·THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION Editor L. P. Singh Secretary, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India. Editorial Board D. G. Karye Formerly Deputy Governor, Reserve Bank of India, and Member, Finance Commission. J. N. Khosla Director, Indian Institute of Public Administration, and Principal, Indian School of Public Administration, New Delhi. S. V. Kogekar Member, Forward Markets Commission, Bombay. D. L. Mazumdar Formerly Secretary to the Government of India, Department of Company Law Administration, Ministry of Finance and at present Honorary Director, India International Centre, New Delhi. V. K. N. Menon Formerly Director, Indian Institute of Public Administration, New Delhi. K. N. V. Sastri Retired Professor, Mysore University. H. G. Paranjpe, Assistant Editor (The views expressed in the signed articles are the personal opinions of the contributors and are in no sense official, nor is the Indian Institute of Public Administration iesponsible for them.) Articles, correspondence and reviews may kindly be sent to the Assistant Editor, The Indian Journal of Public Administration, and enquiries and subscriptions may be addressed to the Administrative Officer, The Indian Institute of Public Administration, Indraprastha Estate, Ring Road East, New Delhi-1. THE INDIAN INSTITUTE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION The Indian Institute of Public Administration was established in March 1954 under the presidentship of Late Shri Jawaharlal Nehru, Prime Minister of India. The Institute has been recognized as the National Section for India of the International Institute of Administrative Sciences. Regional Branches of the Institute have been established in Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Madras, Maharashtra, Mysore, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan and U.Þ; and Local Branches at Jammu-Srinagar, Nagpur, Patna, Poona, Shillong, Trivandrum and Vallabh Vidyanagar. The Institute's ordinary membership is open to all persons above 25 who are actively interested in or concerned with the study or practice of public administration, the annual subscription being Rs.25. * Associate membership, without the right to participate in the management of the Institute's affairs and with a membership fee of Rs. 12 per annum, is open to bona fide post-graduate students and persons below 25 but otherwise eligible. Corporate Members are admitted on such conditions as may be specified in each case. The services offered by the Institute to its members include free supply of the Institute's journal and selected research publications, a reference and lending library, information and advice on administrative problems, and participation in the Institute's activities.

·Vol. XII, No. 1 January-March, 1966 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION CONTENTS PAGE Lal Bahadur Shastri Editor V V. Nath poned Regions for Planning Co-ordination and Communication in Agricultural Development Donald C. Pelz 18 Co-ordination of Development Piogrammes at the District Level with Special Reference to the Role of the District Officer in Bihar Haridwai Rai 28 Co-ordination of Developmental Programmes at the Block Level K Seshadri 60 Decentralization, Planning and Public Administration PR. Dubhashi 88 On the Limits of the Technical Assistance Project Evangelos John Rizos 111 Changing Pattern of Development Administration in the District C. N. Bhalerao 123 * Correspondence : Report of the Inter-Regional Workshop on Problems of Budget Classification and Management in Developing Countries-A Comment A. Premchand 132 Institute News 136 Recent Developments in Public Administration 138 Digest of Reports Andhra Pradesh, Report of the Administrative Reforms Committee 148

·ii
PAGE
Book Reviews :
The Ombudsman : Citizen's Defender
(Donald C. Rowat)
RL. Mchta
160
M. A. Muttalib
162
Approach to Public Administration
(E. N. Gladden)
Book Notes
165
Recent Official Publications of Importance
167

·OUR CONTRIBUTORS Articles Dr. C. N. Bhalerao, formerly Lecturer in Political Science, University of Baroda, is now on the Senior Research Staff of the Institute of Constitutional and Parliamentary Studies, New Delhi Shri P. R. Dubhashi is Director (Co-operative Training), Ministry of Food, Agriculture, Community Development & Co-operation, Government of India, New Delhi. Dr. V. Nath is Chief (Urban and Rural Development), Planning Commission, New Delhi. Dr. Donald C. Pelz, formerly Advisor, Survey Research Methodology Programme at the II PA., is Programme Director, Survey Research Centre, Michigan University, Ann Arbor, Michigan, U S.A. Shri A. Prem Chand is Research Officer, Planning Commission, New Delhi. Dr. Haridwar Rai is Reader in Political Science, Patna University, Patna. Dr. Evangelos John Rizos is Technical Assistance Expert with the World Health Organization in Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Shri K. Seshadri is Lecturer, Department of Public Administration, Osmania University, Hyderabad. Book Reviews Shri R. L. Mehta is Additional Secretary and Commissioner for Public Grievances, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India, New Delhi, Dr. M. A. Muttalib is Professor and Head, Department of Public Administration, Osmania University, Hyderabad.

·pacias macraciniaaaaaaaaaaaa Statement about ownership and other particulars about newspaper The Indian Journal of Public Administration FORM IV (See Rule 8) 1. Place of Publication New Delhi. 2 Periodicity of its publication Quarterly 3 Printer's Name Shri L P. Singh, I.CS. Nationality Indian Address pacaravanaraamavalavacaceae Secretary, Ministry of Home Affairs, New Delhi. 4 Publisher's Name Shri L P. Singh, I.C.S. Nationality Indian. Address Secretary, Ministry of Home Affairs, New Delhi. aalaalalavavalona 5. Editor's Name Shri L. P. Singh, I.C.S. Nationality Indian. Address Secretary, Ministry of Home Affairs, New Delhi. caravan 6. Names and addresses of indivi- The Indian Institute of Public duals who own the newspaper Administration, New Delhi. and partners or shareholders holding more than one per cent of the total capital. I, L. P. SINGH, hereby declare that the particulars given above are true to the best of my knowledge and belief. Date : 12-2-1966 (Sd.) L. P. SINGH Publisher Soranaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa nananaal ·LAL BAHADUR SHASTRI SHR HRI Lal Bahadur Shastri's talents and abilities as a political leader, his cool courage and resolution in war, his sincere devotion to peace, his vision as a statesman, and his qualities as a human being, have been discussed and praised elsewhere. We shall limit ourselves in this note to his views on public administration and to his major contributions towards its improvement. Shastriji had, however, a remarkably integrated personality; he had certain basic values and attitudes which were reflected in all that he did or said. The qualities that distinguished him as a political leader and a man are the very qualities that found expression in his approach to problems of public administration. In his first broadcast to the nation on assuming office as Prime Minister, Shri Shastri said, “.... there is a widespread feeling which I share – that extensive reform of the administration is essential if the tasks of economic development and social reconstruction are to be accomplished.... The administrative organisation and its methods and processes must be modernised if it is to become an effective instrument of economic change. I shall do my best to see that these major problems receive systematic attention, and I shall apply myself closely to the problem of administrative reform in its various aspects”. The idea of a commission with terms and reference encompassing the whole field of Indian administration had taken root in Shastri's mind while he was Minister of Home Affairs, but faced with numerous pressing international and national problems in 1965 he could well have taken the view, as many civil servants did, that appointment of a commission might wait for another year or two. Shri Shastri however, felt after watching the effect of the steps taken by him for cutting down procedural delays, effecting organisational improvements, and generally speeding up decision making, that a comprehensive review of the entire system of administration was an urgent necessity. And once he reached this conclusion, he proceeded to appoint a commission to make such an inquiry. This was typical of him : he could not be dissuaded from bold action once he felt that milder measures would not do. The Administrative Reforms Commission is the first body of its kind to be appointed in a period of some 50 years ; and it may well be that the Commission's work, expected to be completed before the end of 1967, will influence the administration of this country for some decades.

·vi There are some other examples of his readiness to take major decisions in the field of administration. A proposal to set up a Central Bureau of Investigation had been mooted ard considered in some detail as early as 1948. But for one reason or another the matter had remained pending for some 14 years. Shri Shastri decided that such an organisation should be brought into existence without delay, fixed a date for it, and the Bureau was constituted on that date 1st April, · 1963. To mention another instance, he came to the conclusion that a committee with an eminent person from public life as its chairman should review the whole problem of integrity in administration, and the Santhanam Committee was the prompt outcome. The composition of the Committee with four members drawn from Parliament and two from the civil service was an illustration of one of Shri Shastri's notable convictions. He valued a civil servant's practical experience and knowledge of details. But he believed that persons with experience of public affairs had something to contribute which was even more valuable, and it was his constant endeavour in all administrative matters to combine experience from both sources. Shri Shastri thought well of the work done by the public services since Independence. But he was a discriminating judge of their performance. In one of his public statements he observed that the public services had played an important role “in producing stability in the country", but that the administration was still lacking in human touch and in understanding the difficulties and needs of the common people He further said, “We have to develop a clean, efficient, versatile, sensitive and responsive administration. Above all, it is to be an administration in which the people will have faith and confidence”. He put the same idea in somewhat different words while emphasising the importance of efficient functioning of district administration with which the people constantly come in intimate contact. “The administrator”, he said, "must have a human and sympathetic approach people in India for some years to come will not easily take a 'no' unless you try to convince them or at least talk to them for some time”. He recognised that every request could not be granted, or every demand met. But he insisted that even when a request was being turned down, it should be done in such a way that the citizen could see that the public servant had respect for his feelings and wishes, and would have been happy to help he could. This to Shastriji was not merely a niatter of good manners or form. It was a matter requiring genuine humility of spirit and respect for the feelings of others. To quote his own words: “The administrator may be among the most enlightened men locally, but even if he is conscious of that it should not make him feel superior or act superior."

·vii With his identification with the common people Shri Shastri liad grcat faith in the future of panchayati institutions, and by temperament and conviction he disliked any kind of authoritarianism. But he knew Indian society as it is, and was singularly free from sentimentality or any tendency to idealise traditional institutions. He did not think that the stage had been reached when the District Collector could just wither away. On the contrary, he felt that the Collector should be given sufficient prestige and authority to make him the real coordinator of governmental activity in the district. He thought that while there might be adequate coordination on paper, it was not ieflected in the field. This is how he expressed himself on coordination: “We see the results on paper and come to judgments on the basis of the reports we get. Coordination may have to be done in the Secretariat but it is much better that some of us sit down in the village and work out the scheme of coordination after actually finding out the difficulties of the people, of the cultivator, of the farmer.. 2 It is well known that Shri Shastri would reason and persuade rather than order. He always sought for a consensus before acting, and even if he disagreed profoundly he would not express his disagreement sharply. Those who worked with him knew that while with other people silence meant consent, with Shastriji it meant dissent. But it was a dissent from which he could not be moved. This was his style of functioning. Once his mind was made up, he would go on working, gently but with persistence and determination until he brought people round to accepting his views. The decision to create new All India Services provides an excellent example For more than a decade, repeated attempts had been made to create such services in the field of engineering, health, forestry, agriculture and education, but they had always failed. While he was Home Minister, Shastriji came to the conclusion that creation of these services was essential as a means of promoting national integration and raising the level of efficiency and he strove successfully to bring the State Governments round to his view. Shri Shastri's identification with the common people and in particular, those in the rural areas is well known. It is not equally well known that he was convinced that India must make the fullest use of modern science and technology if it was to achieve economic progress, and that the administration needed, in addition to human feeling and integrity, extensive modernisation. When after the Chinese aggression in 1962 a decision was taken at the level of permanent officials that for the duration of the emergency deputation of civil servants for studies and training abroad should be stopped, Shastriji intervened promptly to have the decision reversed. He did not want Indian ·yiii administration to be cut off, even for a short period, from the current of thought in developed countries. It was only for a brief period about two and a half years as Home Minister and one and a half years as Prime Minister--that Shastriji was in a position to exercise influence on the country's administration. He passed away before he could translate many of his ideas into action. But some of the measures he initiated were seminal and will continue to bear fruit for years to come. EDITOR ·THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION Vol. XII January-March, 1966 No. 1 REGIONS FOR PLANNING V. Natlı THE HE region is a conceptual tool for understanding the diversity in space and for organizing space for particular purposes. Every science has its regional scheme based on distribution of the phenomena in which it is interested. Thus in medical science there are regions showing distribution of cholera, malaha and other diseases. Frequently, regions are based on distribution of a group of related phenomena. Climatic regions are an example. The concept of regions based on multiple related phenomena is found to be particularly useful in sciences such as geography, economics and sociology. Geographers distinguish regions based on distribution of the physical phenomena--geological structure, topography, climate, hydrology, soils and natural vegetation, or regions based on distribution of these phenomena and human phenomena such as agricultural land-use, population density and the settlement pattern. Sociologists and cultural anthropologists distinguish cultural regions based on distribution of various cultural phenomena. All such regions are demarcated on the basis of internal homogeneity and external contrast; the areas included within them have certain common characteristics which set them off from areas outside. The economists also distinguish regions on the basis of homogeneity in economic characteristics. Industrial regions are an example. But the concept of economic regions based on the principle of inter-relationship is also used in economics. An economic area has been defined by Losch as the market area of a commodity, and an economic region as a system of such market areas. Such an economic region may include areas with widely divergent economic characteristics. Typically, it will include an industrial producing centre and a consumption area which may be largely rural. The two are considered as forming part of an economic region because of their economic relationship. Both these principles, homogeneity and inter-relationship, have their utility in demarcating regions for planning. August Losch, The Nature of Economic Regions, and J. Friedmann, and W. Alonso: Regional Development and Planning: A Reader, Cambridge, The M.I.T. Press, Mass, 1964, p. 115.

·2 V. Nath PLANNING REGIONS Planning regions have to serve as the spatial units for formulation and implementation of development plans. They must, thercfore, bc demarcated, keeping in view the objectives of planned development and the nature of the principal development programmes. Secondly, since institutional and administrative arrangements for plan formulation and execution will have to be made with thcsc rcgions as the units, they must be related to the cxisting politico-administrative structure of the country, its territorial divisions. Since most planning is done by government (or by agencies established by government), it is most convenient to adopt the territorial divisions or administrative regions as the planning regions. Planning and development agencies can be established for these regions simply by expanding the existing departments or adding new ones. Secondly, arrangements for association of the people's representatives with the planning process can also be made most conveniently with them as units, because legislatures, local bodies and other democratic institutions are already established for them. Other planning regions have undoubtedly to be adopted for particular purposes. But the need for them must be clearly established, because their acceptance involves supplementing or replacing the administrative regions. Planning in India is the concurrent responsibility of the Central and the State Governments. It is being done with the States (and Union Territorics) as the primary units. Below the State level the principal units of administration and planning are the district, the block and the village. Administrative and institutional arrangements exist at these units for formulation and execution of plans, and for association of popular leaders with planning. These administrative regions are in fact the principal planning regions of the country. However, they are not adequate for all planning purposes and have to be supplemented by other regions for some purposes of planning, and may even have to be replaced for other purposes. Thus, for development of water resources it is convenient to adopt a river valley or a river system as the region; in metropolitan planning it is necessary to plan with.the metropolitan area of the city as the unit. Similarly, for planning of transport or developnient of power resources, regions may have to be specially delineated keeping in view the particular requirements of the planning task Secondly, even when administrative units are adopted as the planning regions, it is useful for the planners to be aware of similarities, contrasts or economic relationships between areas situated in different administrative units. Thus, the Himalayan areas of UP, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir haye ·Regions for Planning برا certain common physical features of topography, climate and soils and common patterns of resouice use and economic activity. In all these hilly areas arable land is limited, specialized forms of agriculture (e.g., horticulture), and grazing and exploitation of forest resources are important economic activities. Population is sparse, water supply and communications are difficult problems, and there is urgent need for programmes of conservation of soil and water. These common features, problems and needs have to be kept in view and arrangements for co-operation in plan formulation or implementation have to be devised between the States and Union Territories concerned. A regional scheme which expresses the common links between these areas is, therefore, useful for planners. The planning tasks in India can be divided into the following four categories: (i) agricultural and related development programmes—land reclamation, soil conservation, irrigation, animal husbandry, forestry and fisheries; (ii) development of industries, power, transport and communications; (iii) development of social services-education, medical care, social welfare etc; and (iv) urban development. The classification follows broadly the sectoral classification in the Five Year Plans. Urban development has been added. It is not a separate sector of development but it has been listed here because urbanization affects the economy in such a variety of ways and urban development is a task of such importance that it was felt that it should be listed separately in order to focus attention on it In agricultural and related development programmes, primary emphasis is on scientific and more intensive exploitation of the resources of land and water. This has to be done by changing present production techniques and by undertaking various resource development programmes. Since regional variations in the methods of resource use and the resource development economy-patterns of agricultural land use and cropping, development of livestock husbandry, forestry or fishingmare ielated primarily to the physical factors, regional schemes based on analysis of the physical factors and associated human factors of agricultural land use and ruial settlement, furnish the basic mosaic for planning the development progiammes. Such schemes bring out the ·4 V. Nath contrasts within the country and within individual Statcs which are most significant for planning purposes. Further, they bring oul for each region (and its smaller divisions) the basic physical and human factois, and the potential and limitations of the physical environment. The scheme of “Regions for Resource Planning" developed by the Regional Planning Unit of the Indian Statistical Institutca and the scheme of Resource Development Regions and Divisions recently published by the Planning Commission are both schemes of this type. The latter is described in Part II. Such schemes are useful also for planning of social service programmes, especially in the rural areas, because planning of these programmes has to be related primarily to the rural settlement pattern. They are useful to a limited extent for planning of industrial, power, transport and associated development programmes. They furnish the basic facts on location of mineral and power resources, and agricultural raw-materials, and of distribution of population which have to be taken into account in planning of these programmes Thus, the scheme of Resource Development Regions and Divisions published by the Planning Commission distinguishes the Eastern Plateaux and Hills Region. This region, consisting of the plateau areas of Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal, Eastern Madhya Pradesh and two districts of the Maharashtra, has been demarcated primarily on basis of geological and topographic factors. But by distinguishing it the highly mineralized arcas which contain most of the coal, iron ore, manganese and other mineral resources of the country, have been separated from the adjoining areas of the Gangetic Plain or of the Deccan which are poor in minerals. Visualizing this mineral-rich area as one region is very useful in planning of industrial, power and transport programmes. However, it appears that regional schemes based on the principle of homogeneity are not adequate for planning of such programmes and that schemes based on the principle of inter-relationship have to be used. The latter are useful because they indicate how regions are related with one another and with the national economy and the potential or limitations for development which these relationships hold. Thus for any region the scheme of Resource Development Regions and Divisions would indicale only its agricultural, mineral, forest and other resources, but it would not indicate the potential or limitations for development which its location with reference to other regions creates. Consider the South Bihar Plain area (consisting of the districts of Shahabad, Patna, Gaya, 2 Unpublished. . Government of India, Resource Development Regions and Divisions of India, New Delhi, Planning Commission, 1964.

·Regions for Planning 5 Monghyr and Bhagalpur) as an example It has a very large population in relation to its agricultural land, has few mineral resources and would appear to have a limited potential for industrial and urban development. But its location next to the coal and steel centres of Bihar and West Bengal and athwart the principal transport routes of Northern India hold for it enormous possibilities of industrial and urban growth. As an illustration of schemes based on the principle of interrelationship, a scheme of metropolitan regions has been described in Part II. The scheme distinguishes four metropolitan regions, which are the hinterlands respectively of the metropolitan cities of calcutta, Madras, Bombay and Delhi. The scheme is based on the concept of central places;- each metropolitan city is regarded as an apex central place, which is linked through a system of secondary and lower order central places to every part of its hinterland. Accordingly, we consider in Part II three sets of regions: (i) Administrative Regions, (ii) Resource Development Regions, and (iii) Metropolitan Regions. ADMINISTRATIVE REGIONS States (and Union Territories), districts, blocks, and villages constitute the different units in the structure of administrative regions. The planning process in India provides for formulation of plans with them as units and inter-relation of plans of different units. The plan of each State is drawn up within the framework of the goals, investment magnitudes and physical achievement targets of the national plan: but it reflects in its details--the financial and physical magnitudes of different sectors and the particular projects included in it--the development potential of the State and the needs and aspirations of its people The plans of districts are related similarly to the plan of the State, and of smaller units to the plan of the district. Such inter-relationship between plans of different units is an essential aspect of the national planning process. It enables plans to reflect national goals and objectives For a discussion of the hierarchical order of Central places, see W. Isard, Methods of Regional Analysis, Cambridge, MI.T. Press, 1960, pp. 222-7 ·6 V. Nath on the one hand and local-needs and aspirations on the other. Institutional arrangements have been established at various area levels for participation of the people's representatives in the planning process. The national and State legislators frame the policies for planning; the local leaders participate in detailed planning and implementation of programmes for their areas. The responsibilities of the local leaders in planning have increased, and much greater attention has begun to be given to local planning after the establishment of the Panchayati Raj institutions. The district plan particularly is being given increasing attention, because it is felt that the area of the district is sufficiently large for formulation of an integrated development plan and officials and non-officials of sufficient calibre and experience are available for preparation of the plan. If the present trends continue the district will in time emerge as a distinct unit of planning in addition to the nation and the State. The administrative regions have some characteristics which enhance their claims to being accepted as planning regions. Most States of the Indian Union are quite large in size so that adequate planning organizations can be built up for them. Secondly, the areas of most States are co-terminous with the linguistic regions of the country and their people have a certain sense of linguistic-cultural unity. The importance of linguistic regions as basic planning regions can scarcely be overemphasized in a large, multilingual country. The districts similarly are of sufficient size to be adopted as primary units of local planning. The population of most districts ranges between one and two million and their area ranges between two and five thousand square miles. Secondly, since the boundaries of most districts follow natural features such as rivers or hill ranges and have remained unchanged for long periods, and the district headquarters town is the principal administrative, commercial and educational centre of the area, there is among their people a well-developed feeling of “belonging to the district”. There are of course districts which are quite unsuitable for local planning because they are too large or too small or contain areas of sharply contrasted physical and economic characteristics. But the number of such districts is small. Among the administrative units below the district level, the community development block is the most important for purposes of planning because the institutional and administrative structure of planning Some districts of Bibar and Madras with population of three to four million are recognized as being too large for efficient local planning. The Madras districts have been biſurcated for purposes of planning, and a similar bifurcation of the Bihar districts will be uscrul. On the other hand many of the districts of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh are very small.

·Regions for Planning 7 and development the Panchayat Samiti and the community development organization have been built up round it. A typical block consists of about 100 villages with a population of 50,000 to 100,000 but there are variations in different areas. Below the block level, the traditional unit of rural community life, the village, has also a certain importance in planning. The aspirations and needs of the rural people are articulated first through the village Panchayat and agricultural and rural development programmes must be formulated in the first instance with the village as the unit. Supplement to Administrative Regions (i) Special Arcas : This structure of administrative regions is used mainly for planning of agricultural and related development programmes, social service programmes and others which are the responsibility of the State Governments. It is useful for planning of these programmes because it enables planners to relate programmes for successively smaller areas to local conditions and the needs and aspirations of the local people. But it has to be supplemented in various ways in order to meet planning needs for which it is found to be inadequate. One set of supplements consists of areas of special problems or promise for which special development programmes have to be undertaken and special administrative or institutional arrangements have to be established Metropolitan areas of cities, industrial complexes, areas of river valley projects or other resource development projects, and backward areas are the most important among such special areas. In each case the boundaries have to be demarcated keeping in view the particular objects of planning and development. They have to be defined precisely in some cases but not in others. The boundaries of "metropolitan areas" have to be defined with precision because they have to be given the force of law. Control over urban land use which is an essential element in metropolitan planning cannot be enforced without legal sanctions. The boundaries of areas of irrigation and other resource development projects may also have to be defined precisely, because the areas which will receive irrigation or other benefits and those which will not receive such benefits have to be clearly distinguished On the other hand, boundaries of backward areas need not be defined so precisely. The boundaries of special areas may change relatively quickly. The metropolitan area of a city may have to be enlarged from time to time as the city expands. The areas of irrigation projects may also be enlarged as the scope of the projects is enlarged On the other hand, backward areas may be reduced progressively in size as backwardness is liquidated.

·8 V. Nath (ii) Zones, Macro-regions and Commissioners' Divisions : Another set of supplements to administrative regions consists of groups of States and districts and are useful for planning at inter-Statc and inter-district levels. Inter-State action is required for watcr resource development, power generation and distribution, and various other development programmes. There is considerable cxpcricncc of inter-State co-operation for water resource developnient in India; the river vallcy projccts undertaken during the last 15 years are outstanding recent examples of such co-operation. But as cach case requires agreement among the States concerned, adequate institutional arrangements are essential for sccuring inter-State co-operation. The need for inter-Statc action in power generation and distribution has also begun to be recognized increasingly. The power systems of most adjoining States arc already inter-linked. Formation of regional power grids has been under consideration for some time: the grids are visualized as the first step in the establishment (eventually) of a national power grid. Since the re-organization of the States in 1956, an institutional arrangement for inter-State action has existed in the Zonal Councils. These Councils have been constituted for the five Zones Northern, Central, Eastern, Southern and Western-into which the country is divided. Each Zone consists of two or more States and adjoining Union Territories. The agency of the Zonal Councils could be used for planning and co-ordinated execution of programmes of development of inter-State interest more effectively than has been done so far. Zones also provide a useful conceptual framework for macroregional divisions of the country: most macro-regional divisions are variations on the Zonal scheme. Macro-regions are useful for planning of various activities of the Central government and for regional economic and social analysis. They can be very useful in planning flows of basic commodities—coal, iron and steel, cement, One such scheme is that used by the Energy Survey Committec ( Government of India: Report of the Energy Survey of India Committee, New Delhi, 1965, p. 85.) which divides the country into the following six encrgy regions: (0) Northern: Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Delhi, Rajasthan and Jammu and Kashmir. (it) Central: U.P. and Madhya Pradesh. (ii) Eastern: Bihar, West Bengal and Orissa. (iv) Assam: Assam, Tripura and Manipur. (v) Southern: Andhra Pradesh, Mysore, Madras and Kerala. (VI) Western: Maharashtra and Gujarat. The only unsatisfactory feature of the scheme is inclusion of U.P, and Madhya Pradesh in one region. There are marked physical and socio-economic differences between the two States which are marked by their inclusion in one region Each State is large enough to constitute a region by itself.

·Regions for Planning 9 petroleum products, chemical fertilizers, foodgrains and agricultural raw materials--and deciding locations of industrial units keeping the flow patterns in view. This concept has been best developed in U.S.S.R.., which has been divided into a number of "major economic regions” each based on one or more major industrial complexes. However the related Soviet concept of self-sufficiency at major economic region level, very attractive in a country with long distances, sparse population and relatively under-developed transport, has distinct limitations in India. As the bulk of the coal and iron ore deposits of India are located in Eastern India, this region must remain the premier iron and steel producing region of the countiy and large flows of coal, steel and heavy engineering goods from the region to other parts of the country must remain an essential feature of the Indian economy. Ignoring these facts and attempting to achieve self-sufficiency at macro-regional level could lead to a distorted and wasteful pattern of resource development. Macro-regional schemes are useful for regional economic and social analysis because they make possible presentation of data on regional differences within a large country in terms of a limited number of units. In U.S.A., the Census Divisions are used extensively for this purpose, and the practice of using macro-regions is growing in India. The National Sample Survey, the Energy Survey and various studies of the National Council of Applied Economic Research present data on regional differences within India primarily by macro-regions In most of the larger States of India there has existed for a long time an intermediate unit between the State and the districts--the Commissioner's Division. These Divisions, consisting of 5 or 6 districts were formed for co-ordination of work in the districts; but many of them express also the most significant differences in physical and economic conditions within a State. In any case, these Divisions furnish as the Zones do at the macro-regional level, the starting point for dividing large States into a limited number of relatively homogeneous units. Distinguishing such units is useful in planning for a large State because it provides to the State and the local planners a frame of reference for comprehending the diversity within the State and for modifying the development programmes accordingly. Such modification is particularly necessary in agricultural and related programmes which have to be adapted to the physical conditions and agricultural and settlement patterns of each area. With these two sets of supplements, the structure of administrative regions consists of: nation, macro-region or Zone, State, division, district, block and village, and the special areas. The latter cannot be ·10 V, Nath integrated into the administrative structure, because their boundaries would frequently cut aci oss the boundaries of States and districts. But since planning arrangements for them can be made without serious disturbance to the administrative structure, they can also be considered along with the administrative regions. RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT REGIONS The scheme of Resource Development Regions and Divisions of India published by the Planning Commission is based on analysis of data of topography, geological formations, soils, rainfall, agricultural land use, cropping pattern, population density and occurrence of mineral resources. The data have been analyzed for cach district of thc country. The district has been adopted as the minimum unit for classification partly because the data for most of these variables were not available for smaller units and partly in order to make the scheme more useful for planning It is considered that“the district is of such overwhelming importance as a unit for execution of most development programmes that a classification in which districts are not divided has a certain uscfulness which is lost as soon as districts are divided".? The scheme recognizes five primary or major natural regions of the country: the Himalayas, the Northern Plain, the Peninsular Plateaux and Hills, the East Coast Plain, and the West Coast Plain. Each of these is divided into one or more regions to make a total of 14 regions on the mainland of India. The fifteenthiegion is formed by the Islands in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. The regions are divided further into sub-regions, divisions and sub-divisions. But the important units below the regions are the divisions; sub-regions and sub-divisions are units of secondary importance and have been distinguished in a very few cases Only one region, the Eastern Himalayan, has been divided into sub-regions and only five divisions have been divided into sub-divisions. The scheme distinguishes 61 divisions, each of which is located entirely within the territory of a State. The divisions are formed by intersection of boundaries of the regions and the States or by further division of the area of a region located within a State. Each division is a unit, homogeneous in physical and socio-economic characteristics, and located entirely within the territory of one State which can be adopted as a planning unit by the State Government. The objects of the scheme are: "(i) to provide a framework for understanding the variety of physical conditions and resource development potentials in ? Planning Commission, Resource Deyclopment Regions and Division of India, op cit., p 3.

·Regions for Planning 11 different parts of the country to those concerned with planning at the Centre and in the States, so that these differences are given due consideration in planning of programmes, and adjustments in programme content and pattern are made to meet these, wherever necessary; and (11) to furnish to those concerned with planning at the State level, a scheme of division of their States into internally homogeneous units, each of which can be used as a unit for planning of most of the programmes included in State Plans."8 The reference to State planning will be readily understood because agricultural and related development programmes for which the scheme is particularly useful are the responsibility primarily of the State Governments. Since the resource development division consists of a group of districts, it can be easily integrated into the structure of State planning. It can serve as an intermediate unit between the State and the districts and is in fact a better unit than the Commissioner's because it is demarcated scientifically. Its principal usefulness is in relating development programmes more closely to the different physical and socioeconomic conditions of different parts of a State Such relation is particularly important in large States such as UP, Maharashtra, and Madhya Pradesh within which there is such diversity of physical and socio-economic conditions. The content of the plan of each sector can be decided first at the resource development division level and district plans can then be made within the framework of these decisions. The scheme also enables planners to keep in view the similarities between areas located in adjacent States. The example of the Eastern Plateaux and Hills Region and of the Himalayan Region of U.P, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir, given above, illustrate this point METROPOLITAN REGIONS In this scheme the country is divided into four metropolitan regions the hinterlands respectively of the metropolitan cities of Calcutta, Bombay, Madras and Delhi. Each hinterland is a macro-region consisting of two or more States together with Union Territories or parts of States. It can be divided further into sub-regions, divisions and smaller units going down to the service area of the small town (or large village) with population between 5,000 and 10,000, which performs various commercial and other service functions for a groupof villages & Planning Commission, Resource Development Regions and Divisions of India, op cit., p 2.

·12 V. Nath Towns of different sizes located in a metropolitan region are considered to be central places of different orders; the metropolitan city is considered to be the apex central place of the region. The areas included within a metropolitan region are dissimilar in physical features, land use and cropping pattern, population density and various other characteristics. The metropolitan region of Delhi includes the Himalayan areas of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh, the Punjab plain as well as the desert of Western Rajasthan. The region of Calcutta includes areas as dissimilar as NEFA and North Bihar. But all parts of a metropolitan region are bound together by the bonds of functional relations with the metropolitan city. The relations are primarily commercial-distribution of goods is the principal element in them,--but they are also cultural and administrative. Three of the metropolitan cities are ports but the fourth, Delhi, is an inland city. The external trade functions which the port cities perform for their metropolitan regions are shared in case of the Delhi region between Calcutta and Bombay. But the concept of the metropolitan region does not involve as a necessary condition that the metropolitan city be a port or that it be the only port in the region. It only involves that the metropolitan city be so important as a commercial, administrative and social service centre that it can be recognized as the apex centre of the region. Each of the four cities has this position in its metropolitan region. The cities are connected with every part of the hinterland through a succession of smaller towns-sub-regional centres, district towns, mandi centres, etc. These are Central places of different orders, each of which is connected upwards with higher order Central places and downwards with lower order places; it is also connected with its own particular hinterland (service area) for the specific services that it performs for it. In this way, a whole system of functional relationships-economic, socio-cultural, administratiye-focusses eventually on the sub-regional and the metropolitan cities, and the influences amenating from these cities travel to every part of the hinterland. Formulating such a scheme of metropolitan regions has many limitations at present. First, because of virtual lack of data on economic relationships between the metropolitan cities and their hinterlands, the regions cannot be demarcated precisely. Studies on demarcation of the hinterland have been carried out most extensively for Calcutta and the boundaries of the Calcutta region can be drawn somewhat more 9 See for instance, Lastie Grean: The Economic Hinterland of Calcutta, to be published by Asia Publishing House, Bombay.

·Regions for Planning w precisely than those of the other regions. The regional transpoil surveys now being conducted under the auspices of the Planning Commission are expected to make available considerable data which will make possible more precise demarcation of the other three hinterlands Similarly, studies on the economic relationships between cities and towns of different sizes within a metropolitan region and between them and their service areas, needed for dividing the metropolitan regions into sub-regions, divisions and smaller units, are virtually lacking. In Appendıx I, central places of six classes have been listed, which implies that it should be possible to have a size hierarchy of six units, going down from the metropolitan region to the service area of the very small town or large village which functions as rural service centre. But this classification is only illustrative and will need to be verified by studies in the different metropolitan iegions. It is most likely that central places of all the six categories are not fully developed in every region. However, the hieraichical order provides the framework for seeing the cities and towns of different sizes as linked parts of a spatial system As important as the paucity of data is the fact that the city-legion ielationship is not as well developed in India as it is in industrially advanced countries. Since the bulk of the population is rural, depends upon subsistence agriculture and has limited extra-village economic relationships, the influence of the metropolitan city, or of any urban area for that matter, is quite weak. But this influence is increasing as means of communication improve and modern social services and consumer goods are used by the rural people to an incieasing extent One visible result of this increase, is use by large commercial firms of the four metropolitan cities as focal points for distribution of products within the regions Various agencies of government, and such institutions as the Life Insurance Corporation are also using these cities as regional headquarters for their activities. The smaller cities are similarly beginning to be used increasingly as focal points for distribution of products or radiation of various activities, within their respective influence areas. The metropolitan regions may be roughly indicated as follows : (1) The Calcutta Metropolitan Region-Assam, Nagaland and the Union Territories in North East India; West Bengal, Bihar, Eastern U.P., and Eastern Madhya Pradesh, except the extreme Southein poition. (2) The Madras Metropolitan Region-Madras, Kerala, most of Mysore and most of Andhra Pradesh, ·14 V. Nath (3) The Bombay Metropolitan Region- Maharashtra, Gujarat, Southern Madhya Pradesh. (4) The Delhi Metropolitan Region-Punjab, Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, most of Rajasthan, Western U.P., and Northern Madhya Pradesh. Transition Zones or Corridois: It is useful to distinguish transition zones or corridors between the metropolitan regions. These are arcas in which the influence of two metropolitan cities overlaps, i.e., the advantages of obtaining services from the two cities are nearly competitive and the local people have a choice of obtaining services from onc or the other city. The choices are exercised in favour of different cities at different times or for different commodities. Central U.P. is such a transitional zone between the metropolitan regions of Delhi and Calcutta. The transition zones are roughly indicated below, they can also be indicated more precisely when more detailed data become available: (1) Between the Calcutta and the Madras Regions-extreme South Eastern Madhya Pradesh and North Eastern Andhra Pradesh (the hinterland of Visakhapatnam). (2) Between the Madras and the Bombay Regions--the Northern fringe of Mysore. (3) Between the Bombay and the Delbi Region Southern Rajasthan, and Central Madhya Pradesh. (4) Between the Delhi and the Calcutta Regions-Central U.P. The transition zones will be seen on an all-India map as arcshaped belts of varying widths. Their northern apex is in Central U.P. in the vicinity of Allahabad. From this point they go southwards dividing in Central Madhya Pradesh into three arcs going North- West, South-West and South-East respectively. The metropolitan regions are units of the same size order as the macro-regions. In some cases they are very close to the zones or other commonly used macro-regions. The Madras Metropolitan Region is co-terminous with the South India Region of many macro-regional schemes. The Bombay Metropolitan Region differs only slightly from the Western India Region of macro-regional schemes--it includes Souther Madhya Pradesh. The metropolitan regions based as they ·Regions for Planning 1s aic on the economic fact of exchange of goods and services are den more useful than the micro-lcgions for planning, production indis tribution of basic commodities. They are useful :i/so for planning af power, transport and similar programmes. In fact they appear to be the most useful macro-units for working out the regional implications of the long-term perspective of development. The national projections of population, its distribution between uban and rural areas and amon: various cconomic activities, of supply and demand of basic commodities and of requirements of power and transport can most conveniently bo broken down in terms of thc mcliopolitan regions. Programmes for attaining the targets of development can then be formulated with cach metropolitan icgion as the unit. It appears also that intor-State iclationships for purposcs of resourcc clcyclopment are also visualized most fruitfully in terms of metropolitan regions, را راه، راه But the metropolitan regions have their grcalcst utility in urban planning which will have to move in the not distant future from planning, for cities to planning of entire hinterlands as units. The need for adopting in case of the largo citics, il suficiently large "mctropolitan alca” as the unit of detailed lund 1180 planning, and a still larger "peripheral region” as the unit of lesu dolniled, wirectional planning bas, already been recognized. 'l'hc "metropolitan aron" conccpi, first used in the Delhi Plan, is now being used in tho plans of all major cities of India. The Delhi Plan also visualized planning, for its periplicia region which is now being called the National ('ngilai Ropion. This is it! arca of about 400 square miles located in 1.1. und Parnjab. 111 casc of Calculia, the CMPO has demarcated ournilo thu (' nonitta metropolitan district a Southern Plain Region), 119 the unit for less detailed, directional planning. The planners are alıcady thinking in terms of planning with the Bombay Poona Region as the Unit. In Gujaral, Dechtiin muille lower Ahmedabad and Sural, which is cxperiencing maput luonnomalill growth, may be adopted as a planning, inil, Thio di 4.6913 1914 la lis carried further and entire hintcı lands of metropolitan olles Minyo lalons vicved as planning region's, l'or cach ruch spion, this lifely Monstelle of the urban population can he forecast within illo no limits of economic development. This total can then les idibutrition of different sizes located in different parl'. of the popioint, l'ho love me and size of some IOWIis will, no douhi, le milion loy the boletom es distribution of natural resouru", and 1000002rapid in conditioni's. 'I loun, the steel and hca', engineering control the l'ali1110:Bordiopolis region will be located mainly near the wall 11-14, Orison on 11th But location and is not in 100 il á 11111300mladi lett (95 he plum in rcchindano 409, porslio ir su di guida oil 1 ·16 V. Nath economic activity and balanced regional development. Growth of local, district and multi-district centres can be planned in the perspective of the expected growth in the cconomy of their service areas. In fact, each such town can be built up as a focal point of modernization of agriculture and of the rural economy, which provides a constellation of services, ranging from distribution of supplies required for modern agriculture (chemical fertilizers, steel, petroleum products, power-driven implements) to facilities of modern education, medical care and recreation. The relations between these towns and their service areas can be improved through improvement of means of transport and communications. The more suitable among them can be developed as local growth points by establishment of various agroindustries and other industries. Some towns can be planncd deliberately as growth points to stimulate the economy of stagnant regions or to serve as counter-magnets which will relieve the pressure on large cities. As one city or area approaches saturation point, growth can be transferred to other cities or areas within the metropolitan region. Urban planning of this kind, with metropolitan hinterlands as units, is an essential counterpart of perspective cconomic planning. The metropolitan regions furnish the most useful conceptual framework for such planning, because the different cities and towns within each region can be viewed as inter-linked and mutually inter-acting parts of a spatial system.

·APPENDIX I HIERARCHY OF CENTRAL PLACES IN A METROPOLITAN REGION 1. Metropolitan city. 2. Sub-regional centre-the principal town and service centre of the sub-region. 3. Multi-district centre-principal town and service centre of a group of districts. Some of these towns are also headquarters of Commissioners' Divisions. 4. District centre--the principal town and service centre for the whole or a major part of the district Most of these towns are also district headquarters. 5. Mandi centre-town with an established permanent market (not weekly hat) serying an area approximating a community development block or a taluk. It may also be the headquarters of the block or taluk 6. Rural service centre-small town or large village functioning as a service centre for a group of villages.

·CO-ORDINATION AND COMMUNICATION IN AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT Donald C. Pel- THE Ram Subhag Singh Committee on Co-ordination of Agricultural TL Production, in its report of October 1963, demonstrated the concern felt at highest government levels on the subject of co-ordination. The current food crisis underscores its relevance. Because of this concern, and because few research studies on co-ordination appear to have been done, a pilot survey on this topic was undertaken during March to May of 1965 in one distrirt each of Rajasthan, Punjab and U.P., including onc Package Programme district, during an eight-week course on survey research methods Within each district a representative probability sample of three blocks was chosen by a "stratificd random” method, and one village per district was added. An exploratory ard a structured interview were held with specified officials and non-officials at district, block, and village levels concerned with agricultural development. A small sample of cultivators was also interviewed While one should not generalize beyond the selected districts. within these the sample of functionaries at district and block levels was sound although small (84 officials and 32 non-officials). Certain trends were illuminating, and are summarized here. 4 A study on co-ordination in agricultural programmes was completed in December 1965 by the Programme Evaluation Organization of the Planning Commission. ? For a discussion of principles and applications of survey methodology, see the author's article "Survey Research in Public Administration"; Indian Journal of Public Administration, Vol. X, No. 4, Oct.-Dec 1964, pages 608-624. 3 Under sound survey procedures a certain population is explicitly defined in advance either of social units like blocks and villages, or of individuals, or both Either all members of this population are contacted, or a representative sample of them. Judgment may be used to divide the population into distinctive sub-types or strata, but the final selection of sample elements within each stratum is strictly by lottery or rapdom numbers, to avoid any possibility of bias Details are given in the author's report, “Coordination, Communication, and Initiative in Agricultural Development: a Pilot Survey", Indian Institute of Public Administration, January 1966 (cyclostyled). The pilot study was part of a long-range programme to develop survey research facilities to study development administration in India, under contract between the US Agency for International Development and the University of Michigan, where the author serves as a Programme Director in the Survey Research Centre A broader follow-up survey on the same topic has been conducted in a representative sample of nine districts and 27 blocks in the same States, with 926 respondents; these data are now being analyzed Assisting in the pilot survey were 22 course participants who planned and carried out the successive steps The author is grateful to these persons, to the IIPA, to collaborating departments of public administration at Rajasthan, Punjab, and Lucknow Universities, and to Development Departments of the corresponding States, for their assistance, ·Co-ordination in Agricultural Development 10 Where Co-ordination was Strong or leak The concept of co-ordination assumes some network of ninen tionaries (cither individuals or departments or other units) who perform a series of inter-related activities, the efect of which is to accomplish some end iesult (such as growing more Moul). In such a network, we say that co-ordination is good if'ench person performs his activities in the right way and at the right time so thing other persons in turn can perform their own activity, and the end result can be accomplished. We say that co-ordination is poor il' somo porn son fails to perform his activities in the right wily or at the right time, and thus hinders the activities of other persons and chicvement of the targct. Onc objective of the pilot surycy was 10 ascertain where in such a system certain functionarics were co-ordinating well or poorly will other functionaries, According 10 the pilot survey icsults, the Duyclopment and Apriculture Departments in the selected disticis and blocks stood high, as we might expect, and the Co-operative Department scored fair, while one of the weakest links in carrying out agricultural programmes will the Revenue Department. If the farmer sect's a faccavi lonn for fertilizer or other inputs, the village Revenuc oßicial Patwaris okhpur) must verify his holdings and previous indchicines. This department was said to show the poorest co-ordination in several 10pccts, Respondents vere first intervicved with an exploratory schedule asting broad or unstructured questions, Among tenag icultural pun grammes spontaneously mentioned in the c iniezvjey". thier we strongls criticized: Joan-, major irrigation, and clextricity (which is essentiai for miror-irrigation). Shortcomings in the! 1,12212311,4, were mentioned four or fue times mouse often tha) 33.hjevements, ccnicast. distribution of sord (sither ordinary or imped) and of fertiliz 2018 mcesratsiy successful; 300dcy.amples SICH, 4/4,5" }}}}, Cocos-27 poena 215-7ce internal aroire intuvchi 774, 1.1.3 yill, 184, 2397777551simsasting increatrum word suroral;exus perify came 559m :rese repies it „25 ccar thut 1844 !gpirist of هر إره ا ، وا ،،، راما * 1 * در gonisme Sison sisesteder iseenda el 2 Sorteos 49) 13 Trrers 4", 14.

·20 Donald C. Pelz development goals was scen to come from the Agriculture Department (69 per cent of members of this and Development Depariments said that the two departments were "working toward the same goals"). At a lower level stood the Co-operative Department (50 per cent of members of both departments saw common goals), ihc Minor Irrigation (40 per cent common goals). Revenue Department stood lowest (only 20 per cent common goals). A widespread problem was delay. Even in regard to Planning/ Development deparlment, only onc-third (35 per cent) of the cfficials and non-officials found this department "mostly prompt”. Agriculture and Co-operatives Department stocd lower (30 per cent) and 24 per cent respectively), while a very small fraction saw Minor Irrigation and Revenue as prompt (7 and 5 per cent respectively). The structured questionnaire also asked about co-ordination among specified pairs of functionaries, Officials within Development and Agriculture DepartmentsDistrict Planning Officers, BDOS, VLW's, and Agricultural Extension Officers were seen to co-ordinate well with each other (70 to 54 per cent of respondents said they "fitted well together”, in provision and use of fertilizers). Lower co-ordination was reported belween BDO and District Registrar of Co-operative Societies, and Co-operative Supervisors and farmers (30 per cent of respondents said that these fitted together well). Poorest co-ordination was between Patwari/Leklipal and farmers (only 9 per cent of respondents were satisfied). Again the Revenue Department stood lowest. Typical Quotations While conclusions from the survey are based mainly on such statistical trends, it is also helpful to examine quotations. These must be treated cautiously. They represent only one party to a situation; for the full truth one should study the views of all parties Nevertheless they help to illuminate the quantitative data. Regarding the Revenue Department, for example, a block official observed: standardized rules Either method allows the answers of different respondents to be combined and compared by statistical techniques Conclusions are reached not merely by impression or intuition but by objective steps, in order to build cvidence which is scientifically sound that is to say, which might be repeated by someone following the identical procedures & Usually not a separate department; officials in several departments had some responsibility for minor irrigation. * Identity of the respondents was of course carefully protected. No names appeared on the interview reports, and these were seen only by the project staff.

·Co-ordination in Agricultural Development 21 "There are many difficulties in getting the taccavi loan. Firstly, the very application is difficult for cultivators to fill in. They are mostly illiterate and do not know anything about the information asked in the application. Then the application has to be certified by the (Patwari/Lekhpal) about the land under one's possession for cultivation, as the amount of taccavi loan for purposes of fertilizers is sanctioned on the size of the land holding. Generally this person is not available, and even if he is available the certificate is not easily got without pleasing him with cash or kind.” Few spontaneous mentions of electricity programmes were made, but these were all negative. An elected representative complained of failure of the Electricity Department to communicate with the public: “We've been pressing the Electric Department to give out their programme to the people, but they have been hesitating I think they feared there would be some check on their work... There are always so many excuses for delays.. .At each quarter they should give out their programme for the next quarter Then if they have to change it, if there is some shortage, they can say so." As an example of delay in minor irrigation, this report from a block official may be cited: “We are authorized to purchase (on credit) seeds and pumping sets and supply them to the farmers. So I ordered the supply of one pumping set It was duly delivered to the actual user The bill was forwarded to the district technical officer several months ago. All the documents and quotations are in order I waited for two months but payment was not made So I approached the district officer personally last month But in vain. The payment is yet to be made” Specific Difficulties and Suggestions In both the exploratory and the structured interviews, respondents were asked to describe specific difficulties and to offer suggestions for improvement When asked about farmers' difficulties in getting help on fertilizers, for example, nearly onc-quarter of respondents (23 per cent) criticized Co-opei ative Societies for, some form of malpractice. As an illustration, an Extension Officer remarked.

·22 Donald C. Pelo “According to rules, if the Development Department approves the crop plan of a cultivator, he is cxpected to get a loan from the Co-operative Society. But this does not generally happen. The loans are advanced to the supporters of thic people in power A typical criticism against VLWs was lack of contact with cultivators (mentioned by 19 per cent), and against Revenuc Department corruption (16 per cent) A major reason for breakdown in co-ordination was said to be lack of funds and supplies, requiring corrective action at State or Central levels. Within the distīcts themselves, the main suggestion for improvement was greater outhority for development or agricultural officials. To overcome difficulties with Revenue or Irrigation Departments, for example, it was suggested that more control over their local officials be assigned to the BDO, Said a block Panchayat Samiti Chairman: “There is a world of difference between powers of the District Planning Officer and the SDM (revenue official at the Tehsil level). The latter enjoys far greater powers. It is the lack of real power of development officials which is one hindrance. Until and unless the (Patwari/Lekhpal). (Patrol/Amin) and the tubewell operator come under the direct control of the GDO, no coordination in the present climate of corruption is feasible." Another suggestion was more delegation of authority to development officials. An arrangement in the Package Programme district was described as follows: "We don't find any difficulty in co-ordinating the work within our department because of one major reason. The VLWs can sanction applications for fertilizer up to Rs. 150, and Extension Officer Agriculture up to Rs 500. (These loans are given in kind rather than in cash). This greater degree of confidence- decentralization of responsibility to the subordinate-leads to greater coordination and smoother functioning within the department.” Personal shortcomings in officials lack of interest or motivation, for example were an important reason for poor co-ordination (second only to lack of funds and supplies); and personal assets in officials were the major reason for good co-ordination. How can greater interest by officials at all levels be assured? པས། ·Co-ordination m Agricultural Development 23 Several respondents urged that evaluation of individuals bc linked more closely to their specific accomplishments. One such system has been operating in Punjab since mid-1964. A “SCOIC-card" has been set up for each VLW, BDO, District Agricultural Officer, clc., on which points have been allotted to specific activities. Periodically, two to four superior officers assign marks in cach category. Depending on the marks eained, an oſſicial may bc1ccommended for an advance increment, an appieciation letter, stoppage of increment, or even discharge. One BDO not in the sample distinct icmarked: "Since this plan has been in cffect, there is no more problem of shortfall." In another samplc distiict the job of 11c VLW has been divided into 150 components such as collecting a family indent foi fertilizcı, or laying out a demonstiation of green manuie. Each task is assigned a unit value, and so many units are considered a full day's work. With this checklist, the VLW and his superiors can know whether he is peiforming above or below average, and appropriate appreciation or discipline can be given. Initiative In a smoothly co-ordinated network it is not sufficient for cach person in the system simply to do what he is told. To avoid bicakdowns, he must use discretion in solving problcis; even more he must act to foresee problems and prevent thcm. Such action may be called initiative, and certain questions on this topic were the crore asked. In the second interview with the structured questionnaire, respondents rated the extent to which various functionaries "acted on their own to get things done, without being instructed by a higher authority.” Not more than one-third of all the officials and non-officials were rc ported to "frequently act on their own". Lowest scores, as one inight expect, were earned by VLWs, nearly half of whom were said “seldom or never" to take initiative. This widespiead lack of initiative was linked by some person to absence of recognition for accomplishments. A district official observed ·24 Donald C. Pelz Unwillingness to delegate authority was also blamed by another district official: “The system of the British--we have taken it over, but it needs radical change .... The officer in charge is held responsible for everything under him. His people are not empowered to take decisions. Out of 100 decisions, one or two are bound to be wrong; you can't avoid it. But because of these one or two, the person may be fired, so the people shirk from taking decisions Methods of Communication, in Relation to Co-ordination and Intiative Smooth co-ordination requires effective communication, and so specific questions about the latter were given. Respondents were asked what methods were typically used when communicating with several levels: district officials, block officials, village officials, and non-officials in block and villages We found, surprisingly, that when district officials were communicating among themselves they used writing nearly half the time, and personal talks only one fifth of the time. One would think that at district headquarters it would be easy to make personal contacts. This situation was considered unsatisfactory. District officials used writing and formal meetings twice as often as they thought desirable for communicating with each other, and they used informal meetings and personal talks only half as much as they preferred.8 Why? This further inquiry was not pursued, but it would make a valuable study Now the important question arose: which of these methodswriting, formal meetings, informal meetings, or personal contact, or which combination of these—were most effective in promoting coordination and stimulating initiative? One could simply tabulate which methods the respondents thought most effective (and in fact such data are given in the Pilot Survey report) But we also wanted to go beyond this. An answer was sought through the following statistical analysis. The nine blocks in the pilot study were first divided according to three major patterns or combinations of communication methods (based on average of methods used when communicating at several 8. The structured questionnaire distinguished between "formal" meetings (held regularly, with minutes kept), and "informal” meetings (not held regularly, no minutes kept).

·Co-ordination in Agricultural Development 25 levels). Blocks classified under Pattern I relicd on writing and formal meetings more than did the other blocks. Those undei Pattern II used writing and personal contacts, but hardly any formal meetings 9 The blocks under Pattern III relied heavily on personal contacts ard somewhat on foi mal meetings, but made less use of written methods than the other blocks. 10 Especially intercsting was the result for Pattern I which relied on writing and formal meetings (and less on personal contacts and informal meetings). This pattern was reasonably effective for co-ordination. In these blocks, respondents reported superior teamwork for two out of four programmes (minor irrigation and improved implements). Co-ordination was especially good for VLWs, farmers, and Pradhans of block Panchayat Samitis. To reach the lower administrative levels, and persons outside of the administiative machinery, it appeared that writing was helpful. Wiitten instructions can reach a host of scattered individuals in a short time. However, Pattern I was least effective for initiative. Out of ratings for six officials and non-officials, these blocks had the lowest initiative scores on five. The deficient ingredient in Pattern I was personal contact. Impersonal methods like writing and large meetings, it seems, can ensure that everyone knows what to do But impersonal methods are not likely to encourage individuals to act on their own judgment Good co-ordination and the best initiative occurred under Pattern III, which relied heavily on personal contacts and formal meetings, with little writing In these blocks respondents reported superior coordination for two programmes (fertilizer distribution and improved seed), and for four pairs of officials out of six. Higher initiative scores were given to officials at all levels and to Pradhans, The use of laige meetings under Pattern III apparently insured effective teamwork, while personal contacts encouraged self-reliance Perhaps the latter contacts assured the individual that he was not an anonymous cog in a machine. If he made mistakes, other people who knew him would understand the reason. If he succeeded, other pcoplc would appreciate it In such a climate initiative could flourish Few people reported informal meetings for the present analytis this method was combined with person 1 ·26 Donald C. Pelz The remaining pattern II combined writing and personal contacts; formal meetings were nearly absent. Herc co-ordination suſlesed. In these blocks, the smallest quantity of fertilizers was distributed in the previous year. For three out of four agricultural programmes, and for five pairs of officials out of six, members of these blocks said co-ordination was lower than elsewhere. We also found that moic respondents under this pattern could not estimate whether things were going smoothly or not Written communiques would not tell this, and the personal contacts of any one individual were perhaps too fcw to give an overall picture On the initiative scores, these blocks stood about in the middlc. In short, it seemed that large formal meetings and writing were efficient for letting people know what to do, but not for encouraging them to use their own judgment. For that, the warmth of personal interaction was required. Both techniques together gave the best results, May he Illustrations of Effective Communication The interviews contained different examples of communication methods, each with its proponents. Use of regular formal meetings, according to the above analysis, may improve co-ordination. This approach was recommended by a district official: “My suggestion is that at the village level, in addition to development personnel, the Lekhpal, school teacher, irrigation Patrol, or tubewell operator, stockmen and vaccinators should attend the Gram Panchayat. At the block level the Deputy Inspector of Schools, Assistant Engineer of the Irigation Department, Tehsildar, and veterinary doctor should attend nieetings. It is only recently government has issued instructions to this effect. I am hopeful that such joint meetings will improve co-ordination in development activities." In another district an Agricultural Extension Officer described meetings called for a particular purpose: "Before starting cultivation, we call cultivators and VLWs for demonstrations, how fertilizer is to be given, and in how much quantity. At that time all the cultivators come, and they hear calmly and do accordingly what we have said. In this programme all AEOs, and BDOs, come and help in the programme. Because of this co-operation we have been able to achieve our targets fully."

·Co-ordination in Agricultural Derclopment 27 An ingenious special meeting to shortent delays in fertilizer distria bution was described by a block official: “The BDO asked the difierent administrative people to come to one place, where a mecting of the local people of a few adjoining villages was arranged. The EO Agriculture, the VLW, and Lekhpal were there.... The BDO invited applications from the farmeis, asked the Lekhpal to ceitily the size of his holding, signed the order for the purchases of the fertilizer, and asked the shopkeeper (or Co-operative storckeeper) to give to thcrespective farmers the required amount of fertilizer." The previous analysis suggests that peisonal contacts may encourage initiative An illustration of such contacts was given by a district technical officer: “The method of inspection trips is the most cllcctive, as on inspection we can discuss very casily thc merits and demerits of certain proposals, and it is also casier to appicciale cach other's difficulties. The inspection brings us ncar to oul subordinates, while their visit to my headquarters gives me a ſecling of being big boss It provides the oppoitunity to understand the problems at first hand, and also invites discussion." >> In conclusion, the reader should be cautioned again these results were based on a sound but small sample from thcc districts and ning blocks only. More definite conclusions will be possiblc aſicr completion of the broader follow-up survey in the three Northern States, for which analysis of data is now under way.

·CO-ORDINATION OF DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES AT THE DISTRICT LEVEL WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE ROLE OF THE DISTRICT OFFICER IN BIHAR* Haridwar Rai teamwork and unity of efforts—“the careful oversight of relationships among operating units to ensure harmonious collaboration".2 Human relations involved in a complex organization do not spontaneously yield productive results Based on specialization of functions, they tend quite often to pull in different directions and to work at cross purposes, calling for a co-ordinating authority to generalize and reconcile several functional divisions and outlooks. Co-ordination is concerned to bring about functional unity, eliminate differences in approach and treatment, reduce administrative and social distance and prevent “hiatus in space and time".3 It is a corrective to excessive specialization and is a brake upon the propensity to "empire-building". It is a conscious, continuous process * The scope of the study is confined to discussing co-ordination of development programmes in those districts of Bihar where Panchayati Raj bodies have not started working So far, only three districts are covered by Panchayati Raj legislation which came into force on the 2nd October, 1964 Its implications are yet to be assessed. 1 Co-ordination is defined in two senses : (a) as the purpose of organization, and (b) as an aspect of management According to Mooney and Reiley, it "expresses the principles of organisation in toto". See James D. Mooney and Allan C Rerley. The Principles of Organization, New York, Harper, 1939, pp. 5-6 Urwick calls it "the purpose of organization". See L. Urwick, The Elements of Admimstrahon, London, Harper, 1943, p 44. In the second sense of the term, co-ordination refers to "a phase of management", an aspect of supervision. See John D Millet, Management in the Public Service, New York, McGraw-Hill, 1954, p 114. While agreeing that the task of co-ordination is universal, White holds that it is not the whole of organization.". . a prefectly co-ordinated organization" he writes, "lacking dynamic direction or harassed by disaffection in the rank and file would hardly be a perfect specimen". It emphasizes the leadership and human relations aspect in organization See L. D. White, Introduction to the Study of Public Administration, New York, Macmillan, 1949, p 210. Tead agrees with the definition in the second sense of the term when he says it is not "identical with administration itself” "Administration", observes he, "is an even more inclusive body of duties and responsibilities”. See o. Tead, The Art of Administration, New York, McGraw-Hill, 1951, p 103 2 John D. Millet, op. cit, p. 114. . See SB Bapat, "Thoughts on Co-ordination”, Indian Journal of Public Administration, 2:3, July-September, 1956, p 26 For a detailed study of problems of field coordination, see Henry Maddick, Democracy, Decentralization And Development, Bombay, Asia Publishing House, 1963, Chapter IV, and United Nations, Decentralization For National And Local Development, New York, UN. Technical Assistance Programme, 1962, Chapter IV.

·Co-ordination of Development Programmes 29 and is all-pervasive in the field of any collective undertaking Indeed, co-ordination is needed at all lovels and at all times.4 The word development has become a new purpose and end of governmental activities in the Indian countryside It refers to planned, purposive and conscious change from a traditional, static and irrational social order to a modern, dynamic and rational social order.5 It visualizes an oi ganic, gradual and consciously planned transition from one social system to another. The emphasis is upon formulating endoriented scheme of means centring around stimulated change resulting from collaboration between the efforts of the people and those of governmental agencies. In the Indian context, development refers to rural development The stress is on all sided, comprehensive, rural development, because the village life is indivisible and rural problems are interdependent, and no one aspect can be tackled in isolation from the rest 6 Development, in the Indian context, is, therefore, organic, integrative and multi-faceted, aiming at developing both the man and the community in all their aspects “The purpose of rural reconstruction”, to quote Hatch, "is to bring about a complete upward development towards a more abundant life for rural people, spiritually, mentally, physically, socially and economically"? Development, therefore, means a multiple approach The purpose is to effect integral advancement through community effort by inculcating a sense of co-operation and partnership among its members. This underlines the growth of representative institutions around which the enthusiasm of the people is sought to be aroused and sustained 4 4 "Co-ordination" has remarked Cameron, "just does not happen It has to be laid on, and should never be left to chance in the hope that those primarily concerned in a particular job will remember to bring in all other people involved . . Co-ordination is needed at all levels and is best thought of as a continuing process" See R M Findlay, The Art of Administration, London, Oliver and Boyd, 1952, p 51 5 Development, says Phillips Ruopp, “is the purposive alteration of conditions Development signifies change from something thought to be less desirable to something thought to be more desirable It further signifies the rational direction of human organisation and skill towards the attainment of the desirable" See Approaches to Community Development : A Symposium Introductory to Problems and Methods of Village IVelfare 11 Under-Developed Areas, The Hague, W Van Hoeve, 1953, p 16 The foremost pillar of policy in rural reconstruction work is its comprehensive natuie It is regarded as a "discovery”, and, according to Hatch, "bids fair to be one of the most valuable contributions to rural science in this generation" See D Spencer Hatch, "Extension Experience in India", Farmers of the World, eds, Edmund D Brunner, IT Sanders and Douglas Ensminger, New York, Columbia University Press, 1947, p 69 In this connection, the observations of an emivert Indian civilian describing the problems of rural advancement as having organic unity are pertinent See J N Gupta, The Foundations of National Progress, Calcutta, Elms Press, 1927, p 218. ? D. Spencer Hatch, op. cit, p. 69. 6 ·30 Haridwar Rai Development comprehends three essentials of self-help, interdependence and felt needs. These are to act as "an inherent philosophy of any government plan in its approach to the peoplc". This philosophy is to be supplemented by "principles of action" embraced in communication, co-ordination and sensitivity.8 This implies a new pattern of administration in its dealings with the people in the development fields as distinct from one based on law and order. Progiainmes represent il plan of action, a scheme with defined goals. Development programmes stand for certain welfare services and promotional activities being executed in community development and national extension service blocks. The unique feature of Indian development programmes is thc integration of community development and extension programmes under one comprehensive service called the national extension scrvice. This integration makes our programmes wider than agricultural cxtension programme. Indecd, they constitute the nucleus of national development programmes bascd on the principles, methods and techniques of cxtension. Community development's chief method is extension, and extension's chief purpose is community development development The programmes arc extension programmes denoting the educational process of extending knowledge to the village, but their breadth in India icaches the maximum spread covering all the aspects of community life. The following are the principal sectors of developrnent programmes:10 (1) Agriculture Production: (11) Minor Irrigation. (iii) Soil Conservation including Waste Land Reclamation (10) Consolidation of holdings. (v) Animal Husbandry (vi) Dairying and Milk supply. (vii) Fisheries (viii) Co-operation 8 Peter du Sautoy, "A Guide for the Administrator to the Principles of Community Development", Journal of Local Administiation Overseas, 2:4, p 209. * See Carl C Tayloi, A Cutical Analysis of India's Community Development Progranime, New Delhi, CP.A, Government of India, 1956, p. 13 To See a printed copy of the letter, dated May 12, 1965, of the Development Commissioner, Bihar, to all Secretaries to Government of Bihar, and an enclosed copy of a "Note Received from Planning Commission” in connection with preparation of District Plans, Block Plans and City Plans. See also Government of India, Community Development Programme in India, New Delhi, C.P.A., 1955. mom ·Co-ordination of Development Programmes 31 (ix) Activities envisaged under the Community Development Budget. (x) Major and medium irrigation and flood control (x1) Village and small industries and processing industries, (xii) Rural electrification, with particular reference to utilization of power for irrigation purposes and for small industries. (xin) Elementary and Social Education. (211) Rural Health, and medical services and family planning (x1) P W D. Roads (xri) District and Rural Roads including village approach roads. (xvii) Works Programme for fuller utilization of rural manpower (xviii) Social Welfare including welfare of the weaker section. . CO-ORDINATION OF SPECIAL DEPARTMENTS IN THE DISTRICT A FUNCTION OF SOCIAL CONVENTION In the early days of the British administration following the “Mutiny", the District Officer had himself to provide for such matters as jails, forests, medicine, sanitation, public works and cducation But this was a short-lived phase, as elaboration of public business, over a period of years, resulted in the division of the district administration into new departments, usually called "special" departments, under European officers of the district rank 11 This development introduced a dichotomy in the district administration, bifurcating the allegiance of the district heads of special departments They were responsible to the District Officer so far as their activities had bearing upon the general wall-being of the people and to their own departmental superiors so far as technical matters were concerned This tended to absorb part of the District Officer's duties for which he had been previously solely responsiblc The business of government in the district ceased being centred in one man 12 11 Newly created departments came to be called "special" departments and distinct from "regular" departments of traditional type, such as, those dealiog with law and order, judicial and ievenuc functions 12 The expansion of governmental activities and theii division into organized departments in the district resulted in the erosion of the authority of the District Officer Though the District Office was still consulted about the operations of those departments for they would certainly affect the important question of revenue and would impinge upon the lives of the people of the locality, the fact remained that separate organized departments had come into existence in the district and they were under the control of their departmental chieſs in technical matters See Edward Thompson and GT Garrat, Rise and Fulfilment of British Rule in India, Indian Reprint, Allahabad, Central Book Depot, 1954, p 427 See also Royal Commission Report upon Decentralization in India, Vol. 1, London, H.M.S.O., 1909, Chapters II and VI.

·32 Haridwar Rai This development in the district administration was based on the specialization of functions and gave rise to what came to be called "departmentalism". Lord Curzon regarded departmentalism as a disease"an intellectual hiatus—the complete absence of thought or apprehension of anything outside the purely departmental aspects of the matter under discussion" 13 This tended to undermine the District Officer's "unifying influence over the various branches of Government" and an official commission had to recommend in 1909 that the District Officer should be recognized as head of the district and that to this end he should be empowered to call for any information which he thought fit.14 At any rate, the District Officer continued to influence the policy and working of special departments "in varying degrees” and was “always there in the background to lend his support or, if need be, to mediate between a specialized service and the people”.15 Even this vague and tenuous superior authority of the District Officer was adversely affected with the introduction of Dyarchy under the Government of India Act, 1919, when Indian Ministers took charge of “nationbuilding” departments creating a dyarchical structure from the provincial headquarters down to the district level.16 The control of these Ministers over "about half the field of administration ... began to flow through a new system of channels direct from provincial headquarters "17 As a result, officers of special departments tended to take their difficulties to and seek guidance from their departmental superiors instead of referring them in the first instance to the District Officer. The introduction of Provincial Autonomy under the Government of India Act, 1935, appeared to strengthen the position of the District Officer in dealing with officers of nation-building departments. He became the agent in the district of a government which functioned more coherently and harmoniously than did its predecessor.18 “Contact between the District Officer and the local iepicsentatives of thc other 13 Lord Ronaldshay, The Life of Lord Curzon, Vol II, London, Ernest Benn, 1928, p 321. 14 Report of the Royal Conimission Upon Decennalisation in India, op. cit , para 536. 15 See Report on Indian Constitutional Reforms, Calcutta, Superintendent, Government Printing, 1918, p 80 16 “Nation-building” departments belonged to the "transferred” half of the functions of Provincial Government entrusted to the charge of Ministers under Dyarchy, and included education, public health, agriculture, local bodies, co-operation, etc After Independence, "nation-building" departments came to be called development departments 13 John Anderson, "Administration in India", Public Administration, 12:1, 1939, p 6. 18 The Indian National Congress had formed Government in the province of Bihar under the Government of India Act, 1935. The Government was a party government and functioned on the principles of collective responsibility. It was in charge practically of the whole administration of the province.

·Co-ordination of Development Programmes 33 departments became closer and consultation more frequent."19 This enabled him to function more efiectively in respect of the activities of other departments. However, his relation with them was ever one of informal co-operation in which each department, for the most part, acted separately but was expected to consider his views on matters of general policy substantially affecting the welfare of the district.20 Gradually, however, his primacy among district-level officials “tended to become more a social convention than an administrative reality”. 21 Besides, there was a defect in the structure of the district administration itself which led to diversification and diffusion of governmental activities at the district level. There was no liaison, worth the name, between the activities of any two departments in the district. They suffered from an absence of common outlook and common approach to the problems of the village people. Rural development work was thought largely in terms of particular items of improvement in village life and in agricultural practice. Field workers were let loose in large administrative areas without proper training, equipment and facilities. This involved considerable duplication of staff making for constant conflict in jurisdiction and also in the framing and execution of policies. The result was large wastage of energy, loss of time and an all-round excess of expenditure on travelling allowances and contingencies.22 The District Officer had little power to set things right and to make agencies of rural development work in a co-ordinated manner. In the last days of the British rule, the tendency all over India was “to weaken his power and influence as the “head" of the district and as the one co-ordinating authority over all the other district officers each engaged in the particular work of his department" 23 The following description of the role of the District Officer vis-avis district heads of development departments in Bengal, on the eve of Independence, is equally true of Bihar: 19 John Anderson, op. cit, p.6. 20 See an unpublished PhD thesis of Haridwar Rai, The District Officer in Bihar, Patna, Patna University, 1964, p 221. 21 P E.O. Government of India, Evaluation Report on First Year's Working of Community Projects, Delhi, Planning Commission, 1954, p 12. 23 "For many years there have been well-organized development departments Agriculture, Animal Husbandry, co-operation-1n the larger States These, however, work independently following their own programmes and without a sense of common objective Each department approaches the villager through its own hierarchy. Nor are the activities of these departments linked up with those of revenue officers . See Government of India, Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Report of the Grow More Food Enqui y Committee, Delhi, Manager of Publications, 1952, p 53, see also Government of Bihar, Report of the Economy Committee, Patna, Superintendent, Government Printing, 1952, p 35 23 M. Venkatarangaiya, "The Pattern of Public Administration in the Five Year Plan", The Indian Journal of Political Science, 14:3, p. 225.

·34 Haridwar Rai “The lot of the District Officer, like that of the comic opera policeman, is not a happy onc. He is cxpccted to see that nothing goes wrong in his District, but he has little power outside the Magistratc and Collector field to see that things go right . . .He can cajolc and persuade: he cannot compc) He is regarded as responsible for stimulating the activities of the officers of other departments, but he has no real control over them, and, although they are under an obligation to keep him informed of their activities, the cxtcrit to which this obligation is discharged depends in most cascs on thc personal factor.' 9924 EVOLUTION OF A CO-ORDINATIVE CONCEPT Before launching upon a nation-wide scheme of rural development after the attainment of Independence, the search for a new concept of rural reconstruction and a new pattern of administration was started Some schemes in the nature of cxperiments, such as, the Sarvodaya Scheme in Bombay, the Fırka Development Scheme in Madras and the Etawah Development Scheme in U.P. were inaugurated which made Government and people familiar with “thic idea of community approach” " 25 They further demonstrated how success in the field of rural development could be achicved by balanced and well-designed progiammes through a co-ordinated administration." Thoy pointed to the following conclusions. “One was that the confusing multiplicity of welfare sei vices, offered by the field agents of a number of separate government departnients, often bewildered the village people. The other was that the extensive type of welfare work attempted by government departments touched only the surface of village problems; it was neither sufficiently sustained nor penetrating enough to leave any permanent impression on the lives of the people."? These projects served as testing grounds for methods in rural development and emphasized the fact that the approach to the villager 24 Government of Bengal, Report of the Bengal Administration Enquny Committee, 1944-45, Calcutta, Alipore, Superintendent, Government Printing, Bengal Government Press, 1945, para 55 25 United Nations, Report of the Mission on Commumty Oigamization and Development 111 South and Southeast Asia, New York, 1953, p 8. 26 For a study of the various experiments in rural development in India, see Government of India, Evolution of Community Development Programme in India, Delhi, Ministry of Community Development and Panchayati Raj, Manager of Publications, 1963. 27 S C Dube, India's Changing Villages, London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1958, pp 11.12 ·Co-ordination of Development Programmes 35 should be in terms of his own experience and problems, conceived on the pattern of simplicity, shorn of elaborate techniques and equipment until he was ready for them. In the light of these conclusions, rural development programmes, called community development and national extension scrvice programmes, weic formulated and put into effect in selected areas in 1952-53. This called for the establishment of a multi-purpose administrative agency, implying the working together of a large number of functional specialists, generally known as subjectmatter specialists, in one arca in the pursuit of a common plan of development.28 This, in turn, emphasized a mechanism for co-ordination both in preparation of plans and their exccution. In devising such an administiative machinery or cxtension organization, three principles were kept in view (a) that there should be the closest cooperation in the activities of all departments, at all levels, concerned with rural development; (b) that at every stage, the official agencies should woik in close collaboration with the best non-official leadership; and (c) that at the point of contact with the villager, there should be a trained multipurpose village worker who would act as the common agent of all the development departments and would be the friend and guide of the village people. In the new pattern of administration, the District Officer occupies a pivotal position It is worthwhile mentioning, however, that there intervencd a short, though uneasy, period of gestation before he could assume the supreme co-ordinating role in the development administration in his area.29 He had little or no voice in the administration of the first series of community projects, for they were started as mere experiments in the field of rural development and were not organically linked up with the existing administrative machinery except that at the top level, namely, the Development Commissioner It was realized before long that unless the District Officer was invested with sufficient powers of financial and administrative sanction and was placed in the centre of rural development work, development programmes would not attain momentum with the people.30 It was also recognized that without his mediacy the problem of co-ordination at the district level 28 In this paper such terms as technical officers, development officers, functional specialists and subject matter specialists have been used inter-changeably Officers of special departments in the district were generally called technical officers They are still called technical officers and their departments are called technical departments In 1955, the Government of Bihar redesignated district technical officers as development officers and technical departments as development departments in the context of the development administration, particularly in development blocks, they are called subject-matter specialists. 29 See Haridwar Rai, "The Changing Role of the District Officer (1860-1960)", Indian Jou nal of Public Administration, 9: 2, July-September, 1963, pp 238-257 30 See U. L. Goswami, "The Structure of Development Administration", Indian Jou nal of Public Adminstration, 1:2, April-June, 1955, pp. 107-111.

·36 Hariduvar Rai would not be solved. All this called for a proper institutionalization of his relationships with the functional specialists of the district rank rather than leave them to be governed by his vague superior authority, his traditional influence and prestige cmanating, in the main, from his membership of the All-India service and his power of recording their annual confidential rolls. To clarify and consolidate his responsibility as well as that of other officers involved in the development administration, the State Government put into effect, in 1954, a scheme called the National Extension Service Organization, spelling out the broad framework of the development administrative machinery.31 Co-ordinating functions similar to those of the District Officer were conferred upon Sub-divisional Officers and Block Development Officers at the Sub-divisional and block: levels respectively, and the subject matter specialists at those levels were brought under their administrative control and supervision. This is how the national extension agency was juxtaposed with the general administrative hierarchy, the two being held together by a vertical chain of co-ordinating authorities. In the new system of administration, cach part of development programmes and the subject-matter specialists concerned with it are controlled by the department of Government which deals generally with that subject. For example, the Department of Agriculture exercises technical control over the programme of agricultural extension, and over the staff employed for the purpose. The departments concerned take initiative in and assume responsibility for different kinds of work in development blocks and are responsible for ensuring adequate technical supervision over the execution of their respective programmes. They also make arrangements for regular inspection. But the alchemy of co-ordination welds them together and enthuses the existing instrumentalities with a new purpose. Indeed, it is in response to the need for co-ordination that responsibility for execution in the district is vested in one generalist administrator and not in a multiplicity of functional specialists. This has served to draw the District Officer into the main stream of development work and to make him directly responsible for its proper co-ordination and overall success. The role of the District Officer in Bihar is amply defined and clarified so that there is no ambiguity or vagueness about it. He is squarely accountable for the failure or success of development 31 For the Full Scheme, see Government of Bihar, Compendium of Important Letters and Circulars on National Extension Service and Community Development, Vol. I, Patna, Superintendent, Secretariat Press, 1958, pp. 1-2.

·Co-ordmation of Development Progi amnnies 37 programmes. He is, however, not to be burdened with routine matters, establishment dutics and technical details. He is only responsible for ensuring:32 "(a) that the development and welfare schemes are such as would meet the needs of the people; (6) that the time-tables for various schemes are adhered to, and targets reached in time; (c) that there is no corruption; (d) that there is proper co-ordination, and difficulties in the execution of schemes are removed; and (e) that wherever necessary, people's co-operation is secured." MECHANISM OF CO-ORDINATION There are several formal and informal devices at the disposal of the District Officer to help him discharge his co-ordinating responsibilities. Of these, the structure of organization, the system of administrative supervision, the method of communication, the power of financial sanction, the role of official and non-official committees and the importance of informal consultation need special mention. A. Structural An angement The District Officer is dothed with the power to exercise supervision and control over the activities of various development officers of district rank so as to effect co-ordination horizontally and produce some kind of a functional unity.33 The pattern of his control over these officers and their activities conforms to the pattern of his control over the police, namely, while the organizational and professional or technical control over them is that of the departmental superiors, the functional or administrative control in non-technical matters is exercised, within certain limits, by the District Officer. The development 32 Government of Bihar, Compendium of Important Letters and Cliculars on National Extension Service and Community Development, op. cit , PP 6-10. 33 "Development Officers" are officers of district rank serving in a district “under the control of Government" 10 any of the following departments and having to deal with development and welfare schemes in the district: Education, Electricity, Irrigation, Housing, Medical and Health, Agriculture and Animal Husbandry, Gram Panchayat, Local Self- Government, Public Health Engineering, Public Works including Buildings and Roads, Social Welfare, Co-operation, Revenue, Forests, Industries, Statistics, Public Relations, Mines, Relief, Social Education, Fisheries, Land Acquisition and National Savings. The list has grown more than twice in size of what it was in 1955. This is an important index of the expanding scope of the district administration.

·38 Haridwar Rai officers of district rank have instructions to be in close touch with the District Officer and to seck his guidance and help in the discharge of their dutics The District Officer, in turn, is advised to take kcen interest in their work and help solve their difficulties in cvery way. His guidance and supervision is, nevertheless, confined to the administrative field, and in technical matters, the views of technical officers prevail and technical supervision comes from their own technical superiors This system of control is an attempt 10, combine the horizontal responsibilities of the generalist administrator with the vertical responsibilities of the functional spccialists. The system involves dual control and dual allegiance The functional specialists have to play an active role in establishing healthy traditions of mutual understanding and respect for one another's points of vicw. It is their duty to inculcate in their subordinates a right attitude towards the District Officer The following excerpt from a circular of Government containing its instruction on the subject is woith quoting: “The anxiety for safeguarding departmental rights, privileges or prestige should give place to anxiety for furthering the objects of Government as a whole and for speedy progress of work, sceking from and offering to officers of other departments, all the cooperation needed for fulfilling the object "34 Under this system of control and supervision, it is not always easy to distinguish between technicalmatters and administrative matters, though owing to the long established traditions in the district administration, there has emerged an area of agreement as to the nature of each If, for example, a culvert is being constructed, the design and estimates of cost as well*as the location are technical decisions, but it is an administrative judgment to take into account public reactions about the inconvenience of the proposed location and to approve a different though practicable site even at a slightly increased cost Likewise, the quality of seeds or their_suitability are technical questions but the conditions and methods of their distribution and the agencies to be employed for it call for administrative decisions. The basic structural arrangement is such as to make for the superiority of administrative decisions over technical decisions, and, consequently, of the generalist administrator at a specific level over the technical officers at that level Co-ordination is thus a function of superior administrative decision 21 See Government of Bihar, Compendum of Important Ciculas and Letters on NES and Community Development, Vol I, op cit., p 10.

·Co-ordination of Development Programmes 39 B. Administrative Supervisioni Over The District Officer exercises administrative supervision development officers as a technique for co-ordinating their activities, This may take many forms. He can, for example, move the head of department for the transfer of an officer of that department either within the district or outside it, and if the head does not wisli to accept the recommendation of the District Officer, he states his reason and obtains orders of Government. Further, the District Officer can ask a development_officer.to transfer within the district a subordinate officer the latter has power 10 tiansfer. But before the issue of such an order, the District Officer ordinarily consults the development officer concerned. Again, it is within his competence to advise against the transfer of an employee of a particular development department whose transfer may hamper the proper execution of development programmes. This makes his office administratively potent and socially prestigeous. The District Officer has been further empowered to call for periodical reports from development officers, make his comments on them and issue such instructions as he may consider necessary. But he has to confine his comments to administrative maticis, sending copies of his instiuctions to the divisional officer of the department or head of department concerned 35 If the divisional officer or hoad of department has anything to say in regard to the instructions, he writes to the District Officer, and then the matter is settled either by mutual consultation or by referring it to Government for orders It is generally found that in such cases the views and observations of the Divisional Commissioner and the Distiict Officer are invariably accepted by Göyernment. Besides, the District Officer is invested with power to call for reports, in the nature of explanations, from development officers in respect of any administrative matter If he wants any further action to be taken in the matter, he may report to heads of departments concerned to which the latter have to give the fullest consideration. A potent method of administrative control is the system of writing annual confidential rolls. The District Officer records his confidential remarks annually on the work and conduct of development officers and forwards them to divisional heads of departments concerned latest by the 1st of May The divisional beads enter their remarks and 35 Important development departments have their representatives posted at the divisional level. The Divisional Commissioner holds periodical meetings of these officers to co-ordinate their activities There is a Regional Development Office to assist the Divisional Commissioner in his developnient work ·40 Hai iduvar Rai forward them to the Divisional Commissioner along with the remarks of the District Officer. The Divisional Commissioner forwards them with his own remarks to heads of departments concerned latest by the 31st of May, and, thereafter, they are passed on to administrative departments by the 30th of June. In case of difference of opinion between the Divisional Commissioner and any head of department, Government in the department concerned decides as to whose opinion should be accepted. Here again the views of the District Officer and the Divisional Commissioner are generally accepted. The system of confidential writing underlines the superiority of the officers of the general administrative hierarchy at all levels—state, division, district and down below-over those of technical departments at corresponding levels. All this only reinforces the classical-generalist tradition of the Indian administration. C. Reports and Inspections There are two important supervisory tools employed by the District Officer to effect co-ordination of development activities: (a) inspection of results and (b) progress reports and returns. The latter as a device of “remote control" places reliance on statistical and narrative accounts submitted by field officials to headquarters. Reporting as a supervisory technique is usually supplemented by some inspection practice. The written report can never adequately replace the usefulness of personal, first hand, acquaintance with field operations. Thus, both report and inspection are complementary practices of supervising and controlling field operations. The District Officer is assisted in the inspection of development blocks by the District Development Officer,36 Apart from casual visits of superior officers, namely, the District Officer, the District Development Officer and the headquarters and district heads of technical departments, State Government has prescribed the following minimum standards of detailed inspection of development blocks by various inspecting officers: (a) District Officer or District Development Officer Every block in the district must be inspected at least once in a year. (6) Sub-divisional Officer Every block in the sub-division once in a year. 36 The District Development Officer is generally a senior Deputy Collector of the rank of Additional District Magistrate posted at the district hcadquarters to assist the District Officer in development work, ·Co-oi dination of Development Programmes 41 (c) Block Development Officer Detailed inspection of his office once every six months and field inspection and inspection of the records, etc., of at least two Village Level Workers every month. Besides, every department of Government concerned with development programmes has a definite responsibility in respect of the initiation of its programme and its execution in a development block through its subject-matter specialist at the block level. The efficacy of a programme can best be ensured by frequent inspection of blocks by superior technical officers of the department concerned. Furthermore, Block Development Officers and subject matter specialists in blocks have to spend 80 nights in a year outside the block headquarters and tour 180 days in a year. Likewise, the minimum number of days to be spent by Development Officers is prescribed. For example, the District Agriculture Officer has to spend 150 days and 90 nights on inspection tours. Development officers and Sub-divisional Officers submit their inspection reports to the District Officer, who with his comments, sends them on to the Divisional Commissioner for final transmission to the Development Commissioner This enables the District Officer to oversee the activities of all development departments in the district, bring about some kind of functional adjustment and have a broad picture of the operation of the extension organization. The other important tool of supervision, namely, the system of periodical progress reports and returns, is as old as the system of ficid administration. These reports may be narrative or statistical; they may deal with the broad scope of all major activities, or they may be confined to a few essentials. They are the basis of the age-old system of administrative intelligence which the development block as an adininistrative and functional unit maintained both for its own use and also for the use of the higher levels of administration. Indeed, it is on the validity and accuracy of the information collected and collated at this level that the ultimate usefulncss of all subsequent reports and analysis for social and economic planning depends. Until recently, the Block Development Officer submitted two progress reports, one monthly and the other quarterly. The monthly progress report was a quantitative statement, though it was accompanied by a factual review dealing with the qualitative aspects of the programme operation, their effect upon the people and communities concerned and vice versa. This report was submitted by the Block Development Officer to the District Officer through the Sub-divisional ·42 Haridwar Rai Officer. The District Officer would forward it to the Divisional Commissioner with his comments along with his usual fortnightly confidential reports They were analyzed and examined in the office of the Divisional Commissioner and necessary remarks and instructions issued to the officers concerned. The submission of monthly rcports has been discontinucd, though the Block Development Officer is still required to keep a record of monthly progress of development programmes for the convenience of inspecting officers. The practice of submitting quarterly progress reports is being retained as an essential device of supervision. The narrative part of quarterly progress reports contains information on the following points: (i) General assessment of work in development blocks with particular icference to targets of agricultural production and people's participation. (ii) Administrative difficulties in development programmes, extent of co-ordination and interest taken by various departments. (iii) A short note stating whether the inspections by officers of all levels are adequate for the purpose of programmes. (iv) Interest taken by Block Development Committee, and by officials and non-officials. (v) Overall achievements in various fields of development programmes, such as agriculture, animal husbandry, co-operation, education, cottage industries, irrigation, small savings, etc. D Communication The District Officer is the channel of communication as regards development programmes, as he is and has been in respect of other items of the district administration Copies of all correspondence, except those which deal with purely technical or unimportant matters, between the heads of departments and their field officers in the district are sent to the District Officer The District Officer, in turn, sends to the heads of departments concerned copies of all the important instructions issued by him to Development Officers. Moreover, in all matters of factual enquiry such as reminders about periodic reports or returns, or specific factual reports relating to a particular area, etc , ·Co-o1 dination of Development Programmes 43 the State Government writes to thc District Officer and sends copies of records to the Sub-divisional Officer and the Block, Development Officer concerned, asking the latter to send a copy of the report direct to the State headquarters. It is further found that in all matters, important or unimportant, which involve correspondence with development officers or sub-divisional technical officers, the Block Developmont Officer wiites to the District Officer or the Sub-divisional Officer, as the case may be, who takes up the matter with his counterparts at the district or sub-divisional level and sends copics of their letters to the technical officers concerned It has been further laid down by the State Government that a development officer, while sending his tour programme for approval to the head of department or divisional officer, as the case may be, will forward a copy so as to reach the District Officer at least 10 days in advance The Distiicl Oſſicci is competent to suggest changes in the tour programme or to instiuct the Development Officer concerned to perform a particular tour for a particular purpose Such instructions as he may issue regarding changes in the tour programme are duly incorporated by the Development Officer and reported to his head of department or his Divisional Officer concerned Ifa Development Officer has to proceed on tour at short notice in connection with urgent work he has to report his intention to the District Officer who, for reasons to be recorded, may requue him to remain at headquarters This enables him to be in touch with and to co-ordinate the tour programmes of Development Officers Furthermorc, a Development Officer's application for casual leave is forwarded through the District Officer to the competent authority to grant it. The concurrence of the District Officer is necessary before leave is granted Again, after such leave is granted, the officer concerned has to obtain the permission of the District Officer to leave the headquarters Besides, his application for regular leave is also forwarded through the District Officer, who records his views for the information of the authority competent to sanction it. This enables the District Officer to control the movement of Development Officers and to secure the timely and speedy execution of development programmes E. Financial Sanction and Control The District Officer is granted the powers of head of department in financial matters for the purposes of development blocks and community projects in the district The incurring of expenditure according ·44 Haridwar Rai to powers dclcgated is subject to budget provision being availablc for the purpose. The following are some such powers: S.No. Powers Extcnt of Powers 1. To make appointment to salaried posts. Full powers in respect of posts carrying a pay scale, the minimum of which docs not cxcccd Rs. 100 per month subject to the usual course of recruitment as prescribed by the State Government. 2. To accept resignation of nongazetted Government servants Full powers in respect of Governmcnt scrvants holding posts, appointment to which was made by him. 3. Withholding increments in respect of Government servants. --Dome 4. To allow mileage allowance to be calculated on the route actually used other than the shortcst or cheapest route. Under Rulc 43 of the Bihar T.A. Rules, in respect of all staff working in community projects and development blocks. 5. Halting allowance of more than 10 nights (under Rulc 67 of the Bihar T. A. Rulcs). For all staff working in community projects and development blocks in excess of 10 nights up to a limit of 30 nights, 6. To act as Controlling Officer under Rule 157 of the Bihar T. A. Rules. In respect of Project Executive Officer and Block Development Officer. 7. To sanction special contingency listed in paragraph 190 of the Treasury Manual. Up to Rs. 1,000 for a single item of non-recurring nature subject to budget provision. 8. To sanction expenditure on advertisement charges. Full powers subject to budget provision.

·Co-ordination of Development Programmes 45 S No Powers Extent of Powers 9. To sanction expenditure on local purchase of stationery. Subject to limits in Rule 14 of the Bihar Stationery Manual 10. To sanction expenditure on repairs to motor vehicles. Full powers subject to the condition that the vehicle is inspected in case of major repairs, and this will not be necessary in minor iepairs. 11. Repairs to furniture Full powers subject to budget provision. 12. To sanction and purchase tents and camp equipages. Full powers subject to budget provision. 13. Grants-in-aid. Full powers within the sanctioned scheme and programme subject to budget provision. 14. Hiring of houses for purposes other than residential accommodation, Up to Rs 250 per month subject to the certificate of fairness of rent from the appropriate authority 15. Tools, plant and equipment Full poweis within the sanctioned scheme and programme subject to budget provision. The following powers of administrative approval and financial sanction for expenditure on original works in development blocks and community projects have been delegated to the District Officer. S.No. Nature of Delegation Extent of Power 1. All original works including buildings, residential and nonresidential. Rs 20,000 subject to budget provision. 2. Water, sanitary, electrical installations. Rs 1,000 subject to budget provision. 1 ·46 Haridwar Rai 3. Acceptance of tenders for works Rs. 100,000 provided the lowest tender is accepted and is not in excess of 5 per cent of the amount of financial sanction. Full powers. 4. Expenditure on miscellaneous items. Full powers. 5. Stock limit-To sanction the stock limit for each development block area, 6 Write off of . (a) loss due to depreciation, (b) loss in manufacture, (c) loss from any other causes, not due to theft, fraud or negligence. Rs. 1,000 in each case provided the loss does not disclose any defect in rule nor negligence on the part of any officer. These delegations have resulted in accelerating the process of deconcentration and making the District Officer the prima donna of the team of officials involved in the development administration. It has relieved the State Government and the Development Commissioner of much detail, which, at any rate, cannot possibly be dealt with there without creating an inconceivable congestion, and has consequently made the District Officer a sort of buffer between policies of higher authorities and local needs. Similar, though more limited, powers have been delegated to Block Development Officers, Project Executive Officers and Sub-divisional Officers so that they can take action, like the District Officer, in their own areas, with a degree of discretion, and are not required to write to their administrative superiors seeking their sanction for taking administrative decisions in the context of local situations. They have become more effective co-ordinators in their respective areas than they would otherwise be in the absence of such delegations F. Institutional Mechanisi In addition to the above-mentioned techniques of co-ordination, the District Officer has been provided with and employs such wellknown institutional devices as committees and conferences which are intended to generate understanding and willing agreement among ·Co-ordination of Development Programmes 47 members of the district extension team and to emphasize unified efforts to have the aims of development programmes well carried out. Here the focus is upon the smooth working of the organization as a whole, beyond that of each of its functional parts, and upon the fostering of personal outlooks and people's co-operation which facilitate unified result, (1) District Consultative Committee This Committee began functioning from the beginning of 1964 It has a composite membership of non-officials and officials, and meets under the chairmanship of the District Officer The non-official members of the Committee are: (a) Members of Parliament representing the district, and (6) Members of Legislative Assembly representing the district including Ministers and members of Legislative Council belonging to the district including Ministers The official members of the Committee are: (a) District heads of technical departments, (6) Sub-divisional Officers, (c) Block Development Officers, when desired by the District Officer, (d) Project Executive Officers, and (e) Assistant Registrars of Co-operative Societies. The District Consultative Committee, as its name suggests, is a purely advisory body, “its functions, in very broad terms, bring to help in the better administration of the district” 37 It meets once in three months, though it may meet earlier to discuss a special problem facing the district 38 It meets on the day preceding the date fixed for the meetings of the District Development Committee and the District Co-ordination Committee With a view to bringing about uniformity 37 The composition, functions, and periodicity of the meetings of the District Consultative Committee are determined by Chief Secretary's letters no 10610, dated the 17th of December, 1963, no CS/M 3-1037/64-4144, dated the 7th May, 1964, and the letter of the Deputy Secretary to Government of Bihar, 110 CS/C2-1064/64-7068, dated the 6th August, 1964 38 The "special" meeting of the Patna District Consultative Committee was held on the 26th of August 1964,-only one and a half months after its regular meeting--to discuss the rise in prices of foodgrains and the enforcement of government orders, ·48 Haridwar Rai in the periodicity of meetings of these Committees and to effecting economy, the State Government decided to hold their meetings on two or three successive days, beginning with the District Consultative Committee. An hour or so in the Consultative Committee meeting is set aside for questions and answers, as is the practice in the legislature. Non-official members give notice of questions to the District Officer or the District Development Officer, at least fifteen days in advance of the meeting, relating to all aspects of the District administration, namely, law and order, development, revenue, etc., though questions on development activities are by far the largest. Replies to these questions are prepared by District Development Officers concerned and forwarded to the office of the District Development Officer so as to reach the District Officer a couple of days before the meeting of the Consultative Committee. These replies are sent to non-official members "well in advance” of the meeting. The District Officer has to study carefully various replies and statements of progress of the preceding quarter relating to activities of all departments He is not a mere chairman. He is the "Government”, speaks on behalf of all the departments and is prepared to bear the brunt of non-official criticism. Indeed, an energetic, well-informed and dominating District Officer may himself give maximum number of replies on behalf of the district administration, seeking only occasional help of district technical officers. He has to direct deliberations into constructive channels and keep the official clement in a state of preparedness. Besides, he has to maintain an atmosphere of mutual trust and confidence by trying to satisfy the “critical curiosities” of th official element and, on the conclusion of the meeting, he may issue a press note giving an account of the proceedings in a manner that will interest the public, or, as an alternative, he may call a Press Conference for the purpose. The District Officer is the principal actor on the stage of the Consultative Committee. His presence as Chairman and his contribution to the deliberations may well serve to bring under a single focus the activities of various departments in the district. The proceedings of the Committee help him to gauge the reactions of the people's representatives to the activities of departments and to pull them up or to pat them, as occasion demands, and, thus, to keep them on the right track. non- (2) District Development Committee The District Development Committee, unlike the District Consultative Committee, is not an omnibus committee, its sole concern ·Co-ordination of Developnient Programmes 49 being the planning and execution of development programmes in the district. The District Officer is the Chairman of this Committee.99 It consists of members of Parliament and State Legislature representing the district, some non-officials belonging to local bodies, co-operative societics and Bharat Sewak Samaj, a few nominated non-official members, district heads of technical departments, Sub-divisional Oflìcers and a couple of nominated officials. The District Development Officer is its Secretary. It meets once in three months on the day following that on which the meeting of the District Consultative Committee is held. The functions of the District Development Committee are confined to advising on all matters relating to development, the Five Year Plan and land reforms referred to it by the District Officer. It may also be called upon to give advice on development projects affecting two or more blocks or two or more sub-divisions. Besides, it holds discussions and formulates its opinion on development plans submitted by various Block Development Committees in the district and acts as a corrective to regional imbalances and disparities. Its main concern is the integrated and balanced development of the district as a whole. And, it is noticed that over a period of years, this Committee has become an essential part of the apparatus of the development administration in the district. Indeed, the representative character and the impressive composition of the Committee are such as to deter a District Officer fiom treating lightly its recommendations and advice. Its two broad objectives are: (a) to secure active co-operation of the technical officials at the district or lower levels; and (b) to enable non-officials to participate actively in planning and implementation of development programmes. These would suggest that the problem of this Committee forms part of two larger problems of inter-departmental co-ordination on the one hand and the role of the popular element on the other in the execution of development programmes The District Officer occupies the most crucial place in the scheme of the Committee in that he can steer clear its deliberations of partisan considerations and can assist it to come to agreed decisions and to avoid divisions. But when this Cominıttee is replaced by the Zilla Parishad, a statutory body, at the district level, in near future, the direct co-ordinating role of the District Officer in regard to planning of development programmes will considerably decline and will be substituted by his indirect and informal role of persuasion, advice and friendly remonstrance with the Zilla Parishad. 39 For the composition and functions of the District Development Committee, sec Government Resolution, dated the 24th June, 1959, No. EYPI-18/59-5645/D.C.

·50 Haridwar Rai (3) District Co-ordination Committee Another important institutional means of co-ordination of dciclopment activities at the district level is the District Co-ordination Conmittee, an entirely official body, which meets once in three months under the chairmanship of the District Officer. It is attended by the district heads of technical departments, Sub-divisional Officers and Block Development Officers. The Committee symbolizes the new concept of co-operations and democratic functioning of the administrative machine, and marks a break with the old authoritarian, superior subordinate relationships under which administrative supcriors vicwed their role largely as that of "inspecting officers". 40 The old system was based on the hierarchy of authority rather than one of responsibility, with little or no flow of common knowledge and common outlook from the bottom upwards. Even the schemes of rural development were run within the framework of a directive administration". 41 The District Co-ordination Committee is concerned with fixation of targets in the field of development programmes, revicw of the progress made in thcir exccution, and resolution of inter-departmental bottlenecks. It devises ways and means to improve administrative efficiency and morale of the extension personnel, 10 promote teamwork and to stimulate public co-operation. “In these meetings" says a Government Circular, "the progress of work should be carefully scrutinized and causes of short-falls in targets and of difficultics encountered should be gone into”.42 The following agenda of a meeting of the District Co-ordination Committee will ir dicate its broad functions:43 (i) To confirm proceedings of the last meeting. (ii) Review of the action taken by all concerned on the proceedings of the last meeting. (iii) Review of the progress and of inter-departmental problems of the various departments (to be stated by district heads of technical departments). (iv) Outstanding problems of blocks in relation to Government departments, and vice versa. (v) Any other matter. 40 SC Dube, op cit., p. 90 41 T.A Koshy, "A New Approach to Project Administration", Kurukshetra, 3:1, 1954, p 35. 12 Government of Bihar, Compendum of Important Coculars and Letters on NES. and Community Development, op cit., p. 42 45 The Agenda of the Patna District Co-ordination Committee, dated the 28th of November, 1965.

·Co-ordination of Development Programmes 51 G. His Present Role These are all formal devices of co-ordination or is it control? of development programmes at the district level. They underline the dual iole of the District Officer--a rather incompatible combination-- his role as leader of the extension team in the district and also his role as boss of all employees of the State Government working in the district, except members of the judiciary. To this may be added his traditional influence and prestige and the informal consultations and meetings he holds with Officers of district rank to talk a matter over. Some District Officers prepare rosters of inspections and get them approved by District Development Committees, and thus both nonofficials and officials have an idea of the tour programme of district technical officers. Besides, there are instances of a District Officer fixing a specific day in a week on which he may ask district technical officers to stay at the headquarters and discuss their problems with him. His role is, therefore, no longer a vague one of captain of the team of extension officers. His extension duties are deliberately and completely dovetailed into his original Collector-Magistrate role and his role as the Chief Executive Officer in the district. His responsibilities are distinctly fixed and fully clarified and his account ability for achieving targets of development programmes is established beyond a shadow of doubt. The following remark of the Chief Minister of Bihar made in December, 1964 may be quoted here to explatin the point: "The District Officer is not merely the chief magistrate and the principal revenue functionary of the district, but he is in overall charge of all that is being done by the Government in his area. He must, therefore, engage himself in supervising all activities of the Government and naturally should receive due credit for the success of all policies and programmes and should share the blame for any failing or lapse in any field of governmental activity or responsibility.”:41 A foreign observer spoke in 1956 of the arrangement, namely, assignment of major co-ordinative role to the District Officer in the context of development programmes, in the following words: "The merit of this decision is that co-ordination of the contributions and personnel of the various development departments of 44 This remark of Shri K B Sahay, the Chief Minister of Bihar, is gleaned from the Summary Proceedings of the Conference of Divisional Commissioners and District Officers held in the Secretariat Conference Room, Patna, on the 7th December, 1964.

·52 Ha idrar Rai the State is made much more piobable than is now sometimes the case. Furthermore, it captures and utilises the high talents of District Collectors in the development programmic." Under the arrangement, the District Officer iepresents the national extension agency and serves as symbol of combined cfforts of various development departments. It is his duty to make the common purpose not just the sum total of individual departments but sather the guiding light of every constituent of thic whole host of development oflicers at the district level. Though not a specialist in the usual sense of the term, he is intended to be a specialist in the purpose of the dei clopment administration, communicating it to all specialized parts and disciplines. He has to be an area specialist and also a specialist in human relations and in "generalization“. He must be a specialist in the art of administration, a specialist in terms of his knowledge and awareness of the total national extension organization and the total area and people it seives. This calls for a developed, co-ordinative and creative faculty, a balanced mind-a mind that not only can comprehend the working rhythm of vast and intricatc machinery but also can recognise the axiomatic subservicnce or its output 10 the public interest."46 CRITIQUE OF CO-ORDINATION The pattern of co-ordination at the district level is based on the system of dual control and supervision. It involves collaboration of the horizontal responsibilities of the area specialist with the vertical responsibilities of the functional specialists This pattern of coordination is described as an Indian invention for area co-ordination, and, as has been aptly said, it fits well into "the Indian method of public administration and co-ordination of governmental authorities”.47 Under the system, the District Officer exercises full administrative supervision over the activities of district technical officers, but teclinical and professional control and organizational supervision is the function of heads of technical departments at the State headquarters. There 45 Carl C Taylor, op cit, p 25. 46 F M Marx, The Administrative State, Chicago, the University of Chicago Press, 1957, P 173. 47 M L. Wilson, Commumty Development Programme in India Report of a Survey', New Delhi, CPA, Government of India, Manager of Publications, 1956, p. 9.

·Co-ordmation of Development Programmes 53 are two kinds of relationships; involving two types of impulsc--one general in scope and integrative in its influence, the other particularistic in scope and divisive in its inſluence. The one is concerned with supervision of the end product of the organization, the other is dcsigned to improve the methods and tools by which work is done. The purpose is to provide a corrective to excessive specialization and division of labour and to secure a working combination of administrative and technical supervision in a particular area.98 This is called the system of “dual hierarchy" or "dual supervision” which is regarded as "the best method of solving thc problem of co-ordination". 19 The system is particularly relevant to a unitary or integrated type of field organization such as the Prefect System in Western European countries and the District Officer or Collector System in India. Under this system, the area specialist combines the principle of organization by arca with that of gcncral administration,5 This system of supervision is open to criticism on various grounds. In the first place, it gives rise to a controversy which centres round the gencralistici sus the specialist, the administrator ici sus thic cxpert. It is alleged that the field scrvices such as agriculture, health, irrigation, clcctrification and the life have become very complex and technical and the District Officer with his background of general administration has neither the inental cquipment and aptitude nor training and willingncss to appreciate thic view-points of functional specialists. No doubt, the controversy is yet confined to academic discussions so far as the district level is concerned, though still rampant at the block level, the gcncral feeling amongst functional specialists, particularly those of the cngineering and agricultural sectors, is that, in the guise of administrative supci vision, an erratic and unduly ambitious District Oficer may inteiſerc in their operations to the detriment of technical cfficiency, and reduce them to second rate subordinates, killing incentive to tcamwork and active collaboration. In thc second placc, 48 Thc "practice of dual supervision" has been, in particular, used as a dcuicc 10 rcconcilc thc claims of arca and thosc of functions. "When at the same time" to quolo Macmahon "thc arca is supcrvised in the totality of its operations by an cfficcr or organ within a morc inclusive arca, two types of guidance arc involved: onc being relatively gencral in ainung at responsibility for a total composite result through the combination of special programincs; the other scching to stimulatc and guide thc particular activitics cach of which has its distinctive tcclinical ingredients. The incvitable result is the practice of dual supervision" Scc Arthur W. Macmahon, Delcgation and Autonomy, Bombay, Asia Publishing House, 1961, p 28 " See Marshall E Dimock and Gladys Ogden Dimock, Public Administration, Toronto and New York, Rinchart & Co, 1954, p. 131. 19 A United Nations Study Team also agrees that an integrated system of ficid organization is more conducive to field co-ordination of the func!ions of tcchnical departments than a multiple system of field organization See United Nations, Public Administration aspects of Commumiy Development Programmes, New York, United Nations Technical Assistance Programme, 1959, p. 18 ·54 Haridwar Rai this pattern of supervision is incompatiblc with the co-ordinative concept itself, for the District Officer is not a mere primus inter paies, nor are district heads of technical departments his co-ordinates and equals The District Officer, under the arrangement, is indeed elevated to the pedastal of a boss, and co-ordination is reduced to subordination, Does he not, it is asked, initiate the confidential character rolls of all district heads of technical departments, make comment on their tour programmes, forward their applications, for casual or regular Icavc, make field inspections of their departmental performance, and do similar other departmental performance, and do similar other things? And, thirdly, it is alleged that the pattern of supervision is productive of friction, divided loyalties and even hostility and militatcs against the principles of unity of command Are not technical officers responsible, from a technical point of view, to their departmental superiors? Under the dual type of supervision, the District Officer represents general supervision and development officers represent functional specialization. Co-ordination can, therefore, be ensured when both recognize and respect the contribution of the other, and the organization as a whole is animated by a sense of collective responsibility and good team-play to achieve the common end Functional specialities have to be treated as reflecting basic divisions in knowledge, skill and capacity of individuals. Administrative supervision has to observe its natural limitations by not substituting itself for a functional speciality in an area wherein the latter is presumed to have teclinical excellence. Indeed, co-ordination has “very little to do with control and supervision by a captain over the members of the team”. 51 Its concern is both functional unity and functional autonomy. Therefore, thic clement of supervision and control inherent in co-ordination of development programmes should not seek to realize the former at the cost of the latter. Its concern is to strike a mean between the two: it is not "powerover”; it is “power-with, a jointly developed power, a co-active, not coercive. This can be realized by depersonalızıng the giving of orders, by uniting all concerned in the study and discovery of the law of thic situation, and by securing two-way communication--upward and dow11- ward.52 Co-ordination, therefore, means “spirited joint effort" emerging from "dedication to the achievement of common goals and from 51 B Mukerji, Commiumty Development in India, Calcutta, Longmans, 1961, p. 136. 51 See Henry C Metcalf and L Urwick, cds, Dynamic Admmistration, the Collected Papeis of Mary Parker Follet, New York, Harper & Brothers, 1940, p 58 and p 101. Scc also John M Pfiffner and Ry. Presthus, Public Administration, New York, Ronald Press Co, 1953, pp 198-199. “Co-ordination” Tead says "is best assured where representatives of functional groups which are directly affected by or are involved in carrying out new policies are parties to the decision reaching process". See Tead, op. cit, p. 183.

·Co-ordination of Derclopment Programes SS respect for one another's contribution“.5 It stands for "correlation", involving "agreement and parallcl action without force or power": 51 In this scheme, the District Officer cannot pride in asserting his individual will. He has to create a group power rather than express at personal power. For this, he needs a quality of mind called "empathy." supplemented by "a cultivated sense of discipline which alerts the minds to choices and implications and at thic same timc docs 1100 slut the door to alternatives". 55 In the scheme of ficid co-ordination of development programmes. the District Officer is thc lcader of the citcnsion (cam, and, as such, he has to know enough of the technical facts to appreciate the diſliculties of the functional side and to help them from the broad operational point of view. He needs accordingly to have a complete picture of the administrative and operational situation and to possess some of the skills of the Village Level Worker. His success as Icader will depend upon his ability to cicate an atmosphere of warm human relations and of confidence and to brcak down barriors of jurisdiction and walls of status consciousness. That this ability is painfully lacking requires no proof. It has to be remembered that his attitude to his colleagues is an index to his attitude to pcoplc in gencral. His Icadorship role has to be utilized for mobilizing, organizing and managing men, and understanding "the social dynamics” of local community groups. This calls for special vicw-points, training, oricntation and "social skills" 56 Have our District Onicers the requisito aptitude, time and facilitics to undergo the needed training and cducation to acquire thesc skills and qualitics? The answer is not in the aſſirmative. Thc District Officer is hard prcsscd for time, the fact which obstructs meaningful co-ordination atilic distiicluftvel. It is cstimatedla that Tie is compelled to spend 11 to 12 hours per day on manifold and variegated items of district work.6? An oficial so dccply immicisco in thc welter of routine of dry-to-day administration and so badly distracted by scores of miscellaneous cutics on his hands will have 63 Sce United Nations, l'ublic Alministration Aspects of community Developinut Programmes, op cit., p. 13. 5* Howard W.Mccra, Kellons Amin Ilorkers in C. 1). Bluch*, Mussoule, Nation Institute of Community Dryclopment, 1012, 1), #. " J. Almad, 'The Expert on the Administrator, Michel, Onlyrjally of M'Hamp Prcos. 1959, n. 23, ·56 Haridu ai Rai no time to deal with thic affairs of the district with a crcativc, alcit and vigorous mind. He will most certainly tend to be an “expression" rather than remain "the most exposed administrative figure". Despitc a full complement of officials appointed to help him in all sectors of his work and to share his burden of routine administration, his work. load has progressively increased. This speaks volumes for the faulty delegation at the level of the District Officer. In the field of development duties, in particular, he is given the assistance of a District Development Officer-an officer of the rank of Additional Collector. This high-placed official is in charge of correspondence relating to development work, inspects the office and work of Block Development Officers and Village Level Workers in the district. And, to all intents and purposes, he is functioning as a more channel of advice to the District Officer leaving the responsibility of decisions of any consequence to the latter. He reſers all important files to the District Officer for orders and has no powers to correspond with the Commissioner or the State Government without his approval. It is obvious, theicfore, that an officer of the experience and status of the District Development Officer is not being put to proper use. Indeed, this assistance has not resulted in reducing the workload of the District Officer to a purposeful extent in the absence of meaningful delegation. No wonder, the District Officer has little time to cultivate insight into and understanding of the broad conspectus of development programmes, and to exercise imaginative faculty as well as constructive leadership role which are life-blood for field co-ordination of development programmes. Perhaps, yet another important factor responsible for adding to his difficulties as an area co-ordinator is the unwieldy size of distiicts in Bihar. The average population of a district in Biliar is 27,32,757, which is the largest in the whole of India, and the average area of a district is 3,953, square miles which is large enough when compared with the average area of districts in other States.58 Indeed, some districts have as many as 40 development blocks, Gaya having 46. This acts as a great limitation on his competence as a field co-ordinator, tying him to desk work for most of the time and preventing him from holding informal consultations and undertaking required number of inspection tours. It was this realization which prompted a special officer appointed by the Government of Bihar to recommend reduction of the size of districts and sub-divisions in 1949.59 A joint Central Team on Agricultural Production came to the same conclusion in July 1965, 58 For detailed analysis of the size and population of Bihar districts and thcir effect on the workload of the District Cfficer, see ibid, Chapter 7. 5 N. Balsi, ICS, cxamined the question of iedistribution of the present administrative boundaries of districts and sub-divisions in Bihar in 1948-49. The report is not published.

·Co-ordination of Development Programmes 57 and suggested that "the number of blocks in each sub-division inay be restricted to five, and three sub-divisions may constitute one district. This means that each district will have 15 blocks."60 The Team folt that viable districts and viable sub-divisions will enable officials to devote more time to development work and will make the District Officer a more effective co-ordinator in his area This system of area co-ordination will most certainly be subjected to crucial tests with the introduction of the Panchayati Raj Scheme in Bihar. Development functions which have so far been performed by the extension agency in development blocks will be entrusted to the Panchayati Raj bodies, and the measure in which the District Officer influences their decisions will be determined by the soundness of his advice, his ability to inspire confidence, his power of persuasion and his reputation as a conscientious, upright and far-seeing administrator. His new role in Bihar will be that of a promoter and occasionally of a corrector rather than that of a director of development programmes and of Panchayati Raj. This will absorb a large part of his time and will constitute an important aspect of his dutics, calling for a new attitude of mind and a novel method of work However, even under the Panchayati Raj Scheme, he will have to ensure that all government employees—both generalists and specialists connected with Panchayati Raj extend to it their unstinted support and allegiance and that the administrative machinery is strcamlined and co-ordinated He will still be responsible for promoting teamwork and morale in the development administration, and for kecping it free from corruption and partisan influences He will continue to cnsure co-ordination of programmes falling in the local and Statc sectors and to watch carefully that they are in conformity with the national policies and the State Plans. His role as co-ordinator in respect of execution of development programmes will remain largely unimpaired in Bihar, though his role in their formulation and planning will become mainly consultative.61 CONCLUSION The pattern of co-ordination of development programmes at the district level is in conformity with and an extension of the system of 6 Mimeographed copy of Picliminary Report of the Joint Central Team On Agricul. tural Programme on its visit to Bihar during July 8-12, 1965, Chapter II 61 The State Government has issued various circulars defining the duties and functions of officers of both general and technical hierarchics who aic to work with and under the Panchayatı Raj bodics See Panchayat, Raj Circular No 15, Notification No 1627, dated the 2nd March, 1964; Panchayatı Raj Circular No.16, letter No 1629, dated the 2nd March, 1964, Panchayati Raj Circular, No. 17, letter No. 1557, dated 26th February, 1964, and Panchayatı Raj Circular No 20, letter No 11057, dated 17th, August, 1964.

·58 Hariduar Rai field co-ordination developed and systematized during the British rule in India. Over a period of years, the district emerged as the standard area of field co-ordination and the District Officer as the pre-eminent area co-ordinator of the activities of various special or technical departments operating therein. He stimulated, guided and co-ordinated their activities in a rather ill-defined and vague manner, and had no formally defined power of control and supervision. Nevertheless, he wielded sufficient influence so as to be able to reconcile the operations of such departments with the wclfarc of the people and the needs of the arca. With the inauguration of development programmes, old, informal methods of co-ordination have been consolidated and clarified, new methods, particularly, institutional ones, have been incorporated with the old ones, and a structural arrangement based on the systemi of dual supervision has been devised to meet the requirements of the developinent administration. The District Officer las been made responsible for co-ordinating the activities of the heads of various dovelopment departments in the district. The organizational and professional or technical control over them is exercised by their departmental superiors, and the functional control in non-technical matters is cxercised by thc District Officer. He is aided in his task of coordination by his direct responsibility for the success of the programmes, his power of sanction, and administrative approval, his power of comments on the work and conduct of technical officers and his chairmanship of various committees in the district concerned with developmont work. This has served to make him the leader of the extension organization, charging him with the duty to promote the morale of its members, to eliminate inter-departmental differences and to see to the timely, speedy and efficient exccution of development programmes. This pattern of co-ordination is based on the theory of dual hicrarchy or dual supervision, and assumes a dual line of supervision from the top down and a dual set of loyaltics from the bottom up. It involves reconciliation of the horizontal responsibilitics of the area co-ordinator with the vertical responsibilities of the functional specjalists Under this system, the responsibility is jointly shared by officers of technical departments and the co-ordinating area specialist. The task before the District Officer is to emphasize the common purpose of the extension organization and to enable it to carry on its operations in the most productive way possible to realize the purpose. It is his duty to be “the front man”, to bring about necessary adjustments, to discover common threads and to work out desirable solution. Favourable human relations in such an organization are prompted by a ·Co-ordination of Developinent Programmes 59 democratic environment with free and fearless exchange of views among its members. After all, the objective is not a mere collection of the performance of various developmental agencies involved in it. There is a common goal to be achieved. Co-ordination, therefore, cannot mean formal collaboration. Here the emphasis has to be on mutual appreciation of each other's role and on establishing formal administrative arrangements and uformal consultative devices which allow maximum of two-way communication. Under this system of field co-ordination, the District Officer has to possess understanding, sympathy and a receptive and creative mind. te needs to have willingness and ability to give the right icad and helpful guidance. He must be neither autocratic nor paternalistic and must be endowed with "social skills” so as to foster teamwork and morale in the development administration. This calls for the acquisition of new attitudes, new habits of mind and a desire for selfdevelopment on the part of the District Officer through special training courses, through advanced cducation for higher administration, and through provision of incentives.

·CO-ORDINATION OF DEVELOPMENTAL PROGRAMMES AT THE BLOCK LEVEL K. Seshadri SCOPE AND METHOD OF APPROACII is THI HIS articlc confincs itself to an examination of the problem of co-ordination at the block level and rcferences to district arc incidental. The exclusion of the district as a unit for co-ordination in this study governed not only by the obvious reason of avoiding unwicidiness but also by the existing “laws of the situation" of the Panchayati Raj administration. To be more explicit, it is the block and not the district that has been accorded a place of preference as the most suitable arcal unit for plans of development. The first part of this article will deal with the physical suitability of the blocks as they have been carved out. A contrasting study of the suitability of the districts, as they have historically evolved for purposes of co-ordination is no irrelevant in that context. The hypothesis that is put forth and will be tested is that thic blocks as they are formed today, riz, on the principle of a declared area and population (400 squarc kilometers and 66,000 respectively) is not sound and effective. For maximizing the socio-economic devclopment of the rural areas and for bringing about a mcaningful political participation of the pcople, a properly conducted physical survey of the country has to be made and the blocks should be subsequently delimited so that the division would conform to certain well accepted principles of areal arrangement. Such a scientific division would not only facilitate proper co-ordination but also eliminate the need for constant rcdistributions giving rise to allegations of gerrymandering. What militates apparently against such an elaborate survey is the inordinate delay which might try thc paticnce of cager reformers and politicians. Another factor may bc the near impossibility of satisfying all the principles of scientific demarcation and the ensuing stalemate which might appear worse than somehow getting on with the task even if the delimitation is patently haphazard. This attitude is vindication of the general "muddling through” that charactcrizcs 1 India, Report of the Study Team for Commumty Development and National Extension Service (Chairman. Balvantray Mehta), Committee on Plan Projects, Vol 1, p 9.

·Co-ordination of Developmental Programmes 61 an unplanned administration. It has to be demonstrated that such a scientific demarcation would better facilitate co-ordination than a haphazard division. In the second part of the article, the concept of co-ordination is examined in all its implications keeping in view that co-ordination is only a means and that there is a constant need to change the means whenever new challenges have to be faced. Co-ordination is a measure of managerial talent and administrative competence. It is also a test of the spirit of purposefulness that imbues all those working in an organization. In the developmental context a ritualistic institutional device wherein all the officials work in monotonous haimony is not coordination as contemplated here What stimulates development is not sheer orderliness and smooth functioning that would degenerate into bureaucratic stagnation but an organic unity of activities and ideas that would keep pace with the tempo of change Co-ordination calls for a creative and dynamic capacity to develop among the personnel the ability to focus their attention beyond their narrow limitations and preoccupations to a general perspective of the developmental aim as a whole. This needs not only an organizational structuring of the personnel and their relations but also a distinct state of mind or rather a distinct change of mind among the various participants in the endeavour. There has to be brought about a psychological atmosphere in which departments do not jealously guard their own interests as well as their own personnel as if they were their exclusive possession but also subserve their departmental prestige and position to the common goal. Every actor in the administrative unit has to remember that his specialistic skills are relevant only within the general aims of the organization. In the light of the above formulations the task of co-ordination in the developmental blocks will be examined without just confining to the problem of the services but embracing all other substantial issues involved It is submitted that an examination of the problem confining oneself to the task of bringing about co-ordination among the extension services inter se and between the Block Development Office and the Extension Officers, results in viewing the problem with blinkers. The plea herein advanced is that in addition to the administrative sei vices there are various actors and other group of actors whose part has to be integrated in the general scheme. This requires a free flow of communication down, up and across so that information relevant to different groups is constantly made available. If there is substantial agreement on this basic understanding of the problem of co-ordination, we may proceed towards examining the ·62 K. Seshadri means by which such co-ordination can be most fruitful. The hypothesis that is put forth is that unless the various governmental agencies and other non-governmental organizations together with the communities as a whole do not move in concert the purpose of co-ordination has not been achieved. For this movement a general psychological atmosphere has to be created and a metamorphosis among the officials has to take place. This can be done by proper utilization of mass communication media and adoption of techniques devised by cybernetic thought. Proper in-service training and orientation courses have to be provided to the officials at every level and at regular intervals so that they do not rust in their static positions and rest on their apathetic oars. There has to be institutionalized exchange of ideas, information and data between officials and academic bodies. All these problems connected with the education and dissemination of ideas and charging the officials and non-official leaders with a spirit of dynainic purposefulness are intimately connected with co-ordination. PRESENT DELIMITATION OF "BLOCKS" AND AN EXAMINATION OF THEIR SUITABILITY FOR CO-ORDINATION Whether a country chooses to decentralize its administration or to centralize it, it ought to have various administrative divisions or “Areas” depending upon the extent, capacity of the administrative services, population, means of communication, physical features and other factors peculiar to different regions. Adequacy of administrative services with technical skill to undertake developmental tasks, and the existence or need for good means of communication and transport "to span, not only the physical distance, but also the centuries which often separate the rural areas from the capital of ideas, values and patterns of living” are dependent upon the level of advancement and the potential capacity to advance. These are also factors that can be consciously increased by education, expenditure and external assistance, etc. These may be deemed as variables. Other physical features like the nature of the terrain including the rivers, the hills, the nature of the soils are all factors that cannot be changed at will and to that extent are the rigid "givens”. In addition to these two are the sociological factors that would include the customs, mores and traditions of the people, the language they speak, the religion they may profess, the groups (ethnic or caste) to which they belong and hence these call for distinctive treatment. : Henry Maddick, Democracy, Decentralization and Development, Bombay, Asia Publishing House, 1963, p 18.

·Co-ordination of Developmental Programmes 63 All these are only illustrative of the complexities that confront an areal administration and are by no means exhaustive and these are all elaborated here to biing into clear focus the need for a thorough and searching survey before an area is demarcated as an "Area" for introducing a service. The fact that there are different districts for railways, posts and telegraphs, excise, revenue, etc., not only in this country but all over the civilized world shows clearly that there are different criteria for demarcation of units and such demarcations cannot be arbitrary. It also demonstrates that a particular division that was suitable for a particular function may not be suitable for another. “Despite these difficulties, composite areas based on a multiplicity of factors have been defined by regionalists.”3 The blocks have been created for the purposes of introducing community programme and planning. These are new concepts and new services which were hitherto unknown under the foreign dispensation. Needless to say that for the implementation of these programmes, the planners visualize and solicit the maximum participation of the people. “The people" here does not mean some inchoate masses in the country but a clear community of people living distinctively in particular areas each differing from the other in its requirements and capacities but yet forming an integral part of the kaleidoscopic national pattern, People who were thought of as one huge mass of inchoate humanity during the struggle for Independence began to appear in different divisions and sub-divisions, into groups and sub-groups as the country embarked upon improving the socio-economic conditions. Not only do people differ from state to state but even within the state there are again differences between districts and districts and even within districts there appear still finer distinctions. As S M Gaus puts it: “As a nation reaches stability, the sectionalizing influences would tend to mould society to their separate conditions in spite of all countervailing tendencies towards national uniformity.” When areas are contemplated three distinct features can be observed that have to be reckoned as shaping the character of the area. The features like transport, communication, administration and the educational facilities that could be introduced by the human agency form the first category. Secondly, the physical and geographical features which cannot ordinarily be changed except through gigantic engineering programmes Thirdly, the sociological factors that cannot be easily changed without tensions. The caste-identification, the groupidentification and such other factors may either act as limiting factors * James W Fesler, Area and Administration, Drawer, University of Alabama Press, 1953, p 3 SM Gaus "Reflections on Public Administration", Drawer, University of Alabama Press, 1948, p. 65.

·64 K. Seshadri or as catalysers which without undergoing any radical change themselves might promote change in the economic development of society. The social change that is sought to be brought about through socioeconomic planning, physical planning and community organization is to 'create in the rural population a burning desire for a higher standard of living and the will to live better”.5 It is relevant here to examine the following two questions: (a) Does the delimitation of the blocks as they have been done conform to the principles of planning, and (b) Do the people living in these blocks feel that they are in common areas of living and as a result of such sense of commonness participate in the community activities? At the outset it may be pointed out that there is not adequate empirical evidence to answer the second question cither in the affirmalive or negative. We reject unhesitatingly the routine reports submitted by the officials to their departmental chiefs even though there does not exist anything better than those to measure the people's participation. Official reports tend to cloud the weaknesses and exaggerate the benefits Even with politicians including Pandit Nehru the success of community development and Panchayati Raj was such an article of faith with them that none was unsympathetic enough to mention "some ugly misgiving or some awkward contradiction”. There are very few academic studies on this question since most took it for granted and examined other problems based on the presumption that the delimitation of the blocks has been done according to unquestionable principles or that there is no other way of delimiting them except in the way they have been done After all, a particular area and particular population have been fixed as the standard for delimiting the block and there appears no justification to take up this matter again. Hence the physical aspect of planning has been for ever relegated to the background never to be brought to the fore again. These lines are also written with absolutely no illusions that it would be agitated at all. When it suited the State Governments changes were sought to be brought about in the delimitation. For example in the State of Andhra Pradesh an official High Power Committee (with the Chief Secretary as the Chairman) was constituted to go into the question of proper 6 S.C. Dube, India's Changing Villages, London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1958.

·Co-oi clination of Developmental Programmes 65 delimitation of the block. It recommended certain changes and in accordance with those recommendations an executive order was passed to rearrange certain blocks. Many judicial writs were filed questioning the validity of the executive order and indicating the Government of gerrymandering The Court quashed the executive order issued by the Government 6 Such constant 1e-organization may be based upon pragmatism. Onc may learn by mistakes. But before taking any action that would be of great significance there has to be "(a) Definition of the issues (1) Analysis of the existing situation (c) Calculation and delineation of the alternativeness (d) Deliberation (e) choice? or any other logical and rational sequence of steps. Such premeditation and calculation are the essence of planning and the fact that certain mistakes and unexpected turn of events compel a revision of the plan does not fundamentally alter the need for a properly thought out action. There had been no such attempt when the blocks were delimited. An attempt, however incomplete, was made by academic men like Beers and Ensminger to examine whether the block is a social system. “Is the block only an artefact of the Government? Will it becomesolid and established or will it be a passing phase in the organization of India's Government? To what extent will it become a social system permanently embedded in the network of the total society of India78 They further argue that, “The block was established by action of high government, but fiat does not cieate a social system The latterexists only when relations have developed among persons in such a manner that the requisite elements can be noted”.9 In conclusion they strike a hopeful note that in the future the block would evolve into a basic unit of local government though at present the sanctions in the new block social system are not strong enough to accelerate change to the speed that planners and leaders decide It is an unfortunate fact of Indian history that every unit of administration has been created as a government fiat and then by mute and indifferent acceptance of such fiat units of administrative system were developed. Then they become almost sacrosanct and any rethinking on the subject is treated as an academic exercise. While 6 See V. Ramachandra Reddy and another V. State of Andhra Pradesh (1965) The Andhra Weekly Reporter, pp. 317-331. Sce Edward H. Litchfield. "Notes on Gencral Theory of Administration", Administrative Science quarterly, Vol. I., No. 1, June 1956. 8 Howard W. Bcers and Dougalas Ensminger, The Development Block as a Social Systemi, Indian Jou nal of Public Administration, Vol V, No 2, p. 137. i Ibid , p. 138.

·66 K. Sosladri states could be rc-organized, it is difficult to understand why there should be no rethinking on a rational organization of smaller units. This is not to advocate mere experimenting for its own sake. The plca is that there should be "due study and research and thought", 10 The British, as history tells us, occupied India without any long sange view of establishing their empire or introducing their political, legal and cducational systems. As the British sway went on expanding. the administration developed in its own chequered manner and provinces were formed without conforming to any established principlc. The districts within the provinces also came to be created according to no set standards or norms. The taluqs followed suit. Therefore. the only original units were the villages which enjoyed a historical continuity and fostered community living albeit, the caste system stratified the society. The British administration cannot be blamed for this haphazardness because in those days neither linguism nor ( 25nomic planning were known and whatever suited the purpose of the administration seemed the only valid reason for these divisions The purpose of the British administration, needless to say, was collection of revenue, maintenance of law and order and defence of the country's borders. After the States Re-organization Commission gave its recommendations the map of India insofar as the States were concerned changed, but the distircts and taluqs remained as they werc. Since the collection of revenue was the main purpose of the British administration and maintenance of law and order was its inevitable concomittant the District Collector became at once the chief of the district for both collection of revenue and maintenance of peace. The Collector in course of time became a unique institution and the pillar of the whole administrative edifice. He was at once the "eyes and ears" of the government and "friend, philosopher and guide" to the people who came under his chargea Mai Baap syndrome was thus manifested among the Indian community. He also became the "solar orb“ round whom the other officials like the District Superintendent of Police, District Medical Officer, District Forest Officer, District Health Officer, District Educational Officer and various others revolved. He became the natural co-ordinator of all the services as the district became the deconcentrated unit housing in its headquarters all the district services and the district court with unlimited civil and criminal jurisdiction. It is a known fact that there exist lots of disparities between district and district in poj ulation, area, economic and geographical features. Even communications were not evenly spread thus 10 S. S. Khera, District Administration in India, Bombay, Asia Publishing House, 1964, 0.4 ·Co-ordination of Developmental Programmes 67 bringing the people of the districts together for either business or social intercourse. The land tenure also differed from district to district in some cases. Long years of forced conformity to this arrangement, despite its irrationality and haphazardness, enabled the bureaucracy to somehow work within the framework.11 Since each Collector strictly confined himself to hus boundaries and never encroached into another's, each district became a small kingdom unto itself, thus giving rise to district loyalties among the people “When territorial areas are delimited so that jurisdictions and services may be clearly distributed, symbolic associations tend to cluster around the self same boundaries, Co-operative sentiments of pride and loyalty, compelitive attitudes of jealous rivalry, attach themselves readily to special units”. 12 We could wirness various cases of district loyalties and distiict “patriotisms” in every state. The point that is sought to be emphasized here is that the district grew into a recognized historical unit with all the people living in it, owing a sort of an allegiance to it, and the various services, such as they were, functioned on a district-wide basis, co-ordinated by the supieme authority of the district, the District Collector. As SS. Khera has pointed out: “It is truly a mark of its soundness as a viable unit and as a practical mode for the arrangement of public affairs that the district has continued to subsist through the centuries, under very different circumstances and under entirely different forms of government."13 It certainly did subsist for centuries due to the fact of its delimilation being of no relevance to the functions that were carried out from the days of its inception to the days when developmental administration, planning a socio-economic change through conscious social engineering were not contemplated Different forms of government did come and go but none of them did materially change the core of sub-human living for the generality of the people. Hence the viability of the district has to be examined in the new revolutionary context of purposeful planning on which the country has embarked today. That the distiict was a sound unit during Akbar's time in a small strip of his teriitory in North India is no argument to validate it for the whola of India in the twentieth century dedicated to change. So, whether this system worked well or ill was of no consequence to an irresponsible law and order administration What is relevant 11 The Simon Commission (1930) also recorded that "the system has some roots in the past. Akbar for instance, subdivided all Bengal into Sarkars. But until the establishment of Britisli rulc, there never existed the settled administration, discipline and strong supci vision which are essential if single official be placed in charge of arcas as large as Indian districts and allowed the degree of independence which had been given to the district officer within the limits imposed by law and precedent" 13 Leslie Lipson, Grent Issues of Politics, Ney York. Prentice Hall Inc. 19 Scc SS. Khcra, op. cit., p 4.

·68 K. Seshadri to the present quest is after the introduction of planning as an instrument to bring about social change, what factors are to guide the formation of the new units. The aim of developmental programmes is to reach the pcoplc and move them towards achicving the objectives of thic plans. Unless the people themselves feel the necd for improvement and come forward to take up the responsibility on their shoulders, the country as a whole cannot progress. It is in this spirit that the whole community development movement was conceived in this country as a "method" and alongside this method National Extension Services were created to function as an "agency" through which the plan secks to transform the age-old backwardness of the rural areas. So, primarily there is need for a conceited and co-ordinated effort of the local manpower- “it should be a people's programme and for this it should embody their needs and aspirations with their sense of priorities as far as possible, should be planned with their maximum participation and should aim at the ideal of community itself both in planning and operation".14 It is evident that "In all these respects new unit areas are required differing certainly in character and extent for particular purpose than the existing antiquated administrative units”. 15 A common living in a contiguous area, a general feeling of homogeneity, personal and informal relationships that do not obtain in larger aggregates, common interests and mutually complementary occupations are all factors that characterize a community. For maximization of the people's conscious participation the government serviccs, especially of the developmental sector, should be organized area by area as defined by the community living. The various services acting in a mutually complementary manner as a team would be able to produce greater results in homogeneous communities than a conglomeration of people divided into different areas, enjoying no common interests, having no personal and informal relationships and hence not prepared to put forth concerted effort. A well-knit community organization would itself contribute towards the generation of co-ordination of government services as contrasted with unorganized group of humanity whose interests are varied and perhaps mutually contradictory. The expression of a common and collective felt need would 14 Iqbal Narain, "The administration of Rural Community Development Programme", Indian Journal of Public Administration, Vol. V, No.3, 1959, p 292. 15 Robert E. Dickinson, City, Region and Regionalism, London, Routledge and Kegan Paul Lid, 1952, p. 2.

·Co-ordination of Developmental Programmes 69 automatically necessitate the different services to come together in an effort to achieve the common aim. On the contrary, differing and contradictory needs and expressions would throw even the most well organized and co-ordinated efforts into medley of querulous factions Against this background the district as a unit of developmental administiation, for all its historical character and its subsequent acceptance by the people, is too heterogeneous and unwieldy to be suitable units. The question naturally arises-what was the basis on which blocks were formed? It is clear they cannot boast of historical evolution As Beer and Ensminger have rightly pointed out they are a result of “an action of high government”16 and “is there a body of belief (in kuowledge and truth) or is there a cluster of sentiment (feeling) that is unique tomor at least generally associated with a block?”:17 Except that the blocks are smaller in size and population than the district, are there any positive and intrinsic reasons that mark out the block as eminently suitable for consideration as a unit for planning? They are after all component parts of the original districts which are themselves irrationally carved out units. The quest is to bring about co-ordination of the services at the district level and at the block level while at both levels there is neither a homogeneity of interests among the people nor community organization. Any aica coming within 400 square kilometers occupied by approximately 66,000 people does not satisfy the necessary condition for co-ordination of developmental services if these do not at the same time exhibit other characteristics detailed hitherto. An examination of characteristics of certain blocks taken at random will illustrate that they are not necessarily so. There are certain blocks wherein a few villages are more or less on the fringes of the urban areas, with people whose interests and occupations are urban These are clubbed with villages which are entirely rural, depending on agriculture and pasture. Such a hotch-potch of villages can by no stretch of imagination be organically brought together and no services can co-ordinate to bring about a uniform degree of development to these different types of communities. Such an area requires atleast two distinct sets of services to play two different roles. A block which is divided by a river over which there does not even exist a bridge to maintain communication between two communities on either side of the river, where there has not been a "felt need” for a bridge cannot be described as a suitable "area”. There are certain blocks where a few villages occupied by tribals following their own customs and mores are lumped together with more 10 Howard W. Beers and Ensminger, op cit, p 138 17 Ibid, p. 138.

·70 K. Seshadu developed villages. The fact that certain protections and safeguards are given to the tribals does not counter the main argument here against arbitrary delimitation. Examples of such ill-assorted areas can be given in plenty and as submitted earlier, the only argument in favour of such arbitrary and haphazard delimitation of the blocks is that there would be no time to survey the whole country to mark out areas and it is also very difficult to satisfy all standards prescribed for proper delimitation. This has resulted in a peculiar paradox of planless areas being subjected to planning As long as the areas were functioning as units for revenue collection and for providing law and order and such other primary services the haphazardness was not highlighted. But “The dramatic expansion of the scope of governmental activity has strained the traditional patterns of areal distribution of authority. The patterns, therefore, call for reassessment with a view to improving efficiency in the discharge of individual governmental functions, assuring effective coordination of these functions in each area within which men live, work and play, and reinvigorating popular control of both elected and appointed government officials”. 18 The Balwantray Mehta Team was conscious of the wide disparities between block and block. They rightly pointed out: “The variation in the geographical conditions between the various states in often common knowledge. But the variation between different blocks in the same state is often not noticed.. . The land features and the crop economy of the blocks also vary in the same manner" 19 What the Team fails to notice is that within each block itself there is such a variation in physical features, crop pattern and other factors that bring people under common living. This unplanned arbitrary delimitation of blocks, therefore, is one of the biggest limiting factors militating against favourable co-ordination of services among themselves and serviced with the clientele. It is not to satisfy some fad for decentralization that the block is to be constituted, but to efficiently serve as a viable unit for executing developmental plans through proper co-operation between people and the leaders with the officials. Unless the purposes are identifiable and are not at variance with each other, it is impossible to engender proper co-operation. 18 James W. Fesler, op. cit., pp. 1 and 2. 19 Balyantray Mehta Report, op. cit., Vol. II, p. 37.

·Co-ordination of Developmental Programnes 71 To quote Fesler again “The most piofitable co-operation requires a limited number of participants and limited objectives both of function and of area”. 20 In heterogeneous areas, such as the present blocks ale, it is very difficult to limit the objectives and thus maximize cooperation. The whole defect stems from the almost religious faith in the sanctity of the "districts” and the veneration the District Collector has come to enjoy as an indispensable generalist and co-ordinator par excellence-"and is now somewhat in theory or in nostalgic yearning moje or less responsible for everything done by government within his geographical areas”. 21 But in point of fact with the tremendous growth of technical skill that has come to bear upon the developmental activity, the area that is bounded by the district limits has become too unwieldy and the revenue collector's position even as early as 1945 “like that of the comic opera policeman” is not a happy one. He is expected to see that nothing wrong happens in his district, but he has little power outside the Magistrate and Collector to see that things go right. He is supposed to compose differences between other officers, but he has no power to impose his will upon the recalcitrant.22 While the Collector's prestige among leaders during the Independence movement was at the lowest ebb23 he staged a gallant come back after the launching of the Community Development movement and developmental schemes, by occupying a key position in the hierarchy of officers responsible for co-ordination of developmental activity. This is not only because of the change in the nationality of those who composed the services but also because of a real change in attitude that was meticulously implanted and fostered. No other officer of the older order has adjusted himself, by and large, so well as the District Collector to the new responsibilities and duties devolving upon him. But this is entirely different from saying that the Collector's traditional duties of maintaining law and order and collecting revenue automatically make him capable of supervising and co-ordinating developmental activities as well. The fact that the Collector comes under the direct supervision for revenue matters under the Board of Revenue and under the Chief Secretary as a representative of the State Government ought to relieve him from the developmental work The institutional arrangement in some States to call the Chief Secretary as a Development Commissioner is also a half-hearted measure that tries to cover up a 20 James W. Fesler, op. cit., p. 142. 21 Paul Appleby, Report, 1953. ** See the Bengal Administration Enquiry Committee Report, 1945. 25 Scc Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, An Autobiography, London, Bodley Head, 1955, pp. 443-446 ·118 Evangelos John Rizos the very existence of the project. The mobilization of the necessary human resources, their fitness for the tasks and their commitment, are all considered essential determinants for the effectiveness of a technical assistance project. They provide the needed human skills for country development and create a favourable psychological climate. In this context, it is seldom sufficient to say that a project is concerned with increasing the applied skills of a specific number of persons who participate in training programmes. Rather it is concerned with increasing the level of competence of all the staff performing specialized functional tasks in the field of the project and, furthermore, with the provision of and adequate understanding of the effects of new skills. But is the only purpose to enable individuals perform specialized, functional tasks? Not alone. Though the transfer of skill has been considered as an essential step forward, in this transfer it is the human being and not the technique as such that has become the centre of attention. Generally, the human being and his efforts rather than the objectives of the technical assistance project, however well thought out, determine whether it will contribute to or retard country development. His views of society play an important role in shaping his reaction. As Prof. Alain Touraine, Head of the Laboratory of Industrial Sociology in Paris, observes, “If he sces society as a set of conflicting interests with himself rigidly separated from those 'on top' and excluded from power, strong resistance to change is likely. If on the other hand, he believes in progress—and more specifically in technological progress as a means of advancing socicty-he is more likely to have a receptive attitude towards change in the workshop since it offers him the possibility of improving his standard of living”.9 In the articulation of manpower requirements the main effort is to translate the goals of the development plan in terms of propositions for the number and types of skills required in the field of the project. Because of the relatively longer gestation period in educalional efforts, only manpower requirements that have been foreseen sufficiently in advance can be fulfilled. The essential point, as Balogh has observed, is that such planning “must start with a rather detajled plan of socio-economic development” 10 And he continues, "In particular such a perspective plan must embrace a serious politico-sociological study of the problem of how, ard how far, "Overcoming Resistance to Technological Change", The OECD Observer, October, 1965, p 11. 14 "Education and Economic Growth” XVII Kyklos, 1964, p. 269.

·On the Limits of the Technical Assistance Project 119 traditional educational patterns had contributed to the failure of social and economic progress in the past. Such a study is the essential basis of all educational planning. It must discover whether the attitudes which are hostile to economic progress have been the result of a specific structure of education, and what modifications of that structure are needed to obtain a new approach to the technical requirements, in terms of knowledge and training, of accelerated economic expansion”. The Organizational Patterns It is assumed here that the effectiveness of a technical assistance project depends on adaptations in the organizational setting and the creation of concrete systems of action designed to absorb the new specific and limited functions brought about by the project. It has often been observed that the existing organizational structure may fail to provide a proper framework for the project. The machinery of government inherited from colonial times may not be fully adapted to developmental momentum. For that matter, neither the machinery inherited from an independent government which was not interested in development. In contrast with the status quo geared to the maintenance of the established order, the changes in the organizational structure must now respond to new problems and new priorities. In the Mediterranean countries, for example, in the words of a FAO report, “The absence of stronger and better-co-ordinated civil services had been, therefore, an important factor in limiting the effectiveness of government action in this region. Development plans, however well conceived, could not be translated into effective action, because the administration could not provide the necessary impetus,"12 In country development, teamwork and interdependence are the order of the day. The easy simplicity of this proposition, however, is deceptive There are many problems which impedc progress towards teamwork and interdependence. Since significant organizational changes ordinarily refer to interpersonal relationships, they are usually more complex and difficult to obtain than are technological changes. They must establish a proper system of incentives for abilities, performance and acquisition of skill. Furthermore, since these changes involve redefinitions of organizational purpose and new functional relationships, as well as a new locus of 11 Kyklo, op. cit., pp 269-270 1: FAO Mediterranean Development Project: A Study and Proposals for Action, Rome, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, 1959, p. 40.

·120 Evangelos John Rizos bureaucratic and political power, the assimilation of organizational change which the project brings will inevitably cause some collusion with traditional routines. The Technical Assistance Project Officer The work of the project officer, as that of all professional workers, is unstandardized. No plan of operation can be drawn stipulating explicitly what is to be given and received. The rules that govern his actions are far from extensive, clearly stated or clcarly binding. Yet he has an interesting operational ethic of his own which, if more widely understood and developed, could have farreaching repercussions on the effectiveness of the technical assistance project. The going rationale is that the project officer is responsible to point out to key government staff the effects, for good or ill, which may be expected to follow from alternative courses of action. His concern is with project objectives in relation to the total needs and development effort of the country. In this sense, the processes of change and the demands made are now such that the project officer as a specialist cannot function merely as a specialist. As an Indian delegate has said, “To carry out his duties competently, a member of the United Nations staff should be familiar with the Laws, the economic and social structure, the religion and outlook of the peoples of different regions.”13 Yet however important it is for the project officer to remain in touch with practice and reality, it is difficult for him to claim that he comprehends the inevitable consequences of development forces. Part of the difficulties arise from a lack of effective communications between government staff and project officer. In view of the highly specialized content of a technical assistance project, some failure of communication is inevitable. When, however, key government staff and the project officer join in a working partnership and have established rapport, it becomes a good deal easier to bring about the kind of changes which are part of the project. In reviewing together the existing situation, problems and goals, possible courses of action emerge. Conclusion In development administration the question of integration of the technical assistance project in the processes of country development 13 United Nations, Des A/C5/SR 792, Nov, 16, 1960, pp. 181-182.

·On the Limits of the Technical Assistance Project 121 is importan.for achieving true breakthroughs. This is because a technical assistance project is meaningful only as it relates to the development effort. However, no impressive model has been developed yet. Akin to this is that without making the distinction between absolute and comparative success or failure, we are not in a position to know how effectively integration can be achieved in actuality or how to ascertain the consequences for development administration of receiving or not receiving technical assistance in a particular field As weights vary with project and situation, we need to seek more complete information. Since different projects strive toward different goals we need perhaps to search for diverse criteria of effectiveness based on a realistic appreciation of each project's own special situation. Without exploring alternatives and adjusting levels of aspirations and needs of the country in the light of potentials, means and even costs, the matter becomes somewhat ambivalent. But unless the options are properly faced by the developing country itself, maximum benefit from a technical assistance project will not be forthcoming. Whether or not the project brings the positive consequences of which it is capable depends upon those who shape the direction and effectiveness of the development effort-planners, government staff, political leaders. III The issues which the technical assistance project thrusts in development administration embrace some of the assumptions upon which its effectiveness rests. Although it is difficult to know what precise propositions hold generally true in development administration regarding technical assistance in different cultural contexts, it is probably reasonable to suggest that: (1) A technical assistance project is a focus, not a substitute for the decisions, actions and changes that responsible government staff must make. (2) The determination of goals of a technical assistance project being a function of government cannot be done independently of an assessment of means available for their realization and without being imbued with the ultimate goals that country development seeks. (3) If it is possible to achieve a kind of consciousness of what a technical assistance project is aiming at, its goals are likely to take the form of continuously emerging and even rediscovered in the light of the shape things take. They will be progressively modified in the course of facing alternative possibilities and specified as their consequences become evident. New inclinations will frequently be uncovered and the level of aspirations adjusted.

·122 Evangelos John Rizos (4) From the start, a technical assistance project must have the character of a living tradition and a tempo of continual approach kept alive by a nucleus of competent people who, being substantially involved, seek novel solutions, (5) The full utilization of technical assistance project depends on the working out of a practicable system which is best suited to circumstances, on the quality of communications between key government staff and project officers, on changes in attitudes and on the absence of negativistic doubts and mental reservations. Unless there is an attitude towards the project which is free of the static qualities of times past that often have become the test of truth, the tasks of the project officer in reinforcing the development process will be hampered and even arrested. (6) The content of the advice of the project officer to be effective must be acceptable to decision-makers and be free not only of excessive dogmatism and exclusive attention to narrow project objectives, but also of the danger of erressive compromise in response to diverse pressure. (7) The measures which the project officer suggests should give a kind of new order in th, thinking of key government staff and be related to the capacity of the governmental machinery to provide for the necessary changes and cultural adaptations in a sophisticated way. This is based on the assertion that changes cannot be realized without making far-leaching changes in organization, developing new services and new types of staff, and without releasing creative energies to the development effort. (8) The discovery and application of new ways depends on the adoption of new attitudes by national leaders. The project is part of a political environment and no realistic appraisal of its achievements and limitations is possible without taking under consideration the complex and sensitive problems of the political environment in which it functions. (9) The real or imagined benefits and consequently effectiveness of a technical assistance project depend not on the statistical aggregate of activities of the project officer, his activities cannot settle anything, but on the conduct of enough significant officials in the governmental organization who are free to make choices and foresee the consequences of their action or inaction. (10) A country indisposed to make changes and with a strong preference of forms so rigid that experimentation and change are almost impossible, is not likely to be confronted with issues of development administration. Or, are the issues here more complex and more acute?

·CHANGING PATTERN OF DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION IN THE DISTRICT* C. N. Bhalerao THE development administration in the district plays an important role as an instrument of socio-economic change in Indian rural society. Theoretically, the role of the administration in the Panchayati Raj programme is that of providing technical advice and guidance to Panchayati Raj institutions and executing development programmes. The fundamental approach to be followed in the execution of development programmes is that of community development which seeks to involve the village people in their own social and economic development, thereby making the village masses effective working groups in programmes of national development It is assumed by the authors of Panchayati Raj programme that decentralization of powers and functions to Panchayati Raj institutions will result in the participation of the local community in development programmes which would enable the administration to implement the programmes more effectively. It is outside the scope of this paper to examine whether the present approach to securing popular participation in rural development programme, at the present stage of development, is sound, though this is an important question and needs a more thorough aralysis than attempted hitherto. An unrealistic or confused approach to this can undermine the role of the bureaucracy in the initial and important phase of the programme of rural development. THE SUBSTANTIYE ASPECTS OF ADMINISTRATION There have been various studies on district administration in India While these studies have drawn attention to various weaknesses of the * The data from which general conclusions are partly derived in this paper was collected in the course of a field study of “Political and Administrative Change in the States" recently done by the author. 1 The need for public co-operation, at the present stage of development, has been challenged by Sisir Gupta in "Indian Democracy: What Gives it Stability", The Economic Weekly, Special Number, June, 1960 Also see WH Morris-Jones, "Democratic Decentralisation: Some Political Consequences," The Economic Weekly, Special Number, July 1962 and Samuel P Huntington, “Political Development and Political Decay", World Politics, Vol XVII, No 3, April 1965 For an opposite view, see Joseph La Palombara, "An Over-view of Bureaucracy and Political Development" in Bureaucracy and Political Development, Princeton, New Jersey, 1963 * India, Report on Indian and State Administrative Services and Problems of District Adnunistration, VT Krishnamacharı, Planning Commission, New Delhi, 1962, SS Khera, District Administration in Ind'a, IIP.A, New Delhi 1960, and Report of the Administrative Survey of Surat District, NB Desai, Bombay, Indian Agricultural Society, 1958

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·Changing Pattern of Development Administration 125 that practically the entire rural development programme ind its organization presents a picture of confusion. In general, as a result of the considerations which influence the selection of ministers, interministerial conflicts and a lack of communication bcticen ficle crperience and policy-making, the governmental leadership in the development programme has not been able to display a dynamic approach to the problem of rural development. This is clearly cvidenced by the adoption of wrong priorities in rural planning and lack of comprehension of the substantive issues involved in development administration. POLITICIZATION Recent studies on development administration indicate that the officials are increasingly coming inder the political control of the 11onofficials. The officials are afraid of the non-officials because of the latter's connections with the higher-ups in the party and the power lo write annual confidential reports on the officials and to generally manage their transfers. The Block Development and Extension Ollicers, afraid of their political superiois, tend to conform to the dictates of the non-officials even when they are convinced that it may not be in the public interest to do so. It is obsei ved that the non-ollicinis also tend to interfere with the day-to-day administration of the Panchayati Raj institutions. Further, the factional groups, especiully in the Panchayat Samitis, cut across the administration. Some of the onlaints appear to have become almost full-fledged politicians and are learning to play their politics" skilfully enough to be fice from the harassment of contant transfers or transfers to isolated and unimportant areils and to command good prospects in their jobs. The politiciration of develop ment administration is on the inci case and is gradually undermining its independence and standards of cfliciency and is leadirg to more and more frustration in the bureaucracy. It is to be noted, however, that this interaction between buicaucracy and politics is making the former less authoritarian and, to some extent responsive to the needs of the society. TII ADMINISTRATION AND SOCII'IY ·126 C. N. Bhalerao people could participate in the political decision-making process and development in the district. A large number of existing voluntary organizations at the lower level represent vested interests, are bureauciatic and are characterized by factional politics and do not permit free participation by the individual. The only way to arrest this trend is to activize and democratize the existing, and encourage the growth of new, voluntary organizations in society and build up active channels of communication between the people and administration.* The test of an effective democratic and developmental adninistration is the extent to which it represents the needs and experience of the rural society and acts as an effective instrument of social change. Some studies indicate that many of the Village Level Workers, the Extension Officers and Social Education Organizers do not possess rural backgrounds and are consequently unable to mobilize or catalyze human resources, to motivate the village people and to exercise leadership or even to provide adequate guidance to rural groups. This failure to respond to the needs and desires of the rural community is also due to inadequate technical training and knowledge of the dynamics of community development. It has been rightly emphasized that the basic cause for these shortcomings has been "insufficient understanding and use of social skills in the motivation of village people plus an inadequate understanding of the net-work of human relationships in villages, and the ways by which both technical assistants and administrators can effectively communicate with those whom they seek to serve”.8 The development bureaucracy cannot play much useful role in rural development unless it makes use of proper social skills and motivation techniques. This can be done only when the development bureaucracy and its leadership possess an intimate knowledge of the problems and processes of rural society and are devoted to the tasks of rural transformation. BUREAUCRATIC CULTURE Some change is no doubt taking place in the values, outlook and methods of working of the development bureaucracy. The bureaucracy is gradually learning to implement development programmes with the co-operation of the rural people and their representatives ; it is also becoming conscious of its responsibility to the elected representative of CN. Bhalerao, “Substantive Forces in Indian Administration", The Economic Weekly, October 17, 1964. 6. Taylor, Ensminger, Johnson and Joyee, India's Roots of Democracy, Calcutta, Orient Longman, 1965, p. 628. • Ibid, p. 679. 8 ·Changing Pattern of Development Administration 127 the people. But, beyond this change, the administration does not appear to have undergone any basic changes in its modus operandı. Generally the administration functions in a mechanical manner, following more the quantitative criterion of performance rather than the qualitative one. The statistics in terms of tours and visits, amount and materials shown by the officials are impressive but they do not correspond to the quality of performance. Two factors have an important bearing on the mechanical mode of functioning of the administration—the qualities and motivation of the officials and the methods and procedures of the administiation. Regarding the first, the State Governments do not appear to have given much thought to the qualities and background required of the development officials, especially at the lower level. It is observed that while recruiting the administrative personnel, such important qualities like initiative and aptitude for social service and social skills are not kept in view. In this connection, a strong case can be made out for the recruitment of trained and devoted social workers and persons with social science background to man important positions in development administration Secondly, the earlier bureaucratic methods and procedures of administration and disregard for the needs and difficulties of the rural masses still continue. The development administration is generally characterized by delay, excessive formalism and paper work, attachment to precedents and rigid procedures and concentration of authority at higher levels resulting in inaction in administration and frustration among the people. The administration is also considerably frustrated owing to lack of a dynamic programme of personnel management and incentives for better performance. Bureaucratic culture in India thus exhibits four main characteristics Firstly, it is characterized by an impersonal way of operation, rigidly adhering to formal rules, precedents and procedures. Secondly, there is a pervasive sense of insecurity and frustration among the officials. Thirdly, there are barriers of communication between the higher and lower bureaucracy. And fourthly, the bureaucracy docs not permit initiative, responsibility, innovation and challenge; in the absence of these qualities, the bureaucracy becomes an obstacle to change. As Prof. Lucian W. Pye points out in regard to Burmese administration, "paradoxically, the logical agents for change seem in many ways to be as changeless as any aspect of a transitional society can be. The very men who should be champions of innovation and initiators of action if the country is to develop are to an alarming degree the victims of immobilism".? ? Lucian W. Pye, Politics, Personality and Nation-Building. Burmese Search for Identity, New Haven and London, Yale University Press, 1964, p. 213, ·128 C. N. Bhalerao POSITION OF THE DISTRICT COLLECTOR Panchayati Raj programme is undermining more and more the position of the District Collector as the pivot and co-ordinator of district administration in most of the States. On the one hand, the res. ponsibilitics of the Collector as District Development Officer have increased, making it difficult for him to eſfectively administer the development programme of the district along with his law and order and revenue functions. On the other hand, his cſfcctive administrative power over development administration has diminished. In short, the Collector today has responsibilities without eſicctive powers. The Collectors are also being subjccted to political pressures and influences and are becoming afraid of the politicians in the Zilla Parishad. In a democratic set-up, the Collcctor has no doubt to be responsible to the representatives of the people; but the point to be noted here is that the nature of political control on the Collector is such that it is undermining his independence, impartiality and cffectiveness, The Collector, like the other development officials, is in scarch of a new identity and a new image about his role and office. The demands made on his skills and the needed re-ordering of old values and attitu des and the development of new ones are resulting in profound contradictions in his role. NEED TOR CO-ORDINATION Sometimes the Block Development Officer is unable to achieve proper co-ordination of work at the Samiti level as some of his Extension Officers join hands with a factional group of the Samiti; in some cases they also oppose the B.D.O. at the level of the district officers. The existence of factions in the Samiti and their alliance with some Extension Officers or opposition to the B.D.O. results in the loss of team spirit and unity of the Samiti administrative staff. Vertical coordination, i.e., between the block and district administration, also appears to be considerably lacking. The main reason which accounts for the lack of vertical co-ordination is the dual control exercised on the Extension Officers by the B.D.O. and by the respective technical heads of the district departments. Similarly, the B D.O. is subjected to a dual control—one by the Samiti and the other by the district departments. Co-ordination is not merely a technical function; it also involves liarmonious relations and adjustments both between and among the officials and non-officials. Further, co-ordination at the lower level depends upon the degree of clarity and the quality of planning and organization by governmental leadership.

·Changing Pattern of Development Administration 129 CORRUPTION With the enormous growth of bureaucracy under Panchayati Raj and the multiplication of administration processes, a vast field has been opened in which the officials can misuse their power, sometimes in alliance with the non-officials. Corruption in the administration is partly due to the low salaries of the officials and partly to the prevalence of ubiquitous corruption at the political level. It is observed that corruption in rural areas tends to assume the character of an unwiitten and all-pervasive law of administrative functioning and operates in an organized manner at the lower levels of administration.8 A Study Teamº recently reported that there are serious iregularities in the financial transactions of Panchayatı Raj institutions. These irregularities include wrong postings in cash-books, pui chases without calling for tenders, non-maintenance of stock-registers, bad maintenance of accounts and unauthorized expenditure. This finding indicates that a good deal of manipulation of finances takes place in Panchayatı Raj institutions. It is admitted that the lack of adequate financial iesources of Panchayatı Raj bodies is one of the major obstacles in the effective performance of their functions But a mere increase in the inancial resources of these institutions does not ensure their utilization in public interest An equally uigent need is to make the officials and non-officials more responsible to the people (by spreading education and enlightenment among the rural people and establishing conditions of socio-economic equality) and evolve proper standards and procedures in financial transactions. Prof Myron Weinei refers to the class of “expeditors” which has emerged in India both within and outside the administrative services and argues that “not all corruption is dysfunctional to the goals of economic development” 10 It is true that the expeditor in a developing society performs functions which are ordinarily performed within the administrative system of a modern society. The problem in a developing society, however, is that such a function by the "expeditor" in administration or politics proves to be extremely disadvantageous for the weaker sections and intensifies economic disparities between the "haves" and the "havenots". 8 See TN Chaturvedi, "Tensions in Panchayatı Raj. Relations between officials and Non-officials," The Economic Weekly, May 30, 1964 India, Report on the Audit of Accounts of Panchayatı Raj Institutions, New Delhi, Union Ministry of Community Development and Cooperation, 1965 (unpublished) 10 "India . Two Political Cultures" in Political Culture and Political Development Ed Lucian W Pye and Sydney Verba, New Jersey, Princeton University Press, 1965 pp. 221-24 ·130 C. N. Bhalerao STRUCTURAL WEAKNESSES The characteristics of a sound administrative structure are that it provides for clear allocation of responsibilitics, clear accountability and adequatc delegation of powers at lower levels. The existing structure of development administration docs not appear to possess these characteristics. Recent studies indicate that the officials generally do not fully carry out their responsibilitics partly because of the persistent fear that they would be held accountably for any lapses and partly because their responsibilitics are difîused. Confusion in responsibilities also arises out of the dual and, in some cases, triple control excrcised over the officials. Again, it is found that there is a lack of adequate delegation of powers at the lower level of administration The lower oficials do not possess discretion and freedom to deal with the problems faced by them in the field, follow a pattern of functioning indicated at higher levels and are reluctant to “displease” their superiors by exercising their independence and initiative. Thus, the structure of development administration is one which discourages responsibility, delegation and initiative and leads to confusion and poor administrative performance. We have examined in this paper some of the main features and substantive issues of development administration in the district. The development administration in India is marked by three features. Firstly, it is being heavily politicized and consequently it is losing its independence, impartiality and effectiveness. This, in itself, is not a dangerous tiend since a democratic adıninistration must be ultimately responsible to the elected representatives of the people. But here the danger is that the administration may lose its minimum professional autonomy and virtually become an aim of the ruling party Second, there are no active channels of communication between the administration and rural society. And third, though the bureaucracy is undergoing some change in its values and outlook, it is basically of the old pattein and, both in terms of the qualities and background of its personnel and its methods and procedures of woi king, docs not appear to act as a dynamic agent in social change. The utility of the existing development bureaucracy to act as an active instrument of socioeconomic change in the iural society will depend upon the operative standards followed by the ruling political party and the emerging political leadership at lower levels, the calibre of governmental leadership, the emerging balance between professional autonomy of the burcaucracy and the political control on it, the calıbıc of lower bureaucracy and the quality of poisonnel management piogramme, the ·Changing Pattern of Developinent Administration 131 development of more suitable methods of community development workand the building up of active channels of communication between the administration and society at all levels in the district ·CORRESPONDENCE Repoit of the Inter-Regional Workshop on Problems of Budget Classification and Management in Developing Countries-A Comment. The Editor, the same. It is, however, necessary IJP.A. to draw a distinction between the Sir, budgetary problems and the accounting problems. In each of these The report, which was a result of areas as has been recognized by the deliberations of the Ninth Work the workshop, there are diversities shop--and the first meeting of a in the systems of the countiies and “truly international character”), to that extent it would be necessary is a useful one in more than one to evolve solutions which have an way. It reviews, for instance, the applicability to the institutional progress made so far in the field of framework of each country. This is budgetary reform and particularly particularly the case in respect of in matters relating to the introduc the reforms proposed for Audit tion of functional and economic and Accounts organizations. It is, classification, and considers the however, doubtful whether the same various ways in which the techni can be said about budget presentaques auxiliary to budget-making tion. The alternatives on this front and the problem of budget-making are confined to economic and funcitself could be improved so as to tional classification and to the introsubserve the tasks that have come to duction of Performance (or probe devolved on the underdeveloped gramme) budgeting, These solueconomies. The tasks that confront tions are not mutually exclusive the process of budget-making in but supplementary to each otherthe context of economic develop- each one paving the way for the ment, such as the complexity and other. Thus the question of moderagrowth of expendituies, the need for ting the available solutions to meet tools and classifications that would the requirements of each country indicate the true character of the -except in matter of detail such as expenditure and are useful in faci those relating to classification of litating expenditure decisions, are functions, activities, and projectsobvious enough and need no repetiis not likely to be a major one. tion here. The general tone of the report In the context of the immensity is ambivalent, it appears to be imof the tasks that lay ahead it is pressed by the existing systems and only desirable that definite indicathe attempts that are being made in tions of the lines in which reform is several countries. At the same time to be carried are given so that they the workshop was also convinced could serve as the guidelines for the that there is a considerable need underdeveloped countiies which for the introduction of new techniare attempting to re-organize their ques Consequently the recommensystems. The problems faced by dations of the workshop would these nations, even if they differ in appear to be lacking conviction. the matter of detail, are by and laige What is more some extianeous * U N. .: 1964.

·Correspondence 133 issues were brought in to diminish such a techniquc, separate indicathe value of some techniques which tions of financial and physical targets, have other wise been well proven however well intentioned they may It is the attempt to obfuscate the be, will not have the proper results. issues at hand and the absence of Also Also such separate presentations a conviction that reduces the utility may create problems of co-ordinaof the report considerably. This may tion and to that extent may have the effect of the report being introduce distortions in the adignored altogether by the under ministrative procedures It has developed countries, and if that were been recognized by the workshop to happen, the very purpose of the that planning is a "thinking” process workshop would become abortive while budgeting is a "doing” pro- These contentions are illustrated cess. This is an added reason as with reference to some of the points to why these two should be brought made in the 1eport, in the following together, and this is facilitated by paragraphs the introduction of of Performance budgeting There are a few more In para 27 of the report, it has aspects of this issue which require been pointed out that “Perfoimance to be recognized here. budgeting can be interpreted more broadly as any procedure for plan In para 54 of the report, it has ning, implementing and reporting been stated that the term “Perforboth in financial and physical terms mance budgeting" has given rise to and most countries are already some misgivings arising out of the trying to do something of the kind”. difficulties of ensuring appropriate It also adds that there was scope physical measurements, and therefor further improvement in this fore, it might be preferable to call it respect. The question of primary “Programme budgeting". It is also importance is whether the attempts stated that Programme budgeting's so far made or are being made are aim would be to promote better adequate for the purpose? Presuma formulation of programmes and bly the workshop had in view the more effective iesults. In this connecdifferent targets for outlays, targets tion it may be recalled that the conand other associated procedures that cept of Programme budgeting came are being experimented in the planned to the fore with the recommendaeconomies (such as India) when tions of the Task Force of the 1955 they referred to these aspects. But Hoover Commission The experience these efforts, as the report itself of Performance budgeting in U.S A. indicated in para 38, are not ade during 1950 to 1955 indicated that quate. It has been pointed out the implementation of the technique therein that general plans of the of Performance budgeting led to kind made by several underdevelop some difficulties, primarily regarded countries hardly provide an ing the (a) classification of Prooperational framework for linking grammes, and (b) provision of cost planning and budgeting. It is pre data in respect of many activities. cisely for this reason that a pointed It was with a view to avoiding some advocacy in favour of the intro of these pitfalls that the system of duction of Performance budgeting Programme budgeting which is more should have been made. The real concerned with the future, unlike advantage of Performance budget- the performance budgeting which is ing, to reiterate the obvious, is that concerned with a review of the past, it brings the physical and financial was suggested by the Task report. aspects together. In the absence of The Commission, however, treated ·134 Correspondence both the concepts as synonymous with an appropriate and scientific and recommended the efforts should chibition of the scheincs. Concepbe made to streamline the classifi- tually, therefore, the techniqucshould cation and other aspects. It also not be made to deliver goods which expressed itself firmly in support are least expected from it. It is of the cost based budgets. necessary to recognize this aspect Viewed against this background, of the workshop's recommendation the technique of Programme budget In view of the fact that many undering as suggested by the workshop developed cconomics are still skeptiwould be nothing more than a pic cal about the validity and utility of sentation technique with its whole the technique and any attempt focus centering in and around the to overload the concept would only classification of all aspects of the end up in making it loss attractive working of the government into than it originally was. functions, activities and piogiammes. If the intention of the workshop I would like to refer bricfly to a few was only this then the very utility Other aspects of the report. 111 of Performance budgeting would Chapter III, the report, after a very become substantially reduced It comprehensive review of the plan is only fair to reiterate that the usc and budget procedures, comes to fulness of Performance budgeting the conclusion that there is no ideal is in its indication of the past accominstitutional arrangement for cstaplishments, cost of the future pro- blishing a harmonious working grammes expressed both in terms of relationship between planning and money and select work-load data budgeting. The problems discusand thus being of inestimable valuc sed in the preceding paragraphs of to the Legislature and Management the chapter, however, relate to the alike. It would appear that these feasibility of annual bedgeting as implications were not fully assessed a part of comprehensive long range by the workshop before arriving at budget plan. This indeed is the these conclusions question that is to be looked into. This, however, is primarily a matter Another associated aspect requir- of budget procedure, for the budget ing consideration relates to the is the concrete shape of all developcomments of the workshop con mental plans and should not be tained in para 65 of the report. It linked up with the institutional is stated therein that in the process framework of planning and budgetof installation of programme budget- ing, and the merger of the two or the ing care should be taken to ensure the evaluation aspects of each proadvisory status of the former. In other words since the question is gramme. It is also stated that primarily one of procedure it is such an evaluation should reflect required to be tackled as such and thie true scarcity of the resources is not to be mixed up with the form employed This function is neither and content of organizations. Purely expected nor in fact to be taken on a procedural level, an answer upon by Performance budgeting for the question of linking up the The technique and process of perfor- twin requirements of planning and mance budgeting assumes, both budgeting, lies in performance budgeexplicitly and implicitly, the selec- ting suitably supplemented by tion of certain programmes and different techniques of resouice foreprojects with reference to predeter- casting. Performance budgeting mined criteria, and does not itself indicates atonce the overall expendi throw up criteria but is content ture on projects, the annual ·Correspondence 135 bieak-up thereof, and the quantita- budgeting. But the report as already tive indication of the results that pointed out, is halting and hesistant merge with the targets proposed by and shows an awareness of the need the planning authorities Therefore, for reform, as also a stout comit serves as the link. A recognition A recognition placency in that, it has faith in the of this aspect would have given a existing institutional framework. practical shape to the conclusions of It may be a commitment for the the workshop But somehow it civil servant to support the instituappears to have drifted to the orga tional framework of the country he nizational matters. represents. But any ambivalence on the part of an international The underlying appioach in the organization resulting from the preceding paiagraphs is nothing commitments of individual repremore than to urge a well argued case sentatives is, perhaps, not likely for the introduction of Performance to take us far. Yours faithfully, A. PREMCHAND New Delhi, March 25, 1966 ·INSTITUTE NEWS At a meeting held on January 11, 1966, the members and staff of the Indian Institute of Public Administration and the faculty and students of the Indian School of Public Administration passed the following resolution: Institulc of Public Administration and the faculty and the students of the Indian School of Public Administration was held on January 13, 1966 to condolc his death. "The Members and staff of the The Exccutive Council of the Indian Institute of Public Admi Institutc has approved, at its meeting nistration and the students of held on March 13, 1966, the following the Indian School of Public Ad subjects for the Prize Essay Competiministration place on record lion, 1966: (1) Role of State Governtheir deepest sense of sorrow and ment in the Improveinent of Adminisgrief on the sad demise of Shri tration of Urban Authorities. (2) Pri- Lal Bahadur Shastri, the late oritics in Administrative Reforms. Prime Minister of India and the (3)Functioning of the Block Develop- President of the Institute. In his ment Administration in relation to passing away, the Institute has Agriculture. The last date for receipt suffered an irreparable loss. Shri of cssays is August 31, 1966. Shastri had been the Institute's President for about a year and half and was a great source of inspiration and strength. The A preparatory Mccting on Inter- Institute owes a great debt of Institutional Seminar on Case Studies, gratitude to him for his invaluto be commenced in autumn 1966, able services to the Indian Nation was held on February 22, 1966. in the cause of peace This meeting also offers its heart-felt sym- The subjects discussed at the meetpathies and condolence to Smt. ing, among others, included: (1) Use Shastri and her family in this of Case Studics for Training and irretrievable loss." Teaching, and (2) Case Studies and Administrative Reforms: (a) Adapting administrative organization and procedures to developmental and Shri N.V. Gadgil, Vice-chancellor, democratic processes, and (b) Role of University of Poona, and the Mcm- Inter-Institutional collaboration. The ber of the Executive Council of the Meeting was opened by Shri D.S. Institutc, passed away on Janu ry 12, Joshi, I.C.S, Chairman, Committee 1966. He was a veteran pat iot, on Case Studies, and Secretary, Union popular leader, learned autho', in Ministry of Commerce. able administrator and was very closely associated with the Institute About forty representatives of right from its inception and had made significant contribution to its government in scrvice training institutions (including those of police and functioning and progress. A meeting railways), of management institutes of the members and staff of the Indian and Central and State departments of ·Institute News 137 * administrative reforms attended the appreciation of the practical problems meeting. and needs of administrative reforms in Government departments at the Centre and in the States. The Indian School of Public Administration, in collaboration with the Union Ministry of Food, Agriculture, The programme for biennial elec- Community Development and Co tions of eight members of the Execuoperation, organized a Seminar on tive Council of the Institute will be "Problems of Agricultural Adminis as follows: tration" from March 9 to 12, 1966. The main object of the Seminar was Despatch of Notice to review recent experience in the of Election; Elecplanning and implementation of agri- 31st March, 1966; toral Roll as on cultural development programmes Nomination Paand to elucidate the administrative and other prerequisites for the forper; and Authorimulation and implementation of a sation Form July 7-10, 1966 national agricultural policy with speed Last date for reand efficiency. The Seminar was in ceipt of Nomination augurated by Shri C. Subramaniam, Papers July 31, 1966 Minister of Food, Agriculture, Com- Scrutiny of Nomimunity Development and Co-opera- nation Papers August 3, 1966 Despatch of Ballot The concluding session of the Papers August 10, 1966 Seminar was addressed by Shri Return of Ballot Asoka Mehta, Union Minister for Papeis August 31, 1966 Planning and Social Welfare. Counting of Votes September 3, 1966 tion. } ܝܬ Shri P. S. Naskar, Deputy Minister for Home Affairs, presided The lectures delivered under the over the concluding session of the Third Appreciation Course, organized auspices of the Institute, during the by Indian School of Public Adminis- quarter January-March, 1966, were tration in co-operation with the Deas follows: partment of Administrative Reforms, February 2 "Some Aspects of Ad- Union Ministry of Home Affairs, ministration" by Shui and awarded the certificates to 15 A P. Goikala. participants who were the officers of March 14-17 "Public Servicesthe level of Deputy and Under Secre- Four aspects" by taries in the Central Ministries and Prof V.K N. Menon, officers of comparative level in the formerly Director of State Governments The object of the the Institute. course was to facilitate a better 7 ·RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION A major development in the field Industry and Supply has been bifurof Indian administration witnessed cated into two Ministries, namely, recently is the re-organization of the the Ministry of Industry, and the Union Ministries. Consequent on the Ministry of Supply and Technical formation of the new Council of Development. (6) The Ministries of Ministers, headed by Smt. Indira Indira Rehabilitation and Labour and Em- Gandhi, the following amendments ployment, have been amalgamated. have been made in the Government The new Ministry has two Depart, of India (Allocation of Business) ments: the Department of Labour and Rules, with effect from January 24, Employment and the Department of 1966. (1) The Ministries of Civil Rehabilitation. (7) The two Depart, Aviation and Transport have been ments under the Ministry of Steel and merged into a single Ministry of Mines: the Department of Iron and Transport and Aviation, with two Steel, and the Department of Mines Departments, namely, the Department and Metals, have been converted of Aviation, and the Department of into two separate Ministries, namely, Transport, Shipping and Tourism. the Ministry of Iron and Steel, and (2) The Ministries of Food and the Ministry of Mines and Metals. Agriculture, and Community Deve- (8)The subjects relating to Village Inlopment and Co-operation have been dustries including Khadi and handiformed into a single Ministry of crafts, and Ambar Charkha, under Food, Agriculture, Community Deve the Department of Social Security lopment and Co-operation; it has have been transferred to the Minisfour Departments, viz., the Depart- try of Commerce, and its subject ment of Food, the Department of “Bal Bhavan and Children's Mu- Agriculture, the Department of Com- seum” transferred to the Ministry of munity Development, and the De- Education. The Department of Sopartment of Co-operation (3) The cial Security, with the remaining sub- Department of Company Affairs and jects, has been re-designated as the Insurance in the Ministry of Finance Department of Social Welfare. (9) has been abolished and its subject re- The subjects relating to Town Planlating to Insurance allotted to the ning Organization, Delhi Develop; Department of Revenue in that Minisment Authority, Central Regional try, thereby redesignating it as the and Urban Planning Organization, Department of Revenue and Insu- Improvement Trust, Master Plan of rance. The subjects relating to Com- Delhi and development of land depany Affairs have been allocated to clared as "development areas" under the Ministry of Law under a separate the Delhi Development Act, formerly Department known as the Depart- under the Ministry of Health, have ment of Company Affairs. (4) The been transferred to the Ministry of Ministry of Health has been re- Works and Housing, which has been designated as the Ministry of Health re-designated as the Ministry of and Family Planning, with two De- Works, Housing and Urban Developpartments, yiz., the Department of ment. (10) The Bureau of Public En- Health, and the Department of Fami- terprises under the Department of ly Planning. (5) The Ministry of Co-ordination in the Ministry of ·Recent Developments in Public Administration 139 Finance has been transferied to the Sub-Group will examine: (1) the Department of Cabinet Affairs in adequacy and effectiveness of the adthe Cabinet Secretariat. ministrative machinery as at piesent A new Department called the organized and operating from State Department of Materials Planning in to village level; (2) the present pattern the Ministry of Supply and Technical of delegation of powers to officers Development, which has now been at district and taluka levels and make renamed as the Ministry of Supply, iecommendations regarding fuither Teclinical Development and Materials delegations; (3) the organization ma- Planning has been created. The func- chinery available for land reform tions of the new Department of implementation work, with a view Materials Planning, inter aliu, will to avoiding delays and failures; (4) the be. (1) Co-ordinated assessment of desti ucture of existing land laws relamands for raw materials, by sectors, ting to jurisdiction of Revenue Courts industiies and large units in relation and Civil Courts; (5) the existing to particular groups of products and system of settlement of assessment of to available capacities (2) Assessment land used for agriculture with a view of domestic availability of raw mato finding out whether it needs reviterials, with due regard to the feasibision at the present juncture and if so, how It will also recommend ielity of import substitution (3) Assessment of requirement of imports of organization and reforms in the existraw materials, with due allowance ing administiative structures, for inventories. (4) Determination of methods and procedure of work and principles, priorities and procedures, co-ordinating devices. for allocation of raw materials The Sub-Group on Agriculture Department will report on: (1) the impact of research work in agriculture As regards the administrative improvement and in line of communirefoims at the Centre, the Commis cations from State to the village sion which was set up on January 5, level, (2) the present administrative 1966, has started its woik. The Com- machinery of Agriculture Departmission invited various heads of iriment from State to village level and stitutions, senior Government officimeasures for its re-oi ganization, if als, etc, to discuss the proposals and necessary; (3) the success of the soil allotment of the research piojects conservation programme and measu- The Commission has also set up va res to make it more popular and pur- 110us study groups which will make poseful; (4) the use of irrigation poa detailed study in their respective tential with special reference to water utilization; (5) measures for increas- At the State level, the Studying agricultural production especially Group on Administrative Problems food production, facilitating speedy constituted by the Government of action and avoiding delays and en- Gujarat, in January, 1965, under the suring better co-ordination and cochairmanship of Shri Babulhai J operation between the departmental Patel, constituted three Sub-Groups other departments and the panchayats organization on the one hand and to study the problems of Revenue, Agriculture and Panchayat Departof different tiers on the other hand, ments comprehensively and to suggest with special reference to implementaways and means for their improvetion of the Five Year Plans. ment. The Sub-Group entrusted with the In the Revenue Department, the task of examining the Panchayat areas ·140 Recent Developments in Public Administration Department will icvicw the overall against persons icsponsible for deadministrative sel-up in the State laying their disposal beyond the timeso as to consider changes which have limit. A register will also be maintainbecome necessary as a consequence of cd by the officers concerned in which introduction of Panchayatı Raj, cs details about their disposal are menpecially the following: (1) the position tioned and it will be sent to the Head of the District Magistrate Collector of the Department for perusal. whether he can captain, in truc scnse, (4) The professional and technical the district offices not coming within advice of all departments should be the purview of the Panchayat with readily made available to the District a view to successfully co-ordinating Collectois as and when required by the work of all Government Depart- them and their vicws should be given ments at district level; (2) working adequate weightage and attention by of Departments at district and taluka the officers of other departments. level; (3) relations of different departments above the district level with The Government of Madhya Prathe Panchayatı Raj bodies, and (4) re desh has, with a view to ensuring lations between officials working economy in expenditure, abolished under Panchayat bodics and the the posts of Block Development elected office holdei s. Officers with effect from January 1, 1966, in the Community Develop- The Administiative Reforms Comment and Tribal Development mittee set up by the Government Blocks, and these officers will be reof Andhra Pradesh, under the chair verted to posts in their parent manship of Shri N. Ramachandra departments from where they were Reddy, Minister of Revenue, has drafted. submitted its report. The digest of the report appears at the pp. 148-159 of this Journal. The State Governments of Ma- Majority of the recommendations dhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, from the Report of the Administra- Rajasthan and West Bengal have istive Reforms Committee set up sued instructions, to their respective under the chairmanship of Shri H. C. departments, in order to effect cco- Mathur, have been accepted by the nomy in expenditure and cutting de- Government of Rajasthan. These are, lay in the Government Departments. inter alia, as follows:(1) The Heads of These include cuts in contingency ex- Departments should ensure internal penditure in the current year and efficiency and technical performance budget estimates for 1966-67, holding of their Departments by surprise up implementation of non-plan checks, periodical inspections, review schemes which have not yet been of progress, examination of statistical started and reduction in staff. data, and special work studies that may be conducted from time to time With a view to avoiding unnecesand should take regular action for sary expenditure and delay as a result further improvements. (2) Touring of carelessness and inefficiency on the officers should check the arrange- part of subordinate officers, the Goments in respect of internal efficiency veroment of Madhya Pradesh has audit at the time of their tours.(3) The also decided that the cost of issuing time-limits should be specified for ieminders by telegrams, telephones disposal of various kinds of applica or even sometimes by sending a mestions, 1 l., for loans, licences, refund senger, will be recovered from the of security deposits and allotment of officers who fail to respond to governland. Strict action will be taken ment communications within a f ·Recent Developments in Public Administration 141 1Casonable time. In addition, such those of Rajasthan State Services will other punislipients as may be deemed be required to serve at least for a necessary in the circumstances of the period of two years in any one of the case will also be imposed after seven difficult districts, ie, (1) Bansfollowing the prescribed procedure. wara, (2) Durgapur, (3) Jaisalmer, (4) Chittorgarh (Pratapgarh Sub- The Government of Rajasthan Division), (5) Barmer, (6) Udaipur has delegated liberal powers to Heads (Kothra and Jalore parts), and (7) of Departments, Additional Heads Sawai Madhopur (Karauli Sub-Diviof Departments, Joint/Deputy Heads sion) during the first 12 years of of Departments and to the District their service. A register will be kept Level Officers to sanction the Leave by the authorities concerned, men- (excluding study and disability leave) tioning the dates of appointments and up to two months to all the Gazetted transfers, to enable them to know and District Level Officers working as to when the officer will be completunder them provided no substitute ing 12 years of service in Rajasthan. is required. Where substitute is needed, leave will be granted by the ap- With a view to curbing the habit pointing authority or such lower of frequent resignations, the Governauthority to whom power of transfer ment of Madhya Pradesh has decided ring officers has been delegated that when the vacancies of the Lower Division Clerks, which are likely to The Government of Rajasthan has last for more than three yeais, are to prepared a Suggestions Scheme, combe filled, a provision should be made ing into force from April 1, 1966, to in the contract at the time of appointencourage its employees of all categoment that in case the person quits ries to offer suggestions for improve- Government service within a period ments in office and administrative of three years for any reason, he procedure for effecting economy in would be liable to pay to Governexpenditure, avoidance of wastage ment a sum of Rs 250. Similarly the of manpower, preventing leakage of Government will pay him Rs 250, if he is removed from the service revenue, reducing procedural delay, and maintenance of integrity. The within three years except in the case suggestions will be examined by the of specific default after complying Departmental Committees headed by with the procedure prescribed in the the Heads of Departnients which MP. Civil Services (Classification, would be empowered to sanction Control and Appeal) Rules. awards up to Rs 500 while cases deserving awards for more than Rs. In pursuance of the directives 500, will be sent by the Departmenissued by the Government of India, tal Committee with its recommenda the Government of Mysore has decitions to the Central Committee, ded that all its employees except in headed by the Chief Secretary. The Class IV on their first appointment Central Committee is empowered to should furnish information in respect make awards up to Rs. 1,000 for of their close relations who are nationindividual cases and up to Rs 5,000 als of other countries or domiciled a year in foreign countries Any change in the particulais given should be furnished by the employee at the end of each year to the appointing Autho- The Government of Rajasthan has lity/the Head of the Department decided that the officers of All-India where lie is employed, and such 111- Services allotted to the State and formation will be incoiporated in the * ·142 Recent Developments in Public Administration Confidential Reports of the persons concerned. entitled to a family pension ianging from 30 per cent of pay subject to a maximum of Rs. 150 p.m. in the case of those drawing Rs. 800 p.m and above. The Government of India has increased the dearness allowance admissible to its employees drawing pay up to Rs. 1,000 p.m. with effect from December 1, 1965, as follows: Pay Range Present D.A. Revised DA Rs. Rs. Rs. Under the Assam Services (Commutation of Pension) Rules, 1965, the State Government has been authorized to sanction the commutation for a lump-sum payment of any pension which has been or is about to be sanctioned under the Pension Rules provided tha :(1) the expenditure can be met from the sanctioned budget grant; and (2) the uncommuted residue of the pension shall not be less than Rs. 240 per annum. This commutation will be limited to one third of the pension in case of Government servants governed by the new Liberalized Pension Rules of 1954, and to one half in the case of Government servants outside these Rlues. 70-109 110-149 150-209 210-399 400-1,000 33 38 50 58 65 76 81 93 90 100 (With mar- (With marginal ad- ginal adjustments justments up to Rs. up to Rs 1,090). (1,100). The Dearness Allowance at a flat rate of Rs 100 p.m. to its employees drawing pay between Rs. 1,000 and Rs. 2,250 with effect from March 1, 1966 has also been granted by the Centre. With a view to helping the families of the employee who dies in harness, the Government of India has decided to pay the double benefits available under the Present Family Pension Scheme subject to a limit of half the pay last drawn when the death of a Government servant occurs after seven years of service in order to help the families of its employee will be paid for a period of 7 years or till the due date of retirement whichever is earlier, and thereafter the family will get the normal pensionary benefits. Under the present Family pension scheme, a Government servant who dies after a year's service is The Government of Maharashtra has liberalized the Revised Pension Rules, 1950 as follows. (1) The maximum amount of superannuation, invalid and compensation pension has been increased from Rs. 6,750 to Rs 8,100 per annum (2) The maximum limit of pay for the purpose of death-cum-retirement gratuity has been raised from Rs. 1,500 to Rs. 1,800 per annum, with a ceiling of Rs. 24,000 on the total amount of death-cum-retirement gratuity. (3) Under the New Family Pension Scheme, 1964, persons are at present required to surrender a portion of gratuity where admissible, cqual to two months pay subject to a maximum of Rs. 3,000. This limit has been raised to Rs. 3,600 with effect from January 1,1964. The Government of West Bengal has introduced a Family Pension Scheme for all its regular employees on pensionable establishments-temporary or permanent-who were in SCIVICC on April 1,1965,or arc recruited ·Recent Developments in Public Administi ation 143 thercafter. It will be admissible Licentiate Assistant Surgeons who in the case of death, while in service will continue in their existing scale, or after ietirement, but in case of VIZ, Rs 335-20-475-25-575-EB-25 death while in service the employee 650 (b) A post of Medical must have completed a minimum Superintendent in the pay scale of period of three years of service. The Rs 1300-60-1600 plus a special monthly pension will be administered pay of Rs 100 has been sanctioned as follows. For employees getting for the Headquarters Hospital of Rs. 800 or above, 12 per cent of the each of the Zonal Railways, in lieu pay subject to a maximum of Rs. 96 of one of the existing posts of Diviand a minimum of Rs. 60; Below Rs sional Medical Officers of the Hospi- 200, 30 per cent of pay subject to a tal. (c) The non-practising allowance minimum of Rs. 20, For this purpose, of Rs 500 to the Director (Health), the family of the officer will include Chief Medical Officer, and Rs 500 wife-husband, minor sons, unmarried to the Medical Superintendent, w ll minor daughters and dependent and dependent be given. The non-practising allowparents ance for Divisional Medical Officer has been raised to 35 per cent of pay The Government of Mysore has subject to a maximum of Rs 400, decided to giant relief to the families 33} per cent of pay subject to a of its employees, who die while minimum of Rs 150 for Assistant working in their office or on tour or Medcal Officer and Assistant Suron inspection, for meeting expenditure geon (d) serving Assistant Medical in connection with the performance of Officers, substantive or officiating in obsequies or the transport charges of non-fortuitous vacancies on Jariuary the body. The amount not less than 1, 1966, will be eligible for one ad- Rs 50 and not more than Rs 300, yance increment on that date having due regard to the circumstances of each case, will be sanctioned The Government of Gujarat has by the Head of the Office on producalso rationalized their pay scales, in tion of a death certificate given by the order to attract qualified medical attending doctor, if any, at the time personnel to the Government service, of death and where there is no such with effect from November, 1, 1965, doctor, a statement of circumstances as follows: (1) Peisons in Class I and reasons resulting in the death Cadre will get the pay scale of Rs duly authenticated by the Head of 420-30-610-35-755- EB - 40 - 875-45- the Office 1100 All posts of GMS. (Public Health) in Class II have been upgraded to Class I and the new entrants will get a non-practicing al- With a view to rationalizing the lowance at the iate of 331 per cent structure of the Railway Medical of the basic pay subject to a mini- Service and its pay scales, the Railway mum of Rs 175 p m. (2) All medical Board has revised the pay scales of all persons, who possess minimum educategories of doctois, with effect from cational qalification of MBBS deg- January 1, 1966, as follows: (a) The giee will be placed in Class II in the category of Assistant Surgeons (Class pay scale of Rs 280-15-385-20 III) has been abolished and all 485-EB-25-735 and the less Assistant Surgeons will be in the qualified persons will continue in scale of Rs 350-25-50-30-590-EB their present pay scales All the new 30-800-EB-30-830-35-900 and desig entiants, who are MBBS will be nated as Assistant Medical Ofliceis given 5 to 7 advance increments and (Class II) excepting the existing a 110n-piacticing allowance at the late + ·144 Recent Developinents in Public Administration p.m. of 33 per cent of the basic pay The Committee on Public Uudersubject to a minimum of Rs. 150 takings has, in its thirtcenth rcport (3) All peisons possessing L.C.P.&S, on Management and Adininistration L.M.P., G.F., A.M.B.A.M.S., D.A.S. of Public Undertakings (Planning D.S.A.C. and other equivalent quali- of Projccts), recommended that Parfications will be placed in Class III liament should be informed periodiin the pay scale of Rs. 160-6-190. cally of the progress on the execu- 8-230-EB-8-310-EB-20-370. New e11 tion of various public sector projects trants will get 3 to 7 advance bccausc in the past serious diffiinciements and non-practicing culties and revisions of estimates, ctc., allowance of 33} of the basic pay have come to light only when some subject to a minimum of Rs. 75 p.m, Membcis raised the matter on the floor of the House or through Annual The Government of Andhra Pia and Audit reports which are placed desh has decided to give grants-inon thc Table of the House at a very aid, fiom Rs. 42 to Rs. 120 p.m., to later stage. the registered medical practitioners in Indian Medicine and Homoeopa- The Committe has recominenthy, who are practising in villages, ded, among others, as follows : where the medical facilities have not (1) At the time of the setting up of a been provided by the Government or public undertaking, the Government Local Bodies. Medicines to the values should indicate the specific objectives of 25 per cent of the sanctioned grant for which it is being set up, the prewill also be supplied by the Governcise targets it has to achieve, tlic time ment. The exact amount of grant will schedule for completion, and the be based on the daily average attenestimated cost. From time to time dance of patients, which should be at the Government should also indicate least 20 to 25 per day, both new and what the undertaking should attain old, satisfactory maintenance of re in a prescribed period. This would gisters prescribed and that they will not only serve as an incentive to the treat at least 50 per cent of the patients undertaking but give the Governfree of charge. These dispensaries ment a yardstick to measure its pershall be inspected at least once in a formance. (2) The estimates of foyear and such grants-in-aid will be reign exchange expenditure should stopped as soon as other medical be prepared more realistically and a facilities are provided by the Govern- thorough examination made of the ment or Local Bodies The Govern raw material plant and machineiy determine their ment servants will not be entitled to requirements to receive such grants. necessity and non-availability in India. In case of foreign collabora- The State Government has also tions, the Government should not sanctioned a family allowance of relax proper scrutiny, and projects Rs. 75 to each of the Staff Nurses, with a high proportion of foreign who have been seconded to the Mili exchange should be under an oblitary Nursing Service during the pre- gation to earn foreign exchange when sent Emergency or during the Emer they go into production (3) In gency in 1962 irrespective of the fact public undertakings where pioducwhether they are inarried or single, tion and expansion takes place siwhether they are temporary or remultaneously, profitability and ecogular in the Andhra Pradesh Medical nomy of woiking should be tested Subordinate Services from time to time. (4) An agency with a continuous progiamme foi conducting techno-economic feasibility ·Recent Developments in Public Administration 145 be set up studies in various spheres should The Government of India has (5) A team should constituted a Committee, under the be appointed to assess the require- chairmanship of Dr. A. Ramaswami ments of ancillary and auxiliary in Mudaliar, with the following terms dustries in public sector projects and of reference: (1) To examine the suggest measures to set up such in extent to which the import of techdustries expeditiously. nical know-how from abroad can be dispensed with. (2) To examine The Government of Maharashthe general conditions subject to tra has established an Agro-Indus- which indigenous know-how can be tries Development Corporation, a commercially exploited. (3) To limited concern, with Shu P. K suggest general guide-lines regar- Savant, Minister for Agriculture, as ding the type of cases in which Chairman of its Board of Directors, foreign collaboration should be allowed with an authorized capital of Rs. 2 crores, which will be shared by the The Union Government has also State Government and the Government of India in the proportion of set up a Committee, under the chair- 75:25 respectively The Corporamanship of Dr. V KRV Rao, Memtion will promote the supply of farm ber, Planning Commission, to reveiw the working of the Tarıff Commisimplements and machinery including equipment for food industries, dairy sion, Bombay, since its inception in development and fisheries, to increase 1952, and to examine and suggest modernize the farm output and what other functions can be entrusted to the Commission, having reagriculture. gard to the requirements of development planning in the country It The Government of India has will recommend changes in the consset up a Committee on development titution and functions of the Commiof technical consultancy services, un ssion The Committee will also exader the chairmanship of Shri S G mine the policy of protection to in- Barve, Member (Industry), Planning dustries, taking into account the Commission. The terms of referenpresent restrictions on imports ce of the Committee are as follows (1) To assess the extent and types of The Monopolies Inquiry Comtechnical consultancy services mission which was appointed by quired to meet the country's needs the Government of India in April, during the Fourth Plan period and 1964, under the chairmanship of subsequent years (2) To assess Shu KC Dass Gupta, Supreme the existing facilities available in the Court Judge, has submitted its report country, in both the public and pri to the Government of India vate sectors, and locate the gaps to be filled up. (3) To advise on the measures to be taken to fill up the gaps (4) To suggest the general The Government of Assam has type of organizational patterns, for constituted a Committee, with Shri the technical consultancy establish BL Sen, retired Divisional Commisment, which will be suitable for sioner as its Chairman, to study the country's conditions (5) To ad question of financial condition of the vise on the pattern of technical col- Municipal Boards and Town Comlaboration or association, which mittees in Assam The terms of may be necessary for drawing on reference of the Committee are to foreign technical know-how. examine (a) the present financial re- * ·146 Recent Developments in Public Administration if any, in conditioa of the Municipalities and Similarly, the grants-in-aid have to suggest ways and means for their been fixed from land revenue, enterimprove nent; (6) the question of tainment duty, education cess, andmal-administration, for primary education, maintenance the fina:cial sphere ; (c) the ques and repair of roads, expenditure on tion of arrears of taxes and the ways allowance of the employees of the and mecins of realizing them ; (c) municipalities, etc. the question of non-payment of Governnient loans for timely re It is further provided that if the payment; and (e) the question of municipalities fail to implement the sanctioning Conveyance Allowance policies of the Government, their to the Chairman and Vice-Chairman grants may be reduced or discontiof Muni-pal Boards and Town nued. The Government is also em- Committees and to prescribe rates powered to deduct from the amount thereof of grants-in-aid payable to the municipalities such amount as may be In pirsuance of the recommendue by the municipalities either to Or Government or to Panchayats dations of the Committee appointed in Octoyer, 1962, under the chairto such other semi-Government institutes. manship of Shri Maldevjibhai Odedra, to study the question of payment of grants-in-aid to municipalties, the Government of Gujarat has clas- The Government of Assam has sified Municipalities into three claconstituted a State Evaluation Comses according to the population mittee, with the Chief Secretary (census 1961) : Class ‘A’ having a as its Chairman. The functions of population of more than 100,000, the Committee are : (1) to select class 'B' with population in between projects and schemes for evalua- 50,000 and 100,000, and 'C' class tion ; (2) to secure co-ordination and with povulation less than 50,000. co-operation of various departments to facilitate the work of Evaluation A basic per capita grant will be Unit ; (3) to consider the reports paid to all the municipalities, i.e, 30 of the Director of Evaluation and paise per capita per year to 'A' class to suggest to the Government such municipalities, 45 paise per capita action as may be considered necesper year to 'B' class, and 60 paise sary on such reports ; (4) to review per capita per year to 'C' class muperiodically the progress made in the nicipalities. For 'B' and 'C' class implementation of such decisions ; municipalities the grants will be and (5) to review the scope and conlimited to Rs. 30,000 and 22,500 tents of evaluation. maximu'n respectively. The municipalities will have to raise their The Government of Mysore has own res.Jurces over and above these constituted two Advisory commigrants within five years co.nmen ttees for advising the State Developcing from April 1, 1965. The ex ment Council. One will have Mipenditure on general administration nister for Agriculture, as its Chairwill ordinarily be within 33 per cent man and deal with matters relating to of municipalities' own income from Agriculture, Minor Irrigation, Land non-self supporting items. This Development, Animal Husbandry, grant will be paid quarterly ; and Dairying and Milk Supply, Forests, the Collector will be the sanctioning Soil Conservation, Fisheries, Coand the disbursing authority. operation, Community Development ·Recent Developments in Public Administration 147 and Panchayats. The Second The Government of India has Committee, under the chairmanship appointed a Committee, under the of the Minister for Finance, will be chairmanship of Shri G. S. Pathak, concerned with subjects of Economic Union Law Minister, to review the Resources and Welfare including working of the Advocates Act, 1961, Health and Education. in all its aspects and to make necessary recommendations. The Government of Punjab has The Government of Kerala has constituted an Advisory Board for constituted a State Law Commission, planning of roads, under the chairunder the chairmanship of Shri T. R. manship of Public Works Minister. Balakrishna Iyer, District and Ses- It will review criteria and methods for sions Judge, Palghat, to examine assessing costs and benefits, exathe State laws in detail and to remine proposals for road developcommend the lines on which the ment drawn up for the annual and laws should be simplified, consofive year plans, advise on the pre- lidated, amended, revised or otherparation of co-ordinated long term wise brought up-to-date. development plans, recommend priorities and phasing of programmes, The Government of Rajasthan apprise progress made from time to has appointed Committee time, promote research and training, consisting of State Ministers for and consider questions concerning Revenue, Agriculture, Panchayats, road specifications and standards in Deputy Minister for Revenue and relaxation to utilization of different other non-official members, to retypes of vehicles, either to Governview the land reforms introduced ment or to Panchayats or to such in the state, to find out the bottleother Semi-Government institutes. necks and to suggest measures for improvement in their working. a * ·DIGEST OF REPORTS ANDHRA PRADESII REPORT OF TIIE ADMINISTRATIVE RE- FORMS COMMITTEE 1964-65, Hyderabad, The Government of Andhra Pradesh, pp. 193. The Government of Andhra Pra (6) To examine and suggest measures desh set up an Administrative Reform for facilitating attention to complaints, Committee, under the chairmanship enquiries and requests for informaof ShriN. Ramachandra Reddy, Mi tion from the public. (7) To suggest nister (Revenue), to advice on the measures for checking the evil of cormeasures to be taken for the improve ruption at all levels especially to the ment of the existing machinery of extent that these arise on account of Government. The following are the the nature and complexity of official terms of reference to the Committee routine, (1) To review the working of the Administrative Machinery, as at present organized, and the manner in which Thc Committee submitted its it functions, with a view to assessing report in October, 1965. The more its adequacy to a democratic Governimportant recommendations and ment in a Welfare State and to sugfindings are as follows: gest measures for improvement and efficiency consistently with economy. ADMINISTRATIVE MACHINERY (2) To enquire into the responsibilities of the Secretariat and the various (1) Though every one in the bier- Departments of the Government and archy of the Government is responsito advise in what manner the exercise ble for the various tasks undertaken and distribution of the functions of by the Government, nobody takes the Government could be improved. (3) final responsibility for any failure To suggest measures for delegation in carrying out those tasks. Changes and decentralization of power with in the set-up at some of these levels a view to encouraging responsibility and in the relationship between these and initiative at all levels and securing levels is urgently called for. In regard expeditious despatch of Government to each activity, there should be business, in particular to define and someone in the hierarchy who is resdelineate business betweeen the Secre- ponsible for the overall performance tariat and the executive Heads of of all those who are in the hierarchy, Departments. (4) To suggest measures and who could be called upon to acfor the better co-ordination of the count for the result. Officers at each activities of different departments at level should have a clear idea of their the district level and particularly as duties and responsibilities and also between the State Government offices feel that they have adequate powers and units of local administration. to perform the tasks assigned to them. (5) To examine the adequacy of They should be able to proceed boldly public relations in Government offices with their work without the fear of and suggest measures for the improve- inquisition so long as they discharge ment of contact and understanding their duties in good faith, keeping between the public and the executive always the public welfare in view. wings of Government at the field level. The citizens should be assured that ·Digest of Reports 149 their grievances and complaints (3) There should be one centrawould be promptly attended to. lized agency to be in charge of the overall direction, policy, implemen- The Secretariat tation and evaluation of the various (2) The Secretariat, the high level activities of each department of puboffice of the Government in the State lic administration. The Secretary to and on the efficient functioning of Government, who functions at the which depends the proper functioning topmost level under the Minister, of the entire machinery of the Govern must shoulder this overall responsiment, should function efficiently and bility. He should not be content effectively. The present Secretariat with taking or obtaining decisions is slow and leads to great delays; on such matters as are sent up to him it has disproportionately increased by the concerned Head of Departin size and there is no proper coment but also inyolve himself in ordination between the activities of close watch over the processes of the different Secretariat departments. implementation and evaluation, as In a few cases the relationship bet well as public relations connected ween the Secretariat, and the Heads with matters dealt with in the departof Departments is not satisfactory. ments under his charge. He should The only way of improving the effi function as the leader of a team. ciency and the effectiveness of the He should not only assist, guide and Secretariat is : () to select the top control his officers in their work, but most officials available to the Govern should himself assume initiative and ment for the posts of Secretaries and responsibility for producing the reby making each Secretary responsible quired results The Head of the Denot only for policy-making but also partment should no longer function for the implementation and overall as a separate entity He should feel performance of the Departments in that he is part and parcel of the team his portfolio; (ii) to eschew duplicate of officers to whom a common task noting and scrutiny of the proposals has been entrusted. He should at all sent by the Heads of Departments at times be fully in the know of the the clerical level in the Secretariat; thinking going on in the “Secretariat” (iii) to associate the Head of Depart and should himself be able to conment fully with the thinking of the tribute to that thinking from any Secretariat and to give him appro equivalent position. The Head of each priate Secretariat status thereby affor important Department should be ding him an opportunity to make his given an appropriate ex-officio Secrecontribution to the Secretariat think tariat status. The conferment of the ing in an important manner; (iv) ex-officio status on a Head of Departto make the advice and services of the ment would not entitle him to any Secretariat available to the Head of enhancement of emoluments, the Department as far as practicable, at grant of a special pay, etc. the "Deputy" and the "Assistants" level, thus relieving the Head of De (4) A department of the Secretapartment from much routine and riat should consist of two distinct making it possible considerably to wings, viz , the Administrative Wing augment the powers of offices at and the Executive Wing, both of lower levels; and (v) to provide for which will function under the overfinancial scrutiny within the depart all supervision of the Secretary. ment itself up to a certain extent and The Administrative Wing will consist avoiding the sending up of every pro of a Secretariat Cell, a Finance Cell, posal, big or small, to the Finance a Vigilance Cell and a Public Rela- Department for approval. tions Cell, while the offices of the ·150 Digest of Reports concerned Heads of Departments, the later can, if he thinks that would form the Executive Wing 'The a serious irregularity has been com- Heads of Departments, who have mitted, bring the matter to the notice been given 4r-officio Secretariat sta of the Finance Minister and iſ the tus, will not correspond with the latter so desires, to place such cases Government by addressing letters to before the Council of Ministers for the concerned Secretary as is being its consideration and for taking cordone now but will send the files con rective measures. (nv) Persons of at taining their proposals for approval least senior Deputy Secretary's status to the Secretariat with a fully refer should be posted as Financial Advi. enced detailed noto and the relevant sets to houd Finance Cells. papers Only an officer of the Secretariat will dcal with the file. Formal (5) The Secretariat Cell of a deorders will be issued under the sig. partment should be much smaller nature of the Head of Department as than the present Secretariat Departex-officio Secretariat Oficer, copies ment. of the order being sent to the Secretariat Cell and the Finance Cell as (7) The Vigilance Cell should may be necessary. The closed files will not only watch over the integrity also be kept in the Office of the leads and propriety of the behaviour of of Departments. the officers employed in the Departmont but also help in bringing (5) (i) There should be a compact to the notice of the Secretary cases unit led by a Financial Adviser of the where delay and injustice occurs in status of Joint Secretary, dealing with individual Government Deputy Secretary or Assistant Secretary and cmployees, thereby improving the adequate other staff, depending on general tone of the administration the size of the budget of the as a whole. department and the kind of financial (8) The Public Relations Cell in problems involved in its day-today work. a department should be charged with It should also be the special responsibility of explaiin charge of the Accounts Branches ning policies and Government orfunctioning with the Heads of Deders to the public translating the partments to avoid undue delays gist of each in local language, setby these branches. (11) Except in the ting out the main reasons for its matters where budget provision acceptance by Government and has not been made or matters where the budget provision has been pointing out to the public how they can profit by it or co-operate with made without proper scrutiny, which fact the Finance Department should its implementation. indicate when accepting the budget (9) Considerable powers, both proposals, the Secretary's decision technical and financial should be should be final, any objections of the delegated to the offirers lower in Finance Cell notwithstanding; in rank to that of the Head of Deother cases, the proposals should be partment himself, so that the proporeferred to the Finance Department sals emanating from the office of at the Secretary level, with the Head of Department should not recommendations of the Secretary necessarily have to pass to the of the administrative department. Secretariat through the Head of (iii) Cases in which the Financial Department himself. Adviser has been over-ruled may be reported by the Financial Adviser (10) Each proposal should be fulto the Finance Secretary, so that ly considered in the office of the ·Digest of Reports 151 Head of Department at appropriate subject "Jails” which is closely level, before a reference is made to connected with “Courts" should also the Secretariat Cell, etc. be transferred to Law Dejartment, which should then be called the "Law (11) Examination of cases in the and Judicial Department”, (iii) The Secretariat should be done only at Municipal Administration and Panor above the level of Assistant Sec- chayati Raj Departments should be retaries So long as the staff at combined into one Depar'ment at lower levels, such as Assistants, Sec the Secretariat level The new Detion Officers, etc , are available, the partment may be called "Panchayati tendency will continue to allow them Raj and Municipal Administration to initiate the noting Therefore Department”. After the transfer in the Secretariat there should be no of Municipal Administration from sections at all on the pattern existing the Health, Housing and Municipal now in many of the Departments Administration Department, the resiand the Assistant Secretary should duary Department may be designaform the base. Of course, each ted as "Medical and Publio Health officer in the Secretariat including Department”-Housing being part the Assistant Secretary should have of Public Health work a Stenographer and one or two Assistants merely to put up files without (15) A senior officer of the rank nothing and to prepare other purely of Additional/Joint Secretai, should clerical work. be placed in charge of Org nization and Methods work in the General (12) The offices of the Secreta Administration Department and he riat and the offices of the Head of should be entrusted with the work Departments concerned should be connected with the follow-up action located close to each other so that on the decisions of the Council of the easy movement of files and per Ministers and assist the Cluef Secsonal discussion may be facilitated retary in that regard between the Secretariat and the Head of Department. (16) More and more officers should be drawn to the Secretariat (13) The changes recommended from the field staff. A systematic in respect of set up should be introarrangement should be ma le under duced simultaneously in all the De which Secretariat Officers in the conpartments of Government for which cerned Departments are regularly these are recommended, so that the exchanged with field officers. Every officers concerned do not hanker attempt should be made to ensure after the return of the old order. hat officers in charge of administration in the technical departments (14) (1) The subject “Labour' and the officers in the secretariat should be transferred from the Home have opportunities to exchaage their Department to the Industries Deplaces, every five years or so. partment Vocational Training connected with Industrial Development Head of Department should also be transferred to Industries Department. (11) The subject (17) (1) The Heads of Depart- “Courts" and "Administration of ments should have conferred upon Justice" and all Acts not specifically them the maximum amount connected with any other depart- delegated authority delegated authority In turn they ment should be transferred from should delegate as much power as is Home to Law Department. The necessary to their own subordinates of ·152 Digest of Reporis and in particular to officers working Collector's Offices according to a preright out in the field. (ii) The Sec gramme to be fixed in advance ! retaries to Government should pay the beginning of cacin year by the special attention to this matter Government in Roscnue Departthat any tendency on the part of il incnt. Ilead of Departinent to hold on to delegated powery without delegation (22) With vie. 10 en uring to subordinate oſlicers is nipped in that the Panciul Raj in ditutions the bud function clliciently, it sepsate Hud of Deparlment should be created for (18) It should be the responsi- holding charge of work connected bility of the Head of Department with Panchayati Raj and that . to evaluate from time to time the senior officer should b: appointed to achievements of his department. this post. The functional officer such as the Director of Youth Pro- (19) The number of Ilvads of gramincs, Director of In-service Departments should be reduced to Training, etc., should work under about sixty instead of 86 at present him and his olice should bu located by grouping two or three departin the Secretariat as the other 65- ments into onc. tablishment that 11.1 to work under him is aiready there. (20) There is no need to give further deputies to the Heads of (23) The Regional Authority Departments in addition to thosc should comprise only one Officer, they are alrcady having. The Hcads viz., the Collector of the District of Departments should, however, be and the State Trasport Authority personally relieved of routine matalso should comprisc only one offiters by delegating such higher pow cer, W., Transport Commissioner. ers to officers at lower levels in the Appeals against the decisions of these department. authorities in respect of licences for bus routes, etc., should be to a Tri- (21) (1) The Board system of bunal presided over by an officer of the rank of a District and Sessions administration as it exists today, Judge. may be given up and the functions which the Board of Revenue is discharging be entrusted to Commis (24) The purchase of certain catcsioners, who will be Heads of Depart- gories of equipment and machinery ments to be constituted in place of should be left to the Departments the Board. These Commissioners themselves. A Committee consiswill deal with the subjects which the ting of Secretaries to Government Board is now dealing and they will in the Industries, Finance and the have ex-officio Secretariat status (11) concerned departments and the Head Two of these Heads of the newly of the Department concerned should constituted Departments should be review the list of items which could appointed as Members of the Board be excluded from central purchase of Revenue for the purpose of disat the beginning of each year. charging statutory functions which the Board alone should do, until the (25) The Regional Officers statutes are suitably amended. (in) should not confine their attention Each of the Commissioners including merely to supervision and direction. the Commissioner, Civil Supplies, They should be vested with substanmay take up the inspection of tial powers, so that they might be ·Digest of Reports 153 (29) (1) A critical examination should be made of the need to exclude posts from the purview of the Public Service Commission with the object of excluding as few posts as possible from the Commissioner's purview. (11) As far as possible, selections may be made on the basis of a written test (and viva voce test where necessary), which will give an impression of fair selection to all concerned. able not only to give relief to the Heads of Departments but also take final decisions at a level nearer to the people of the region (26) All the district officers concerned with the development activities should function under the administrative control of the Zilla Parishads and that it is only then that a Zilla Parishad can efficiently discharge the responsibilities entrusted to it under Section 47 of the Panchayat Samitis and Zilla Parishads Act. If the Departmental Officers at the district level are to be brought under the administrative control of the Zilla Parishad, it is necessary to have a senior officer as Executive Officer of Zilla Parishad effectively to co-ordinate their work and guide them properly (27) All Transfers of personnel under units of Local Administration should become the exclusive responsibility of the Chief Executive Officer in future and the elected representatives should not have anything connected with such trans- (30) Recruitment to posts under the Zilla Parishads and Panchayat Samitis which is being made by selection Committees of the Zilla Parishad in which the vacancy arises, should be entrusted to an official agency. A Staff Selection Board should be constituted for the purpose of selecting candidates required for service in Panchayatı Raj Institutions on the basis of a written test (or viva voce test where written test is not possible or necessary) and for allotting the selected candidates to each district. The Chief Executive Officer of the Zilla Parishad may reallot the candidates to the different Units of Local Administration in his charge. The Board may select candidates for Municipal Councils as well. fers. PERSONNEL ADMINISTRATION (28) With the formation of the (31) (1) Direct recruitment to the enlarged State of Andhra Pradesh on first Gazetted posts should be to the the 1st November, 1956, two dif extent of forty per cent of permanent ferent sets of personnel, one from the vacancies in all departments of Andhra State and the other from the Government and the persons in lower erstwhile Hyderabad State, came to ranks already in service should also gether each governed by a separate be allowed to compete for this duect set of service rules In the absence of recruitment provided they have the integrated rules, difficulty is experien prescribed qualifications for direct ced in regularizing the services of recruitment-a certain relaxation repersons appointed to different posts garding age being given to them in those services The appointments Direct recruitment to certain cateare being continued indefinitely on a gories of posts where prospects of temporary basis, leading to dissatis promotion for personnel working in faction among the incumbents of the sub ordinate services is very limited, posts. The integration of Service is not however, necessary, eg, Post Rules for Andhra and Telengana per of Headmaster of a High School in sonnel should be expedited following the Education Department (11) In the uniform principles in the matter of Revenue Department recruitment to such integration. the first gazetted post, viz., Tehsildars, ·154 Digest of Reports is wholly by promotion from the which are within the purview of the category of Deputy Tahsıldars and Public Service Commission the existthere is no direct recruitment. Only a ing practice may continue. (6) For small percentage of posts of Deputy non-gazetted posts in Secretariat Tahsildars is now being filled by direct Departments, a Committee consisting recruitment. This is so, because till of the Secretary in the Department recently the post of Tahsildar formed concerned, the Deputy Secretary only a category in the (non-gazetted) dealing with Establishment and an Revenue Subordinate Service. There officer of the General Administration need not be any direct recruitment to Department or the Secretary of anthe posts of Deputy Tahsildar, which other department may be constituted. may be filled entirely by promotion (c) For non-gazetted posts in the from among the ministerial subordi Office of a Head of Department, the nate service, to provide adequate pros- Head of the Office, a Deputy Secrepects for them. Instead, 40 per cent tary of the concerned Department in of the posts of Tahsildars should be the Secretariat and an officer of the filled by direct recruitment. The direc General Administration Department tly recruited candidates should be dealing with services may form the given sufficient training before they Committee. (d) For promotion to nonare actually posted as Tahsildars. gazetted posts in regional and district offices, a Committee consisting of the (32) There is a need for ensuring Head of the office and officials of sufficient avenues of promotion to appropriate status available locally Government employees. It is not could be constituted. Perhaps the enough to reserve a percentage of local Collector can be associated with vacancies for being filled by promothe Committee. tion. The basis on which promotion to different posts in each service is (34) (1) All the remarks entered made should be clearly laid down. in the confidential reports of the Officers at all levels should have the Government servants about his work confidence that their good and honest and conduct--good as well as bad work will receive recognition in the should be communicated to the inshape of promotion when the time dividual concerned by the reviewing comes and that public interest and no authority if there is one, along with other consideration will prevail in his remarks and by the reporting selections for promotion. authority, if there is no reviewing authority. (1) Instructions should be (33) (1) Promotion should be by issued to all officers that vague and merit and steps should be taken to indefinite remarks should not be judge merit properly. (ul) Promotion written against the column relating should not depend on the judgment to integrity. Remarks should be made of a single officer. Instead, Promotion after due enquiries and the officer Committees should be constituted making adverse entries against this for selecting persons suitable for item should indicate the action taken promotion. (a) For selection of offi or proposed to be taken by him in the cers for promotion to gazetted posts matter. which are not within the purview of the Public Service Commission, a (35) The importance of training Committee consisting of a Member of new recruits to Government service of the Public Service Commission, is now well recognized. It is essenthe Secretary to Government and tial to impart training in procedures the Head of the Department concer to new recruits. To enable the clerical ned may be constituted, for posts and lower grade executive staff to have ·Digest of Reports 155 a grasp of rules and procedures and ment, who is responsible for implethe principles underlying them, there mentation of Government's policy should be institutional training for a and execution of schemes should be period of three months--two months free to deploy the officers under him out of this should be for theoreti in the manner he thinks best Further, cal training and one month for prac work in the Secretariat can be reductical training attached to offices. ed by delegating powers to depart- Office procedure and some of the mental heads in regard to transfers more important service, financial and and postings Power to transfer account rules and the underlying district level officers should be delepurpose of these rules should be gated to Heads of Departments and explained during the institutional that postings and transfers of Alltraining. This period should be India Service personnel, Regional counted towards probation. A level officers and Heads of Departsatisfactory completion of the ments alone need come to the course of training should be nec Government. essary for completion of probation. (39) A duplicate copy of the Service Register should be maintain- (36) (1) It is necessary to organize ed and kept with the Government refresher courses of training at perioservant concerned and entries therein dical intervals, to enable the officials should also be attested by the conboth gazetted and non-gazetted sercerned officer along with those in vices—to exchange ideas and to the original register. It should also keep abreast of up-to-date trends be considered authentic for purposes in organizations, methods and pro of settling such claims of the Governcedures. The Organization and ment servant as may arise from time Methods Division in the Secretariat to time Not only the pension due should arrange these courses of trainto an officer but his other dues, eg, ing. (11) All Gazetted Officers recruit gratuity, etc, should also be settled ed directly should have a common in good time before the date of institutional training for a period of retirement and paid to him immethree months, in addition to the diately on retirement. practical training which they are now having. (40) It would be in the interest of the State to retain officers in ser- (37) A determined effort should vice beyond the age of 55 if they are fit and suitable be made to adhere to the salutary The age of retireprinciple of retaining an officer in ment may be raised to 58, Governthe same assignment for a reasonable ment retaining the right to retire an time--about three years; unless the Officer at the age of 55 or any time Government themselves do so, the thereafter. instructions may not be heeded by (41) The Government servants the Heads of Departments, some of should be permitted to encash as whom are empowered to transfer much leaye as they would like to officers of certain levels avail themselves of. Encashment of leaye should apply only in the case (38) Except in regard to the post of earned leave but not to other ings of officers in the higher echelons kinds of leave. of the different services, there should be no need for Heads of Depart (42) There should be liberal delements to seek the orders of the gations to the Heads of Depart- Government, The Head of a Depart- ments in the matter of powers to ·156 Digest of Reports impose penalties on subordinate up inspection work of outside offices. staff. Besides this, no separate and independent organization for the inspec- ADMINISTRATIVE PROCEDURES tion of Government offices is necessary. (43) (1) A Petition Register may (46) In addition to the normal be maintained in cach office where annual inspection of offices at disthe Tottenham System is in vogue, trict level and below by the next on the lines of the Inward Register superior officer, officer higher in the and each petition, complaint or hierarchy to that of immediate supeapplication received from the public rior officer should also inspect those be numbered in it before it is distrioffices once in a period of about five buted to the sections. (ii) At the years. The cycle of such inspection same time as the petition, etc., is may be different for different departentered in the Petition Register, an endorsement on a card acknowledge offices to be inspected. ments depending on the number of ing the receipt of the petition, etc., should be issued. This endorsement (47) The existing limit of five should also contain the number given days allowed for initiating action in to the petition in the Register. a case may be reduced to three days. (iii) Inspecting Officers should parti. There may be cases which require cularly scrutinise the Petition Regisdetailed and careful study and which ter to see if the petitions, etc., were therefore cannot be put up within disposed of promptly. three days. In such cases, the dealing Assistant should apply for time and (44) (i) Unless the petitions pre the time applied for will have to be sented to the Ministers disclose any given freely. thing new which was not considered (48) The number of meetings of before, they should be lodged simply. Where petitions are presented the Committees, Conferences and Seminars should be reduced as far as in respect of matters, the disposal of which is within the competence of possible to facilitate the Heads of subordinate officers, they should be Departments to concentrate straightaway forwarded to the authoimportant field work. If any of the Conferences or meetings are not rity competent to dispose of it and no considered important, the Heads of report should be called for in such In such cases, an endorse- Departments should be permitted to ment will have to be sent to the send their deputies to attend those Conferences etc. As far as possible, party straightaway, informing him all such conferences may be held of the position, while sending the petition to a subordinate officer between the 1st and 5th of the for disposal. (11) Whenever an month when usually all the officers application or petition is rejected, the would be at headquarters. order communicated to the party (49) The publication of Annual should indicate briefly the reasons for Administration Reports should be so doing, so that the parties may revived in respect of all the Departknow why that particular action is ments. The Government may also taken, unless the grounds for rejec see that those reports are published tion are such as could not be reveal soon after the year is over and are not ed in public interest. delayed. (45) The Organization and (50) Government should examine Methods Division functioning in the the question of delegation of powers Secretariat should occasionally take very seriously and insist that officers on cases.

·Digest of Reports 157 in higher positions part with ade (54) A Public Relations Officer quate powers to those in lower eche should have a fair knowledge of the lons Departments of Government system of functioning of the Governshould decentralize their functions as ment Departments at various levels extensively as possible to sister and some experience in actually departments, so that the practice of administering some departments of inter-departmental consultation is Government, to be of any use to the reduced to a minimum villagers. At the same time his (51) Considerable amount of personality should carry adequate time and effort is spent in the offices weight with the other District Officers of the Heads of Departments as well so that any genuine grievance brought as the Secretariat, on individual cases to light by him receives prompt attention at the hands of these for exceptional treatment. This practice should be seriously discouraged officers He should be in a position to and Government employees taught be received by the District Collector the habit of looking to Service and the Chairman of Zilla Parishad Rules, etc, as the final word of frequently so that the reactions of Government It is better to liberalize the general public to the various polithe Rules and Regulations rather cies and schemes of Government than allow relaxations may be conveyed to them A senior officer drawn from the Andhra Pra- (52) Each Head of Department desh Civil Service (Deputy Collector) should work out and introduce in the who has put in some service and working of his department suitable procedures for control purposes in gained adequate experience in the Revenue and Panchayatı Raj Departthe form of periodical ieports. Care should be taken, however, to ensure ments and who had aptitude for this that the reports are in terms of specitype of work will be more suitable fic achievements and reflect not so for a job than a ray graduate much the energy displayed by the Therefore, recruitment of Public officer as the results obtained by Relations Officers should, in future, him Besides, the paper work inbe restricted to members of the volved should be the minimum con- Andhra Pradesh Civil Service The sistent with necessary control purexisting incumbents may be given some suitable refresher training to poses enable them to discharge the functions indicated above more satisfactorily. PUBLIC RELATIONS The reform in this direction recom- (53) Public Relations cover all mended by the previous Administrative Reforms Committee and aspects of the relationship between the State and the people, and are accepted by Government should be necessarily an important feature of properly implemented at all levels administration The Public Relations even if this involves some additional cost to Government. work is in charge of a Director who works under the Chief Secretary (55) There is no system or agency and who is also given ex-officio at present which can give informastatus Deputy Secretary to tion to the public on various matters Government Though there are of interest and reduce a majority of quite a good number of officers at the public grievances to a great ex- Headquarters in charge of various tent The services of Panchayatı items of work, the present field Raj institutions, the extension offiorganization appears to be not satis ceis, the Social Education Organızfactory. ers, etc., should be utilized to the full as ·158 Digest of Reporis extent to explain all the new laws, of taking the investigating staff from procedures, ctc., to the people in lay the Police Department may continuc. man's language, so that the people can easily understand them. (61) The powers of the Vigilance Commissioner should be enlarged so (56) The institution of Vigilance that he may have authority to investi- Commissioner should be utilized also gate into all cascs of irrcgularities, for the purposes of redressing public delays, impropricties alleged against grievances. The powers and dutics public servants and not merely comof the Vigilance Commissioner should plaints of corruption. His powers be extended to cover the redressal should be enlarged so as to give him of public grievances. The Vigilance authority to enquire into complaints Commissioner should, if necessary, of corruption against clccted reprcbe given adequate assistance of sentatives in charge of institutions senior officers drawn from various that are receiving Government grants departments to enable him to cílec or loans in any shape. tively deal with this work. (62) There is necd to simplify the procedure relating to disciplinary CORRUPTION proceedings against Government servants. Suitable action may be taken (57) Information elicited regard on the lines proposed to be taken by ing the extent of corruption existing the Government of India in this in Departments of Government is respect in regard to their servants varying. While some have stated that with reference to the recommendacorruption does not exist to such an tions of Santhanam Committee. extent as is talked about, others have admitted the existence of corruption sided over by one or two functiona- (63) A Court of Discipline preto an appreciable extent at many ries of the status of a Judge of a High levels. Some pointed out that there Court should be constituted in was corruption even in democratic institutions. There is no denying the replacement of the present Tribunal for Disciplinary Proceedings for tryfact that people feel that corruption ing the cases against Government exists in one form or another at servants. The decision of this Court many levels in the administration. should be given effect to by the (58) The Anti-Corruption Bur Government without any further eau should not only stay but that examination or without giving any should be strengthened so that infurther opportunity to the officer quiries undertaken by it may be done to make representations in regard to quicker than at present. the merits of the case or in regard (59) A deterrent punishment to the punishment. This change should be imposed on those responshould be adopted after examination sible for delays, particularly in of the legal implications. certain types of cases, e.g., grant of (64) The Conduct Rules similar licences, permits, quotas, disposal to the ones applicable to Governof financial claims, etc. ment servants may be made applica- (60) The desirability of creating ble to employees of autonomous an independent cadre of officers for bodies like Municipal Corporations, the Anti-Corruption Department in Public Sector Undertakings, etc. due course and training them suitably (65) The recommendations made for the work of the Bureau should by the Santhanam Committee in the be considered by Government. In the matter of reducing corrupt practices meanwhile, the present arrangement followed in connection with the ·Digest of Reports 159 grant of licences, permits and the ment should also be given to the like should be adopted with suitable Bureau. modifications for similar purposes (67) The system of collection of in regard to State matters subscriptions to various loans floated (66) Proper investigation should by the State Government and public be made into the conduct of officials sector undertakings on the basis of who issue utilization certificates and commission or premium should be the Anti-Corruption Department stopped. The Government servants should obtain particulars of such should be altogether prohibited from certificates from time to time and resorting to such collections verify if the grant was bona fide (68) The recommendations made To enable the Anti-Corruption by the Santhanam Committee to en- Department to efficiently discharge sure absolute integrity on the part of its functions in this direction, the Ministers, Members of Parliament assistance of a senior and competent and of Legislatures in the State may officer from the Industries Depart be accepted. JOURNAL of the National Academy of Administration, Mussoorie (Successor to The Metcalfe House Journal, Published by the Former I AS Training School, Delhi) A bi-annual official publication brought out by the National Academy of Administration, Mussoorie, and financed by the Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India Each issue contains illuminating articles on administrative problems facing the country, and reproduces talks delivered by experts to the probationers under training at the Academy Some of the articles contributed are — July 1965 issue 1 The Management in Public Enterprise --Shri D C. Baijal 2 Training for Community Development and Extension Services —Shu P R. Dubhashi, I AS. 3. Development of the Public Service in India--DI.V A Pai Panandıker 4 Training of Civil Servants in America—Shri R P Khosla, I A.S December 1965 issue | Audit as an aid to Administration-Shri A K Roy 2 Supervision and Control of Panchayatı Raj 'Institution --Shri Ram K Vepa 3 Central Government Employment Its significance on Status. -Dr V A Pai Panandıkei 4 Training of Civil Servants in France-Shri R. P. Khosla, I AS Widely subscribed to by Civil Servants of the Central and State Governments in India and Libraries abroad Annual Subscription : Rs. 7.00 ·BOOK REVIEWS THE OMBUDSMAN: CITIZEN'S DEFENDER; By DONALD C. ROWAT, London, George Allen & Unwin, 1965, p. 348, 30s. Few persons seem to have devoted standard part of the machinery of closer or more sympathetic study to Government throughout the demothe institution of Ombudsman than cratic world", is well-grounded, India Prof. Donald C. Rowat, who is too will have a full-fledged Ombuds- Chairman of Department of Politi man before long. cal Science at the Carleton Univer- But one might ask with Geoffrey sity, Ottawa. He has travelled twice Marshall, Fellow of Queen's College, to Scandinavia to study the scheme Oxford, and one of the contributors, there and has written extensively on the subject. why this comparatively recent onset of what might be called (without any In this volume he has brought prejudice to this issue) "ombudstogether twenty-nine contributions mania"? After all delay, abuse, from experts (including several Omerror, omission, inefficiency and budsmen) from thirteen nations and negligence in administrative decisions one international authority, to exare not particularly novel, nor public plain how the institution actually resentment at them. The answer is works and to discuss whether the to be found in the increasing interscheme can be adapted successfully vention of bureaucracy in the life of to various constitutional systems the citizen. There are now many The subtitle of the book more occasions for dispute than Citizen's Defender-explains what there were before the last War an Ombudsman is. He is an officer between individual and government who receives and investigates com interest in which a discietionary dcciplaints from citizens against unjust sion affects the interests of a administrative action. The system particular person, or a group. This originated in Sweden in 1809, was is more so in the developing counadopted by Finland in 1919, and tries The exercise by civil servants recently has spread to Denmark, of controls on import, export, on Norway and New Zealand. It is travel, on foreign exchange and so now being discussed in other demo on can excite disagreement necessicracies, and has been proposed for tating appeal to or review by an countries as far apart and as different independent authority Here the disin constitutional structure as Britain, tinction between maladministration Canada, Ireland, Holland and the and incorrect decision is difficult United States In India we have al to draw. That is why the New ready made a beginning by appoint Zealand Parliamentary Commission ing a Commissioner for Public Grie has been unleashed upon not only yances. He is not an Ombudsman decisions which are "unreasonable, by any means but the Administrative unjust, oppressive or improperly Reforms Commission is seized of the discriminatory or wrong" but even problem of citizen's grievances and upon decisions taken in accordance if the prediction of the editor of this with "a rule of law” which is unbook that "the Ombudsman institu reasonable, unjust, oppressive or tion or its equivalent will become a discriminatory. At the same time, 3 ·Book Reviews 161 the fust Ombudsman of New Zea will be paid out of the Consolidated land, Sir Guy Poioles, is of the view Fund and not out of an annual yote, that "happy results can often be and will be safe from dismissal save obtained without in any way calling by a vote in Parliament. If he decides in question the probity of depart there are grounds for a complaint he ments or officials”. will try to put the matter right by The great value of the Ombuds- talking to the department in quesman idea as a solution to the prc tion. If this fails, he will report to blems of bureaucracy in the demo Parliament ad hoc; and in any event cratic world is borne in on the reader he will make an annual report to of this book again and again. But Parliament. Thus he will have the so is the other fact, which is disturb same status as the Comptroller and ing, that the greatest resistance to Auditor-General and will ensure a the acceptance of this idea is not so higher level of efficiency in public much from Ministerial ranks in the administration as does the Auditor- Commonwealth countries as from General in matters financial. As in bureaucracy. Albert S. Abel, Profes- Denmark, hopes Geoffrey Marshall, sor of Law, University of Toronto, there will develop "a spirit of mutual says, the opposition of bureaucracy confidence between the Commissionto the institution of Ombudsman er's office and the civil servants, who “would require somewhat obscure would see in the Commissioner's and refined analysis for its dis office a protector of their interests covery”. It would be in operation against ill-informed criticism and not but never come out in the open. merely a potential source of publicity A bureaucrat does not easily tolerate for their mistakes”. a review of his administrative action by another agency nor can he enter All the Commonwealth counties tain the idea of "the divinity that are interested in the British experidoth hedge about him” being ques- ment, for, according to the Editor tioned or doubted. Therefore Prof. of the book, the need for the institu- Abel fears that after a brief honey tion of Ombudsman is the greatest moon period the strongly-entrenched in these countries. In the last chapbureaucracy in the Commonwealth ter entitled “Conclusion”, says countries would “whittle down the Donald C Rowat, "these countries Ombudsman's dominance”, and try are steeped in the monarchical tradito "cut him down to size”. The only tion and its undesirable implications kind of Ombudsman who can co for bureaucracy. They have not yet exist with these die-hard bureaucra succeeded in throwing off the old cies is an Ombudsman “shrunk to an legal theory that civil servants are odd-job man” and not one “truly servants of the King rather than of effective in monitoring administra the public, that the King can do no tion". wrong and that, by the process of That these fears of Prof. Abel are what one might call “virtue by assoexaggerated is proved by the experi- ciation”, civil servants can neverment about to be launched in the well, hardly ever-do wrong. For- United Kingdom. According to the merly officials acted on behalf of the White Paper on the subject, intro- King, and the old hierarchical myth duced in the British Parliament in would even have us believe that when 1965, the Parliamentary Commis- they acted it was really the King sioner for Administration, as the who was acting. Hence they had to British have decided to call their remain anonymous and their action Ombudsman, will be appointed by secret These ideas are out of tunc the Crown for a specified period; he with modern democratic government ·162 Book Reviews and we must ask ourselves whicther only make him hors de combat but thie ieasons we now give to defend also render him liable to be hanged anonymity and secrecy are not mere first and tried afterwards. If a rogue rationalization, whether in reality clephant were loose in one's garden, these characteristics of bureaucracy it would be an excellent thing to in the Commonwealth are not pre give one's gardener a gun. But it served mainly for the convenience of would have to be an adequate gun. the Government in power. For To give a small rook-rific and tell they place serious difficulties in the him it was better than nothing, and way of the public's legitimate access encourage him to face the elephant to the information, its right to with that in his hand would be the know', in a democracy." most direct way of getting rid not of If, we replace the word "King" the elephant but of the gardencr. by "President” the above quotation The book was first published in would, mutatis mutandis, apply to 1965. A second impression came piesent administrative sct-up in out the same year. It is very read- India. A few years ago, a Chief able throughout. The editor has Commissioner of Ajmer issued a made an excellent job of translating show-cause notice to a Deputy some contributions which were origi- Superintendent of Police, why he nally not written in English. All should not be dismissed. The De readers-laymon as well as expertsputy Superintendent challenged the interested in improving their counauthority of the Chief Commissioner try's government would find in this to issue such a notice to an officer volume much useful information. The of the status of D.S.P. The Chief appendix includes statistical tables Commissioner consulted the Law on the existing systems, a bibliogra- Ministry and re-issued the same phy, the Norwagian Act and the Bills notice in the name of the President proposing Ombudsman for Canada of India ! and the United States. The fact that As compared with his Nordic the Scandinavian scheme has alprototype the proposed British Par- ready been successfully exported to liamentary Commissioner for Public Nowy Zealand makes one hope that Grievances is considerably circumsit will soon become an important cribed in stature, authority and the addition to the armoury of other area of operation. Any further curdemocratic governments. tailment in these directions would not R. L. MELITA APPROACH TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION; By E. N. GLADDEN, London, Staples Press, 1966, p.190, 30s. The teaching of Public Adminis- Cambridge, the London School of tration has been until recently back Economics and other established ward in Britain as it is still today in universities. There it is assumed India. This may be attributed to that best administrators are those the idea that expertness in practical who had a general liberal education field of administration is a skill to be which makes for the essential admideveloped rather as an ait by piac nistrative quality of adaptability, tice than acquired as a science by As Lord Haldane told the Royal study. Of couise Britain has been Commission : "We still consider it until recently successful in recruiting worthwhile for our administrators for administrative duties from the to know their Aristotle and Plato". pick of the graduates from Oxford, ·Book Reviews 163 first part. This is in contrast to a school of simplify the subject with the object of thought which is by and large main bringing it within range of the entained in the United States that quirer who has little or no academic administration is not only an art but knowledge of Government. This also a science and that certain prin- book does not, therefore, pre-suppose ciples may be deduced from adminisany study of the subject. trative practices which can be taught The work is divided into two disin schools and universities. tinct parts : In view of Welfare State commit (1) A main text whose object is mients which tend to become the to interpret the essence of the order of the day-interest in public subject without tying it rigoadministration has become worldrously to any particular syswide. In more developed countries tem. Government agencies become more (2) An appendix which outlines and more numerous and their activiin brief the principles and ties more pervasive, more complicatstructure of the five systems ed and increasingly difficult to underof Goveroment of Britain, stand. The less developed coun- U.S A., France, Switzerland tries which are anxious to catch up and Russia. This part sets out with the advanced countries are faced to provide a brief conspectus by the need for explanation of such of the broad rules which had activities to the vast majority of been taken for granted in citizens. In India about half a dozen In a world of extending Governuniversities offered Post-Graduate ment and administration by public Couises in Public Administration bodies the lay citizen, the new official and even less than that number for and even the hard-pressed teacher Under-graduate Courses. In view of often crave for a text that explains the great demand for the teaching Public Administration as simply and of the subject universities like Osma in as few words as possible. An nia offered Under-graduate and Post- Approach to Public Admunistration graduate Courses for the regular aims at doing just this. Because of Students along with the Postthe Post- clarity of thought lucidity of expres- Graduate Diploma Courses in the sion and simplicity of style and evening session for the persons work presentation the present book can lug in various employments. A for be commended for students who midable hurdle in the spread of the have offered Public Administration teaching of the subject is the dearth at Under-graduate level. of teaching material in the subject, The main intention of the present particularly for those who are famibook is to discuss Public Adminisliar with British and Indian politicoadministrative institutions only. Dr. tration as activity that is of universal Gladden's book on ipproach to Pubvalidity rather than something relalic Administration is a valuable additive to a particular system of Government. This is quite contrary to tion indeed. more or less an accepted approach of As Dr. Gladden himself has the American writers who concensuggested this book is a primer for trated upon cıplaioing the administhe novice, be hea student or general trative structure and processes conreader. Being an author of half . nected with their own Systen of dozen books pertaining to various Government. Dr. Gidden has tried aspects of Public Administration he to analyze the basic aspects of Pub. Ihas been successful in lus attempt to lic Administration in funerul. But ·164 Book Reviews at places he has ignored to deduce the ment like U.S.A., India, etc., would administrative propositions from the have given a complete picture. existing practices in different countries which are similar to and differ- ing to Communication, Control and However, the Chapters pertainent from one another. For ins- Professional Education speak for the tance, in a chapter on "Staff” or author's own skills of communica- "Personnel" illustrations from different countries representing different patterns of public personnel manage- M. A. MUTTALIB tion. THE INLAND REVENUE SIR ALEXANDER JOHNSTON Pp. 201. 20s. (Members 15s.) The Inland Revenue is big business. With a staff of nearly 60,000, it collects over £4,000 million a year in direct taxes from 20 million 'customers'. An operation of this magnitude and complexity calls for large-scale organization and management of a high order, and the book describes in detail how the Department has achieved this. This able and readable book is one of the most important additions to the series. GEORGE ALLEN AND UNWIN, LONDON for THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION nar mornin manns ·BOOK NOTES EMERGING PATTERNS OF RURAL Studies in Indonesia" by Unesco LEADERSHIP IN SOUTHERN Research Centre as well as a paper ASIA: By NICD, Hyderabad, on “Leadership pattern and political National Institute of Community power dynamics in the rural areas of Development, 1965, pp. IV +237. the Philippines" by Prof Prospero R. Covar of University of the Phi- The volume brings together the lippines. Appended is a useful papers presented to and a short bibliography on rural leadership. summary of the discussions at an The Conference thought that single International Round Table Con specific research design could posference on the subject organized sibly be applicable to rural societies jointly by National Institute of Com all over the region and it recommenmunity Development, Mussoorie ded an inter-disciplinary approach (now at Hyderabad) and Unesco to the study of the problem The Research Centre on Social and Eco volume should be of great interest nomic Development in Southern not only to sociologists and adminis- Asia, Delhi. The periodical frame trators and public leaders connected work and research design for con with social change and rural devetemporary studies are considered lopment, but also to students and in five papers namely, “A framework teachers of other disciplines like pubfor the study of rural leadership lic administration. It contains some in transitional societies" by Prof valuable suggestions for further S C. Dube; “Research in village study and research on rural leaderleadership: concepts and approa- ship, though it leaves the lay reader ches" by Unesco Research Centre, rather bewildered about dimen- "Particiption in new social structure sions of the problem and the exact and leadership" by Dr Prodipto research techniques to be applied to Roy; “Some field techniques in the the study of its various aspects study of rural leadership. an anthropological approach" by Leela Dube; A GUIDE TO THE LITERAand “Concepts and methods: re TURE OF RESEARCH METHOsume” by Dr Rajni Kothari. DOLOGY IN BEHAVIOURAL SCI- ENCE; Ву PAREEK AND Studies undertaken in India are MITTAL Delhi, Behavioural Scidiscussed by Dr. Leela Dube in a ences Centre, 1965, p. 64, Rs. 3. paper on “Studies on leadership in Village India"; by Dr. S K. Srivas The Guide is a useful attempt to tava in “Directed social change and list in one place with short annorural leadership in India” and by tations, the current literature on re- Dr. L P. Vidyarthi in “Some pre search in behavioural sciences and liminary observations on emerging techniques of measurement and stapatterns of leadership in tribal India tistics related to reseaich. The The work being done in West Pakis Guide is divided into four parts. tan is reported by Dr. Mrs AB Part One deals with the literature on Kiani, Dr S. Ansari and Mr. S M. research methods-general, educa- Haider in a joint paper, and in East tion, psychological, social sciences, Pakistan by Dr. A. Farouk. There miscellaneous and report writing; and is also a note on "Rural Leadership Part Two with reseaich techniques, ·166 Book Notes TCobservation and interaction to the Governing Boards of Colleges process, interviewing, survey, con in accordance with the wishes of tent analysis, projective techniques, those Boards so as to meet the cursociometiy, scaling and factor analy- rent needs of the College, cstablishsis. Part Three is concerned with ment of students councils which will, the literature on measurement tech among others, operatc a co-operative niques-general intelligencc and abi store and an employment bureau lity, personality, achicvement, cdu and organize sports activities; dificcational and miscellancous, and Part rentiation of roles of different mem- Four with general and special statis bers of the college faculty in tcrm of tical methods. specific responsibilitis, C.E., public relations, periodical tests and exami- COLLEGE ADMINISTRI nations and provoking discussion on TION-A PROPOSAL ; By J. W. changes in Syllabi, improvement of AIRAN, Bombay, Asia Publishing methods of maintaining student House, 1965, p.57. records, ctc. The Appendices include a questionnaire for soliciting The book contains a strong plea the comments of students on teaching for a rc-generation of the intellec methods and tcacher-student tual life in a college and the struc- lationship and for evaluation of the tural re-organization of its adminis programme and methods of work tration so as to secure a personal and and functioning of college adminissocial development of every one of tration in terms of their purposes and its students. The author, drawing objectives. The author favours the attention to the damaging effects of evolution of a cadre of academic uniformity insisted upon by uni administrators who would be "geneversity rules and regulations, sug ralists" academically, but “speciagests entrance examination for adlists” in particular administrative mission to different courses in the in- jobs concerning college administraterest of flexibility and experimen- tion. All these recommendations tation for raising of educational are directed to streamline college standards. The solutions suggested administration by dividing and deleinclude careful selection of a dynamic, gating responsibility in clear terms, academic administrator as a Prin- though the author at an earlier stage cipal, delegation of executive au observes that "To say that carefully thority by the Government Board of worked out rules and regulations the College to its Principal and by the will achieve the desired results is to Principal to faculty councils to be confuse college administration with a set up for advising on academic and business administration or with the administrative matters and fostering working of a Government departacademic efficiency; nomination of ment. Not to give it any serious persons of high academic and ad- thought is to triſle with an immense ministrative ability by Government human intellectual enterprise".

·RECENT OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS OF IMPORTANCE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA INDIA, Commissioner for Linguis LOK SABHA SECRETARIAT, Comtic Minorities, Seventh Report, 1965 mittee on Public Undertakings (Third INDIA, Committee on Broadcast Lok Sabha), Twnety-Second Report, ing and Information Media, 1966, Ministry of Petroleum and Che- Report, 1966 micals, Indian Drugs and Phar- INDIA, Committee on Panchayatı maceuticals Ltd., 1966. Raj Elections, 1964 (Chairman : K. LOK SABHA SECRETARIAT, Com- Santhanam), Report, 1965. mittee on Public Undertakings (Third INDIA, Committee on Urban Land Lok Sabha), Twenty-Third Report, Policy, 1964, Report, 1965. Ministry of Transport and Aviation INDIA, Department of Agricul- Airlines Corporation, New Delhi), (Department of Aviation, Indian ture, Agricultural Development: 1966 Problems and Perspectives, 1965. LOK SABHA SECRETARIAT, Com- INDIA, Enquiry Committee on mittee on Public Undertakings (Third Small Newspapers, 1964, Report, Lok Sabha), Twenty-Fourth Report, 1965. Ministry of Mines and Metals, INDIA, Finance Commission, Neyveli Lignite Corporation Ltd, 1964, Report, 1965. 1966. INDIA, Monopolies Enquiry LOK SABHA SECRETARIAT, Com- Commission, 1964, Report, 1965 mittee on Public Undertakings (Third INDIA, Review Committee on Lok Sabha), Twenty-Seventh Report, Education, 1960, Report, 1966. Planning Management and Admi- INDIA, Review Committee on nistration of Kerala State Govern- Export Promotion Councils, Report, ment Companies, New Delhi, 1966 1965, 1965. LOK SABHA SECRETARIAT, Com- INDIA, Study Team on the Audit mittee on Public Undertakings (Third of Accounts of Panchayati Raj Lok Sabha), Twenty-Eighth Report, Bodies, 1964, 1965. Ministry of Iron and Steel, Head Office of the Hindustan Steel Ltd, INDIA, Study Team on the Central 1966. Public Works Department, Report, 1964, 1965. LOK SABHA SECRETARIAT, Committe on Public Undertakings (Third INDIA, University Grants Commission, Report on Standards of Ministry of Iron and Steel, Durgapur Lok Sabha), Twenty-Ninth Report, University Education, 1965. Steel Plant of Hindustan Steel Ltd., INDIA, Working Group on Hand 1966. loom, Report, 1964, 1965. LOK SABHA SECRETARIAT, Com- LOK SABHA SECRETARIAT, Committee on Public Undertakings (Third mittee on Public Undertakings (Third Lok Sabha), Thirtieth Report, Minis- Lok Sabha), Twenty-First Report, try of Iron and Steel, Bhilai Steel Ministry of Transport and Aviation Plant of Hindustan Steel Ltd., 1966. (Department of Aviation), Air-India, LOK SABHA SECRETARIAT, Com- 1966. mittee on Public Undertakings (Third ·168 Recent Official Publications of Importance Lok Sabha), Thirty-First Report, LOK SABHA SECRETARIAT, Esti- Ministry of Iron and Steel, Alloy mates Committee (Third Lok Steels Project and Coal Washeries Sabha), Hundred and Sixth Report, Project of Hindustan Steel Ltd., Ministry of Industry (Organization 1966. of the Development Commissioner, LOK SABHA SECRETARIAT, Com Small Scale Industries), Part II, mittee on Subordinate Legislation 1966. (Third Lok Sabha), Fourth Report, LOK SABHA SECRETARIAT, Esti- 1965, 1965. mates Committee (Third Lok LOK SABHA SECRETARIAT, Esti- Sabha), Hundred and Seventh Remates Committee (Third Lok Sabha), port, Ministry of Industry (Organiza- Ninety-First Report, Ministry of Ministry of tion of the Development Com- Railways: South-Eastern Railways, missioner, Small Scale Industries 1966. Rural Industrialization), 1966. LOK SABHA SECRETARIAT, Esti LOK SABHA SECRETARIAT, Ommates Committee (Third Lok budsman in Various Countries, Sabha), Ninety-Third Report, Minis 1965. try of Home Affairs, Public Services, LOK SABHA SECRETARIAT, Public 1966. Accounts Committee (Third Lok LOK SABHA SECRETARIAT, Esti- Sabha), Forty-First Report, Appromates Committee (Third Lok priation Accounts (civil), 1963-64, Sabha), Ninety-Eighth Report, Audit Report (Civil), 1965, and Audit Ministry of Food, Agriculture, Com- Report (Commercial), 1965, relatmunity Development and Co-opera- ing to the Ministries of Civil Aviation (Department of Community tion, Commerce, Community Deve- Development), Part I: Central lopment and Co-operation, Educa- Programmes, 1966. tion and Food and Agriculture LOK SABHA SECRETARIAT, Esti- (Department of Food and Agrimates Committee (Third Lok culture), 1965. Sabha), Hundredth Report, Minis LOK SABHA SECRETARIAT, Public try of Education: Banaras Hindu Accounts Committee (Third Lok University, 1966. Sabha), Forty-Second Report, LOK SABHA SECRETARIAT, Esti- Appropriation Accounts Accounts (Civil), mates Committee (Third Lok 1963-64, Audit Report (Civil) 1965 Sabha), Hundred and Second Report, and Audit Report (Commercial), Ministry of Education, University 1964, relating to the Ministries of Grants Commission, 1966. External Affairs, Health, Home LOK SABHA SECRETARIAT, Esti- Affairs, Information and Broadcastmates Committee (Third Lok Sabha), ing, and Labour and Employment, Ninety-Ninth Report, Ministry of Food, Agriculture, Community LOK SABHA SECRETARIAT, Public Development and Co-operation Accounts Committee (Third Lok (Department of Community Deve Sabha), Forty-Third Report, Approlopment), Part II : Programmes of priation Accounts (P & T), 1963-64, Subject-Matter Ministries, 1966 and Audit Report (P & T), 1965, LOK SABHA SECRETARIAT, Esti- 1966. mates Committee (Third Lok LOK SABHA SECRETARIAT, Public Sabha), Hundred and Fifth Report, Accounts Committee Accounts Committee (Third Lok Ministry of Industry (Organization Sabha), Forty-Fourth Report, Audit of the Development Commissioner, Report (Civil) on Revenue Receipts, Small Scale Industries), Part I, 1966. 1965, 1966.

·Recent Official Publications of Importance 169 LOK SABIIA SECRETARIAT, Public Aviation, and Woiks, Housing and Accounts Committee (Third Lok Urban Development, 1966. Sabha), Forty-Eighth Report, Appro MINISTRY OF COMMERCE, Amendpriation Accounts (Defence Serments to the Import Trade Control vices), 1963-64 and Audit Report Handbook of Rules and Procedure, (Defence Services), 1965, 1966 1964, 1965. LOK SABHA SECRETARIAT, Public MINISTRY OF COMMERCE, Import Accounts Committee (Third Lok Trade Control Policy for the Year Sabha), Fifty-Third Report, Appro- April 1965 to March 1966, 1965. priation Accounts (Railways), 1963- MINISTRY OF FINANCE, Economic 64 and Audit Report (Rail- Survey, 1965-66, 1966. ways) MINISTRY OF FINANCE, Report of LOK SABHA SECRETARIAT, Public the One-Man Independent Body to Accounts Committee (Third Lok Enquire into the Question of Deai- Sabha), Fifty-Fourth Report, Appro ness Allowance Payable to Central priation Accounts (Civil), 1963-64 Government Employees, 1965. and Audit Report (Civil), 1965 and MINISTRY OF HOME AFFAIRS, The Audit Report (Commercial) 1965 Central Civil Service (Conduct) and Finance Accounts, 1963-64 re- Rules, 1964, 1965. lating to Minitries of Finance (including Planning Commission), PLANNING COMMISSION, Selected Food, Agriculture, Community Studies relating to Planning for Na- Development and Co-operation tional Development, 1950-1964, 1965. (Department of Agriculture), Home PLANNING COMMISSION, Statistics Affairs (relating to Andaman Admi and Surveys Division, Cumulative nistration), Industry, Iron and Steel, Subject Index of “Sample Surveys of Mines and Metals, Labour, Employ- Current Interest in India”, Volumes ment and Rehabilitation (Depart- I to XIII, 1965 ment of Rehabilitation), Department RESERVE BANK OF INDIA, Report of Social Welfare, Supply and Tech on Currency and Finance for the nical Development, Transport and Year 1964-65, 1965 STATE GOVERNMENTS ANDHRA PRADESH, Administrative BIHAR, Department of Statistics, Reforms Committee, 1964-65, Re Bihar Statistical Handbook, 1960, port, 1965. 1964 ANDHRA PRADESH, General GUJARAT, Legislative Assembly, Administration (Services) Depart- Committee on Subordinate Legislament, Andhra Pradesh Civil Services tion, Third Report, 1965, 1965 (Conduct) Rules, 1964, 1964 KERALA, Pay Commission, 1965, ANDHRA PRADESH, Vidhan Sabha First Report, 1965. (Third), Committee Public Accounts, Second Report, Appro- KERALA, State Planning Advisory priation Accounts 1960-61 and Audit Board, Preliminary Memorandum on Report, 1962, 1965 the Fourth Five Year Plan, 1965. ASSAM, Chief Secretary's Office, MADHYA PRADESH, Madhya Pra- The Assam Civil List (coriected up desh District Gazetteers Gwalior, to the 1st August 1962), 1964. 1965. BIHAR, Directorate of Statistics, A MADRAS, Education and Public Brochure on Principal Public Under Health Department, Guide takings in Bihar, 1961-62, 1964. Family Planning: A Compendium of on on ·170 Recent Official Publications of Importance Important Orders and Instructions on MYSORE, Department of Plan- Family Planning, 1962. ning, Housing and Social Welfare, MAHARASHTRA, Laws, Statutes, Preliminary Memorandum of the etc., Index to Bombay and Maha Fourth Five Year Plan, 1965. rashtra Acts and Regulation (correct MYSORE, Department of Statised up to the 1st August, 1964), tics, Census of Mysore Government 1964. Employees (as on 31st March 1962), MAHARASHTRA, Minimum Wages 1963, Committee, Report, 1964, 1965. ORISSA, Political and Services MAHARASHTRA, Vidhan Sabha Sabha Department, Orissa Civil List (cor- (Second), Committee on Govern rected up to the 1st January, 1965), ment Assurances, Twelfth Report, 1965. 1965, PUNJAB, Planning Department, MAHARASHTRA, Vidhan Sabha Third Five Year Plan, Punjab State (Second), Estimates Committee, Annual Plan, 1964-65, 1965. Fourteenth Report, General Admi RAJASTHAN, Primary Education nistration Department, 1965. Committee, 1963-64, Report, 1965.

·winnen ruan nu A Manual of Method Study by BRIG. K. PENNATHUR Monnarinn The current upsurge of interest in work study-of which Method Study, with which this book deals, forms the basic technique--has created a demand for comprehensive, detailed but readable studies in this field suitable for both professionals and amateurs. What is method study? What are its basic steps? What are the contributions that can be expected of it? What are the circumstances under which Method Study can be instituted? What are the criteria in the selection of subjects for study? How to start the study? Having started the study, what are the recording techniques to be adopted? Can method study achieve startling returns when applied at design and pre-production stages? And what are the factors for success in work study? inn These and numerous other questions are discussed by Brigadier K. Pennathur (Executive Director, NPC) with thoroughness and enthusiasm, in this publication of the National Productivity Council. (Limited Edition) Rupees 25 annnnnnnnnnn NATIONAL PRODUCTIVITY COUNCIL Warninn 38, GOLF LINKS, New Delhi-3. manna mm ram wann ·gooooo aad ao ooooooo noa oooo RECOGNISED POST-GRADUATE COURSE For Officers of Local Bodies and of State Governments. “L. G. S.” DIPLOMA Recognised by the Government of India and most of the State Governments. Six months Only in Bombay. Next Session From 4-7-1966. Course. Free Prospectus and detailed information can be obtained from :- The Registrar, ALL INDIA INSTITUTE OF LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT, 11, Horniman Circle, Fort, BOMBAY-1. ba ooooooooooooooooooooooo --0-0-0-0-0-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o- PUBLICATIONS OF THE INDIAN LAW INSTITUTE Rs. Administrative Procedure followed in Conciliation Proceedings under the Industrial Disputes Act (1962) 5.50 Interstate Trade Barriers and Sales Tax Laws in India (1962):. 7.50 Judicial Review through Writ Petitions (1962) 15.00 Directory of Law Colleges and Teachers in India (1962) 7.50 Disciplinary Proceedings against Government servants-A Case Study (1962) 12.50 Essays on the Indian Penal Code (1962) 15 00 Self-Incrimination : Physical and Medical Examination of the Accused (1963) 6.00 The Law of Sedition in India (1964) :: 8.50 Administrative Process under the Essential Commodities Act (1964) 15.00 Proceedings of the Seminar on Current Problems of Corporate Law, Management and Practice (1964) 25.00 Index to Indian Legal Periodicals (Published Bi-annually Since 1963) 2.00 Delegated Legislation in India :: 15.00 Forthcoming Administrative Law ---Cases and Materials (In Press) Import and Export Control in India Secularism : Its Implications for Law and Life in India (In Press) 1 DIRECTOR, THE INDIAN LAW INSTITUTE, NEW DELHI - ·000oood goo I aos THE INDIAN ECONOMIC JOURNAL Volume XIII January-March, 1966 No. 4 ARTICLES Planning and Planners in India-N. V Sovanı The Four Finance Commissions in India--D.T. Lakdawala An Estimate of Technical and Tradition Directed Underemployment : Methodological Considerations -Yong Sam Cho Can Economic Growth be based on Agriculture? -Albeit J. Robinson Economic Development with Foiced Labour- The Soviet Experience -A. Vasudevan II Reviews III Notes All communications should be sent to : The Assistant Editor, THE INDIAN ECONOMIC JOURNAL, Department of Economics, Üniversity of Bombay, Bombay-1. Per copy : Rs. 5/- or 7/6d. Per annum · Rs. 20/- or £1-10-0 or $1.25 post free or $5.00 post free له ****************Staintyttist adott nytt sys INTER-INDUSTRY WAGE STRUCTURE IN INDIA, 1950-1961 AN ANALYSIS CK JOHRI & N C AGARWAL This study analyses the trends in the inter-industry wage structure during 1950-1961 and tests some hypotheses pertaining to it The authors find that the wage structure has gradually widened over the period and shown flexibility in both the upward and downward directions They have appraised the hypothesis that in a growing economy, characterised by wage flexibility, the vage structure will widen in response to shifts in the composition of demand In addition, they have tested the hypothesis that the variables measuring the expected ability to pay are significant determinants of the inter-industry wage sli ucture On the basis of this analysis, certain policy conclusions are drawn. Price : Rs. 7.50/S 3.00 SHRI RAM CENTRE FOR INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS 5, Pusa Road, New Delhi-5. He shfade Fift to figure of file online fifth tipit of the fifth to fit litika e kafite ************* *fita fitate fifa katika uit

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·THE INDIAN INSTITUTE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION Patron S. RADHAKRISHNAN President of India EXECUTIVE COUNCIL President (Vacant) Chairman ASOKA MEHTA Minister for Planning and Social Welfare, Government of India. Vice-Presidents P.B. GAJENDRAGADKAR, GULZARI LAL NANDA, Vice-Chancellor, University of Bombay. Minister for Home Affairs, Government of India. H. N, KUNZRU, GURMUKH NIHAL SINGH, President, Indian Council of World Formerly Governor of Rajasthan. Affairs. C. SUBRAMANIAM, G S. MAHAJANI, Mfmister for Food, Agriculture, Vice-Chancellor, Udaipur University. Community Development and Co-opeiation, Government of India, Members N. H, ATTHREYA, S. L. KOTHARI, Director, Modern Management Counsel Member, Rajya Sabha. Management Consultants, Bombay. LT -COL. K. M. KURIAKO, S, BHOOTHALINGAM, Joint Director, Oil and Natural Gas Secretary, Department of Economic Commission, Baroda. Affairs, Ministry of Finance, HC MATHUR, DHARAM VIRA, Member, Lok Sabha. Cabinet Secretary, Cabinet Secretariat M V MATHUR, V T DEHEJIA, Vice-Chancellor, University of Chairman, State Bank of India, Rajasthan, Jaipur. Bombay. P.R, NAYAK, CD DESHMUKH, Secretary, Department of Petroleum, Vice-Chancellor, University of Delhi Mmistry of Petroleum and Chemicals, Government of India. GopeshwAR NATH, H. M. PATEL, Deputy Secretary, Department of Aviation, Ministry of Trunsport and Aviation, Chairman, Charutar Vidyamandal, Vallabh Government of India Vidyanagar. DS. JOSHI, K N. V SASTRI, Secretary, Ministry of Commerce. Retired Professor, Mysore University. L. P. SINGH, D G, KARVE, Formerly Deputy Governor, Reserve Secretary, Ministry of Home Afans, Government of India. Bank of India, and Member, Finance Conimissioni. TARLOK SINGII, S. V KOGEKAR, Member, Planning Commission. Member, Forsvard Markets Comnuission, C. M. Trivedi, Bombay. Formerly Member, Planning Commussion, Honorary Treasurer S. RANGANATHAN Comptroller and Auditor General of India (Designale). Director J. N. KHOSLA Formerly Ambassador to Yugoslavia, Telegram ADYNIST releplionc : 273961-3 1 +