Benares are the principal bathing resorts The sanctity of tho river still exists orory where, though arcording to prophecy it should have passed away to the Narbadı å for years ago Dying persons aro talon to expiro on its Lanl s, corpses aro carried to be burnod thero, and ashes of the deal aro brought from long distances to be thrown in its holy strcam, in the hope of attaining otornal bliss for tho deceasod About the timo of the regular festivals the roads to the river aro crowded with pilgrims, who kcop up on incossant cry of salutation to tho great goddess (Ganga hi ha zai) On their roturn thoy carry alray bottlos of tho sacrod Tator to thoir less fortunato rolations Till within tho last forty years of tho 10th century, nflor which tho extension of ra liris provide a quisker means of transport, the magnificent stream of the Gang og formel almost the solo channel of traffic Lotwcon upper mon mul tho act board, and high masonry landing pln is for it in re atill ex nt Allahubid anl other plancs lower dows, tsy ho thay are do • A variant of tho 1 gen I rerunt. 14 al 1 lavag belo jurifed by the DHAQILATUT, front vis ·6 RIVERS, longer used. The products of the river valloy, and the cotton of the Central Provinces and Central India, used formerly to be convoyed by this route to Calcutta. At present it is chiefly used for tho carriage of wood and grain in many parts of its coursc, and also of oilseeds, sallpetre, stone and sugar in the castorn portion of tho Unitod Provinces. Tho principal import to thoso Provinces is rice, but manufactured goods and metals aro also carried in considerablo quantities. The canal dam at Narnurn in tho Bulandshahr District has stopped through traffic between the upper and lower courses of the Ganges. In Bengnl, however, the Gangos may yet rank as one of tho most frequentod waterways in the Torld. The downward traffic is most brisk in the rainy season, when the river comes down in flood. During the rest of the year the boats make their way back up stream, often without cargoes, either helped ly a favourable wind or laboriously towed along the bank. Tho most important traffic in Bengal is in food-grains and oil-seeds, and, though no complete comparative statistics are available, it appears probable that the astual amount of traffic on the Ganges by nativo craft has not at all diminished since the opening of the railway, to which the river is not only a rival, but a feeder. Stations situated on the banks form centres of collection and distribution for the surrounding country, and fishing villages like Goalundo have by this . means been raised into river marts of the first magnitude. Steamer services ply along its whole course within Bengal, and many towiis lie on its banks, the most important boing PATNA and MONGHYR. Six railway bridges cross the river: near Roorkee, ali Garhmuktesar (2,332 feet), Räjghāt, Cawnpore (2,900 fect), and Benares (3,518 feet), while the sixth, measuring 3,000 feet, was completed noar Allahābād in 1905. The normal flood discharge varies from 207,000 cubic feet per second, at Hardwār, where the bed is steep and only 2,500 feet wide, to 300,000 at Garhmuktesar and 150,000 at Naraura (width at canal weir 3,880 feet and about a mile above it). The bridge at Allahabad is designed to allow the discharge of a million cubic feet per second. The normal flood level falls from 942 feet above the sea at Hardwār to 287 at Allahābād.

·RII ERS 7 The upper Solāni --Rior in the United Provinces It rises in tho Siwalık hılls (30° 13' N, 77° 59' E) from the highest point of the Mohan Pass, flors south and south east through Saharanpur District, and then vinds through a corner of Muzaffarnagar, joining the GANGES after a course of about 55 miles part of the river and most of its tributaries are only wator couises almost diy except in the rains, when thoy carry off the drainage of the Suwalıhs in rushing torrents Near Roorhoo a magnificent aqueduct of brick, with 15 arches, each 50 feet rido, convoys the water of the UPPER GANGES Canal at & height of 24 feet above the bod of this river The Solanı has dono much damage by its flools and changes in its courso In Muzaffarnagar this was intensified by percolation from the Ganges Canal, but drainage cuts have improved the tract Ramganga West (also known as Ruhut oi Ruput in its uppor courses) -A river of the United Provinces, which rises, in the Garhwal District (30° 14' N, 80° 7' E) in the hills some distance south of the snowy range of the Himalayas It flows for about 90 miles with a very rapid fall, first through Garhwal, thon through Kumaun, and after entering Garhwal again dobouches on the plains near the Kilagarh fort, south of tho peak of the same nama, in the Bijnor District It 18 now a largo river, and 15 miles lonor down receives on its right bank, the Khoh which also rises in Garhirl Both these streams aro liable to sudden floo ls owing to heavy rain in thoir upper Cheir beds abound in quicksands and their channels are shifting The Romgang. passes south east through Moradabid District anl tho Rimpur State, into the Bareilly District, aftor which it flours south betweon Budaun and Shahjah unpur, and a ter crossing the last-montioned District, flows through tho castern tahsıl of Farrukh bud District and part of Hardou District into the GA\GES, a littlo aboro Kanauj, aftor & total course of alout 370 miles Throughout its course in the plains it ro cuves many small streams from the Tarai and a fou largor tributaries whoso sources aro in tho Him layas Tho Kosi in Moralibul District, tho Dojor i, formod by the Kichh , West Bahgul, Dbalrı and Bhaktı rivers in Bareilly, and tho Deoh. or Garrı Shahjahanpur aro tho most importaut of these Durmg its wholo courso in the plains the Rimgangflors courses ·6 RIVERS, longor used. The products of the river valloy, and the cotton of trio Central Provinces and Central India, used formerly to bo conveyed by this route to Calcutta. At present it is chiefly nise for the carriage of wood and grain in many parts of its course, and also of oilseeds, saltpetro, stone and sugar in the eastern portion of the United Provinces. The principal import to theso Provinces is rico, but manufactured goods and metals are also carried in considerablo quantitios. The canal dam at Naraura in tho Bulandshahr District has stopped through traffic between the upper aud lower courses of the Ganges. In Bengal, however, the Ganges may yet rank as one of the most frequented waterways in the world. The downward traffic is most brisk in the rainy season, when the river comes dorn in flood. During the rest of the year the boats make their way back up stream, often without cargoes, either helped by a favourable wind or laboriously towed along the bank. The most important tralli: in Bengal is in food-grains and oil-seeds, and, though no completo comparative statistics are available, it appears probable that the actual amount of traffic on the Gauges by native craft has not at all diminished since the opening of the railway, to which the river is not only a rival, but a feeder. Stations situated on the banks form centres of collection and distribution for the surrounding country, and fishing villages like Goalundo have by this . means been raised into river marts of the first magnitude. Steamer services ply along its whole course within Bengal, and many towns lie on its banks, the most important boing PATNA and MONGHYR. Six railway bridges cross the river : near Roorkee, at Garhmuktesar (2,332 fect), Rājghāt, Cawnpore (2,900 fect), and Benares (3,518 feet), while the sixth, measuring 3,000 feet, was completed near Allahābād in 1905. The normal flood discharge varies from 207,000 cubic feet per second, at Hardwar, where the bed is steep and only 2,500 feet wide, to 300,000 at Garhmuktesar and 150,000 at Naraura (width at canal weir 3,880 feet and about a mile above it). The bridge at Allahābād is designed to allow the discharge of a million cubic feet per second, The normal flood level falls from 942 feet above the sea at Hardwăr to 287 at Allahābād.

·RIVERS, 7 Solāni.-River in the United Provinces. It rises in tho Simālik.hills (30° 13' N., 77° 59' E.) from the highest point of the Mohan Pass, flows south and south-east through Sahālanpur District, and then winds through a corner of Muzaffarnagar, joining the GANGES after a course of about 55 miles. The upper part of the river and most of its tributaries are only watercouises, almost dry except in the rains, when they carry off the drainage of the Sivāliks in rushing torrents. Near Roorkco a magnificent aqueduct of brick, with 15 arches, each 50 foet wide, conveys the water of the UPPER GANGES CANAL at a height of 24 feet above the bod of this river. The Solāni has dono much damage by its floods and changes in its course. In Muzaffarnagar this was intensified by percolation from the Ganges Canal, but drainage cuts havo improved the tract. Ramgangā West (also known as Ruhut or Ruput in its uppor courses). A rivor of the United Provinces, which rises in the Garhwal District (30° 14' N., 80° 7' E.) in tho hills como distance south of the snowy range of the Himalayas. It flows for about 90 miles with a very rapid fall, first through Garhwal, then through Kumaun, and after entering Garhwāl again debouches on the plains near the Kālāgarh fort, south of tho peak of the samo name, in the Bijnor District. It is now a large river, and 15 miles lower down receives on its right bank the Khoh which also rises in Garhivāl. Both these streams are liable to sudden flools owing to heavy rain in their upper Their beds abound in quicksands, ond their channels 210 shifting. Tho Rimgangī passes south-east through Morādübid District and the Rimpur State, into the Barcilly District, aftor which it flors south between Budaun and Shahjahānpur, and aftor crossing the last-mentioned District, flows through thó castern tahsil of Farrukhābād District and part of Hardoi District into the GaxGES, a littlo aboro Kanauj, aftor a total course of alont 370 miles. Throughout its course in tho pluins it roccives many small stroams from the Tarai aud a fow largor tributarios whoso sources aro in the Himilayas. Tho Kosi in Moradabil District, tho Dojoră, formed by tho Kichha, West Buhgul, Dhakri and Bhakri risors in Bareilly, and the Deoli or Garri in Shihjahinpur are tho most important of these During its wholo courso in the plains the po courses. Y ·6 RIVERS, longer used. The products of the river valley, and the cotton of the Central Provinces and Central India, used formerly to be conveyed by this route to Calcutta. At present it is chiefly used for the carriage of wood and grain in many parts of its course, and also of oilseeds, saltpetre, stone and sugar in the eastorn portion of the United Provinces. The principal import to these Provinces is rice, but manufactured goods and metals are also carried in considerable quantities. The canal dam at Naraura in the Bulandshahr District has stopped through traffic between the upper and lower courses of the Ganges. In Bengal, however, the Ganges may yet rank as one of the most frequented waterways in the world. The downward traffic is most brisk in the rainy season, when the river comes down in food. During the rest of the year the boats make their way back up stream, often without cargoes, either helped by a favourable wind or laboriously towed along the bank. The most important traffis in Bengal is in food-grains and oil-seeds, and, though no complete comparative statistics are available, it appears probable that the actual amount of traffic on the Ganges by native craft has not at all diminished since the opening of the railway, to which the river is not only & rival, but a feeder. Stations situated on the banks form centres of collection and distribution for the surrounding country, and fishing villages like Goalundo have by this . means been raised into river marts of the first magnitude. Steamer services ply along its whole course within Bengal, and many towns lie on its banks, the most important being PATXA and MONGHYR. Six railway bridges cross the river : near Roorkee, at Garhmuktesar (2,332 feet), Rājghāt, Cawnpore (2,900 feet), and Benares (3,518 feet), while the sixth, measuring 3,000 foot, was completed near Allahābād in 1905. The normal flood discharge varies from 207,000 cubic feet per second, at Hardwăr, where the bed is steep and only 2,500 feet wide, to 300,000 at Garhmuktesar and 150,000 at Naraura (width at canal teir 3,880 feet and about a mile above it). The bridge at Allabábad is designed to allow the discharge of a million cubic feet per second, The normal flood level falls from 942 feet above the sea at Hardyār to 287 at Allahābād.

·RIVERS. 7 Solāni.-River in the United Provinces. It rises in the Siválik,hills (30° 13' N., 77° 59' E.) from the highest point of the Mohan Pass, flows south and south-east through Sahāranpur District, and then winds through a corner of Muzaffurnagar, joining the GANGES after a course of about 55 miles. The upper part of the river and most of its tributaries are only watercouises, almost dry except in the rains, when they carry off the drainage of the Siwāliks in rushing torrents. Near Roorkeo a magnificent aqueduct of brick, with 15 arches, each 50 feet wide, conveys the water of the UPPER GANGES CANAL at a height of 21 feet above the bed of this river. The Solāni has dono much damage by its floods and changes in its course. In Muzaffarnagar this was intensified by percolation from the Ganges Canal, but drainage cuts have improved the tract. Rămganga West (also known as Ruhut or Ruput in its. uppor courses). A river of the United Provinces, which rises in the Garhwal District (30° 14' N., 80° 7' E.) in the hills some distance south of the snowy range of the Himālayas. It flows for about 90 miles with a very rapid fall, first through Garhwāl, then through Kumaun, and after entering Garhwal again debouches on the plains near the Kālāgarh fort, south of tho peak of the same name, in the Bijnor District. It is now a large river, and 15 miles lower down receives on its right bank tho Khoh which also rises in Garhivāl. Both these streams aro liable to sudden flools owing to heavy rain in their upper Their beds abound in quicksanrls, ond their channels are shifting. The Rāmgangī passes south-east through Morādābād District and the Rāmpur State, into the Bareilly District, aftor which it flows south between Budaun and Shāhjahānpur, and aftor crossing the last-montioned District, flors through tho casteru tahsil of Farrukhābād District and part of Hardoi District into the Ganges, a little aboro Kanauj, after a total courso of alout 370 miles. Throughout its course in the plains it receives many small strooms from the Tarai aud a few larger tributaries whoso sources are in the Himalayas. The Kosi in Morādābādi District, the Dojorai, formed the Kichha, West Balgul, Dhakri and Bhakri rivors in Bareilly, and the Deoha or Garrī in Shahjahanpur are tho most important of these. During its whole course in the plains the Rūmgangi fone in courses.

·8 NIVERS. a shifting and uncortain channel. It changed its the middle of the 19th century so as to run into and pass Bareilly city; in the rains of 1871 it former courso 10 miles distant, but has once more al the city. During floods it spreads out widely on eit and carves out now channels for itself, often Vi fertility of the land covered by a layer of sand. It usod for irrigation. Kali Nadi East (properly Kilindi, corrupted, :, Nadi or black river by Persian writers)...A river through the Muzaffarnagar, Meerut, Bulandshahr, Alin and Farrukhābād Districts of the United Provinces. under the name Nagan in Muzaffarnagar (29° 19' N., E.), but in this District as well as in Meerut its bed is *** and ofton dry. In Bulandshahr it becomes a running through a valley marked by high banks, and name of Kali Nali. Its course then changes from a south-east till it joins the Ganges not far above Kn. miles from its source. The valley of the river in and in Etah, Mainpurī, and Farrukhābād, has suffus. excessive rainfall, the effects in Bulandshahr being exay by the use of the rivor as a canal escape. Of late year over, the Irrigation department has carried out a dei works to improve the flow, and deterioration has stop, 1884 a flood swept away the Nadrai aqueduct in Etah, carries the Lover Ganges Canal over this river, and of wet seasons caused the land in the valley to deteric much that large reductions of assessment were made. T has now recovered largely. Gumti-(Gomati; possibly the Sambos of Arrian). which rises (28° 35' N., 80° 7' E.) nearly 20 miles east of - in the United Provinces District of that name. For ab miles the river-bed is a mere depression, which dries up in weather. A small stream, the Gaihai, then joins it, and low channel is formed, while after it receives the Jo miles from its source), the Gumtī runs in a regular stream never dries up. A few miles further down the Pavāyān tramway crosses by a bridge 250 feet long, and the Shah - Thani modd hy a hridge 210 feet long. The river +! 1 Y ·RIVERS. sluggishly through the Shahjahanpur and Kheri Districts, with a winding course and a network of channels, choked with teeds and aquatic plants. Belor Muhamdi it changes its character, and has a well-lefined channel 100 to 200 feet vide, with banks increasing in height to 60 feet at Lucknots, 180 miles from the sourco. Tro considerable affluents, the Kathnã (90 miles long) and Sarāyān (120 miles) join the Gumtī in Sītāpur. At. Lucknow it is orossed by two railway bridges, and one stono, ono brick and two iron road bridges. From Lucknow its conrse winds much through the Bāra Banki, Sultanpur, and Jaunpur Districts, the distance by river from Lucknow to Jaunpur being almost double the distance in a direct line. The breadth of tho river increases from 120 to 200 feet in Lucknow and Bāra Banki, to 200 to 400 in Sultanpur, and to 400 to 600 in Jaunpur. At Jaunpur it is crossed by a magnificent stone bridge, 051 feet long, built at the end of the 16th century, and also by & railway bridge. Below Jaunpur the Sai, a large river which runs parallel to tho Gumti for over 350 miles, joins it at mile 433. From this point the rivor flows through the Jaunpur and Benares Districts and joins the Ganges at Saidpur in Ghāzipur District, after a total course of nearly 500 miles. The Gumtī with its tributarios drains about 7,500 square miles, and is especially liablo to sovero floods, causing much damage. A careful survey of the rivor was made after the flood of 1894. It then appeared that the floods are entirely due to excessive rainfall in tho catchment area, and not to spill from other rivers. At Lucknow the fall is only nine inches per mile and at Jaunpur only six inches, so that flood wator cannot bo carried off fast enough. After heavy rain in Soptomber 1894, the river rose at Lucknow to a height of twentytwo fcot above the ordinary low rater level. There is a tradition that in 1774 the Gumti rose so high at Jaunpur that boats sailed ovor the bridge, the parapet of which is 27 fect ahovo low water lovel. In 1871 tho Fator rose there to a height of nino fect abovo the parapet ; 4,000 houses were destroyed in tho city, ani nearly 3,000 in 230 villages in the District. In September, 1891, tho river vas 27 feet above loj vater lovel and 1,378 houses in tho city were partly or completely destroyerl. The Ciumti is navigable as far up as Muhamdí, but traffic is not very cousillcrallo. Grain, fuel, and thatching-htassare cerias ·traverses that District and Retah State for 40 miles, joinin en 10 RIVERS, downl-stroam and stono is taken up. It is not used for irrigation. Sai..Ariver rising in tho Hardoi District of Oudh between the Gumtī and Ganges (27° 46' N., 800 g: E.). It flows in a tortuous south-oasterly Cirection through the Oudh Districts of Uno, Rão Bareli, and Partābgarh, and enters the Province of Agra in Jaunpur District, falling into the GUMTI ten miles beyond Jaunpur town after a course of over 350 miles. In the rains small boats can pass up as far as Rãe Barelī town. The drainago falling into the Sai is chiefly that from the north, and its bed is usually too deop to afford irrigation. * Tons Southern ( Tamasā). A river rising in the Kaimur range in Maihar State, Central India (24° N., 80° 25' E.). Its nominal source is tho Tamasā Kund, a tauk standing on the Kaimur Hills, 2,000 feet above the sea. From this point the river follows a general north-easterly course for about 120 miles, and after traversing the rough hilly country round Maihar, flows through the level fertile country of Rewah. Here it is joined by the Satnā, and 40 miles lower down it reaches the edge of the plateau at Purwa, where with its affluents, the Bihar and Chachaiâ, it forms a magnificent series of waterfalls. The greatest fall is that of the Bihar, which dashes over the precipice in a great shcet of water, 600 feet broad and 370 high. The fall of the Tons itself has a descent of only about 200 feet. The Tons then flows through a level plain, spreading into a wide stream with frequent long deep reaches, and enters the United Provinces at Deora in the Allahābād District. After a northeasterly course of about 44 miles, it joins the Ganges 19 miles below the junction of the latter with the Jumna, its total length being 165 miles. The principal tributary is the Belan, which rises in Mirzapur and drains the central plateau of that District, After a picturesque westerly. course of 95 miles, including a waterfall 100 feet in height, the Belan enters Allahābād and Tons, where it crosses the border between Revah and Allahābād. A bridge 1,206 feet long with seven spans carries the East Indian Railway over the Tons near its junction with the Ganges. Navigation by boats of any size is confined to the * To appear also in the Central India Provincial Folume. R. B.

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·12 RITERS. sius liy a saint who collected water from all the sacred streams of the world and washed him. The bath took place at the spot whoro the river issucs, and this bears for ever the taint of his guilt. The other legend makes Trisanka attempt to ascend into heaven by dint of long austerities. Half way he was susponded hea'l downwards by the gods, and a poisonous moisture crudes from his mouth into the river. The real cause of its ill- Înmo is probably tho fact that tho Karamnāsā vas the boundary of tho castorn kingrlom of Magadha, which is treated with contempt in Sanskrit literaturo becauso its inhabitants were not Aryans. Hindus living on its banks, except those of the highest castos, are not defiled by it, and carry more scrupulous travel- Iers ovor it for a consideration. There is no regular irrigation from tho Karamanāsī. * Son-(Sanskrit Suvarna or gold ; also called Hiranya- Püha or Hiranya-Vahu ; the Sonos of Arrian; also identified with the Erannoboas of Arrian). A large river, which, floring from the Amarkantak highlands of Central India (22° 42' N., 82° 4' E.) first north and then east, joins the GANGES ten miles alovo Dinaporo, after a course of about 487 miles. It rises noar tho Narbadā at Amarkantak in the Maikal rango, the hill on which its nominal source is located being called Son-bhadra or more commonly Son-mundā. Its Tratora possess great sanctity, the performance of sandhyā on its banks onsuring absolution and the attainment of heaven even to the slayer of a Brāhman. Legends about the stream are numerous, ono of tho most picturesque assigning the origin of the Son and Narback to two tears dropped by Brahmā, one on either side of the Amarkantak rango. The Son is frequently mentioned in Hindu literature, in the Rāmāyanas of Vālmīki and Tulsi Dās, the Bhāgurat and other prorks. Soon after leaving its source the river falls in a cascade over tlre edge of the Amarkantak plateau amid the most picturesque surroundings, and flows through the Bilaspur District of the Central Provinces till it enters Revah State at 32° 6' N. and 81° 59' E. From this point, till it leavės the Central India Agency after a course of 288 miles, the stream flows through a maze of valley and hill, for the most part through * To appear also in the Central Provinces, Central India and Bengal Provincial volumes.-R. B.

·18 RIVERS, Introw rocky channels, bat espanding in iarourable sois into magnificent deep broad reaches locally called Dabir, the tarczrite resorts of the fisher caste. Following at first a northeris course, near its junction tita the Mahanadi river at Sarsi it meets the bold scarp of the Kaivįr Range and is turned in a north fasterls dirztina, finally leaving the Agenes 5 miles wist of Dzorí silloges. In Central India three other afiuents of importance as nodrei, one on the left bank, the Johilli, which also nissa. Ingkariak, and enters at Barwilú village, and to rhieb join it on the right bank, the Banās at 24° 17' N. and $1° 31' E, and the Gore near Bardi. In the United Provinces the Son fons for about 55 miles from west to east across the Jirzāpar District, in a deep Talloy never more than eight or nine miles broal, orta tardoring to a gorgo, and receives from the south two tribes, the Rehand and the Kanhar. In the dry season it is shallow, but rapid, varies in breadth from 0 to 100 yards, hd is casily fordable. The Son enters Bengal in 24° 31' X. and 839 24 Eng and flors in a north-yesterly direction separating the Dinsizi oz Shāhābād from Palāmau, Gaya, and Paina till, ailm & CO. within Bengal of 114 miles, it falls into the Ganges in 24 and 840 59' E. So far as regards navigation, is het is mainly used for floating dono large rais of a a little timber. In the rainy season, narire tuzis tonnage occasionally proved for a short diz:21tp nie en but navigation is then rep'lerod daug-2023 by the violence of the flood, and during the rest of the TZV. impossible, oning to the small depth oi tieteen tohtori irrigation system known as the Sos Casus BH river, the water being distritated west to the LIDER and cast, to the Gayi and Patna Districts from all constructed at Dengl. In the lozky person erk; the Son is marked by several striking at bed is enormously ride, in some places Etrit Bering from bank to bank. During the prepare forms SIE 74 this broad channel is merely a testa fiche an insignificant stream that is 0.211r ·14 RIVERS. > The discharge of water at this time is estimated to fall as low as 620 cubic feet per second. But in the rainy season, and especially just after a storm has burst on the plateau of Central India, the river rises with incredible rapidity. The entire rainfall of an area of about 21,300 square miles requires to find an outlet by this channel, which frequently proves unable to carry off the total flood discharge, calculated at 830,000 cubic feet per second. These heavy floods are of short duration, seldom lasting for more than four days; but in recent years they have wrought much destruction in the lota lying plains of Shāhābād. Near the site of the great dam at Dehrī the Son is crossed by the Grand Trunk Road on a stone causeway; and lower down, Dear Koelvār, the East Indian Railway has been carried across on a lattice girder bridge. This bridge, begun for a single line of rails in 1855, and finally completed for a double line in 1870, has a total length of 4,199 feet from back to back of the abutments. The Son possesses historical interest as being probably identical with the Erannoboas of Greek geographers, which is thought to be a corruption of Hiranyabāhu, or the golden-armed” (a title of Siya), a name which the Son anciently bore. The old town of Pālibothrã or Pătaliputra corresponding to the modern PATNA was situated at the confluence of the Erannoboas and the Ganges, and, in addition, we know that the junction of the Son with the Ganges has been gradually receding westwards. old, channels of the Son have been found between Bankipore and Dinapore, and even below the present site of Patna. In the Bengal Atlas of 1772 the junction is marked near Maner, and it would seem to have been at the same spot in the 17th century; it is now (1904) about 10 miles higher up the Ganges. * Jumpa (Yamuna ; the Diamouna of Ptolemy, Jomares of Pliny, and Jobares of Arrian).- A great river of the Punjab and the United Provinces. Rising in the Tehrī State (31° 1' N., 78° 27' E.), eight miles west of the lofty mountain Bandarpūnch (20,731 feet), it flows past the sacred shrine of Jamnotrī, and winds through the outer Himālayas for 80 miles, receiving a few small streams. At the point where it flors into the Dün, the valley between the Himalayas and the Sivāliks, * To appear algo in the Punjab Provincial yolume.-12. 3.

·RIVERS 10 Its ) it rereives tho Tons, which 18 then the larger stream course now runs south- test for 22 miles, dividing the Kiardo Dun (Punjab) from Debra Dun (United Provinces), two large affluents, the Gırı from Sirmur on the west and the Asan from The Jumna pierces the Dehra on the east, join it here Siwalıks 95 miles from its source, at Khara, and divides the Ambala and Karnal Districts of the Punjab from Saharanpur and Muzaffarnagar in the United Provinces It 18 a large river at I aizabad and gives off the WESTERN and EASTERN JOMNA CANALS Near Bidhaul in Muzaffarnagar District it turns due Bouth, and runs in that direction for 80 miles, dividing the Meerut District from tho Punjab, till it rearhes Delhi Ten miles from Delhi it gives off the AGRA CAVAL from its western bank at Okhla It then turns south east for 27 miles to Danaur, when it again resumes a southerly course In this portion it receives on the east the Kotha Nali and the HINDAN, and on the west the Sabı Nadı Below Delhi the river forms the boundary between the Gurgaon District in the Punjab and Bulandshahr and Aligarh in the United Provinces It then enters the Muttra District and crossing it, turns east till the borders of the Agra District are rearhed Throughout its course in this District, where it receives the UTANGAN, and in It wah, the river winds in a remarkable manner, its bed lying deep between high banks which are furrowed by steep ravinos Just before the Jalaun District is rearhed the great Tiver CIAMBAL from Rjputina joins it, and the Jumna then divides the thieo Districts of Cawnpore, Fatehpur, and Allahabid from Jalaun, Hamirpur, and Banda In Cawnpore District tho Sengor, and in I'ntehpur tho Nun and Rind, flow into it, closo to Hamirpur it receiv os the Betwa and in the Banda District the KEY joins it It finally falls into the GANGES below Allahnbid, 860 miles from its source Tho Jumna, after issumg from the hills, has a longer course in the Unitod Provinces than the Ganges, but 18 not so large or important n stream, and docs not carry as much water as is required by the canals taken from it The supply 13, however, increased from the Ganges by means of the cut into the }{rYDAV, and the Irrigation Commission, 1901, has recently proposed to make more water from the Ganges available, la ·16 RIVERS. increasing the supply of tho Lowor Ganges Canal through a cut from tho Sanda. Tho Jumna supplies drinking water to the citics of Agra and Allahābād and has a poculiar bactericidal property whon fres). It is crossed by railway bridges ncar Sarsiwa in Saharanpur, and at Delhi, Muttra, Agra, Kālpī (2,620 foot), and Allahābād (3,230 foot). The width of water surfaco in tho dry sonson varies from 2,600 feet at Okhla and 1,500 foct at Kilpī to 2,200 foot at Allahībad. The discharge in flood at Okhla is about 41,000 cubic feet per second, and this dwindlos away to loss than 200 in the dry season. The rivor drains a total area of about 118,000 squaro miles. Tho trado on the Jumua was formerly of some importance, and Inrgo sums wero spent in clearing away reefs of kankar (nodular limestone) and conglomerato in the Etāvah District. Beforo tho opening of tho East Indian Railway, much cotton grown in Bundelkhand was sont down the river from Kālpī. At present timber is carried down the upper portion, and stono and grain aro carried in the lower courses. The principal towns on or ncar its bank in the United Provinces sur'o Baghpat, Māt, Brindāban, Muttra, Mahāban, Agra, Firozābūd, Batesar, Etīwah, Kālpī, Hamirpur, and Allahābād and in the Punjab, Delhi. Tons Northern.- A river in Tehrī State and Dehra Dūz District, Unitel Provinces. It rises north of the Jamnotri peaks (31° 5' N., 78° 31' E.), & few miles away from the sources of the Jumna, and first issues as a stream called Sūpin, 31 feet wide and knee-deep, from a snow-bed 12,784 feet above sea-level. After a westerly course of 30 miles in a series of cascades, it receives the waters of the Rūpin, a furiously rapid torrent, and from this point the united stream is called Tons. Nineteen miles lower down it is joined by the Pūbar, and the river then forms the boundary between JAUNSAR BAWAR in the Dehra Dun District and the Native States of Jubbal and Sirmūr in the Punjab. Its course here is tortuous, but generally southerly, and after receiving the Shalwi, a considerable stream, it joins the JUMNA, after a total course of 100 miles, at an elevation of 1,686 feet above sea-level. The volume of the Tons at the confluence is greater than that of the Jumna, so that it may be properly regarded as the principal head-water of that river. Its average fall is 110 feet per mile, and it is thus of no use for navigation or irrigation, ·RIVERS. Hindan (also called Chhaja in its upper course). A rivor of the United Provinces rising in the southeru slopes of tho Simāliks in the Sahāranpur District (30° 7' N., 77° 47' E.) and draising the central portions of the Saharanpur, luzaffarnagar, and Meernt Districts. It flows generally towards tho south-West, and falls into the JUUNA after a course of 100 miles, a fow miles after entering the north-ipestern corner of Bulandshahr. Tho Kali NADI WEST is the chief tributary. Its water is nowhero used for irrigation, but part of its channel forms an important link between the Ganges and Jumns rivers. Thus rater can bo passed into the Hindan from the UPPER GANGES CANAL, and thence, by means of a cat made from a point close to Ghiziábās in 1877, into the Jumne above Okhla, increasing tho supply of water for the AGRA CANAL. This cut was made wider in 1881 and further itaproved in 1901, and it is not navigablo. Kali Nadi West.--A tributary of the HINDAN, about 70 miles long, rising in the Saharanpur District of the Unitod Provincos (30° N., 77° 45' E.), 16 miles from tho Siväliks, and flowing south-west and south through Sahūravpur and Muzaffarnagar, between the Hindan and Ganges Canal. Its junction with the Hindan is at the point where the latter river entera Meerut District. * Chambal.–River of Central India and Rājputāna and one of the chief tributaries of the Jumna. It rises in tho Indoro State about nine miles south-west of Mhow cantonment in the Janapao hill, 2,019 feet above the sea, in 22° 27' N. and 75° 31' E. Thence it flotys down the northern slopos of the Vindhyan range, with a general northward courso through Gwalior, Indore, and Sitâmau States and skirts Jhālāwar, entering Rajputána at Chaurāsgarh 195 miles from its source. It receives many tributaries in Central India, the chief being the Chambla and the SIPra, both of which rise in the Vindhyan mountains. In Rajputāda the Chambal breaks through a BCATP of the Patir plateau, the bed getting narrower and norrower, and after a winding course of 30 miles it receives the Búrani at BIJAINSRORGARE. Some three miles above the lattor place are the well-known cascades or chülis, the chief To appear also in the Centralinti ·is MIVEIS, of which has an estimated fall of 60 foot. Hero whirlpools uro formed in luge porpourlicular caverns, 30 and 40 feet in dopth, hotwoon sono of which thoro is communication under ground. Continuing north-east thc rivor forms for a short distanco thic bounilary botwcom BUNDI and KOTAII and near Kotah city, it is a broni sluggish strcam, vory bluo in colour, flowing holwcon magnificont overhanging cliffs and rocks rising sheor out of the water, covered with trees and thick brushwood and famous as big gamo prosorvos. At tho city thero is a pontoon bridgo; replaced by a forry in tho rains in conscquonco of the high and sneon flools to which the river is subjoct. Lower down, tho Chambal again forms the boundary between Kotah and Bündi, and on its left bank is the intcrosting old village of KESTORAI PATAN. The character of the scenory now alter's complotoly. Ahoro Kotah tho ncighbouring country is all procipitous rock with wild glons and gullies and thick tangled overlianging brushwood, but bolov Pātan there are gently sloping Lauks, occasionally very picturesquely wooded and much intersccted by channels. Continuing north-east the river is joinod by tho KALI SIND from tho south and the Mej from tho west, whilo lowor down, where the frontiers of JAIPUR, Kotah, and Gwalior moct, the PARBATI flows into it. The Chambal then forms the boundary betweon Jaipur, KARAULI, and DHOLPUR on the one side and Gwalior on the other. From Jaipur territory it receives the Banas and flowing under an irregular lofty wall of rock along tho whole southern border of. Karauli, it omorges into the open country south of Dholpur towń. Here it is in the dry weather a sluggish stream 300 yards wide and 170 foet below the level of the surrounding country; but in the rains it genorally rises about 70 feet and in extreme floods . woarly 100 feet above summer level. The breadth then increases to more than 1,000 yards and the stream runs at the rate of 5) miles an hour. The banks are intersected by a labyrinth of ravines, some of which are 90 feet deep and run back inland for a distance of three miles. At Rajghāt, three miles south of Dholpur town on the high road between Agra and Bombay, a bridge of boats is kept up between November and June, while à large ferry boat plies during the rest of the year. A little to the east of this ghāt, the river is crossed by a fine railway 0 .

·RIVERS. 10 bridge of 13 spans. After forming the boundary botireen Gwalior and the Agra and Etātah Districts in tho Unitod Provincos, the Chambal crossos the latter, and falls into the Jumna 25 miles south-west of Etawah town, Aftor tho two rivors haro united, the crystal current of the Chambal may bo distinguished for some distance from tho muddy waters of the main streamı. The total length of the river is about 650 miles, though tho distance from its source to its junction with the Jumpa is only 330 miles in a straight lino. The Chambal is idontifiod with the Charmwati of Sanskrit writors. Bānganga (or Utangan).-A river rising in Jaipur torritory near BAIRAT (27° 25' N. and 76° 12' E.). It flows, gonorally in an oasterly direction, through the States of Jaipur, Bharatpur, and Dholpur and the district of Agra in the United Provinces and after a course of about 235 miles joins tho Jumna ton miles east of Fatehābād in the Agra District. The word Binganga (Vānaganga) means literally "arrow-gagea." The story goos that the fivo Pändara brothers, or going into hiding at Bairāt (Vairāta) conccalo their sacred weapong in a troo, and sporo that boforo using them again they wonll purify thom by washing thom in the Ganges. One of thus brothors, Arjan, had occasion to use his weapons again, tho Kurus. The Gangos was far off an ho rart an now in tho ground and immediatoly a sprio, oi the rum (jangay wator issuod, which bocamo tho eource of the Purga:144. 1478 1818 and 1856 small irrigation trorks with the be in thr: Ayrr District and Bharatpur Stato; fat the band timctiva din pliny, tho coarso of tho Utangan, sud did 9 mm, debuted that in 1861 tho works in Agra were totally sim, uy3 i.) 12.3jte tions were undertakon in Pharatimor tigin Imberlyor tu) its old course. Near tho village of Gopalgab for Men lilla, mbut 25 milcs below tho source, the way Ky4'**s fragile by a dam 80 feet in height of the YA" 4 Nastuolto in most important irrigation pour les et 111e then full covers an srce of síz Míngry ca'lux Arioletus et cxcoptional circumstancas currin 28 ilin antil you that Frater, but ordinarily short finff the quantity of these • To appear also do the 10tkui l'ilal ta liliit 1 ·20 RIVERS, ; sufficient to irrignto moro than 13,000 acros, is impounded. The project is practically completo and has cost nearly five lakhs of rupcos. Somo smallor works havo bcon carried out in the Bharatpur Slato. Rūmgarh is said to have once been the capital of the Jaipur Stnto uncler tho name of Māshi; there is #temple in tho gorgo callo Jumwa Devi which is visited by the Chiofs of Jaipur on their accossion to the gadi. Here they aro shaved, tho process being part of tho coromony connected with the recession. Tho stroam in the gorge near Ramgarh is perennial, but lower down the bed drios up oxcept during tho rains. Tho banks are for tho most part low and, in Bharatpur,aro covered, ofton to a distance of two or threo miles from the stroam, with a densc growth of jungle grass and tamarisk. In Dholpur torritory ravines run inland from either bank, somotimes for a distance of tiro miles or more. There it first touches tho United Provinces, the river is a mountaiu torrent with a bed of sand mixed with gravel. It drains a large aren, but is ncarly dry except in the rains. The principal tributarios are the Gambhir, Kavār or Koela and Pārvati on tho right bank, and the Khārī on the left. The Utangan and Khārī often bring down disastrous floods. In Bharatpur the violenco of these has given the river the name of Ghora-pachhär or ovorthrotor of horsos.-- (Papers relating to the irrigation of the Agra District from the Utangan river, Roorkee, 1853-51.) *Betwà (Tetravati or containing canes. -A large river in Bundelkhand, whose source is in 22° 55' N. and 77° 43' E. It rises in the Bhopāl State at the village of Kumrī, 23° 2' N. and 77° 6' E., and flows in a generally north-eastern direction ; after a course of about 50 miles in Bhopal it enters Gwalior territory near Bhilsa. It first touches the United Provinces in the southwest corner of the Lalitpur tahsil of the Jhānsi District, and flows north and north-east, at first forming the boundary between that District and the Gwalior State. It then crosses the District obliquely, traverses part of the Orchhā State, and flows for some distance between Jälaun on the north and Jhānsi and Hamirpur on the south, meeting the Jumna, after a course of about 190 miles in the United Provinces, close to the town of * To be reproduced in the Central India Provincial yolume.-R. B.

·RIVERS 21 Hamirpur In the upper part of its course the Betwa flows over the Vindhya sandstone, crossed by veins of quartz which break it up into beautiful cascades At DFOGARH it flows in a magnificent sweep below a steep sandstone cliff on the eastern bank, surmounted by a ruined fort Below Jhansı its bed 18 granito for about 16 miles till it reaches the alluvial plain It 18 nowhere navigable, and its crossings are often dangerous Thero aro railway bridges at Barkhera on the Bhopal-Hoshangabrd section of the Great Indian Peninsula, at Sanchi, on the Bhopal Jhansı section, at Mangaol, on the Bını-Guna line, and near Orchha on the Manikpur-Jhansı line Road bridges cross it at Bhilsa and at Orchha At Paricha, 15 miles from Jhansı, the river has been dammed to supply the Betwa Canal, a protective work which serves part of Jhansı, Jalaun and Hamirpur, and was found of great value in 1896 97 Proposals are now (1904) undor conbideration for damming the river at other plares, so as to increase the amount of water available, and one dam 18 now (1905) almost completed The chief tributaries are the Bes in Central India, Jamni and DIIASAN in Jhansı, and the Pawan in Hamırpur The river is mentioned in the Puranas, and also in the Meghaduta of Kalidasa According to tradition, the Pandavas * fought the king of Videsa (Bhılsa) on its banhs * Dhasan (Dashurnu, possibly the Dasaron of Ptolemy) - River in Bundelkhand, it rises in the Bhopal State (23° 32' N, 78° 30' I) amongst the Vindhyas, and after crossing the Saugor District of the Contral Provincos for about 60 miles, it first touches the United Provinces in the extreme south of the Lalitpur tahsil in Jhinsi District, which it divides from Saugor for about 30 miles It then crosses beveral of the Bundelkhand States, and finally forms the boundary between Jhans, and Hamirpur for nearly 70 miles till its junction with the BETTA at Chandwiri on tho border of Jalaun District The bed of the Dhes in 18 rochy in Saugor and Lalitpur, and at intervals after at first enters Jhansi and Hamirpur, but 18 then generally sandy, with nullahs and ravines ruuning into it Except during the rams it is easily fordable A schemo has been sanctioned for tho provision of irrigation in the rest of Hamirpur District by damming this river and forming & reservoir • To be reproduced in the Central India Provincial yolome - I ·22 RIVERS. * Kon (or Kayān; Skt. Karnavati; the Kainas of Arrian). A river in Bundelkhand. It rises in the north-western slopes of the Kaimur Range (23° 54' N., 80° 10' E.), and flowing northeast through Damoh and Pannā enters the Băndă District of the United Pravinces near Bilharkã. After a course of more than 100 miles along the border of and through Bandā, it joins the JUMNA near Chillā, on the road from Bändā to Fatehpur, 230 miles from its source. The river flows in a deep, well-defined bed, and is navigable for small boats as far as Bandā town; but there is not much traffic. At Băndă the bed is sandy, but pebbles and fragments of quartz and other rocks are found in it, and are polished and made into ornaments locally. Above Bāndã the bed becomes more rocky, and the scenery near Kharauni is singularly beautiful. A canal taking off from the river near Bariārpur in the Ajaigarh State (Central India) is now (1905) under construction. At present it is designed to irrigato only a part of the Băndă District, viz. the area between the Ken and Bāgain, of which it will command about half, viz. 374,000 aores. The reservoir to be formed in connection with this project will impound about 182 million cubic feet of water in the valley of the river. Sārdā.—The name given to a part of a river system flowing from the Himalayas through north-western Oudh. Two streams, the Kuthi Yänkti and Kālāpānī, rising in the lofty Pánch Chūlhi mountains in the north-east corner of Kumaun close to the Tibet frontier, unite after a few miles to form the Kāli river or Kālī Gangā, which divides Nepāl from Kumaun. At a distance of 106 miles from its source the Kāli receives the Sarjū or Rāmgangă (east) at Pacheswar. The Sarjū and its tributary, the Rāmgangā (east), rise in a lofty range leading south from tho peak of Nandi Kot, and unite at Rāmeswar, from which point the combined stream is called indifferently by either name. From the junction at Pacheswar the name Kālī is gradually lost and tho river is known as Sarjū or as Sārdā. At Barmdeo the waters descend on the plains in a series of rapids, the course to this point being that of a regular mountain stream over a steep rocky bed. The Sārdā now divides into several beds which r'cunito again after a few miles at Mundiá ghāt (ferry) where tho last * To be reproduced in the Central India Provincial yolumo.-I. B.

·RIVERS 23 rapids occur, and tho bod coases to bo composod of boulders and shuuglo From this point the river forms tho boundary botwoon Nepal and the Pilibhit District of Agra for a short distance, and then cuts across and onters Khori District In Pilibhit it is joinod on the right bank by the Chauk, which is now a river of the plains, rising in the Taran, but may have been originally formed as an old bod of the Surdt Tho rivor is at first called both Sarda and Chauk 2 in Khori, and its description 18 rondorod difficult by tho many changes which have taken place in its course Tour distinct beds may be rocognised, which aro, from south to north, the UI, the Sırdı or Chauk 1, the Dahawar, and tho Suheli The fir of theso is a small stream which joins the Chaula agam Tho namo Sırda 18 occasionally applied to the socond branch in ats lower course through Sit ipur, but the stream is moro com monly called Chaul 7 After a long meandering courso it falls into the Goara at Bahramghat, this channel appears to havo Leon the principal bod from the middle of the 18th to tho middle of tho 19th centuries Tho largest volume of wator 18, honover, at present brought down by tho Dah uyar, which leaves tho Chauki ini pargnnu Dhaurahri Tho Suholi brings down littlo water and joins tho KAURIALA (aftorwards called the Gogra) Chauka-Rivor in Oudh this is ono of the branchos into which the SARDA splits up in the Khori District. Its channel now contains littlo water, but has a long course through Khori, Sit pur, and Bira Banlı Districts, and joins tho GOGnA nicar Bahr imgh it The name is also applied to on oid bod of the Sırda which now joins that rivor in Pilibhit District Kauriala (ulso called Karruli) --Risor, rising ia Tivot, not far from ono of tho sources of tho Sutloj in 30° 40' N and 80° 48: I Aftor leaying Tibet by the Takli Khar or Yarı Pass, at flows through Nop:1, genorally in a south-oasterly direction, till it emerges from tho lowor range of the Him ılayas, through a doop picturesquo gorgo knonn as Shish. Pini (glasg wators) Tho stream hero is about 300 yards broad and of great dorth, with a slow curront closely shut in by procipitous mountains 2,500 feet high A little belon Shish: Psu tho chaunel wadens, with a stocper and rockier descent, causing magnificent rapids nearly half a milo browl Lower down the river divides into tiro, the westora branch rotainug the uomo of Kaurıla or Korneli, ·24 RIVERS. tho castorn being called the GIRWA. Formerly the latter was il moro stroam, but its volume has gradually increased till it is now considerably larger than that of the Kauriāla. They tro both rapid rivers, with pobbly beds and fords which an olophant can gonerally cross without difficulty. Eighteen miles from its point of oxit from the hills the Kauriāla enters British torritory, at tho point whero it receives the NIohan, and marks the boundary botween the Oudh Districts of Kherī and Bahraich. It 1101 rocoires on the cast bank its former offshoot, the Girta, and on the west tho Suholi, the Dahāyar, and the Chaukā, all branches of the Sarda river. From the point of confluence with tho Chankā the united rivers become the GOGRA, which ultimately falls into the Ganges on its left bank, a little above Dinapore. The Kauriāla is navigable by largo boats of about 17 tons burthen boyond the limits of British territory. The principal river trade is the export of grain, and of timber, ginger, pepper, ghi, and catechu from Nopūl. Gold washing is carried on by a caste called after their occupation Sonāhīs. The river abounds in fish. Girwa.--A branch of the KAURIALA river in Nepāl and Oudh. The Kauriālā bursts through a gorge in the Himalayas called Shīshā Pānī, or “glass rater," and a little below this point divides iuto two, the western branch retaining the name Kauriāla, tyhile the eastern is called Girwā. The latter is now the more considerable, though it was formerly smaller than the other. In its upper course the Girvā is a rapid stream with a pebbly bed; but it becomes navigable at Dhanaura before entering British territory, and grain, timber, ginger, pepper, and ghi are carried down it from Nepāl. It reunites with the Kauriāla a few miles below Bharthāpur in the Bahraich District. Gogra-[Ghāgra ; Skt. gharghara (rattling or laughter); other names, Sarjū or Sarayū (the Sarabos of Ptolemy), and in the lower part of its course Deobā or Dehyā). This is the great river of Oudh. Rising in Tibet (30° 40' N. and 80° 48' E.), it flows through Nepāl under the name Karnāli or KAURIALA, piercing the Himālayas at Shīshā Pānī, and shortly after thrours off a branch to the east called the GIRWA, which now brings down the main stream. The Kauriāla enters British territory between Kherī and Bahraich, and forms the boundary between those Districts. It receives the Girtā not many miles from the ·RIVERS. 26 border, and just below this tho Suheli, one of the three branches of the SARDA. The main branch of the Sārdā, called Dahăwar, joins it at Mallanpur, a few miles below Katai Ghāt, near which place the Sarjū is received. The Sarjú formerly joined the Gogra in Gondā, but early in the 19th century a European timber merchant diverted its course into an old bed. At Bahrāmghāt a third branch of the Sārdā, named Chaukā, adds to its volume, and from this point the united stream is regularly called Gogrã or Sarjū, though these names are sometimes applied at Mallanpur. From the name Sarjú is derived the name of an important tribe of Brāhmans called Sarwaria, a contraction of Sarjúpāria, meaning those who dwell beyond (ie. on the north side of) the Sarjū. The Gogrā now turns cast and divides the Gondā District which lies on its north bank from Bāra Banki and Fyzābād on the south. After passing Ajodhyā city it separates Bastī and Gorakhpur Districts from Fyzābād, and then from Azamgarh and Balliā, and receives the RAPTI and LITTLE GANDAK from the north. After being joined by the Chaukā it receives little drainage from the right bank, and is in fact higher than the valley of the Gumti which lies south of it. In Azamgarh a branch is givon off, called the Chhoti (lesser) Sarjů, which was apparently an old bed of the river, and joins the Ganges after a long course through Azamgarh, Ghāzipur, and Balliā. East of the Gorakhpur District the Gogra forms the boundary betweon the Sāran District in Bengal and the Ballia District in the United Provinces for about 40 miles. It falls into tho Ganges in 25° 44' N. and 84° 42' E. The Kauriāla and Girmă are both navigable for a short distance before entering British territory, and until tho opening of the Bengal and North-Western Railway, within the last twenty years, trade on the Gogra ras of great importance. Many years ago a pilot service existed for a short time, and steamers plied as far as Bahrimghāt in Bāra Banki District. The trado is stil considerable, and large quantities of timber, grain, and spices come down from Nopil, or are carried in the lotvor renches. At Bahramghūt sav-mills usod to be worked by the Forest depnrtment, but havo rocently been sold. Tho most important plazo on the banks of tho rivor is Iyzībid with Ajodhyi, tho sacrol birth-place of Rāma, adjoining it. Tändå in Fyoz!

·RIVERS. Barhnj in Gorakhpur are niso towns of some size, ongaged in travle. The chief mart ou tho banks of the Gogra in Bengal is Rovelganj in the Sāran District. Tho tracle of Nawabganj in (ionula, which stands somo miles from the river, is now largely carrial by rail. River steaners from Patna ply as far as Ajodhyii, calling at many places and compoting with the railways both for goods and passenger traffic. The rivor is spanned by two fino railway bridges, the Elgin Brilgo ncar Bahrāmghāt, 3,695 feet long, and a bridge at Turtīpār 3,912 fcut. The variability of its course is shown by the method of construction of tho first-named bridge, which was built on dry land, the rivor being thon trained undor it. The height above seu lovel is 350 feet at Bahrāmghāt and 193 feet at Turtīpār; and the food discharges aro 877,000 and 1,111,000 cubic feet · pier socond respostirely. At Fyzābād a bridgo of boats is mainlained except (luring the rains, when a steamer plies. Another important ferry is at Dohrighat on the road from Azamgarh to Gorakhpur. Räpti.-[Identified by Lassen with the Solonatis of Arrian Skt. Sitruīvuti; by Pargitor with the Sadānīru (ever-flowing) of tho cpics; also called Irūvatā (refreshing).] A river which rises in the lower ranges of Nepāl (27° 49' N., 82° 44' E.), and joins the GOGRA in the Gorakhpur District of the United Provinccs. Its course is first south and then north-west and Jest, after which it turns south again and crosses the border of Oudh in the Babraich District. It then flows south-east or south through Bahraich, Gondā, Bastī, and Gorakhpur Districts with a total courso of about 400 miles. Its vido bod is confined within high banks, but the actual channel shifts considerably. Floods are not uncommon, but do little damage, if they subsido in time for spring crops to be soirn, as the silt - deposited acts as a fertilizer. The feoders of this river are chiefly small rivers rising in the Tarai north of its course, the largest .being the Dhamela, joined by the Ghunghi, and the Rohin, · in Gorakhpur. In Gondā and Bastī an old bed of the river, -called the Búrhi Răptī, some miles north of its present course, brings down a considerable amount of water in the rains. The BAKHIRA lake in Basti District and the Chilwă lake in «Gorakhpur drain into it. The Rāptī is navigable for-small boats ·MOUNTAINS. 27 as far up as Bhingå in Bahraich, and for largo onios to the town of Gorakhpur, which stands near its banks. Much timber and graiu from Nepāl and the British Districts which it traverses aro carried down into tho Gogra, and hence into the Ganges; but tho traffic has fallon off since the extension of the Bongal and North- Western Railway. The Rāpti is rarely used for irrigation. Bănganga (Arrow-river).--A hill stream rising in the south of Nopál (27° 42' N., 83° 6' E.) which flows for about 18 milos through tho Basti District and joins the Būrhī Rāptī (old Rāpti) at Kabrahi Ghat whóre the road from Basti through Bansi to Nepāl crosses tho latter river. Timber from Nepal is floated down this rivor. Traces of the bod of another river of the samo namo still oxist south of the Räptī, and tho upper courso of the Katnehia. A tributary of the Kuwänā in Basti, which formod ono branch of this, is still called Bangangi (Cunningham Archcological Survey Reports, Vol. XXII, page 4.)' Gandak, Great. The article to be reproducod from tho Bengal proofs.) Gandák, Little. A rivor which rises in the lawer Nepal hills, anıl entors tho Gorakhpur District of the United Provinces a fow miles west of the GREAT GANDAK, It flows from north to south the whole length of Gorakhpur, and joins the GOGRA just within tho District of Săran (Bengnl). Except in the rains it has a small stream, not exceoding 60 feet in breadth, and is genorally forclablo. In 1859 it was proposed to make it into a navigablo canal, but tho schemo as norer carried out. Boats ply in tho monsoon as far as Ragarganj in the Padraunā tahsil. Himālaya Mountains. Tho Himalayas, literally " tho abodo of snow " (from the Sanskrit hima, frost and alaya, dvellingplaco) compriso a system of stupendous ranges, with some of tho lofticst peaks in tho world. Arrian, Strabo, and Ptolemy describo thom under threo names—tho Paropanisus (Hindu Kush), tho Imnus or Himaus, and tho Hemodas. Tho two latter names scom to be applied to tho trestorn and eastorn parts respoctively, tho sources of the Gangos being taken as tho dividing lino. Hemodas ropresents the Sanskrit Ilimivata (Prakrit llemota) nicaning snowy. Tho Grecks with Alexander styled tho mountaius tho Iulian Caucasus.

·28 MOUNTAINS. For 1,500 miles this great mass lies in three great divisions along the northern border of India, at first dipping south-east and then bearing almost due east. A northern chain, broken in the centre, called Muztagh or Karakoram in the west and Gangri in the east, lies beyond British India. South of this is & central chain starting from Nangā Parbat in Kashmīr. The southern chain lies outside this and contains a series of lofty peaks. The central chain enters the United Provinces in Garhwäl and Almorã and divides them from Tibet. It is crossed by several passes, the principal being Mānā, 18,000 feet, Nitī, 16,570 feet, and Balcha Dhură in Garhwal; and Anta Dhurā, 17,270 feet, Lampiya Dhurā, 18,000 feet, and Lipū Lekh, 16,750 feet, in 'Almorã. From this northern snow-clad* barrier spurs run down to the southern chain, which extends across the whole of the north of the United Provinces from Tehrī State, through Garhwāl and Almorā, into Nepāl. The highest peaks are usually found where these spurs or saddles join the southern range, such as Nanda Devī, 25,661 feet, the highest mountain in any part of British territory; Trisül, 23,382 feet; Pānch Chülhī, 22,673 feet; and Nandā Kot, 22,538 feet. While the central range forms a true watershed in the United Provinces, the southern chain is pierced in several places by the larger rivers and their tributaries, rising in considerable glaciers, the most .accessible of which is that of the Pindarī. From the southern range more spurs run south, with dividing valleys which carry off the drainage of the southern slopes. Proceeding from the west the largest basin is that of the GANGES, with the valleys of its tributaries, the JUMNA to the west, and the RAMGANGA in the east, which drain the whole of Tehrī, Garhwāl, and the western part of Almorā. Their direction is usually west or south-west till they pierce the outer ranges and debouch on the plains. Spurs running down from Nandā Kot and the great mass of mountains known as Pānch Chūlhī divide this system from that of the SARDA, draining the rest of Almorā, and the component streams of this system have an easterly or south-easterly course. Below the lofty ranges the general level * The line of perpetual snow varies from 15,000 to 16,000 feet on tho southern exposures. In the winter snow generally falls at elevations above 5,000 feet, and falls at 2,500 feet were recorded twice in the 19th century.

·29 MOUNTAINS of the summits falls rapidly, but rarely in the Himalayas within these Provinces is any appreciable area of lovel ground found either in the form of table-land or valloy. Kāli Kumaun and the Baijnāth valley are the most considerable exceptions, and hero alone cultivation is possible without terracing. The outermost range of hills has an elevation of 6,000 to 8,000 feet within a few miles from the plains. West of the Ganges a broad valley, called DEHRA Dun, lies south of the Himalayas, stretching up to the SIWALIK hills, East of this river a similar but lower range divides the Pātlī, Patkot, and Kotah Dūns (valley) from the Himalayas, which it joins at Kālādhūngi. Below them is & strip of land called the Bhābar, sloping south and formed of boulders and the larger detritus vashed down from the mountains in which the hill streams are swallowed up, to reappear & fow miles lower down in the Tarai. As we ascend from the base of the Himālaya, constant Flora Faun changes are met in the vegetation: tropical plants giving place to temperate forms, which in their turn disappear and are replaced by a distinctly Alpine flora. These changes are due to an increase in elevation and to the degrease in rainfall and humidity, passing from south to north and from east to west. The tropical zone extends to about 5,000 feet and is eminently il forest belt, the principal timber trees being sül (Shorca robusta) and shīsham or 81882 (Dalbergia si8800). About 62 species of orchids, both epiphytic and terrestrial, have been found in the United Provinces. Above this is a temperate zone ranging to about 12,000 feet, in which oaks, pines, and tree rhododendra, with an increasing number of western species, are found. European fruit trees and potatoes have been naturalized here very successfully, and tea is cultivated. At about 12,000 feet the forests grow thinner. Birch and Fillow mixed with dwarf rhododendron and shrubby plants continue for & time, until we reach the open pasture land, richly bedizened ia the summer months with brilliant Alpine species. The fauna of the Bhābar and lowest hills include the elephant, tiger, leopard, Indian sloth bear, various kinds of doer, many birds, and numerous reptiles from tiny lizards to immense pythons. Higher UP, tho Himālayan black bear and the musk-deer are found, and in the extremo north the snow leopard and brown bear.

·30 BOUNTAINA. fy. > On tho north tlio IIimālayns contain a vast sequonco of fossiliferous soulimentary strata lying in a great elevatod basin; whilo tho snowy raugo is built up of immonse sills of massive gneissic rock of acid and granitic composition. Tho area south of this has not boon fully examined; but the charactoristio fcaturo is tho change from gneissoso, granite, and schists to slato, shalo, au quartzito, with occasional bands of limestone, and moro rnroly massivo limestono and dolomito formations, all of These hoing imfossiliforous. Tho lower Himalayas are remarkable for their stcop ravines, tho sides of which constantly fall in, occasionally doing much damago. Copper, lead, and iron are foul, lut no considcralılo industry has yet bcon started. Thoro aro sovoral peculiar features about tho Ilindu inhabitouts of the Ilimiluyas. The caste system closely follows the theoretical division into four castes Brāhmans, Kshattriyas, Vaicyns, and Sūdras; for tho Doms, who ropresent the last, are only just in process of being separated into different castes. Even in the threo highest castes the restriction on intermarriage is for loss lyimling than in the plains, and marriages between Kshatiriyns and Vaisyas aro openly admitted. The Brāhmans ani Kshattriyas aro cach divido:l into those who, ascording to tradition, came from the plains and are considered superior, and those callcl Khas, who aro thought to bo aboriginal, but are probably Turanian sottlers. The superior Kshattriyas claim to have como from Räjputāna, and the claim is supported by linguistic affinities. In the Bhot Mahāls are found settlers from Tibet, some of whom are still Buddhist. A few members of wild junglo tribos, with languages of their own, are occasionally met in the remoter parts on the Nepāl bordor. * Siwalik Hills (belonging to Sira). A range of hills running parallel with the Himalayas for about 200 miles from the Beās to the Gangos; a similar formation east of the Ganges separates the Pâtlī, Patkot, and Kotah Dūns (valleys) from the outer range of the Himālayas as far as Kālādhūngi, where it morges into them, and is said to reappear still farther east in Nepāl. In the United Provinces the Sivāliks lie between the Jumna and Ganges, and separate Sahāranpur District from Dehra Dūn, while in the Punjab they cross the Sirmũr (Nāhan) * To bo reproduced in the Punjab Provincial polume.-R. B.

·31 VOUNTAITS This pro Districte irpur Stato, and tho Ambila and Hoshi of the range 18 irregular and pierced by sos eral rivers, of which Wet of the Gluggur tho Ghaggar on the rest is the largest tho hills run like a wall seprriting Ambra from tho long narroir Valloy of the Sirsa ther, Aaligarh State, until they are cut through by the Sutlej at Rupar Thencs tho range runs with a moro northorly trend through the Hoshi irpur District, whero it terminates near the Beis ralley in a mass of undulating hills Boyond tho Sutlej thore is merely a brond table land, nt first onclosed by sandy billo bs, but finally sprending into minor spura The southern fare, in the United Provinces, rises abruptly from the plans and is scored by the baro stony beds of tho watorcourses thich rush down in tho rains On the northern side in a more gentle descent into the closnted alloy of Dehra Dun which separates this range from the Him ilayas Tho grentcst height does not exceed 3 500 feet, but the rango 28 about 10 miles broad A road from Saharanpur to Dehra crosses theso hills by the Mohan Pass, but is not of much importunce now as there 18 railing communication through the eastern torminstion near the Ganges Geologically the Sınalıhs are separated from the outer Himalay as by a continuous reversed fault They contain tertiary strata consisting of fresh water deposits colobrator fo the fossil remains found in them and described by Talooner and Cautler The lower hills are thickly clothed with sw (Skorea robusta) and sain (Terminalia tomentosa), while on the bigber peals a cooler climato allotrs pipes to flourish il) elephants are found and also tigers, sloth bears, leopards, hyænas, various kinds of deer, and pigs The term Suszlık has been applied by Muhammadan yriters to the arca lying south of the hills as far as Hansı, and also to the Himslagas (Fauna Artigua Swalensis, Falconer and Cantley, London, 1870-19-60) * Vindhya Hills (Ouindion of Ptolemy)- series of Hille one soparating the Gangetic basin from the Descan, and forma & Well morkod chain across the centre of India.. as formerly used in an indefinite incla le thy asport art to this hills south of the Narbada, "To bo re prodneed ·MOUNTAINS. north oi that rivor. The Vindhyas do not form a range of hills in tla proper grolngical sonso of tho torm, thatis, possessing a definito axis of olovntion or lying along an anticlinal or synclinal ridge. The range to tho north of tho Narbadā, and its eastern conlinnation tho Kainuir lo tho north of tho Son valloy, are merely the southern scnrps of the plateau comprising the country known as Walsri and Bimdielkhaul. The features of the Vimhyay aro duo to sub-serinl donulation and the hills constitute El dividing line loft unrenulei bolwoon difforont drainage areas. I'rom a geographical point of view the Vindhyan range may be regardod as oxtonding from Jobat (22° 27' N. and 74° 35' E.) in Gujarat on tho wost to Sasarâm (24° 57' N. and 84° 2' E.) in tho sonth-western cornor of Bihar on the east with a total length of nonrly 700 milos. Throughout the whole length as tius dofined the rango constitutos the sonthern escarpment of a pontenu. The Răjmahal hills extending from Sasarām 1o Riījmnhil and forming the northorn escarpment of the Hazīrilagh highlands, cannot be correctly considered as a part of the Vindhyas. Tho rango commoncing in Gujarat crosses the Central India 8. Agoncy from Jhabua State in the west, and defines the southern boundary of the Snugor and Damoh Districts of the Central Provinces. From here tho KAIMOR branch of the range runs through Baghelkhand or Rewah and the United Provinces into Bihár. The Kaimur hills rise like a wall to the north of the Son valley, and north of them a succession of short parallel ridges and deep ravinos extends for about 50 miles. At Amarkantak the Vindhyas touch the Sātpurā hills at the source of the Narbadā. Westward from the Jubhulpore District they form the northern boundary of the valley of that river. Their appearance here is very distinctive, presenting an almost uninterrupted series of headlands with projesting promontories and receding bays like a weather-beaten coast line. In places the Narbadā washes the base of the rocks for miles, while elsewhere they recede and are seen from the river only as a far-off outline with the The plains of Bhopal or Indore spread out below them. rocks are sandstone of a pinkish colour and lie in horizontal slabs which commonly testify to their origin by curious ripple marks plainly formed by the lapping of water on a sandy ·33 LIOUNTAINS. shore To the north of this escarpment lies tho Bundclkland or balni plateau with a length of about 250 milcs and a widtli af its broadest part of about 223. The plateau is undulating and is traversed by small ranges of bills, all of thith aro considered to belong to the Vandyan system The most northerly of theso minor ranges, called tho Oatlying Binidhachal, cuts asross ths Jhansi, Bindā, Allahābūd, and thagen Mirzapur Districts of the United Provinces, now horo rising abore 2,000 feet The rango prosents the appearance of a serios of plateanx, each sloping gently uptrard from south to north, and ending abruptly in the steop scarp which is charactoristic of these hills Many outlying isolatod hills are found in thcso Districts standing out on the plains beyond the furthest scarp. One bizall hill, calleri Pabhosł, stands on tho left bank of the Jumna, the only rock found in the Doab. Tho Bhúnrer or Punna bills form the south-castern face of the Vindhyan escarpment and bound the south of the Saugor and Damoh Districts anl the north of the Māihar State in continuation of the Kaimur, tłms being & part of the main range. They run from north-nort to south-east for about 120 miles. Their highres jake in the of Kalumax which has an elovation of 2,744 ff... 10 1/*xx branches of the range lie in Málvá, starting r*py.lisrly Blulsa and Jhābuã with a northerly dirc tion and 1,02:12194, 1- plateau to the east and west. The general elevation of the Vin:Ihya's T1.949 1x 109 x ***** 1,500 to 2,000 feet and it contains a fon payt 1786 %), none of which is of any spsial important, TX 981.79 forms with the Sātparās the way rxbyl v bu yoll!! 14 14', and contains the sources of the Claral, 34*, irr11,), and Ken rivers, besides others of Is** j.porx'xt, so sodoende Narbadă rise at Amarkantak, vx: 4.5" 747) 36*/ gounting ranges join. The rivera um sly **. 314 asa 17/14 Ograrpmont ani dos north and writis Gcologically the Hills fetess :*y of you massive sandstones of sargsul, so'rt yilgs' runt 1 softor finns and shake, som i sine fogon so'm tot not greatly interior very sitterns its namo to thr Vin Injadi / Olwy !!! Oror a great grze, "1 M's ture E ·32 DOUNTAINS. is covored by the ovorflowing Doccan trap, while from Ganurgarh fort in Bhopal to nonr Jobat, the range itself is of basaltic formation, and the last sixty miles to the wost from Jobat to noar Jamlıhughorã consist of hills of metamorphic rocks. In tho north tho undorlying gnciss is exposed in a great gulfliko expanso. Economically tho Vindhyan rocks are of considorablo valuo, tho sandstone being an excellent building material which has been oxtonsivoly used for conturios; the Buddhist topes of Sinchi and Barhut, the 11th contury temples of Khnjuraho, the 15th contury palaces of Gwalior, and numerous largo forts at all important positions on the plateau having boon constructed of this material. At Nagod and other places limestone is found in some quantity, the pretty coraline variety, -extracted from tho Bāgh cretaceous bods, having been extensively omployod in the palaces and tombs at Māndū; and at Panná in the conglomorato which underlies the shales, diamonds are diot with in somo quantity, though none of any great value has bocn oxtraztod. Manganese, iron, and asbestos are also found in the various parts of the range. The lofty flat-topped hills and bold scarps wliich are such a marked feature of this rango woro carly rocognised as ideal sites for fortresses, and, Besides the historical strongholds of Gwalior, Narwar, Chanderī, Māndū, Ajaigarh, and Bandogarh, the hills are studded with tho ruined castles of marauding Girāsia and Bundelã chiefs. The hills are generally covered with a stunted forest growth of the species found in the dry forests of Central India. Tcak only occurs in patches and is of small size, while the forests are generally noticeable for their poverty of valuable timbers. The term Vindhya in Sanskrit signifies "a hunter” and the range occupies a considerable place in the mythology of India, as the great demarcating line between the Madhya Desa or “middle land” of the Sanskrit invaders, and the non-Aryan Dcccan. The Vindhyas are personified in Sanskrit literature, where they appear as a jealous monarch, the rival of king Himālaya, who called upon the sun to revolve round his throne as he did round the peak Meru. When the sun refused, the mountain began to rear its head to obstruct that luminary, and to tower above Himalaya and Meru. The sts, olo. ia.

·MOUNTAINS. 35 gods iavoked the aid of Agastya, the spiritual guide of Vindhya. This sage called upon the Vindhya mountain to bow down before him, and afford him an easy passage to and from the south. It obeyed and Agastya passed over. But he never returned, and so the mountain remains to the present day.in its humbled condition, far inferior to the Himālaya. Another legend is that when Lakshmana, the brother of Rāma, was wounded in Ceylon, by the king of the demons, he wished for the leaves of a plant which grew in the Himalayas to apply them to his wound. Hanumān, the monkey-god, was sent to get it, and not knowing which plant it was, he took up a part of the Himalayas and carried them to Ceylon. He happened to drop a portion of his load on the way and from this the Vindhyan hills were formed. * Kaimur Hills --The eastern portion of the Vindhyan range commencing near Katangi in the Jubbulporo District of the Central Provinces (23° 26' N. and 79° 48' E.). It runs a little north of east for more than 300 miles to Sasarām in Bihir (24° 57' N. and 84° 2' E.). The rango after traversing the north of Jubbulporo District and tho south-east of Maihar Stato turns to the east and runs through Rowah territory separating the valloys of the Son and Tons rivers and continues into the Mirzipur District of the United Provinces and Shāhībād in Bengal. Its maximum width is 50 milas, In tho Contral Provinces the appearanco of tho rango is very distinctivo. Tho rock formation is motamorphic and tho strata havo beon uphoavod into an almost vertical position, giving the range tho appearance of a sharp ridge. In placos tho rango almost disappeara, being markod only by a low rocky chain and in this portion it nover rises more than a for hundred feot abovo the plain. Tho range cntors Contral India at Jukohi in Maihar State (23° 29' N. and 80° 27' E.), and runs for 150 miles in a north-eastorly direction forming tho northorn wall of the Son valley and ororhanging tho river in a long bold scarp of sandstono rock, from which near Govindgarh a branch turns off to the north-west. Tho rango nttnins horo an clevation of a littlo oror 2,000 foot. Iu Mirzīpur the height of the rango docroascs in tho contro to rise again • Also to appear in Central Provinces, Central ת ת 2 ·56 LAKES. to over 2,000 feet at the rock of Bijaigarh with its ancient fort. Very interesting relics of prehistoric man have been found in the caves and rock-shelters of the hills here in the form of rude drawings and stone implements. Iu Shāhābjad District the summit of the hills consists of a series of saucershaped valleys, each a few miles in diameter, containing a deposit of rich vegetable mould in the centre and producing the finest crops. The general height of the plateau is here 1,500 feet above sea-level. The sides are precipitous, but there are several passes, some of which are practicable for beasts of burdon. The ruined fort of ROHTAS is situated on these hills. The rocks throughout consist principally of sandstones and shales. Sătpuràs East. The eastern extension of the Sātpurā Hills of Central India lying east and south of the Son. In the United Provinces they form a wilderness of parallel ridges of low rocky hills extending over 1,700 square miles in the south of Mirzāpur, and covered with jungle, with the exception of a large basin in tappa Singraulī and a smaller area in Dūdhi where the soil is alluvial and allows cultivation. Coal has been found in Singraulī, and an attempt was made in 1896 to work it. The fow inhabitants are chiefly jungle tribes, Kols, &c., resembling those in Chotā Nāgpur. Gohna (Gaunā).- A lake of recent formation situated near the small village of Gohuã in the Garhwal District of the United Provinces in 30° 22' N. and 79° 29' E. Towards the end of the rains in 1893 two landslips took place on the right bank of the Birahi Gangā, a tributary of the Alaknandā (see GANGES). The side of a steep hill, towering 4,000 feet above the level of the stream, crashed down into the valley hurling large blocks of limestone against the opposite cliff to the distance of a mile in places, and forming a dam more than two miles long at the base and one-third of a mile along the top, which completely blocked the valley to a boight of 850 to 900 feet. It has been estimated that the dam contained 9 billion cubic feet of dolotnito and detritus weighing 8 hundred million tons. Special arrangements were successfully made to avoid the damage to lifo and property to be expected when the water should reach the top of this dam and commence to cut it away. The pilgrim road ·LAKES. 37 to the shrines in the upper Himalayas lies close along the line of oscapo, and bridges were dismantled and diversions.constructed. At Hardıār it was necessary to protect the head-yorks of the Ganges Canal. In December, 1893, the area of the lake was about one square mile and its depth 450 feet. By July, 1894, the lake had becomo a large sheet of water, nearly 4 miles long and half a mile broad, and the lovel of the water had risen noarly 170 feet, while percolation was freely taking place. A month later the water was rising about 4 feet a day, and on the morning of August 25th water began to trickle over the dam, which was rapidly cut away. It was found next day that the level of the lake had fallen 390 feet, leaving a stretch of wator 3,900 yards long with an average breadth of 400 yards. Tho dopth noar tho dam was 300 feet and the bed had alroady ailted up about 85 feet. Immediately below the dam the flood roso 280 feet, but its height rapidly decreased as the channels of the rivors, which carried it off, became wide. At Rudra Prayag 51 miles away, the rise yas 140 feet; at Boisghāt, 99 miles, 88 feet; and at Hardwar, 149 miles, only 11 or 12 feet. The total damage caused to public property was valued at more than Rs. 95,000, but no lives were lost except those of five porsons who insisted on remaining just below the dam. At Hardwar the head-works of the Gangos Canal woro slightly damaged, but boyond this point the flood had no approciable offoct. The outlet of tho lako now appears to have a stablo bod. (Selections from Records, Government of India, Public Works Depxartment No. CCCXXIV.) Dahar Lake.A picturesque sheot of fator naar Sändi in tho Hardoi District of. Oudh, with fino mango groves on its banks and lotus leaves floating on its wators, situnted in 27° 19 N. and 79° 58' E. It is about two miles long and threequartors of a milo wide. Fish abound in it, and in tho cold wonthor water-fowl aro plentiful. The depression in which this lako is situated was probably a part of an old bod of tho Rāmganga which now flows somo distanco atray to tho west. Bakhira Tal (also called Badānch Til or dloti Jhil).- A lako on tho eastern border of the Basti District of the United Provinces. Buchanan described it as the finest pieco of fresh woter ho had scen in India. It covers a space of fun 1.

·38 CANALS. by two, but is merely a shallow depression filled with water, the dopth of which rarely exceeds four or five feet. On the west and south the fringe of marsh is small, but on the nortlı a tract, which is regularly flooded in the rains, extends for three miles. To the east & low fen stretches for about two miles to the edge of the RAPTI. The water in the lake is largely supplied by floods from this river, and would escape again but for an embankmont along the eastern side. Fish are plentiful, and are caught in screens at the outlets of the dam or speared with a thin piece of bamboo tipped with iron. In the cold weather the surface of the water is covered with large numbers of wildfowl. Boro or summer rice is largely planted in February or March round the edges of the lake. Surahā Tāl.-A lake in the Ballia District of the United Provinces four miles north of Balliā town, situated in 25° 51' N. and 84° 11' E. Its shape is that of a thick crescent lying north and south, and its area varies from 13 square ,miles in the rains to a little over four in the dry season. Boro (summer rice) is largely sown in the spring round the edge and in the deeper parts of the lake the weed siwār grows largely, which is used for refining sugar. Fish are plentiful and are caught by sinking nets stretched on conical frameworks, the fish being speared as they try to escape. In the cold weather teal and duck are common. The lake is drained by a channel called Katehar, which leads south to the Ganges; but when the Ganges rises, its waters flow back into the lake. In the cold weather the Katehar is temporarily dammed to hold up sufficient water for irrigation of the crops on the banks of the lake. Ganges Canal, Upper --The largest and most important irrigation work in the United Provinces, taking off from the right bank of the GANGES river and watering the upper Doāb. Two miles above Hardwār the Ganges divides into several channels, the most westerly of which contains a large volume of water and, after passing Hardwār, rejoins the main stream at Kankhal. This channel is held up by a temporary dam which diverts the water into the canal head-works, where the amount admitted is regulated at the Māyāpur bridge. In the first 20 miles of its course four large torrents liable to sudden floods of extreme violence have to be crossed. Two of these ·CANALS. 39 are carried over the canal, the third is passed through it by a level crossing provided with flood gates, and the canal itself flows on a magnificent aqueduct over the bed of the SOLANI. At mile 22 the canal throws off the Deoband branch 52 milos long; at mile 50 the Anúpshahr branch (107 miles), and at mile 181 (at Nānū in the Aligarh District) it divides into what were originally called the Cawnpore and Etāwah branches of the Ganges Canal. The LOWER GANGES CANAL now crosses these in their 32nd and 39th miles respectively, and from the points of junction they are considered to belong to it. The Upper Ganges Canal, on March 31st, 1904, had 213 miles of main line, 227 miles of branches, 2,694 miles of distributaries, In 1827 Captain De Bude proposed a scheme for utilizing tho waters of the West Kálī Nadi, along a drainage lino constructed under nativo rule, to irrigate the Meerut, Bulandshahr, and Aligarh Districts. The supply would, however, have been deficient and uncertain, and in 1836, at tho suggestion of Colonel Colvin, the Ganges was examined near Hardwār. The next year a terrible famine devastated the Doib, and incroased the anxiety of Govornment to provide a satisfactory scheme. Major (afterwards Sir) Proby Cautley commenced & survey in 1839, and prepared a project which was warmly approved by the Board of Directors in 1841, the estimated cost being over a milliorr sterling. In April, 1842, the actual works were commenced by opening the oxcavation between Kankhal and Hardwār. The work had, hovovor, hardly begun when Lord Ellenborough abruptly stopped it on the grounds that monoy could not bo spared and that the projoct was unsound from an engincoring point of viow. Subscquently the totally inadequato grant of two lakhs a yoar ras mado. In 1844, shortly after assuming offico, Mr. Thomason, the Lioutonant-Governor, malo a strong reprosentation on the subject, and was informed that tho main objoct of tho canal was to bo navigation, not irrigation. Tho grant was, howovor, increased by a lakh a year, and surroys vero pressed A committoo considerod tho arguments raisod, and in 1817 roported favourably on tho scheme. Lord Hardivgo visited tho hearl-works in the same year, and rororsod decision of his prodlocessor: an nntual grant of 20 lakhs a year was sanctioned, Bith the promiso of moro if it could be usefully The 011.

·40 CANALS; rovisod ostimato of 1:1 million sterling was passed by the Directors in 1850, and the canal was opened in April, 1854. The Torks vero, however, not complete; in particular, those at the Solāni rivor gavo way, and irrigation really commenced from May 1855. Although the canal had been extraordinarily successful, owing to the genius of its projeotor, Sir Proby Cautley, ton yoars' oxporience pointed out defects in the system, and in 1866 a committeo sat to examine the proposals which had been mudo. The rosult of their report was the expenditure of large bunis on inprovements and remodelling, the chief objects of which wero to increase the supply, aud to reduce the excessive slope of the channel by providing more falls. They also recommonded a site near Räjghāt in Aligarh as a point from which a supplomoutary supply might be drawn, and this was carried out later in tho Lower Ganges Canal. Tho oxponditure on capital account up to 1904 has been about 3 crores of rupees (£2,000,000 at present rate of exchange). The total area commanded by the canal at the end of 1903-04 was 3,800,000 acres in the Sahāranpur, Muzaffarnagar, MIeorut, Bulandshahr, Aligarh, Muttra, Agra, Etah, and Mainpurī Districts, of which 978,000 were irrigated. There is not much room for further increase. The canal also supplements the supply available in tho LOWER GANGES and AGRA CANALS (by means of the Hindan cut). The gross revenue first exceeded tho working expenses in 1860-61, and since then has been less in only one year. The net revenue has been larger than the interest charges on the capital expended since 1873-74. The most successful year of working was 1900-01, when the net revenue amounted to 111 per cent. on the capital outlay. In 1903-04 the gross and net revenue amounted respectively to 42 and 31 lakhs, the latter representing 10.3 per cent, on the capital outlay. Special expenditure has been undertaken to facilitate navigation by constructing locked channels round falls, and raising bridges, and boats can travel from Roorkee to Cavnpore. The portion of the Cawnpore branch from Nănū to Gopālpur, where it meets the Lower Ganges Canal, is chiefly kept open for navigation, and both the Ganges Canals are, in this respect, considered a single system. Operations are carried on at a loss, and 1 ·CAVALS the receipts in 1903-04 rrero Rs 11,000, while ospenditure was Rs 19,000 Grain, cotton, oilsee ls, and timber are the most important commodities, the rafting of timber 18, hower or, decreasing A small income is derived from mills worked by Water poner at the falls, and the water supply of Meerut city 18 raised by turbines worked by the canal Ganges Canal, Lower -An important irrigation Fork designed to water the southern and eastern portion of the DOAB of the United Provinces The canal Olves its origin to the rocommendations of the committee appointed in 1866 to examine the various projects for improving tho UPPER GANGES CANAL, It takes out of the Ganges at Naraura in Aligarh District, where a solid all 3,800 feet long, with a section of 10 feet by 9, having 42 veir-sluices, has been thrown across the river At milo 25 the Fatehgarh branch, 61 miles long, is given off, and soon aftor, at mile 34, the canal 18 carried on a fino aquoduct across the Kalı Nadı at Nadrat The Bewar hranch, 05 miles long, takes out 6 miles lower down, and at mile 55 the main canal meets the old Cawnpore branch of the Uppor Ganges Canal at Gopalpur, and provides most of its supply It then passes on to the Etawah branch of the Upper Gangos Canal and supplies it also, the main channel then taling the name of the Bhognipur branch and terminating in the Cawnporo District Tho canal was first opened for irrigation in 1878, u 1895 tho Fatehpur branch, which is a continuation of the Cavapore branch, extending into Allahabad District, was commenced, and it was opened for irrigation in 1898 The total capital outlay on this canal to the end of 1903 04 was moro The system commandis an area of 5,300,000 acres in Etah, Mainpuri, Farrukhabrd, Etawah, Cawnporo, Fatehpur, and Allahabad Districts, of which 831,000 arres troro Irrigated in 1903 04 The gross rotenue has orceeded the working expenses sinco 1880 81, but the pet posende still falls, in somo years, below the interest charges In 1903-04 tho canal carned 28 lal hs gross and 15 lakhs net, giving a return of 38 percent Tho main channcl on tho capital outlay of 62 miles and 137 miles of branches aro navigable lave 50$ gation accounts are hept jointly with those of tho U.. Caual thun 4 crores ·42 CANALS Jumna Canal, Eastern...An important irrigation work in tho uppor Doal of the Unitod Provinces taking out from the left or eastern bank of the Jumna. The canal is drawn from a branch of the river which divides soon after piercing the Siwāliks. Tho bod at this point has a rapid slopo over boulders and shingle; and tho supply is oasily maintained by spurs. For some miles tho canal itself flows over a similar bed. The main channel is 129 milos long, and thoro aro 729 miles of distributaries and 447 of cirnins. Immediatoly after the occupation of the Doāb, recurring fuminos pointed to the urgent necessity for irrigation, and survoys commouced in 1909, but work was not begun till 1823. Funds woro limitod, and tho canal was first opened in January 1830. Sir Prohy Cautley's experience on this canal was of great assistanco in carrying out the magnificent works of the more important Upper Ganges Canal. The line followed kept closely to that of an old canal of the 17th century. It has been much improved sinco it was opened by providing falls (which also. supply power for flour mills) to lessen the slope, and by straightening the channel. The capital cost at the end of 1830-31 amounted to little more than 4 lakhs and this had increased to 46 at the end of 1903-04. Tho canal serves a rich tract in the Districts of Sahāranpur, Muzaffarnagar, and Meerut, lying between the Hindan and Jumna, and falls into the latter river a little below Delhi. It commands an area of 906,000 acres and in 1903-04 irrigated: 305,000. The gross rovenue has oxceeded working expenses in every yoar except during the Mutiny, and the net profits on this canal are usually high, amounting to 9.9 lakhs or 22 per cent. on the capital outlay in 1903-04, while the gross profits were 14.5 lakhs. Since 1837-38 the canal has not been used for nayigation purposes. Agra Canal. An important irrigation work, which receives its supply from the right bank of the Jumna river at Okhla, about 11 miles below Delhi. It protects a tract of country which has suffered considerably in the past from famine. The veir across the Jumna vas the first attempted in upper India on & river having a bed of the finest sand, it is about 800 yards wide and rises 7 feet above the summer level of the river. In 1877 a cut was made from the HINDAN river to the left ·HISTORIC AREAS 43 bank of the Jumns close to the ver, and water from the Ganges Canal can thus be used, when available, to supplement the supply in the Jumna, which sometimes falls short The total length of the main canal in 1904 was 100 miles, of branches 9 miles, of distributaries 633 miles, of drainage cuts 191 miles, and of other channels 57 miles The main channel was completed in 1874 and irrigation commenced in the spring harvest of 1875 The total capital outlay to 1904 was 102 lakhs The canal commands an area of 597,000 acres, of which about 8 000 &*res aro situated in the Delhi and 210,000 arres in the Gurgaon District of tho Punjab, and in the United Provinces 228,000 acros in Muttra and 151,000 Agra The total area actually irrigated in 1903-04 was 260,000 arres, the gross and net revenues Tero 84 and 56 lakhs and the net revenue amounted to 55 per cent on the capital outlay The gross revenue has exceeded the working expenses in every year after 1876 77, and the not revenue has been larger than the interest charges on capital since 1896-97, but tahing the whole period of existence of the canal, the interest charges have exceeded the net rovenue by nearly 14 lakhs The total length open for navigation was 125 Ailes, including two branches to the Jumna at Muttra and Agra 9 and 16 miles in length which cost 1 8 and 4 9 lakhs, respectavely, and were marlo especially for this purpose Tho traffic was, however, small, and in 1903 04 only 14,221 tons of goods, valued at Rs 90,000, were carried The navigation receipts wero Rs 1,600, and the expenditure was Rs 6,500 Navigation was finally stopped in 1904, as it intorfered with irrigation, which 18 the pomo object of the canal Agra Province - Tho Subah or prorinco of Agra was ono of twelve into which the Mughal empiro was originally divided by Akbar It took its name from AGRA, the headquarters of tho province, and both town and province vero subsequontly called Albar.bid Tho Subah 18 described in the Ain 1-Albarı as 175 hos long from Palsal (now in the Gurgaon District), to Ghatampur (Catrnporo District), and 100 hos broad from Kanauy (Tarrukhabad District) to Chanderi (Gwalor Stato) It thus included, in tlio present United Provinces, tho vholo of tho Agra Division, with tho Aligarlı and half the Bulandshahr District to the north, and most of thor ·ITISTORIC AREAS. Jhansi Districts to tho cast and south. On the west it oxtended to parts of the prosent, Jaipur, Alwar, Bharatpur, Kurauli, and Dholpur Sinius in Rajputila, al Gwalior in Contral India. The provinco nominally suryi rorl till the end of the 15th century, though Rajputs, Jāts, Marăthis, and the Pathāns of Barrukhabad hori bcen tho actual rulers for noarly a hundred years. The onstern portiou which is not British torritory was uired, parkly higression from the Nawāb of Oudh in 1801, anul purtly by conquest from the Marăthis in 1803, and tras inoluilerl, with other areas acquired at tho same periods, in the Presidency of Bugal. Administrativo difficulties arose oring in the distance of these outlying tracts from tho sent of Governmont at Calcutts, and after various temporary measures a Board of Rovenue, and a Sailr Diwáni and Nizamat Court (Chief Civil ilmul Criminni (ourt) were constituted in 1831 for the so-called Postern Provincos, outiroly indopendent of the Board and Court to. (aloutta. A few years later al Presidency of Agra pas formed by the Statuto 3 and 4 William IV, Cap. 85, which included the wholo of tho prosent UNITED PROVINCES, oxcopt Oudh and parts of Bundelkhand, nnd a Governor vas nppointed. The scheme was, lowovor, novor completely carried out, and a Lieutenant-Governo of the North-Western Provinces, which included the same area, T'as appointed in 1836 under the Statuto 5 and 6 William IV, Cap, 52. By Act VII of 1902 a change was made in designation, and the North-Vestoru Provinces and Oudh hocamo the United Provincos of Agra and Ouri. The term Agro is noir applied (section 1(4), United Provinces Act I of 1904] to the territorios formerly kuown as the North-Western Provinces. Baiswară. The name giron to several tracts of country in various parts of the United Provinces from the fact that they belong or have belongod to tho Bais Rājputs. The most important of these includes a number of parganas (traditionally 22) in the castorn half of Unao District, the western half of Rãe Barelī, and the extreme south of Lucknow, with a total area of nearly 2,000 square miles. Tho Bais Rājputs first became of importance here in the 13th century, then tiro of them, named Abhai Chand and Nirbhe Chand (who are supposed to have come from Mungi Patan in the Deccan), rescued the Gautam Rănī of Argal, who had been attacked by the Aſuhammadan governor of Oudh, ·46 HISTORIO AREAS. Nirbhe Chand died of his rounds, and the Rāji of Argal gave a daughter to Abhai Chand, who settled at Daundiã Khora. Tenth in descent from him came the great Tilok Chondt, who lived about 1400, and extended the area bold by the Bais to the limits described above. Legends are numerous about Tilok Chand, who became the greatest noble in Oudh, and opposedl the Muslims as did his immediate successors. According to one he defeated the Chauhān Rājā of Mainpuri, who thereupon gayb him a daughter to wife, though the Bais vere reckoned inferior to the Chauhàng. In the 18th century tlie bravery of the chiefs of Baistārā gained the almiration of Saadat Khăn, the founder of tho Lucknow dynasty. Under the Oudh Government Baistfäră formed a separate administrative division, as describod abovo. Tho Baistārā Division formed by the British Govorimont after annexation consisted of Rão Bareli, Partābgarh, and Sultanpur, tho last two Districts having nothing to do with the real Buis- Mård. The tract has given its name to a dialect of Eastern Hindi, which differs very slightly from other dialects of that language. Its inhabitants still bear a reputation for bravery. The Bais chieftain, Drig Bijai Singh, in 1857, saved the four survivors of tho Cawnpore massacre from their pursuers. (Eviott, Chrom nicles of Conao, page 66, et seq.) Bundelkhand (British).–A tract of country in the United Proviucos which includes the Districts of JALAUN, JHANSI, HAMIRPUR, and BANDA with those parts of ALLAHABAD which lie south of the Jumna and Ganges. It thus consists of an area of about 11,600 square miles lying south-west of the Jumna from its junction with the Chambal. The name is taken from that of the Bundelã Thakurs, the most important clan in it. The word "Rundeli" is popularly derived from búnd, a drop, in allusion to the attempted sacrifice of himself by the foutider of tho clan, a Gahartrar. His son was born from the drops of bloot which fell on the altar of Vindhyalīsini Devi at Bindhachal (sco MIRZAPUR CITY). Other derivations are from Vindhya, or frota Bündi, & slavo-girl. The northern range of tho eastern Vindhyas called Bindhi- Physic chal cuts across the south of Jhātisi, B.inda, and Alahābād, with many outlying isolated hills, but nowhere rises abova 2,000 feet. 2710 baso of the hills rests on gueiss, while the hills themsclyds featut ·46 HISTORIC AREAS. aro of sandstone overlaid south of these Provinces with basalts the Deccan trap), which has also spread north in dykes. From. the hills numerous streams flow north or north-east towards the Jumna, of which the most important are the BETWA, DHASAN, Birmā, KEN, Bāghain, Paisunī, and (southern) Tons. The geological formation of southorn Bundelkhand has greatly influenced the soil of the alluvial plain lying between the hills and the Jumna. This contains a large proportion of disintegrated trap, which gives it a dark colour; it is especially useful for growing wheat, and is known as black soil, and in vernacular as mār. A variety of lightor colour and differing qualities is known as kābar. From Jhānsi to Lalitpur a soil called räkar is found, the prevailing colour of which is largely red or yellow owing to the presence of iron in the disintegrated gneiss. Another soil of red colour is formed from disintegrated sandstone in situ, and though productive is easily exhausted as it is very shallow. Black soil is retentive of moisture, but requires irrigation in unfavourable seasons, and in dry weather opens out in large cracks. During the rains unmetalled roads are almost impassable owing to the tenacious mud formed on them. A native proverb says that kābar is' too wet to plough one morning, and too dry and hard to plough the next day. In Bāndā as in other tracts crossed by the Vindhyas, many varieties of stone implements have been found, the relics of prehistoric man* The earliest traditions connected with British Bundelkhand relate that it was ruled over by Gaharıār Rājputs. Nothing certain is knon of these; but some of the numerous tanks formed by throwing embankments across the narrow ends of valleys are attributed to them, viz. those the embankments of which are formed of uncut stone. The largest is the Bijainagar lake, situated about three miles east of Mahobā. According to tradition the Gabarwārs were followed by Paribārs, who were succeeded by Chandels, a clan which has left many memorials of its rule. Nothing but the name is known of Nānika or . Nannuka, described in several inscriptions as the founder of the dynasty ; but he probably flourished in the first half of the 9th century A.D. The fourth Rājā Rāhila (circa 890–910) seems * J. Rivett-Carnac, J.A.S.B., 1883, page 221 and J. Cockburn, J.A.S.B., 1894, Part III, page 21. tory.

·HISTORIC AREAS. to have extended his dominions, and he constracted the Rāhilsa Sāgar (lahe) at Jabobā, mith & fine temple, not in ruins, on its embankment. The earliest dated inscriptions are thoso of Dhanga (950—999), who appears to have been the most powerful of the early Chandels. He assisted Jaipil of Lahoro in his unsuccessful invasion of the Ghazni kingdom in 978, and according to his inscriptions Tras recognised as orer-lord by rulers of most of central, southern, and eastern India; but this is clearly an exaggeration. His successor, Ganda (999—1025), who appears as Nanda Rai in the Muhammadan histories, also assisted Jaipāl of Lahore against Mahmūd of Ghazni, and according to Firishta he killed the king of Kanguj in 1021, but surrendered to Mahmūd in 1023, when he was in possession of fourtcen forts. Kīrtti Varmma 1, the eleventh king (1049—1100) seems to have been reigning when his son, Sallakshann, conquored Karna, King of Chedi or southern Kosala. Ho is also tho carliest Chandel, whose coins, copied from thoso of the Chedi kings, are known. Tradition assigns to him tho construction of the Kirat Sāgar at Mahobā, and some buildings at Ajaigarh. Madan Varmmn, fifteenth king (1130—1165), was a vigorous ruler, who extended the sway of the Chandels. Ho again sub- Quod the Chedi kingdom which had bocomo indopendont, and is said to havo conquered Gujarät. His immediato succossor, Paramārdī Deva or Parmāl (1165~-1203), is still romombored, as during his roign Prithwi Raj of Delhi conquered Bundelkhand in 1182, and tho Chandel power received a second blow in 1203, whon Kutnb-ud-din raided tho country. Popular truclition holds that Paramirdi lost his kingdom through lisoloring tho four conditions laid on tho founder of tho raco—not to drink wino, not to put Brihmans to death, not to malo impropor marringo counctions, and to preserve tho namo of Varmma. Tho Chaudel dominion lay botncen tho Dhasin on tho west, tho sources of the Ken on the south, tho Jumna on the north, and tho Vindhya hills on the cast. At times it extended as far west as tho Betwa. Kälinjar, Khajuraho, Mahobi, and Ajnigarh woro its great fortresses. In the inscriptions the country is sometimes called Jejaka-bhukti, which has been contracted into Jijhoti, from which tho Jijhotia Brāhmaus, who still inhabit tho tract, tako their name. The kingdom of Chi-ki-to described ·15 IJ ISTORIC AREAS. by Hiuen Tsiang in the 7th ceulury as lying north-east of Ujjain has been identified trith Jejāka. After the Musalmãn conquest the Chandels became petty Rājās. Tho country was held for a short time by Metrātīs, probably in the first half of the 13th century, and then by Bhars. Tradition shows the latter oirning a large part of the eastern Doāb and control Oudh, and the Persian historians record the conquest by Ulugh Khān, in 1248, of a king Dalakī-wa-Malaki, reigning from Karā to Kālinjar. The name appears to be a compound of two zames, Dal and Bal, known from tradition. Tho Bhars are locally said to have been driven out by a Muhammadan, and replaced by the Khangārs, formerly servants of the Chandels. The Bundelās claim to be descended from Pancham, a Gahar- Iclās, wār who attempted to sacrifice himself, as noted above; but their origin is obscure. They probably began to acquire power in the 14th century, first settling at a place called Mau, which has not been definitely identified, and then taking Kālinjar and Kālpi; but some writers place them a century earlier. As their power increased, chiefly in western Bundelkhand (Central India), the Bundelās constantly came into collision with the Muhammadans. About 1507 Rudr Pratāp became chief, and is said to have been formally appointed governor by Bābar. From his song most of the great Bundelā families derive their descent. Tu 1545 Sher Shāh invaded Bundelkhand, and lost his life while besieging Kālinjar. Kirat Singh, the last Chandel Rājā, was put to death by Islām Shāh, who took the fort; but it again fell into the hands of the Bundelās, till in 1569 Akbar got possession of it. The Bundelās, who were now divided, still held considerable power and were often successful in r'esisting the royal troops. Bir Singh Deo, who ruled at Orchhā, and commenced the fort at Jhānsi, incurred the special anger of Akbar by planning the murder of Abul Fazl at the instigation of prince Salim, afterwards the emperor Jahāngir, and though he remained in favour during the reign of the latter, he rebelled against Shāh Jahāri, and his territory was confiscated. The central part of Bundelkhand was ruled by Champat Rai from Mahobā. He joined in Bir Singh Deo's revolt, and though attacked by forces from Agra, from Allahābād, and from the Deccan, maintained a ·mand at Gwalior, to crush the Bundeli chiefs. A long stragglo took place betweon 1790 and 1802, rhon Ali Bahadur diod whilo attempting to tako Kilinis. By the treaty of Bassein in 1802 the Peshra cerled to the British torritory, bomo of afterwards exchanged for part of tho Marithi HISTORIC AREAS. Guerilla warfare near the Betwă. He finally accepted service under the emperor and obtained the pargana of Kūnch in Jalaun, and in return for assistance given to Aurangzeb at the battle of Samogarh, rocoived further grants, but lost favour and was assasa sinated by his wife's relations. Champat Rai's son, Chhatarsāl, soon became chief leader of the Bundelās and in a fow years held the whole of western Bundelkhand, and gradually extended his power, taking Kālinjar and most of British Bundelkhand. He defeated the imperial troops again and again, and in 1707, on the accession of Bahādur Shāh, was confirmed in all the acquisitions he hal made. In 1723 Muhammad Khān Bangash of Farrukhābād, whilo governor of Mālvā, vas ordered to bring the Bundelās to order; and in 1727, after his transfer to Allahābād, he attacked them again, laying waste the whole country. Uuable to resist the invasion, Chhatarsāl called in the Marāthās in 1729, and Muhammad Khān barely escaped with his life, glad to promise never to enter Bundelkhand again. When Chhatarsāl died, about 1734, he left one-third of his land (Jhansi and Jõlaun) to the Marāthīs, and the rest was divided among his heirs. Bundelkhand was valuable to the Marathis, as it lay on the road from the Deccan to the Doāb, and Baji Rao marlo constant use of it, all the Bundelās binding themselves by treaty to co-operate with him. In 1747 the Peshwa furthor extended his possessions in Bundelkhand by a fresh treaty, and nearly ttventy years later troops fron Bundelkhand assisted Shujāud-daula of Oudh in his unsuccessful struggle with the English. British troops first marched against this country in 1776, when Tar broke out trith the Marāthīs after the treaty of Purandhar, but they passed through without retaining any hold on the conntry. The Bundelās then succeeded in freeing themselves to somo extent from the Marāthī pover. A Gosain or religious mendicant named Himmat Bahādur, who had already commandol he cops, nosy began to rise into porrer, and he combínod with Ali an illegitimate grandson of Biji Rao, who was in com- 44 Bahadur, N ·50 ISTORIC AREAS. 2 pala. pu. Bundolkhand. Another portion was acquired under a second tronty of Docomber 1803. The subordinate Maratha chiefs refused to recogniso theso treaties, and Shamshor Bahādur, son of Ali Bahadur, undortook to lay waste Bundelkhand and the British Districts of Mirzīpur and Benares. Himmat Bahădur then abandoned the Marathis and came ovor to the British, who granted him a largo torritory along tho Jumna between Allahābād aur Kilpi. British troops co-operated with Himmat and drove Shamsher across tho Betwă, and in 1803 took Kälpí. Shamsher hocamo titular Nawab of Bandã with a ponsion of four lakhs, and by tho ond of 1804 the tract was fairly quiet. The fort of Kalinjur was takon in 1812. Subscquent additions to British Lorritories took place by lapso, and Jhansi city was acquired from Gwalior in oxchango for Gwalior fort and Morăr in 1886. Tho population of British Bundelkhand fell from 2,693,000 in 1891 to 2,456,000 in 1901, a decrease of nearly 9 per cent. Excessivo rainfall aud cloudy weather in the winters of the early years of the decade brought on rust, which damaged the spring crops and caused great loss to the people. The failure of tho rains in 1995 and 1896 caused severe famine, and a virulent cholera opidemic broko out. The density is only 212 per square mile or less than one-half of the donsity in the United Provinces generally. Of the total population 2,297,000, or more than 93 per cont. aro Hindus, and only 143,000 or less than 6 per cont. are Muhammadans, while the followers of Islam form 14 por cent. of tho population in the United Provinces as a hole. British Bundelkhand extends to the jungles of Central India, and its inhabitants have a strong infusion of Dravidian blood. The principal jungle tribes are the Kols, Khangārs, and Sahariās, who have become nominally Hinduised. The change is, however, more noticeable in regard to social customs, such as marriago rules, than in the religious beliefs of these people which continue strongly animistic. A few estates are still owned by Marãthās, but the effects of their rule bave almost disappeared. In Bandã and Allahābād the Baghelī and Awadhi dialects of Eastern Hindi are spoken, while in Hamīrpur, Jhansi, and Jälaun the vernacular is the Bundelį dialect of Western Hindi. While in the United Provinces, as a whole, the autumn crops cover an area only about 16 per cent, greater than the ricnl. 0.

·11ISTORIC AREAS 51 spring crops, in Bundelkhand they are nearly double About ono third of the autumn crop 18 powur and one seventh cotton, and from 50 to 80 per cent of the spring crop is gram These proportions vary according to the seasons, and after good rain the rabi area is largely increasod Irrigation from wells 18 difficult owing to the low water-level, and the storage tanks made by closing valloys do not command largo arcas There is only ono canal, drawn from the Betwa, a protective work which chiefly serves Jalaun Iu 1903 04, while one third of the not cultivated area in the Provinces was irrigated, only about 4 por cent of the cultivated area in this trant was watered It is thus pocularly liable to suffer from defective rainfall A canal from the Ken to serve the Banda District has beon commonced, and schemes to increase the water available in tho Betwa Canal, which 18, at prosent, insufficient for the demand, and to open othor sources aro undor consideration Otler calamities aro tho provalence of rust, after & wet or cloudy cold weather, and tho growth of a wood or grass callod hans, which spreads rapidly and can only be eradicated with difficulty lamine has thus been sovorely folt again and again, and tho failure of the rains in 1896, which followod succoss110 bad years, was especially disastrous The liability to good and bad cycles of agricultural condi Specs tions 18 couplod with poculiarities in tho naturo and disposition on of the people Though perhaps not moro extravagant than tho inhabitants of tho rest of the Unitod Provinces, thoy aro distinctly moro imprordent, and the careful cultivation and saving habits of tho Juts, Kurmis, Ki hhis, Muraos, and Kooris of other Dis tricts are not found in Bunlolkhand This mny bo partly tracod to tho liability to vicissitudes already roferred to, and partly to the efforts of the rovenuo system of the Marathus, who possessori tho tra t before tho British Tho most common mothod was to assess a villago annually at fixol rates on soil or crops, and to mal o deluctions for bad scasons, after a valuation of thọ crops of earh holding This ras a systom of rach routing, as the ratos Moro tho highest which could bo paid in a good scnson, and it is obiously not & system under which either the standard of comfort, or the prosperity of a community rould be liholy to increaso Locopt in part of tho Lalitpur tahsıl in Jhuusi, tho land ·52 HISTORIC AREAS. Tas chiefly held by individual cultivators, and taluſedărs or large. holders of land were very fow. British rulo conferred proprietary rights on the village headmen who were found managing land and collecting ronts, and on a few relations of these who shared in the headman's special holding, or reduced rent. Instead of the demand being regulated by the season, a rigid system of collecting a fixed amount was introduced; land became a transferable security, and the owners, unaccustomed to their nevy conditions, got freely into debt, and lost their holdings. It was estimated that in Bandā, most of which became British territory early in the 19th century, an aggregate area equal to twice or three times the area of the District, changed hands in the next forty years. Most of the Jhānsi District was acquired later, when more experience had been gained in revenue administration, and sale of land was not allowed till 1862: but even here sufficient allowances Tere not made. Some landowners had been in debt since the Marathā rule. After the Mutiny revenue was collected from many from hom it had been extorted by the Orchhā or Jhānsi rebels. In 1867 the crops failed, and in 1868-69 there ivas famine, and great loss of cattle. In 1872 many cattle were lost from murrain. Although the settlement had appeared light it became necessary to re-examine the condition of the District in 1876. After much discussion the Jhānsi Encumbered Estates Act (XVI of 1882) was passed, and a Special Judge appointed, who was empowered to examine claims and reduce excessive interest. The sale of a whole estate operated as a discharge in bankruptcy to extinguish all debt due. Many estates were cleared by sale of a portion only. A striking feature of the proceedings was the rapid increase in the value of land. The experiment, though apparently successful, had not a lasting effect. Bundelkhand suffered from another series of bad years, commencing with rust and blight in 1892-93, excessive rain in 1894, and drought in 1895 and 1996. Even in Băndā, where the last settlement was made, not on actual assets, but on a fair average area of cultivation the population decreased by 101 per cont. between 1891 and 1901. Debt had become serious in all parts of the tract. The Jhānsi legislation has therefore been revived, with modifications suggested by the experience gained, as (Unitod Provinces) Act I of 1903, which has been applied to ·HISTORIC AREAS. the wholo of British Bundelkhand. In addition to this, tiro now safeguards have been adopted. By (United Provinces) Act II of 1903 pormanont alienations of land are forbidden whore the alienor is a member of one of certain agricultural tribes, except in favour of anothor member of the same tribe, or where both parties reside in the same District and are both membors of agricultural tribes. Except where permanent alienation is allowed, mortgages and leases are subjoct to the condition that possession of tho land involved cannot be transferred for more than twenty years. Salos in oxecution of decrees passed by civil or rovenuo courts (other than those of the Special Judges who have been appointed) are forbiddon, but such decrees may be liquidated by usufructuary mortgages for torms not exceeding twonty years. Largo reductions of revenue have been mado, and the settlement of all parts of Bundelkhand is being revised. Instead of tho now domand boing fixed for 30 years, it will be liable to further rovision whoneyor the cultivated area fluctuates considerably. (V. A. Smith, History of Bundelkhand, Journal As. Soc., Bengal, 1881, page 1; Cunningham, Arch. Strucy Reports, VII and XXI; C. A. Silberrad, Journal As. Soc., Bengal, 1902, zrage 99; E. G. Jonkinson, Settlenzent Report of Jhansi, 1871; 1. Carloll, Settlement Report of Bända, 1881.) Doāb (two rivers).—This name is commonly applied to tho land between any two rivers, but cspecially to the tract botwocn tho Ganges and Jumna in the United Provinces, oxtending from tho Siwüliks to the junction of the two rivors at Allahibid. Tho central and lower portions from Etawah to Allahābid aro ofton tormod Antarved, tho meaning of which is said to bo oither betw cen tho wators, or within tho hearth. Antarvedi is also applied to the dislost of Western Hindi used in the central portion, u variety of Braj. Tho Doab includes the Districts of Sahiranpur, Muzaffarnagar, Meerut, Bulandshahr, Aligarh, ſarts of Muttra, and Agra, Ctah, Mainpuri, tho greator part of Itival and. Farrukhābād, Cawniporo, Fatolipur, and part of Allahābid. Naturally a rich tract of aluvial soil, it has been fertilizce and irrigated by thrco fine engincoring works, tho Urrer Gaxars, LOWER Gaxons, and LastenX JUINA CAXALs, and much has boon sono to improvo tho drainago of tho land. This is the grcatest whcat-producing arca in the ·TIISTORIC AREAS. United Provinces, and it presonts an almost unbroken sheet of cultivation, varied only by ravines on the banks of the Jumna and other rivers and occasional patches of barren üsar (saline) plain or dhāk (Butea frondosa) jungle. The contrast between this condition and tho state of the Doab at the end of the 18th contury, is striking. In 1794-95 Mr. Twining, a servant of the Company, travellod from Fatehgarh to Agra, Muttra, Delhi, and hack across Aligarh, and described most of the tract as a sandy wasto. Although before British rulo famine repeatedly devastated this aren, canal irrigation has now rendered the greater part of it safo. In 1896-97 tho peasants of the upper Doāb were able to hold stocks of grain, while almost every other part of the United Provinces was importing. The Fatehpur branch of the Lowor Ganges Canal, oponed in 1898, will do much for the three Districts nearest the confluence of the Ganges and Jumna. Cavuporo, the largest manufacturing town in the United Provinces, which is also an important collecting and distributing contro, Háthras, Meerut, Sahāranpur, Allahābād, and Etāwah are the chief commercial centres. Smaller thriving towns are numerous, and a network of railways crosses the area in every direction and provides excellent means of communications with all parts of India. The Doāb, though it has ļain in the tract of all invaders from the north, was never a historical entity, and the history of its different portions will be found in the accounts of the Districts composing it. Hindustan.--A vaguely-defined area, sometimes applied to the whole of India north of the Vindhyas, in contradistinction to the Descan (Dakshin, south) which lay south of them. Hindustan, in this sense, vas bounded on the north by the Himālayas, on the east by Assam, on the south by the Vindhyas, and on the west extended into the Punjab and Rājputāna. It accordingly comprises the administrative tracts forming the Lieutenant-Governorships of Bengal, and the United Provinces, together with the eastern portions of the Punjab and Răjputāna, and perhaps the western Districts of Assam, In Muhammadan histories the term is used for a smaller area including the east of the Punjab and Rajputāna and the greater part of the United Provinces. Thus Abul Fazi treats the province of Lahore as outside of Hindustan. During ·HISTORIC AREAS, 55 the 18th and first half of the 19th centuries the term Hindustān was loosely employed to include the whole of India. The namo moans the "place of the Hindus," and it has been applied to the lingua franca of northern India, called Hindustāni or Urdū, which is a dialoct of Western Hindi, with a greater or less admixturo of Arabic and Persian vocablos, according to the tasto of tho speaker. * Kosala (from Kushala, happy).-Two tracts of this namo aro known in Hindu literature. That north of the Vindhyas. corresponded roughly to Oudh. In the Rämāyana it is the country of Dasaratha and Rāma, with its capital at Ajodhyā, and it then extended to the Ganges. It was part of the holy land of Buddhism, and in Buddhist literature kings of Kosala also ruled over Kapilavastu. Srīvasti, the site of which is disputed, was the capital of Uttara Kosala, the northern portion ovor which Lava, son of Rāma, ruled after his father's death. Southern or great Kosala (Dakshina or Mahā Kosala), fell to Kusa, tho other son of Rāma, and lay south of the Vindhyas. In the 7th century Hiuen Tsiang describes it as bounded by Ujjain on the north, Mahārāshtra on the west, by Orissa on tho oast, and by Andhra and Kalingă on the south. It thus lay in Chhattisgarh about the upper valloy of the MAHANADI and its tributaries, from Amarkantak on the north to Kanker on tho south, and may at times have extondod west into tho Mandla and Bālághāt Districts, and cast into Sambalpur. From about 1000 the tract was absorbed in a now kingdom called Chedi (castorn). (For northern Kosata sce Lassen, Ind. Alt., Vol. I, page 129, and authoritics quoted there; Rhys Davids' Buldhist India, passim. For southern Kosala sce Cunningham, Archäological Survey Reports, XVII, page 68, and map, and Coins of Meliceval India, page 73.) Madhya Desa (tho middlo country).–At presont this namo is not infrequently usod by Hindus for the Ganges and Jumna DOAB. It had a moro oxtended meaning formorly, and in carly tincs probably included tho trant lying between the placo (at Bhatner in Rajputāna) there tho SARASWATI disappears on the rest, and Allahabad on tho cast, stretchiug to tho Himalayas on tho north and tho Vindhras on the south. • To appear also in the Central Provinces B. + 3 ·04 HISTORIC AREAS. United Provincos, and it presents an almost unbroken sheet of cultivation, varied only by ravines on the banks of the Jumna and other rivers and occasional patches of barren ūsar (saline) plain or dhāk (Butea frondosa) jungle. The contrast between this condition and the state of the Doāb at the end of the 18th century, is striking. In 1794-95 Mr. Twining, a seryant of the Company, travelled from Fatehgarh to Agra, Muttra, Delhi, and back across Aligarh, and described most of the tract as a sandy waste. Although before British rule famine repeatedly devastated this area, canal irrigation has now rendered the greater part of it safe. In 1896-97 the peasants of the upper Doäb were able to hold stocks of grain, while almost every other part of the United Provinces was importing. The Fatehpur branch of the Lower Ganges Canal, opened in 1898, will do much for the three Districts nearest the confluence of the Ganges and Jumna. Cawnpore, the largest manufacturing town in the United Provinces, which is also an important collecting and distributing centre, Hāthras, Meerut, Sahāranpur, Allahābād, and Etăwah are the chief commercial centres. Smaller thriving towns are numerous, and a network of railways crosses the area in every direction and provides excellent means of communications with all parts of India. The Doāb, though it has Jain in the tract of all invaders from the north, was never a historical entity, and the history of its different portions will be found in the accounts of the Districts composing it. Hindustān.A vaguely-defined area, sometimes applied to the whole of India north of the Vindhyas, in contradistinction to the Descan (Dakshin, south) which lay south of them. Hindustan, in this sense, was bounded on the north by the Himālayas, on the east by Assam, on the south by the Vindhyas, and on the west extended into the Punjab and Rājputāna. It accordingly comprises the administrative trasts forming the Lieutenant-Governorships of Bengal, and the United Provinces, together with the eastern portions of the Punjab and Rājputāna, and perhaps the restern Districts of Assam. In Muhammadan histories the term is used for a smaller area including the east of the Punjab and Rājputāna and the greater part of the United Provinces. Thus Abul Fazl treats the province of Lahore as outside of Hindustān. During ·HISTORIC AREAS. 55 4 the 18th and first half of the 19th centuries the term Hindustan was loosely employod to include the whole of India. The name means the place of the Hindus," and it has been applied to tho lingua franca of northern India, called Hindustāni or Urdū, which is a dialect of Western Hindi, with a greater or less admirturo of Arabic and Persian vocables, according to the tasto of the speaker. *Kosala (from Kushala, happy).--Two tracts of this namo aro known in Hindu literature. That north of the Vindhyas corresponded roughly to Oudh. In the Rāmāyana it is the country of Dasaratha and Rāma, with its capital at Ajodhyā, and it then extended to the Ganges. It was part of the holy land of Buddhism, and in Buddhist literature kings of Kosala also ruled over Kapilavastu. Srīvasti, the site of which is disputed, was the capital of Uttara Kosala, the northern portica over which Lava, son of Rāma, ruled after his father's dos Southern or great Kosala (Dakshina or Mahā Kosala), fell 23 Kusa, the other son of Rāma, and lay south of the ViTAS In the 7th century Hiuen Tsiang describes it ss bowler Ujjain on the north, Mahārāshtra on the rest, by Orissa C cast, and by Andhra and Kalingi on the south. IS IT in Chhattisgarh about the upper valley of the Vancimin tributaries, from Amarkantak on the north to Sinh south, and may at times have extended trest into the Bilághāt Districts, and east into Sambalpur. Fot" tho tract was absorbed in a new kingdom ca]9. . (For northern Kosala see Lassen, Ind. & TE and authoritics quoted there; Rbrs Danas passim. For southern Kosala sor Carmen Survey Reports, XVII, page 6s, and this tal India, page 73.) Madhya Desa (the middle not infrequently used by Bigars DoaB. It had a more exor early times probabis insis (at Bhatner in Bajramit, Tizi on the west, and it's Ilimālayas on the after * Topp: LINE 1 ·56 IIISTORIC AREAS. This wns the area within which Brālimanism had its rise and full dovolopment, and it is still rogarded as a holy land of Hinduism. But according to Varīha Mihira, the Sanskrit geographer of the Gih contury A.D., tho Madhya Desa oxtondod as far west as Mirwir, whilo tho Yimunos, or people living on the banks of the Junina, isoro portly in this and partly in the northern country, and tho Vindhyas nro wholly excluded. Al-Biruni has explained it is tho country lying round KaNAUJ.-(Lassen, Ind. Alt., Vol.I, page 92. Mlect, Ind. Ants, 1893, page 169.) Magadha.This anciont kingdom is referred to both in the Rämiyann and in the Mahabhirata. The greater part of dagarlha proper was situated in Bihār south of the Ganges, with its capital first at Rījugriha and afterwards at Pātāliputra (Putra); but it also oxtonded into the east of what is now the United Provinces, whero it marched with the kingdom of Benaros. Mngodha was the scone of many episodes in the life of Gautania and is important in tho history of Buddhism. About the same period lahāvīra founded the cognate sect of the Jains. At tho timo of Aloxander's invasion the kings of Magalha appear to havo been recognised as paramount over the greater part of tho United Provinces as well as over Bengal. Their dominion was still further extended by Chandra Gupta Maurya and his grandson, the famous Asoka. The Maurya dynasty doolined after Asoka's death, and Magadha yas conquered about 150 B.C. by a king of Kalingā, but towards the end of the 4th contury A.D. & new line of Gupta kings renewed the glories of Magadha, and grarlually spread westward to Allahābād, Kanauj, and even to Gujarāt, while Samudra Gupta temporarily conquered part of the Deccan. When the Gupta ompire broke up early in the 6th contury, Magadha was subdued for a time by the Chalukya king Kirttivarman (I), but again became a small kingdom, still ruled by an eastern branch of the Guptas. Inscriptious. give the names of eleven kings, the eighth of whom was reigning in 672. The kingdom was absorbed in the dominions of the Pál kings of Bengal in the 9th century. In 1197 the last of the Pāls was dethroned by Muhammad Bakhtiār Khiljī, and the kingdom of Magadha was included in the empire of the slave kings of Delhi. Magadha formed part of the Jaunpur kingdom for a * To appear also in the Bengal Provincial yolume.-R. B.

·HISTORIO ARDAS. timo, and its later history merges in that of Bihir. Varāha Mihira, the Sanskrit geographer of the 6th century A.D., mentions Magadba is situated in the eastern division of India bctvcon KOSALA and MITHILA (Tirhut). The kingdom has given its name to a tribe of Brāhmans called Magalha or Sákaldrip Brahmans, and also to the Magahiya sub-division of tho low caste Dom. Like other kingdoms east of MADHYA DESA, its inhabitants were held in loi esteem and this fecling has survivod to the present day.--(Iassen Ind. Ait., Vol. I, pages 135 and 602; Pargiter, J.A.S.B., 1897, p. 86; McCrindle, Invasion of Indur by Alexander, pp. 36, 56, 380, and 40+8; Fleet Ind, Ant., 1893, pp. 170, 183, and Gupta inscriptions, pages 200-220; Duff, The chronology of India, passim.) * Mewāt.-An ill-defineii tract lying south of Dolhi, and including part of the British Districts of Muttra and Gurgaon, and most of the Alwar and a little of the Bharatpur States. It takes its name from the leas, who appear to have beon originally the same as the Mīnās of Rajputina, but say that they have not intermarried with these since the time of Akbar. Tho origin of the name Meo is disputed, some deriving it from Merkt, which is said to be tho Sanskrit mini-vati, rich in fish, while the Meos themselves derive' it from "maheo," a word used in driving cattle. Mina is said to come from Amina Deo puro Meo, a term applied to those who did not become Alusalmans. The Hindu Meos and Minās claim to be Rājputs, but are not so treated by other Hindus, and it is certain that ontsiders have often been admitted in the past. Their tribal constitution varies in different places. The Muhammadans call themselves Merātīs. In 1991 thero were 10,546 Mcos and Minās in the United Provinces, chiefly in Meerut (916), Bulandshahr (4,745), Agra (906), Bijnor (1,263), Budaun . (884), and Morādābād (1,07€), Bud 51,028 Movátīs, chietty in tho Decrut (22,576), Agra (7,316), and Rohillhand (16,129) Divisions. The large number in Rohilkhand, which was never part of Merät, is explained by a migration oring to famine in Mowat in 1761-62. Tho Meos of Rājputāda numbered 168,596 or nearly 2 per cent. of the total population. All sre Muhammadaus but G, and they aro found in 13 out of 18 States, "To appear also in the Rijpatána ProTincial yolume,R. B Or ·58 HISTORIC AREAS. In Alwar there were 113,142 or over 13 per cent. of the total, and in Bharatpur 51,546 or 8 per cent. The Khānzāda division is still represented by 9,317 members, most of whom are in Alwar. The Mevātīs have preserved many Hindu customs, suclr as observing exogamous rules and Hindu festivals, According to tradition the Meos first crossed the Jumna in the period of anarchy which succeedled the invasion by Mahmud Ghaznivid in 1018-19. The great Rājput clans of Bulandshahr and Etāwah state that they dispossessed the Meos at the direction of Prithwi Rāj of Delhi towards the end of the 12th century. Throughout the period of Muhammadan rule the Meos were the Ishmaelites of their own country and of the upper DOAB, though harried again and again by the kings of Delhi, from Năsir-ud-din Mahmud (1259) to Bābar (1527). During the troubled times of Tīmūr's invasion (1398) Bahădur Nābar, who founded the division of Mewātīs called Khānzādas, members of which were, for many years, rulers of Mewāt, was one of the most powerful chiefs in this part of India. Under Akbar the tract was divided between the sarkārs Alwar and Tijāra. in the Sūbah of Delhi. The rule of the Mewātīs was subsequently challenged by the Jāts, who had already risen to importance before the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, and consolidated their power in southern Mevät in the first half of the 19th century, and from this time the history of Mewāt merges in that of ALWAR and BHARATPUR. The Meos and Mevātīs, however,, retained their character for turbulence; and towards the end of the 19th century travelling in the upper and central Doab, was unsafe owing to well-armed bands of Mevyātī horsemen. They gave much trouble to Lord Lake's forces in the Marāthā. war of 1803, while in the Mutiny they and the Gūjars were conspicuous for their readiness to take advantage of disorder.- (Crooke, Tribes and Castes of North-Western Provinces and Oudh, Vol. III., page 485 et seq., where full authorities are quoted.) hysical * Oudh (Awadh).-A British Province, forming part of the spects, UNITED PROVINCES, lying between 25° 34' and 28° 42' N. and *This article deals only with matters in which Oudh differs from the rest of the United Provinces, to the article on which reference should be made for other detailse ·HISTORIC AREAS. A between 79° 41' and 83° 8' E. Area, 23,966 squsra miles. Par lation (1901), 12,833,077. The name is & corruption of ibensma of the ancient city of Ajodbyă (dyodhya), which has iba seat of a local governor under the earls Vaksmaka rudens Oudh is bounded on the north by the independen: Sanchez and on all other sides by the Provinse of doma. The Green and Benares Divisions lie on the east Be Barang Di VE Divisions on the west, and the waist Ihr me formation The river Ganges forms the peri 5 STE boundary. Oudbinelcies promoci 170 divisions of upper Inlis. Donec non Bahraich, and Gonda o te mire below the Himalarza, bermain den the central portion ci Garantie Loundary of Bahraich and Glow more interest to hills which mark this is Edimi tamin plain, but the submonta2 CRT - 25THEY Cirmind from the plain by its great flug mi pre TE simme to a bearier rainial aiటురము mp was st the Himalayas. In the northosing porn videos are large areas of forest lezd. Gore rire de is classified as Gangz'is all times a toteutetaan except hankar (nodula: limestons), the one in the roalls. Gold is obtained in reprehenderit Torrent bond in the river in the north ofis Premium Styrelsen sively manufactured during ratire malezione direct beton prohibited for many years. The Scenes on the United Prosinces. The country slopes from normas ..ހއް ކީބި.. . www.aanitus, tuz, Bengal The Province may be inschrif separated by the Gogia 01 3 mm ISO Bahraich and Gondă form a triga 2 2 YEARS is drained by the Rarts, with a Freeman **** the Gogre, into which it falls ia inimene tho greater part of the drainzin istorie 2.0 river. The rest of the Proizi TIF *** snd lies bettreen ths Goma 21 ?

·60 IIISTORIC AREAS. of this portion flow the GUMTI and its southern tributary, tho SAI, which carry off most of the drainage and fall into the Gangos. It is only in the northern Districts of Kherſ and Sītāpur that the Gogra obtains an increase to its volume, from this tract, through the SARDA and its branches. The numerous shallow ponds or jhils, of which the DAHAR lake is the most important, form a moro valuable source of water for irrigation than the rivers. Sccucry. Tho general aspect of the Province, except during the hot season when the land is bare, is that of a rich expanse of waving and very varied crops, interspersed by numerous ponds or shallow lakes, mango groves, and bamboo clumps. The villages lie thickly scattered, consisting of low cottages, surrounded by patches of garden land. The dense foliage of the mango plantations mark the site of almost every little homestead. Dlahuās (Bassia latifolia), plantains, guayas, and jack-fruits add further beauty to the village plots. The scenery, as a whole, has fow claims to attention, except so far as trees and water may, occasionally combine to produce a pleasing effect; but the varied colouring of the ripe crops, the sky, and the groves or buildings, often charm the eye under the soft haze of a tropical atmosphere. The legendary accounts of Oudh centre round AJODHYA or legends. Awadh, the city from which the Province takes it name. This was the capital of Kosala, the kingdom of Dasaratha of the solar raco, father of Rāma, from which the hero went forth to exile with his wife, Sítā and brother, Lakshmana, and to which he returned in triumph after the defeat of Rāvana, king of Ceylon. Many places in Oudh are visited by pilgrims on appointed days as connected with the story. After the death of Rāma the kingdom Tras divided into northern Kosala, ruled by his son, Lava, at Srāvastī, and southern Kosala, ruled by another son, Kusa. No approximate date can be assigned to whatever may be historical in the story of the Rāmāyana. In the Buddhist literature of the centuries immediately before the Christian era Srāvasti figures as an important place, at which Gautama spent many years. Its exact site is disputed, but the kingdom certainly included part of Oudh north of the Gogra. The rest of the Province still preserves many remains of the Buddhist faith, which have not been thoroughly examined, An inscription of the 12th or 13th century found at SET MAHET in TISTORT. uddhism.

·formed path lines L JISTORIC ACIS the Gondi and Baliruch Districts shows that Rucelhunt tonati Here held as late as that dato, but tho Cluncso pilgrims in the 6th and 7th centurios lament that tho faithful followors Molo Oven thon fe Little more is known of Oudh up to tho riso of tho Ciuptre Muller of Magadha, who gradually extendo thoir dommon in the wall 4th century AD, westward from Patna, and according to the Purinas took Sukotam or Ajodhya Tho onco populous trnot north of the Gogra relapsed into junglo, and tho anoiont city of Sravasti vas desorted by tho sov onth contury According to trudition the Thirus who aro still found in the tarar descended from tho hills in the 8th or Oth contury, and legend tells of a line of Somvangi hings, tho last of whom, Suhul Deo, fought with Saıyıd Salar In theso darh ngla, while the Rajput clans were rising into importanco, mostoji Oudh must have beon subject to tho rulors of Kannny oi Krutulir, and eastern Oudh to Benares, till this was absorlol in the great kingdom of Kanauj The raid of Mahmud Ghaznıvı, in 1018 19, oxtonda sarly from Kanauy through part of southorn Ouch and thoro aru many tombs in the Province, said to ho thoso of warriors quel ! who fell in the expedition of his canonizel mophici, Hniyah Salar, the tomb of the saint himself being at Bahru h It wnh nearly tiro hundred years, however, beforo Muhammal Gloil's general, Kutab-ud-dın, finally defeated Jai Chand of Knnanj 11 1194, and thus broke up the last grcat Hınlu kuglom Note long afterwards the Bhars, a darkgcl aboriginal ma still existing as a low caste, rosc into importan o in uth ni Oudh and in Pan lelkhand, lut were rushcl 11 1217, 11 the history of the Prorinne for nearly 500) yorĄ IM it port of tho general history of the Kingdom of Delhi 'I foro nero In al governors at ljo hya, Pahrai h, Fanilla, Hambour, and their plares, tho often iranl it dilli ult to maintain their ant mily, for in Ondh as in Dan l-Ikk271, thc IIwus weros server thou my sy suldaed as there to me an colg da's 3 119 11911, Ro later in Righland In 1 31 K! / j. lul!! ***? not of Kasanj 0:1, Fan, as1 Ir supper, som det assumed indeparteazno Fre M 1111 ·62 HISTORIC AREAS. ?? shared in the struggle with Delhi, which ended with the fall of Jaunpur in 1478. In the south-western corner Tilök Chand, head of the Bais Rājputs, gradually rose to power and became the greatest noble in Oudh, with a large tract owning his knojyn as BAISYARA. sway, Thic After Bābar had gained a footing in Hindustan by the Mughals. victory at Pānīpat in 1526, and had advanced to Agra, the defeated Afghãn house of Lodi still occupied the central Doāb, Oudh, and the eastern Districts of the present United Provinces. In 1527 Babar, on his return from Central India, defeated his opponents in southern Oudh near Kanauj, and passed on through the Province as far as Ajodhyā, where he built a mosque in 1528, on the site renowned as the birth-place of Rāma. The Afghāns still remained in opposition after the death of Bābar in 1530, but vere defeated near Lucknow in the following year.. The Mughal power vas, however, still far from secure, and Sher Khân (afterwards Sher Shāh), the new leader of the Afghāns, gradually increased his influence till in 1540, by his victory at.Kanauj, he compelled Humāyūn to leave India. For five years the country was at rest, but on the death of Sher Shah in 1515 the Afghan power began to fall to pieces, and Humāyün returned in 1555. Under Akbar a redistribution of the empire into provinces took place. Oudh was then formed into a Sübah or province containing 5 sarkārs or divisions and 38 mahāls or parganas. The provincial forces consisted of 7,640 cavalry, 168,250 infantry, and 59 elephants. Awadh or Ajodhyā was then one of the principal cities in India, and Lucknow tas rising in importance. Akbar's government was not established without a struggle, and in 1565 the jāgārdārs Iskandar Khan of Ajodhyā and Khān Zamān of Jaunpur revolted and took Lucknow, but were soon defeated. It is noticeable that in the list of Akbar's grandees only three belonged to Oudh, one of whom vas a Hindu, the celebrated Todar Mal. ght The rule of the Mughal emperors was uneventful for Oudh ath atury. during the next 150 years, when the chief centre of interest lay in the Deccan. be The increase in local prosperity may judged from the rise in revenue, which was 50 lakhs in 1594 and 83 lakhs alout 1720, while the measured area had increased from 9,933 square miles to 18,577. In the struggles for the ·HISTORIC AREAS Khan succession to Shah Jahan and to Aurangzeb Oudh playod no important part, though tho Hindu chiofs took advantage of the disorder to assert partial independence As tho Mughal empire fell to piecos small States grow up, the rulers of which obtained prartıcal indopendent o Among thoso Oudh took the first placo, and its import-Saads anco dates from the appointment about 1724 of Muhammad Amın, originally & merubant from Khoras in, to be Navib of Oudh with the titlos of Saidat Khan and Burhan ul mulk The new governor was a great soldior, who soon reduced thoso of the local Hindu chieftains who opposed him Saudat Khın built a house a fow miles west of Ajo lhyn, round which grow up tho nos town of lyzabud, but most of his time was spent elsowhero, fighting at ono time against tho Marathas and at another against Nadır Shih, or fulfilling the duties of his office as Wazır of the ompire Doputies managed his two provinces of Oudh and Allahab«l, and on the whole ruled well under his guidance Ho was succeeded in 1739 by his nepher and son in law, Salds Jang Safdar Jang, who had beon his doputy at Ijzıbad, and was an ablo statosman Under both theso rulers tho prosince enjoyed great prospority, and wells, forts, and bridges were built In 1745 Safdar Jang quarrelled with Ali Muhammad, who was then consolidating tho Rohillas on the wostern boundary of Oudh, and thus commonced tho long strugglo which was to end in tho addition of Rohilkhand to Oudh When tho old Nızım of tho Docean diod in 1748, he was succecdod in his offico as Wazır of the empiro by Safélar Jang Thon followed a war with tho Pathon chief of Farruh halıd, which resulted in Safdar Jang's intching tho assistanco of the Mar ith us, who after- Waris bocnmo a menaco to his own provinco Tho immediato result, how os cr, was thnt the l'arrukhsbid territory becamo prantically dependont on Ourlh - In 1731 Ahmad Shh of Delhi doprived Safilar Jang of his office as Wazır, and aided by tho Morithis successfully drovo him back to Oulh when ho attempted, with tho help of tho Jits, to scizo Delhi In tho samo scar Safdar Jang dia and as succeeded by his son, Shuji ud- Shop daula, who romos od tho captal for a time to Luchnow which hnd first becomo a considerablo town in the timo of Sher Shah Ilo was cugagal almost at onco in conjunction with thn daul ·0. ITISTORIC AREAS. Rohillas in ropelling tho Marāthīs, who had been sent by the infamous new Wazīr, Ghāzī-ud-clín, against Najib Khăn and vcro 1101 looked on as a common enemy of the States of Hindustan. When the prince Ali Gauhar (afterwards Shāh Alam II) escaped from Delhi ho was received by Shujā-ud-daula, and udvisod to procco ngainist Bengal, where the British power mas increasing. In 1761 Shujā-ud-daula siļed rith the other Muhammadan chiofs in the great struggle at Pānīpat, and 6000 afterwards Shalı Alam gave up his fruitless contests with (ho English, and retired to Allahābād. Here he was under the control of Shujā-ud-daula, who was appointed to the office of Wazir, which uow became hereditary in his family, in his family. After the massacro nt Patna in 1763, Mir Kāsim and his lieutenant, Sumru, lled to Qudh and wore joined by the emperor and the Wazīr, but tho allied troops failed to take Patna and were completely dofeated by the British at Buxar in 1764. Shah Alam bad taken no part in the fighting, and went over to the Britįsh while Shujā-ud-daula fled through Fyzābād and Lucknow to Bareilly. He obtained somo help from the Pathāns and even from the Marāthâs, and again faced the British in 1765 near Jājmau in Cawupore District, but suffered defeat a second time, and was compelled to sign away the whole of his territory. Besides the grant of civil power in Bengal, the British were to obtain the greater part of the present Benares Division which had gradually come into the power of Balwant Singh, Rājā of Benares, and Shah Alam was to be placed in possession of the whole of the rest of Oudh. The Court of Directors, however, refused to sanction this arrangement, and everything was restored to the Wazīr, except the Districts south of the Ganges (now Cawnpore, Fatehpur, and Allahābād) which were made over to the emperor. The Wazir also undertook to pay the British 25 lakhs down and 25 lakhs annually.* About this time Shujā-ud-daula removed his court to Fyzābād, where he built a fort and greatly increased the prosperity of the city. In 1769 the Marăthās returned to Hindustan and assumed a most threatening attitude. Түo the emperor disregarded the advice of the British and joined them, leaving Allahābād in charge of Shujá-ud-daula. years later, ** A native historian describes the annual tribute as five annas in the rupeo, which indicates a revenue of 80 lakhs.

·HISTORIC AREAS. 63 The danger to Oudh and to the British pas imminent, and when the Marăthis estorted & grant of the Allahābād territory from Shah Alam, British troops were sent to oecaps Chunăr and Allahābād. The Varātbūs pressed on, and in 1773 Sir Robert Barker marched to guard the frontiers of Oudh and Rohilkhand under a guarantee of a labh of rupees a month. British troops uidel in driving the Marättås out of Rohilkhand, and later in the year Hastings met Shují-nd-danla at Benares. The result was the cession to the Wazīr of the Allahābād territory, which nas taken from the emperor because of his grant of it to the Marithās, while the Wazīr paid the English 50 lakhs and undertook to pay 25 lakhs a year besides the cost of a brigade of British troops to be stationed within the borders of his terri. tories. A permanent British Resident was not appointed for the first time at his court, and these arrangements may be said to mark the conversion of Oudh into a State dependent on the Company. Shujīrad-danla nor made fresh efforts to reduce the Rohillas, who hai been intriguing with the Marathas, and had refused to pay for the help given them in 1772. The Council at Calcutta hesitated, but finally sent troops, and in 1774 Rohilkhand vas added to Oudh with the exception of the present Rūmpur State, shich ras left to Faiz-allah. Shujā-ud-daula, who was a popular ruler, died in 1777 and Aur.c1 Tras succeded by his son, Asaf-ul-daula, who was incapable dx125 and inclined to debauchery. He was at once required to carry to the Company the zamindari of Chet Singh, who havi ruce ceedled Balwant Singh of Benares, and to pay inore for British troops. His personal extravaganze vas great, anl he drommet largo sums from his mother, the Bahu Peyarn. The court wun then finally removed to Lucknok, ani 7*stálal yoran i dozlino, while most of the State suficol from liju Sailuru 111 oxerciso any authority in the government and from the quarrels of his subordinates. In 1781 & 1e treaty a moto by 1}## tingg, under which the British troops is. Onth weer ruiwel ono brigade and one regimcnt, and the Nawil) ** °r?Ori to rosunio prigirs or grants of lani. Akal-dauls try with tage of this to confiscało the jofite of his millet grunn mother, and by imprioning their child 114 iyu lury sures of money from them. Warren Bixion 414 iu fiksas ·HISTORIC.AREAS. transactions was one of the counts in his subsequent-impeachmora, His approval of the resumption of the jāgārs vas, however, amply justified by the behaviour of the Begams who successfully raised the whole of eastern Oudh against the British when the émeute at Benares took place in 1781.* Saâdat Ali Asaf-ud-daula died in 1797 and was succeeded, after a Khan, short interval, during which his reputed son, Wazir Ali, ruled, by his half-brother, Saūdat Ali Khan, who concluded a treaty ceding to the Company the fort of Allahābād and promising an annual subsidy of 76 lakhs, while the British in return undertook the entire defence of Oudh. Four years later, after the threatened attack by Zamān Shāh, grandson of Ahmad Shāh Durrāni, Rohilkhand and other parts of the Oudh territories were in & state of anarchy, and it ras feared that Sindhia would seize' the opportunity to attack the State. The Nawab, therefore, executed a fresh treaty giving up the so-called Ceded Provinces, which left him with the area now called Oudh, surrounded on all sides by British territory except on the north, where the Gurkhas ruled. Saadat Ali Khân died in 1814, having been a good ruler compared with his predecessor. In particular he attempted to reform the revenue administration, one of his chief difficulties being the resumption of grants made by previous rulers. At his death his treasury contained 14 crores of rupees, though all his establishments had been paid up to date and there were no debts, ater The history of his successors is a miserable record. The ulers. most redeeming feature of the period is the occasional employ-. ment as minister of the capable Mahdi Ali Khan, who had been trained under Saadat Ali. Gházi-ud-din Haidar, son of Saadat Ali, was allowed to assume the title of king in 1819, and was the first to strike coin in his own name. He spent four crores of the treasure left by his father and was succeeded in 1827 by his son, Nasīr-ud-din Haidar, a debauchee, who aped English manners and left only 70 lakhs when he died in 1837. An attempt was then made to place & putative son, named • Hastings' Insurrection at Benares, Roorkee, 1853, Appendix, p. 8. # The present Gorakhpur Division, most of the Bareilly Division, and the Districts of Allahabad, Cawn pore, Fatehpur, Etawah, Blainpuri, Etah, and Farrukhabad, south the Tarai paigangs of Kumsun Division. JY WR.SI 162271 ASTHAN ·HISTORIO AREAS. 67 tion. Runnā Jän, on the throne, but a few of the Company's soldiers were sufficient to quell the disturbance that aroso, and the uncle of the late king succeeded as Muhammad Ali Shāh. He died in 1842 and was followod by his son, Amjad Ali Shah (died 1847). In 1850 it was estimated that Wajid Ali Shah, the last king, was spending more than 20 lakhs annually over and above the whole income of the State, while the allowances of his officials and his family were greatly in arrears. Muhammad Ali Shāh had made somo attempts at reform in the administration of justice and the revenuo system, but Mahdi Ali Khān, whom ho recalled for the purpose, was an old man, and nothing camo of them. Open resistance to the king's officials and defiance of Anner all law and ordor were the ordinary rule. Boforo 1855 chronic anarchy and oppression had reduced the people of Oudh to oxtremo misury, and reform by its native rulors had long been hopeless. In 1828 the Residont had roported that only British assumption of administration could save tho country from ruin, and in 1834 the Court of Directors had authorized this stop; but it was averted for the time by the improvomont effected by Mahdi Ali. In 1856 things had como to such a pass that a treaty was proposed to the king, which provided on very liberal terms to him personally and to his hoirs, for the cossion of his Stato to tho British Govornmont. Tho king, howover, refused to sign it, and accordingly in Fobruary 1856 the British Govornmont assumed to itsolf the government of Oudh, exclusively and for over. A provision of 12 lakhs a yoar was offered to the king, which ho accopted in October 1859, and separato provision was sanctioned for his collateral relatives. Wajid Ali Shah was allowed to retain tho title of king of Oudh till his death in 1887, when the titlo ceased absolutely, and the pocuniary allowances woro reducol. On its annexation, Oudh was constituted into a Chiof Commissionorship, and organized on tho malol of administration which had been alopted in the Punjab cight years proviously. Troops had been moved in, aul ono British Infantry regimont hold Lucknow, whilo nativo regiments garrisonod Sitapur, Fyzibid, Sultīnpur, Bahrnich, Daryūbaid, Salou, and Socrora. The year pagsod on tho wholo quictly.

·08 IIISTORIC AREÅS. Tuliny, The annexation of the Province had, however, caused considorablo discontent among important classes. The talukdārs feared, with more or less reason, the loss of position and estate. The sopoys, who were largely recruited from the Province, anticipated the curtailment of the exceptional privileges which they harl оnjoyed whilo Oudh was still natiro territory. The rebellious bogan in Oudh o fortnight after the Mutiny at Meorút gave the signal for a general rising. In March 1857 Sir Henry Lawrence had assumod the administration at Lucknow; and on the 30th of Nay five of tho native regiments broke into mutiny. The remainder of the ovents connected trith the siege and recorery of the cnpital have been narrated in the article on LUCKNOW CITY, and need only be briefly mentioned here. For some time the talukdārs, with fou exceptions, took no active part in the rovolt; several of them did noblo service in saving the lives of fugitives; but the native garrisons of the out-stations followed the example of their comradles at Lucknow; and by the middle of June tho Residency at Lucknow træs the only spot in the Province un/or the British flag. On 4th July Sir Henry Lawrence died from wouds carised by a shell. For twelve weeks the little Lucknow garrison Fas besieged by an overwhelming body of mutincers till relieved by Outram and Havelock on the 25th of September. In spite of this reinforcement, the Britisli force found itself too weak to fall back upon Cainpore, and the siege conitinued till raised by Sir Colin Campbell on the 17th of Norember.. The women and children were then escorted to Cawnpore by the maiu body, while Ganeral Outram held the outlying post of the Alambăgh with a small garrison. Lucknow itself remained in the hands of the rebels, who fortificd it carefully under the direction of the Begam* of Oudh. Early in 1858 General Franks organized a force at Benares for the reconquest of the Province, and cleared the south-eastern Districts of rebels. At the same time Jang Bahādur, the Minister of Nepal, assisted the British with a body of 8,000 Gurkhas, and twice defeated the insurgents with great slaughter. On the last day of February Sir Colin Campbell crossed the Ganges and marched on Luckno. Occupying the Dilkusha palace on 5th March, * Wife of Wājid Ali Shāh, the last king, and mother of Birjis Kader, who assumed the throne, ·HISTORIC AREAS. 69 he effected a junction with Franks and the Nepalese army, and began the siege the next day. The towyn was captured after a desperate resistance, and the work of reorganization of the Provinco bogan. Early in April Sir Hope Grant marched with a column north-west of Lucknow, and soon afterwards General Walpole passed through Hardoi. In May the rebels who threatened the Cawnpore road were disporsed, and in June tho Begam's army, which was threatening Lucknow, was defeated. General Grant marched to Fyzābād in July and then south to Sultanpur, whilo a force co-operated from Allahābåd. Tho military polico, which had boon reorganizeri, and a Sikh contingent under Rājī Randhir Singh of Kapurthala did valuable service, and when tho Commander-in-Chief took the field in November 1858 tho robellion collapsed at onco, and Oudh was pacifiod by tho end of tho year. Oudh is rich in ancient sites, but none of theso has been Archne logy. regularly explored, except the mands at SET MANET in the Gondā and Bahraich Districts, which yieldlod important Buddhist and Jain remains. Opinions are divided as to whether this is tho sito of the ancient city of Srivastī. Popular boliof associates minny places with the aboriginal Bhars, of whose history littlo is known. At Ajodhya, which is connocted with tho legendary history of tho Solar race, the Hindu temples are all of modern dato. The early. Muhammadan period is chiefly ropresented by tho tombs of thoso who fell in the roligious incursion of -Saiyid Sūlår, whase tomb at Bahraich tras built carly in the 13th century, or 200 years after the death of the saint. Tho mosquo of Bābar nt Ajodhyā, and the remnins of a few buildings erected by tho Siri Pathans, may also be mentioned. Ths Mughals havo loft few memorials in the Province, and the chiof buildings noty standing are thoso crected by tho Nawabs and kings of Oudh in tho lost quarter of tho iSth mul first half of tho 19th centurics, at l'YZABAD and at LUCKNOW. Tho carlier buildings of this period aro not unpleasing; but the stylo tlegeneratel, and tho later edifices aro vulgar in tho cxtremo. Oudh has probably tho clon19cst rural population of any force cqunl aren in tho world. The first census taken in 1869 returned a total population of 11.2 million, sprea'l over 21,000 squaro miles, yiolding an averago of 16S persons to 10; TIOX, Depsid ·70 HISTORIC AREAS. but defects in the procedure probably caused the figures to be exaggerated. In 1881 the population was returned at 11:4 million, the central Districts having suffered from famine. Ten years later there had been an increase to 127 million, and all parts of the Province showed an increase in prosperity. The famine of 1896-97 caused distress in southern and western Oudh, especially in the Hardoi and Rãe Barelī Districts, but the total population increased to 12.8 million in 1901. Statistics of the population in 1901 of each of the 12 Districts included in the two Divisions of Lucknow and Fyzābād will be found in the article on the United Provinces. The density in that year was 535; but in single Districts the figure varied from 812 in Lucknow and 718 in Fyzābād to 306 in Kherī. Central Oudh is the most thickly populated portion, while the submontane Districts are less crowded, but are filling up rapidly. Emigration to distant parts of India and to the colonies is becoming considerable. The Partābgarh and Rão Bareli Districts in southern Oudh send the largest numbers to Assam, while the northern Districts of Gondā and Fyzăbăd supply emigrants to the colonies. The largest city in the Province is Lucknow, which has a population of 264,049, including the cantonments, and is larger than any city in India except the three Presidency towns and Hyderābād. Fyzābād (with Ajodhyā) has a population of 75,085, but there are only 3 other towns, Bahraich (27,304), Sītāpur (22,557), and Shāhābād (20,036), whose population exceeds 20,000. The absence of large cities and towns is remarkable, and the agricultural population forms nearly 73 per cent. of the total. keligion. The proportion of Hindus and Musalmāns to the total population in Oudh is much the same as in the Province of Agra, though the Musalmāns are numerically a little weaker and are found to a larger extent in towns. Out of 1.7 million of Musalmāns more than 62,000 are Shiahs, the largest numbers being found in Luckuow city, where the sect of the former kings still has many followers. jana Except in the Hardoi District, where a dialect of Western uage. Hindi is spoken, the language of the whole of Oudh is the Awadhi dialect of Eastern Hindi, an old form of which was used by Tulsī Dās, the author of the vernacular. version : of the :: :

·HISTORIC AREAS. 71 and rac CATIONE Rāmāyana, which has been termed the Bible of upper India. The dialect is still a favourite vehicle for verse, as its forms are mora suitable to the indigenous metres than Urdū or Hindustani, which is used for prose or in conversation by educated poople. Tho caste system will be described in the article on the Chate, United Provinces; but in rural tracts more respect is paid to the tribe, higher castes than in the Doab, and the prejudices of the Brāhmans and Rājputs against touching a plough are rocognised by their landlords, who allow them privileged rates of rent. Brāhmans number 1.4 million and Ahīrs and Chamārs each 1.3 million. Among the caltivating classes may be mentioned the Kurmid (-9 million), and Lodhas and Muraos (each 4 million), and among the lower castes the Pasis, who number nearly a million, and aro largely employed as toddy-drawers, charlidārs and labourors. There were no metalled roads in Oudh at the timo of annor- Cosmos ation in 1856, except that from Lucknow to Cawopore. Aftor the pasificatiou in 1858 the first lines of communication to bo taken up were roads from Allahābād to Fyzābåd, and from Lacknow to Fyzābād. With the extension of railways tho roads havo bocomo of local importance only. The main line and a loop of tho broa'l-gauge Oudh and Rohilkhand State Railway pass from north-west to south-east through Oudh, south of tho Gogra, whilo an important branch connects Lucknow and Carnporo, and & lino from Allahābād through Partābgarh and Sultinpur to Fyzābād has recently boen oponed. The submontane Districts aro well served by the narrow-gaugo Bengal and North-Western (Company) lino and the Lacknow-Sitīpur (Stato) Railway. Oulh romninod a separato administration until February Admixt 1877, whon the offices of Chief Commissioner of Oudh and Lieutenant-Governor of the North-Western Provinces were united. Sinco 1902 the titlo of Chiof Commissioner has morgod in that of Lieutonant-Governor of the Unitol Provincos. In rovenuo mattors the Chiof Commissioner remained tho principal roronyo authority till after the passing of Act XX of 1890, under which the control of tho North-Western Provinces Board of Rovenuo pas oxtended to Oudh. For most administrativo purposes there is now no differonco between tho Provinces of Oudh nnd Agra. Tho principal cxceptions to this aro in tho land TRATION ·AXD EYENDE. IIISTORIC AREAS. copocially in its relation to tenures, the rent law, and the judicial bystem, cach of which will now be described. On tho acquisition of what is now the Province of Agra the policy adopted was to set aside the officials who, during the decline of Mughal power, had acquired quasi-proprietary rights and a hereditary position. The official zamindārs of Bengal had been · tried and found wanting, and an attempt was made to engage for the payment of revenue with the actual occupiors of the soil. In several Districts a double proprietary right was found, the holder of the superior right being called a talikdār. The rolatiou of the talukdür to the subordinate propriotor was, hotover, largely a temporary arrangement due to the disturbed state of the country, and the subordinate proprietors were therefore invested with full proprietary rights, subject, in some cases, to the payment of an allowance to the talukdārs, who wore only confirmed in their ancestral estates. Tho same policy was applied to Oudh on its annéxation, though the circumstancos were not identical. The talukdārs then held 23,513 villages out of 36,721 in the Province. A summary settlomont was made in 1856, which recognised the rights of the talikdirs in only 13,640 villages with a revenue of 35 lakhs and set them asido in 9,903 with a revenue of 32 lakhs. The Mutiny broke out in May 1857, and on the restoration of order in 1858 the policy described above was completely reversed. In the first place the proprietary right in practically all the land of the Prorince was declared to be confiscated on ascount of rebellion. This proclamation was severely attacked in India and in England, but was justified on the ground that the change in policy required the cancellation of existing rights. Only five* talukdārs had remained loyal; their rights were maintained and they were subsequently rewarded with large additional grants and a permanent settlement. The other talukdārs and land, holders were called on to submit, and a large measure of indulgenca was promised to those who came forward promptly and helped to restore order. Though order had not been completely restored, owing to the suspicion of the talukdārs regarding the real intentions of Government, summary settlements * The proclamation of March 1858 mentioned six, but ope as found later to haye rebelled.

·DISTORIC AREAS. 79 sentences of imprisonment up to a limit of seven years. The principal statistics of civil litigation are given below. Civil suits proper are more numerous proportionately to the population than in Agra, but tend to decrease, while rent suits are ferrer, but are increasing: Average for Average for 10 years 10 gerts ending 1890 ending 1900. 1961. 1903. 48,433 48,389 38,8-11 39,141 Spite for money and moreable property. Title and other inits Rent suits 7,956 31,066 7,307 34,889 8,568 37,363 7,697 49,038 Total 87,455 90,585 84,572 96,499 . (Sleeman, Journey through Owe, 1859; Hooy, Memoirs of Delhi and Fyzābūd, 1885 and 1889; Irwin, The Garden of India, 1880; McLeod Innes, Lucknow and Oudh in the Diutiny; Gubbins, Mutinies in Oudh; Blue-books of 1856, 1857, 1858, 1850, 1801, and 1865; Papers relating to under-proprietary rights and rights of cultivators in Oudh, Calcutta, 1867; Conditions of tenantry and working of rent law in Oudh, Allahābād, 1883.) Panchāla.-An anciont kingdom situated in the MADIIYA- DESA or middlo country, and forming tho centro of it. Thoro were two divisions, Northern Panchāla with its capital at ANI- CINIATRA or Adikshetra, in Bareilly, and Southern Panchāla with its capital at KAMPIL in Farrukhabid. Thoy were divided by tho Gongos and together reached from the Himalayas to Chambal. In tho Mahābhārata to find tho Pindara brothors, after leaving Hastinapur (in Meerut District) and wandering in tho junglos, coming to the tournament at tho court of Drupada, king of Panchāla, the prize for which was the hand of his daughtor, Draupa'li. Tho scene of the contest is still pointed out west of Kampil, and a common flower found in the villago lancs bears tho name of Draupadi. In the 2nd century B.C. Northern Panchila appears to havo been a kingdom of somo importanco, for coins of about a dozen kings inscribed in characters of that period are found in various parts of it, but not clsou horo. It has beon conjectured that these vero tho Sunga kinge to roigued aftor tho Jauryas according to the Purinas, ·SO BIISTORIC AREAS. but only a suglo niamo, Agni Mitra, is found both in the Puráníc lisis and on tho coins, though many others are compounds with Mitra (friend). Tho coins point to an absence of Buddhistic tendencies. Varāha Mihira, the geographer of the 6th century. 1.1)., mentions a peoplo, the Panchālas, who evidently inhabited the region deseribed aboro.—(Lassen, Ind. Ait., Vol. 1, page 598; Cunningham, Coins of Ancient India, page 79; Flest, Ind. Ant., 1893, 1xcge 170.) hysical Rohilkhand. - The nadie is often applied to the present. BAREILLY DIVISIOX; but it also denotes a definite historical frnit pearly corresponding with that arca plus the RAMPUR Staio and tho Tarai qxrgents of the Naini Tāl District. It is dorivod from a Pashtū adjective Rohelah or Roheldi, formed froni Rohu (mountain). Rohilkhand as defined above includes an arca of 12,800 square miles, forming a large triangle bounded on tho north by the Himalayas, on the south-Test by the Ganges, and on the cast by the Province of Oudh. In the north lios a strip of Tarai below the hills, with large stretches of forest land, the haunt of the tiger and wild elephant, and only small patches of cultivation belonging to the Thārus and Boksās, jungle tribes apparently of Mongolian origin, who seem feverproof. Passing south the land becomes drier, and the moisture drains into the numerous small streams rising in the Tarai and joining the Rimgangā or Ganges, which ultimately receive most of the drainage. In the northern portions of the Bijnor and Bareilly Districts canals drawn from the Tarai streams irrigato a small area. The climate is healthy, except near the Tarai, and presents a smaller range of temperature than the tract south of the Gangos. . Tho rainfall is heavy near the hills, but gradually decreases passing south. The usual plains crops are grown throughout the tract, but sugarcane and rice are of special importance. Wheat, gran, cotton, and the two millets (jowār and bājra) are also largely produced. In oarly times part of the tract was included in northern PANCHALA. During the Muhammadan period the eastern half was long known as Katehr; but the origin and meaning of this term is disputed. It is certainly connected with the name of the Katehriyā Rājputs, who were the predominant clan in it; but their name is sometimes said to be derived from that of the Dry.

·TIISTOBIC AREAS. 81 tract, which is idontified with the name of a kind of soil callod Lather or hatehr, while traditions in the Budqun District derivo it from KATHIAWAR, which is said to be the original home of the clan. Elsewhere tho tribal traditions point to the coming of the Katehriyās into this tract, from Benares or Tirhut, in the 12th and 14th centuries. The portion they first occupied seems to have boon tho country between the Rāmgangå and Ganges; but thoy aftern ards spread east of the former river. When tho potpor of Islüm was spreading wostwards, Rāthor princes were ruling at Budaun; but the town was taken by Kutab-ud-din Aibak in 1196, and held continuously by the Muhammadans afterwards. Tho province Tas, hotovor, always turbulent, and two ritings ard described in the middle of the thirteenth century. In 1379 or 1380 Khargu, a Hindu chief of Katehr, murdered Saiyid Mubammad, tho governor, at a feast; and Firoz III (Tughlak), foiled in his attempt to seize Khargu, who fled to Kumaun, appointed an Afghān govornor at Sambhal, with orders "to invado the country of Katehr cvery year, to commit overy kind of rarage and devastation, and not to allow it to bo inhabited until the murderer was given up." Thirty-five years lator, when the Saiyid dynasty was Loing founded, anothor Hindu, Har Singh D20, rebelled, and though dofeated soveral timos gave trouble for two or three years. Mahibat Khān, tho governor, successfully rerolte 1420 from tho rule of Dolhi, and the king. Thir: Khan, failed to taho Budaun, which remained independenticios years, till aite: tho accession of DIubārak Shah, who botad greater force and rccoised Mahībat Khin's submission. [13 Jan Shib Saisit left Delhi and made Budaun his cares! also the fact ho was thus losing the throne of 3 Sind! Lodi. Until his death thirty me. Sk at Budaun, content with this friss, Daniel strugglo between the Jazz parts of Katch for a time. It fow or onts in this tutoriz; of tho Katchrisis is strona 57cm roign of Akbar t12 87-55 35 TIES: of Delhi. Tks internet becnmo tha se iacludal ti. Si in 1.419 or WP ·S2 LIISTORIC AREAS. territory ruled over by the governor of Katehr at this time. Afgháns had been making many settlements in northern India; but wero generally soldiers of fortune, rather than politicians or mon of influence. Under Shāh Jahàn they were discouraged; but at the close of the 17th century they were found extremely useful in the Deccan campaigns, and early in the 18th century the Bangash Pathan, Muhammad Khān, obtained grants in FAR- RUKIABAD District, while Ali Muhammad Khân, whose origin is doubtful, began to seize land north of the Ganges. The former hold tho southern part of the present Districts of Budaun and Shahjahanpur; but the principality he carved out for himself lay chiefly south of the Ganges. Ali Muhammad gave valuable help to the governors of Morādābād and Bareilly against the Rājā of Kumaun, and also assisted the emperor in his intrigues against lho Saiyids of Barha, for which he was rewarded with the title of Nawab. Whon Nadir Shāh invaded India, Ali Muhammad gained many recruits among the refugees from Delhi, and took advantago of the weakness of the central government to annex all the land he could seize. The governors of Morādābād and Bareilly were sont against him, but both were slain, and in 1740 he was recognised as governor of Rohilkhand. His next exploits wore against Kumaun; but by this time Safdar Jang, Natāb of Oudh, had began to look on him as a dangerous rival, and persuaded the emperor that the Rohillas should be driven out. In 1745 Ali Muhammad was defeated and imprisoned at Delhi, but afterwards he was appointed to a command in the Punjab. On the invasion by Ahmad Shah Durrani in 1748, he was able to return to Rohilkhand, and by judiciously assisting the claims of Safdar Jang to be recognised as Wazīr, obtained a fresh grant of the province. On his death, Rahmat Khān, who had been 0110 of his principal lieutenants, was appointed regent for the sons of Ali Muhammad, Safdar Jang renelyed his attompts to tako Rohilkhand, and persuaded Kaim Khăn, son of Muhammad Khân Bangash, of Farrukhābād, to invade it. The attack was unsuccessful, and Kaim Khăn lost his life. Safdar Jang at once annexed the Farrukhābād territories; but Kaim Khan's brother, Ahmad Khān, regained them, and attempted to win the active sympathy of the Rohillas, which was at first refusod and then given too lato: for Safdar Jang callod iu tho Marathās, ·83 Llisah and the other territory in the central Doub were los to the Varithás. Najib Khan and Dunde Khan, who had been Rahmat's right hand, both died. In 1771 the Marăthis atta-kar Abita, son of Najib, and drove him from his fort at Shabar on the Ganges, and the next year harried Rohill band. In Jare, 1772, a trcaty Tras signed by the Rohillas and Shaji-cd-daala, who undertook to pay 40 lakhs of rupees fi in which tho latter promised help against inraders to the former, Tho treaty ras signed in the presenco of a HISTORIC AREAS. trith those help ho beat the Rohilla and Bangash forces, and Rahmat was driven to the foot of the Himalayas. In 1752 ho yielded and gave bonds for 50 lakhs, which were made opor to tho Marāthās in payment of their services. When Ahmad Shāh invaded India a second time, ho sent back Ali Muhammad's sons, Abdullah and Faiz-ullah, who had been in Kandahar since the previous inrasion; but Rahmat Khăn skilfully arranged a partition of Rohilkhand, so that the brothors fought among thomsolves, and eventually Rahmat and his friends becamo masters of most of the province. About this time (1754) another Pathān, named Najib Khān, Tas rising in poter. At first ho acquired territory in the Doab, but in 1755 he founded Najībābād in Bijnor, and thus hold the northern part of Rohilkhand independently of the other Rohillas. After the third Durrāni invasion in 1757, he becamo Bakhshi or paymaster of tho royal troops, and the following Fear an attempt was made, through the jealousy of other nobles, to crush him by calling in the Marathās. Rahmat Khan and Shujā-ud-dauls, the now Nawāb of Oudh, rere alarmed for their own safety, and hastened to help him, and the Marāthas yere driven out of Rohilkhand. When Ahmad Shah inraded India a fourth time, the Rohillas Joined him and took part in the battle of Pānīpat (1761), and Rahmat Khin as retarded by a grant of Etāvah, which bad, hotrover, to bo conquered from the Marāthās. In 1764 and again in 1705 the Rohillas gave some assistance to Shujā-ud-daula in his rain contests with the English at Patna and at Jājmau; but they did not suffer for this at first. In fact the next firo years mero prosperous, and Rahmat was able to undertake one of the most necessary reforms of a ruler in this part of India—the abolition of internal duties on merchandise. In 1770 the end begatta r ·$ JIISTORIC AREAS. dinnger to Oudh, and also to the British, from the Marăthâs was How clenr. Läbita Khān openly joined them in July, 1772, and at tho cnil of tho year they extorted a grant of the provinces of Kora and Allahabad from Shah Alam. In 1773 they demanded from Rahmat tho payment of the 50 lakhs promised 20 years Icforc, and again culorod Rohilkhand. British troops were not sont up as it had become known that Rahmat was intriguing with the Marathis, who openly aimed at Oudh. These intrigues continuol cron when the allied British and Oudh troops had arrirod in Rohilkhand, and tho Nawāb of Oudh then made overlures for British help in adding the province to his territories. Finally, Rahmat agreed to carry out the treaty obligations, which ha hac formerly contracted with Oudh, and the Marathās wore driven across the Gangos at Rāmghāt. This danger being removod, Rahnat failed to pay the subsidy due by him to the Nawāb of Oudh. Later in the same year Hastings came to Benar res to discuss affairs with the Nawāb, who strongly pressed for British help to crush the Rohillas. While the Council at Calcutta hesitated the Natāb made secret alliances with Zābita and Muzaffar Jang of Farrukhãbãd, and persuaded the emperor to approve by promising to share any territory annexed. He then cleared the Marathās out of the Doab, and in 1774 obtained British troops to assist him against the Rohillas. The latter wero met between Miranpur Katra in Shāhjahānpur and Fatehgauj East (in Bareilly District) in April, 1774, and were defeated after a gallant resistance, Rahmat Khan being among the slain. This expedition formed the subject of one of the charges against Hastings, which was directed to show that the object was merely to obtain money from the Nawāb Wazīr in return for help in acquiring new territory. Contemporary documents show clearly the necossity for improving the western boundary of Oudh as a defence against the Marathās, and the danger arising from this country being held by men whose treachery had been proyed again and again. Faiz-ullah, the last remaining chief of the Rohillas, received what now forms the RAMPUR State, and Zābita lost his possessions east of the Ganges. In 1794 an insurrection broke out at Rãmpur, after the death of Faiz-ullah. British troops were sent to quell it and gained a victory at Fatehganj West. Seven years later, in 1801, Rohilkhand formed ·63 HISTORIC AREAS part of the Ceded provinces made over to the British by the Nawab of Ouch. The total population nearly 62 million, 80 that tho Topals. tion. density approaches 500 to the square mile. In the Bareilly District it excoeds 600. More than 1 million of the total are Luhammadans, who form 28 per cent, of the population proportion double that found in the Prorinces as a whole. Among the Hinda castes in this area may be mentioned the Játs, so are not found east of Rohilkhand in considerable numbers, tho Abars, who are akin to the Abīrs of other parts, and tho Khigis and Kisāds, oxcellent cultivators resembling the Lodhns of tho Doab. The Bishnoi sect has a larger number of adherents horo than elsewhere.—Elliot, Ristory of India, passin. Strachoy, Haslings, and the Rohilla Mar, 1892.) Särasene.---The ancient name of a tract of country round Muttrs. According to the Puranas it ras the name of tho grandfather of Krishna, those history is closely connected with Muttra. The inhabitants of the tract were called Saurasenas, and Arrian mucntions the Saurasenoi as possessing two largo citics, Dlethora (MIUTTRA) and Cleisobora or Cyrisobora (not certainly identified), * while the Jobares river (Jumna) flowed through thoir territory. Pliny describes the Jomanes as flowing betucen Metlurd, and Carisobora. Varaha Mihira, the Sanskrit geographer of the 6th century A.D., makes several references to the Saurasenns tko trore placed in the MADHYA DESA or middlo country. The name has been applied to a fariety of Prākrit, callel Saurksena, which appears to have been the ancestor of tho present languago described as Western Hindi is tho Linguistic Survey of India. In later times part of this tract pas called Braj or Braj Mandal, a name thich still surfires (vide M{OTTRA DISTRICT) • Lassen (Inå. Alt, page 1274 3) suggests that this is equivalent to keitinapitre, which he placez st Agrs. Candingham (Ancient Geograpky, Indis, nago 375) Identibes it with BRINDABAX Mette, Agrs, and Brindaban, are all on the right bank of the JaD33, See also McCradle, Legasthenes, and Arnas, pages 140 41 and note.

·86
UNITED PROVINCES.
Cross-references (for Imperial Gazetteer only).
Hindostān; see HINDUSTAN.
Kāli.--River of Nepāl and the United Provinces, bett
knojyn as the SARDA.
Karnāli.-River of Nepal and the United Provinces ; si
KAURIALA.
North-Western Provinces.--Old name of AGRA PROVINC
Rāmganga (East)
.River in the United Provinces : a
tributary of the Sarda.
Sarjū; see GOGRA and Tons (Eastern).
Utangan.river in Rājputāna and the United Pros
vinces ; see Banganga.

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