·VIDYA BILA
68 ) P :
Su
LIBRARY:
TO MY MOTHER
ŚRIMATI MAHADEVI UPADHYAYA

·PREFAOL Tho presont fork is tho socond alition of my Women in Rigveda. Tho first edition has boon thoroughly rorisod and doubly enlargod in this vonture. As my study of tlio Rgvella has spraad now ovor a long period of timo and is now matter hias como to light, a rovised cdition has becomo imporativo; and horo is the rosult of my offorts. The work has beon nlmost rewritten and it can bo considorod as an altogether new book. Thio method followod in the treatinont of tho thoino of tbis volumo is constructivo, analytical and critical. It has boon "my ondoavour to pioco togotlior, weigh and incorporato all mattor that my study of this first book of mankind' has disclosod to mo. Tho rango of my work has boon limitod oxclusively to the Rgveda oxcopt whoro I have sought holp from thio Brūkmanas and later litornturo for olucidation. Tho ground has boon almost untrodden and thin difficulties thoroforo havo by no means boen fex. Most of tho works that havo troatod of tho subject of ancient Indian womon havo startod outhor with tho opic period or somow horo in its vicinity, but my offorts liovo convincol mo that tho Rgveda concoals a mino of information and that overy effort will yıold surprising rosults. And, I trust, thero will be hardly any occasion for a savant to doplore that 'the scarcity of material in tho Ryveda makes it impossiblo for a scholar to handlo tho subjoct'. The fraino-work of the first odition had boen propared under the ablo guidance of Dr. Radhakumud Mookorji, 1.A., P.R.S., Profossor and Hond of tho Dopartmont of Indian History, Lucknow Univorsity, undor whom I worked for somo time ag a Research Scholar. The second odition has in many instances kopt close to the earlior arrangomont. The reforencos to the works of modorn authors havo boon gratefully acknowlodgod in tho footnotos and in the Bibliography appendod at tho end of this book. Pl. D.;

·Dr. Sir S. Radhakrishnan has placed me under a deep debt of gratitude by finding time amidst his various preoccupations to add & Foreward to this volumo. My most respectful thanks are due to him. I acknowledge with a genuine sense of obligation the encouragement given to me by Dr. U. C. Nag, 11.A., Ph.D. (London), Principal, C.H. C., Benaros Hindu University, who kindly read through the manuscript of this work. I shall indeed be failing in my duty if I onit to thank my friend Professor N. M. Kulkarni, M. A., of the Benares Hindu University, for having takon great pains in reading the proofs. Mrs. Rukmini A. Vasavada, B. A. (Hons.) hus prepared the Index to this volume and I thank her cordially for ber kindness, Benares Hindu University, 21-9-1941. B. S. U. • } ·BHA FOREIVORD This book deals with the status of women in the period of the Rg Veda and treats with much learning and discrimination the difficult problems of tho morals and mannors, of the marriage and education of women as set forth in the Rg Veda. With an impiessive impartiality the author brings out the exalted ideals as well as the lapses from them. An historical account of the institution of marriage and its forms is likely to induce in iis an idea of the relativity of social habits and customs; yot it reveals tho provalence of an unchallenged tradition, an ideal definite, vivid, and well established and profusely illustrated by tho stories of fnmous women, an ideal which our women, who are not ultramodern accopt and aspire to live up to. Manage is not an instinct but an institution based on an instinct. Whilo we aro under a biological necessity tu mato and perpetuato our kind as birds and animals, we can make it the basis of a marringe of minds, the interplay of the inmost thoughts and feelings of two human beings. The adjustment of two personalities to a common way of lifo is full of delights and difficulties, reconciliations and disagreements. Marriage is not to bo regarded as a temporary association to be dissolved at the fancy of the parties. There is a good deal to be said for the ideal of tho wife as ardhāngi. The Greek myth ropresents that human beings were originally composed of a man and a woman, that some God divided cach being in two and these separated Halves aro continually scarching for one another. To look upon husband and wife as complementaries wheli make up & whole is the true irnplication of married life. S. RADHAKRISHNAN Calcutta, 7-3-41.

·CONTENTS CHAPTER I THE TRANSCENDFVT WOMAN Pp. 1.32 Aditz 8 8, Dita 8, Pythvi 9, Dārā Ppthiri 10 Sıtā 11, Uka 12 17, Rátrl 18, Diwn and Night 19, Suryā 19 20 Indrānt 20 21, Vāc 21 22, Ila 22 23, Saras. vat: 23 21 Bhārti, Hotri and larutrı, Saranyu 24, Sinirali and Gungữ, Rāka, Brhnddivå 25, Sunrta, Purandhi, Dhı ană, Asumatı, Mirpu, Sraddbă, Anumrtı 26, Aramıtı, Dampati, Pęśnı, Aranyanı 27, Varunāni Agnyāni 28, River, Sarasvati 29 30, Aperases 30 31 CHAPTER II TIE VAIDE Pp 39 40 Daugliter - Her place in the Houehold 93 31 Her duties 85 86, Ter nghts 96 99 Freedom 99 40 CHAPTER III VARRIAGE Pp 41-69 Marringe 41 42, Begrading 42 43 Importance of Marriage 43-44, Frondom of Marriage 45 46, Its control 46-19 Qualifications and Disqualifications 49 50, Hamrageablo Age 50-53, Old age Varriages and Sexuri Invalids 69 51, Morriaga in order of Ago 54 55, Intermartııge 55 61 Śrāsāšva 57 60, Kaksivan 60 61, Vimoda 61, Kinds of Verriage 65 74 Āsura Brāhma 65 66, Prajapatya 66-67, Dowrr 67 69, Sraramrura 70, Gāndharva 70 71 Rokanga 71 72, Varnago proper 74 83, Departure of the Bride 81 Consummation of marrig) 81 86, Wedding droes 86-87, Some remarks abont martigo 87 89 CILAPTER IV VARRIAGE-Its Features, Customs and Usage Pp 90 129 Widoirs 91 92 Remarrage of Widows 92 96, Burning of the Widow 06 99, Vigonz 99 101, Vonogamy 101 103, Polygamy 103 107, Polygams among kings, nobles and priests 107 107, Slic girls 109 111, Polrandry 112, Asvins 112 119, Vuuts 113 114 Visredutis and others 114 116, Incestunuz marriage 116 117, Brother and Sister marriage 117 125 Analysis of the dialoguo 118 122, Support of Puranic traditions 122 121 Buddhistic traditions 121 126, Parental incest 126-128 ·CHAPTER V r. THE WIFE AND MOTHER Pp. 129-155 Wife, her dignity 129-130, Domestic happiness 180-183, Her duties 133-38, Religions 184-187, Temporal 137-199, Conjugal relationship 139-140, The gambler's hymn 140-142, Some other duties 143-144, Mother 144-146, Legal Status of Wife 146-159, Social 147-150, Female slaves 150, The other side of the picturo 153-155. CRAPTCE VI ADORNDIENT Pp. 156-172 Dress 156-165, Material cloth 158, Skins 158-159, Wool 159-160, Cotton 160, Articles of Dress 161, Śāmulya 161, Drāpi 162, Vāsa 162, Sic 162, Adhivāsa 163. Brocades 164, Pesas 165, Stitched clothes 165, Use of footwear 165, Ornaments 165-168, Hair-coiffure 168-169, Perfumes 169-170, Furniture 170-179. CHAPTER VII EDUCATION Pp. 178-189 The trend 179-174, Necessity of Education 174-175. Nature of Education and Subjects of Study 175, Language and Literature, Ghosā, Lopāniudrā, Apālā, Viſvavāră, Romaśī, Sūryā 176, Vasukara's wife, Gaupāyana's mother, Indrāni, Indra's mothers, Juhũ Sraddhā, Sarparăjñi and Mamatā 177, Yami, Urynsī 178, Tradition and Mythology 178-179, Fine Arts, Poetry, Drama 179, Music 180, Dancing 180-181, Military training 181-183, Vzápalā 182, Mudgalāni 182-88. CHAPTER VIII LIBERTY Pp. 181-192 Pardah, Festal gatherings, the Assembly and the Samana 185-190, Athens 190-191, Indo-Aryan Women 191-192 CEAPTER IX MORALITY Pp. 193-206 Normal morality 193-194, Lawless unions 194, Jära 195-200. Elopements Conrtesans 200, Adultery 201, Samana 201-205, Polygamy, Polyandry and Levirato, Exposure of illegitimate children 205, 1Yomen soldiers 205-206. CHIAPTER X SUMMARY 207-228 BIBLIOGRAPHY 220-231 INDEX 293-241 ·WOMEN IN RGVEDA CUAPTER I THL TRANSCENDENT WOMAN About twenty centuries before Christ a young gay and sturdy race crossed the north westein frontier of India and stood on the threshold of the Saptasındhu, the land of the soven rivers Tho Indo Aryans as thoy aro now called, forming tho ostrome eastern branch of the larger Indo Luropean family, looked in front of them At their feet lay stretched the bezutiful, rich valloys of the wide swift flowing rivers which struck them as seis (sindhu) Little did they know that their stool would striko sgunst stoel gripped by hands no less strong than their own and that the mastery for the land towards the east would be won only after the most stubborn resistance had been overcome at every step The primoval forests woro spotted over with habit its which boasted of iron forts and buldings supported by a hundred metallic colunins These local inhabitants of Indir called the snub nosed Dasas and Dasyus short statured and dark and living under the amenities of a distinctly superior matorial civilization later met their stalwart adversarios the Aryans tall fair and hand some, who wero destined to drive thom out from their mansions nud palico The Aryans were sentimental, romantic and grateful and the enormous Byhan stretch before than afforded them guest opportunities and furnishod them with groves and arbours whore to rotiro and nerve their yarns of dreamy speculations The magic land in front of them unfolded to these nowcomers ats endlestreasures and struck then with prospects of an optimistic future and settled conditions of life which they had seldoin known in their former shifting homes The devout heart beat with gratitude and the losing soul enger to call the ·2 WOMEN IN RGVEDA now glories its own burst forth into rapturous melody. From trembling lips there arose and reverberated thrilling notes in praiso of Nature, which welcomed them. The joyous songs, the hymns of gratitude, in admiration of the great immortal elements of Nature, sent a thrill of joy through the veins of the Aryans and created in them & never-dying faith in future. The pleasing, vivifying and kindly phenomena of nature had also their terrible, destructive and dispiriting counterparts, and their beholders were consequently struck with both awo and admiration. For the first time in the history of mankind, man started creating gods after his own image. "The process of god-making" says Sir S. Radhakrislinan,1 "in the factory of man's mind cannot be seen so clearly anywhere else ae in the Rgveda. We have in it the freshness and splendour of the morning of man's mind still undulled by past custom or fixed routine." The tremulous notes that the Rgvedic bards generated were addressed to the benign gods to fulfil their needs and requiremonts in plenty and to the terrible ones to protect them from their wrath consequent upon their sins unwittingly committed. The Rgveda was the result of these great hymns embodying the love and fear of early civilized man. We know nothing of the development of the literature of the Roveda Samhitū which we find in a complete form. It is verily & Minerva born in panoply. Wilson? aptly remarks: "When the texts of the Rg and Yajur Vedas aro completed, we shall be in the possession of materials sufficient for the safe appreciation of the results to be derived from them, and of the actual condition of the Hindus, both political and religious, at a dato co-eval with that of the yet eorliest known records of social organisation—long anterior to the dawn of Grecian civilisation-prior to the oldest Hebrew writings, and posterior only to the Egyptian dynasties, of which, however, * Indian Philosophy, Vol. I. p. 73. * JRAS., Vol. xiii. 1852, p. 206, quoted in the Indian Philosophy, Vol I. pp. 79-74.

·TEL TRANSOENDENT WOMAN 8 15 Te yet know littlo oscopt barren names; the Vedas give us abundant information rospecting all that is most interesting in the contemplation of antiquity The Rgiodic society was founded on the home and the family as well established institutions with the propor place assigned to womon under an advanced systom of material laws. The Rgvedic ovpression—'tho wifo is tho homo'l Gayedastam)-shows hov domestic life and sentiment centred round the roman The Rgvedic concoption of womanhood at its best may woll bo studied in the goddesses described in this first human literary documont, the Rgveda Tho strongth of the woman who rulod the household of the Rsi and his Yajamāna was unconsciously reflected in the pleasing counterparts whom ho created and to whom he addressed lus impassionod priyors Tirst in importance among the goddesses is Adıtı2 typifying motherhood She is the ideal mother liko Maat of the Egyptians and Themis of the Greeks Motherhood Aditi is the essential and most charactoristic trait of this clivinity personifying 'a pure abstraction '3 She is the mothor of Mitra and Varuny,4 Aryaman, the Rudras, the Adity as, Indra, of hingy? and of such other oxcollent sons & In later literature also Aditi's character as a mother is preserved 1 RV , III 53, 4 * abad , I 186, 3, 94, 15, 162 22, 24, 1 185 3 94 15 89, 10, 43, 2, 113, 19, 166, 12, 153, 9, II 40,6 27, 1 and 7, III 64 10 IV 1920, 55 %, 25, 8, V 46, 6, 69,3, 27, 59,8, VI 4,1 VII 40, 4, 10 4, 87,7 51,1, 9, 8, 82 10, 40, 2, VIII 9, 14, 67, 12, 25, 3, 47, 9, 90, 15, 27, 5, 67, 14, 19, 14, 18, 6 and 7, 90, 15, 36, 3, 182 6, 72, 8, 100, 87 18, 35, 2 and 8 63,3 and , 72, 4 and 5, 90, 5, 11, 1 HA A Macdonell Vedic Mythology, p 120 • RV , VIII 25, 8, X 86, 9, 182, 6 * ibid , VIII 47,9 ibid , 90, 15 * ibid, II 27,7 • ibid , X 72, 8, cf AV, VIII 9, 21 ) ·4 WOMCN IN KOVEDA Thus in a hymn of the Atharva Vedal and in another of the Pājasaneyi Sanhita? she is invoked as the great mother of the devout, the mistress of the ſta, mighty and powerful, unaging, spacious, protecting and cleverly guiding. The Atharva Vedaz mentions her as even having brothers and sons. In the Rgvedaitself she has been referred to as the sister of the Adityas and as the daughter of the Vasus (duhitāvasū. nām). Everywhere else in connection with the Adityas she is mentionod as their mother and it is here alone that she is spoken of as their sister (svasādityānām). The class of gods called the Adityas liave their name derived from her and so naturally her relation as mother with them is most common, but since the occasion for the Rgvedic poet is not one of establishing genealogical connections, a serious enquiry to this end would be absolutely irrelevant. What is important to note is that wherever she has been mentioned her function has been to tenderly look after the living beings, and this is why her tie of relationship has varied according to the occasion as a mother, housewife, sister and daughter. Thus, again, it is that she is spoken of as being both mothers and daughter to Dakşa. Her epithet pastyä7 clearly alludes to her status as a housewife which may also imply motherhood. Her motherhood give her a natural sway over her children. It is to the mother that the child looks up for allaying its fear and the Rgvedic Aryan always runs to take refuge under the protection of this mother goddess Aditi. Many a time is she spoken of as protecting men from distress and dangor (amhas), and as granting complete welfare or safety. In fact the poot expects Aditi to bestow on mon and gods all the 1 VII. 6, 2. 1 XXI. 5. » VI. 4, 1. . VIII. 101, 15. ibid., II. 27, 1. * ibid., X. 72, 4-5. ibid., IV. 65, 3; VII, 27, 5. ibid., X. 100; 1. 94, 15.

·Τ Ε KANSCENDENT WOMAN er sin tender care and protection which he himself has received in his actual worldly home She is frequently invohod to release men from guilt or Tlus idor is clearly connected with the etymology of her name Tho word a dili literally signifies ‘unbinding,' 'freedom,' 'boundlossnoss' and is derived from the word diti, 'binding' from dū, 'to bind' A form of this verb (di ta= bound) has been used to describe Sunahấepa 'bound' to tho stake' Hence it is that the goddess is besought to release her worshippers who aro lihe tied thievos (baddha) - She is invoked to make the worshippers sinless3 and to make them froo from guilt towards Varuna in return for thoir conforming to hor ordinancos 4 She is further besought to expol the eval doers from her protection and to cut them ndrift from the benofit of her care 5 Other gods and goddesses like Agni, Savitr,? Sürya, Usas, Dyāvā and Prthivi8 aro approached to pardon sin, but the notion of freeing from it is a function of the mother goddess Aditi and her son Varuna, the chief of the Adityas, whose noose fetters the sinful It is thoy that have the power of releasing men from the bonds of physical sufforing and moral guilt The Adity's, the gods, who have derived their existonce from the being of this universal mother, are invoked' to place the offering in guiltlessness (anagastve) and freedom (adıtıtve) Another passage to speaks of Aditi's securo and unlimited gifts Her trait of boundlessness is allied शुनश्चिच्छेपं निदित सहस्रायूपादमुञ्चो अशमिष्ट हि ष | RV, V 27 • ते न मास्नो वृकाणामादित्यासो मुमोचत । स्तेन बद्धमिवादिते ॥ bnd , VIII 67, 14. • अनागात्स्व नो अदिति कृणोतु क्षत्रं नो अश्वा वनता हविष्मान् | tbud I 162 22 . ibid VII 87, 7 abid , X 87,18 * ibid , III 54 10 abid , IV 54,3 . ibid , X 85, 2-3 • अनागास्त्वे अदितित्वे तुरास इम यर्श दधतु श्रोपमाणा ||brd , VII 61,1 10 अनेहो दात्रमदितेरन हुवे स्ववंदवध नमस्वत् । ibnd I 185, 3 ·6 WOMEN IN RGVEDA to Dyaus! and Agni.2 Nature as a whole is represented by this common mother of gods and men.3 "Aditi is the heaven," says the devout Rşi, "Aditi is mid air, Aditi is the mother and the sire and son. Aditi is all gods, Aditi five classed men. Aditi is all that have been born and shall be born."4 "Aditi", says Max Muller, 5 ...is in reality the earliest name invented to express the infinite, the endless expanse beyond the earth, beyond the clouds, beyond the sky." She is a giver of light (jyotiḥ) and is therefore prayed for it. The poet celebrates this imperishable, unwaning light? and adores Aditi by calling Uşas, the Dawn, her radiant face. The benefactions of Aditi are likened to the blessings bestowed by the Maruts. She is implored to bestow on her worshippers her pure, celestial, eternal gifts10 and is asked to confer wealth12 on them. Her protection for men, their children and cattle is supplicated.12 In a few passages13 Aditi is identified with a cow, and in the ritua), a ceremonial cow is commonly addressed as Aditi. This notion occurs in the later Vedic texts.14 This is so because the cow to the Hindu mind even to this day typifies motherhood by providing its nourishing milk, curds, butter, etc. Both ., V. 59, 8; X. 63, 3. ? ibid , I. 94, 15; IV. 1, 20; VII. 9, 8; VIII. 19, 14. s atlasufitsfafa farqiri....ibid., VII. 10, 3. • अदितिरिदितिरन्तरिक्षमदितिर्माता स पिता पुत्रः । विश्वेदेवा अदितिः पञ्चजना प्रदितिर्जातमदितिर्जनित्वम् ।। ibid., I. 89, 10; cf. Kath. Up., IV. 7. # Vedic Hymns, SBE., 82, p. 211. RV., IV. 25, 3; X. 86, 8. i gani vylfa. ibid., VII. 82, 10. . ibid., 1. 113, 19. . ibid., 166, 12. 10 ibid., 185, 8. 11 ibid., VII. 40, 2. 18 ibid., VIII. 18, 6 and 7; I. 43, 2. 15 ibid., I. 159, 3 ; VIII. 90, 15; X. 11, 1, etc. 34 VS. XII. 49 and 49. .

·TIIL TRANSCENDENT WOMAN 7 represent boundless plenty and henco the exprossion mă gun anāgam adıtım vadhista 1 Wallis and Oldenborgfnvour the conception of Aditi as personifying freedom Pischel, Hardy and Colineto interprot it to moan Prthivi, tho Larth, or the counterpart of Dyaus, sky Thuis intorprotntion is mainly due to the fact that in the Rgveda Aditi is identifiod also with the Larth ? Like the Earth / sho is oxtensivo (prthvi vrtasthe) and spacious, grenter than the grentest (mahta mahadbhuh) and far pervading (uruvyjaca) mother (māla) 10 She is frequently styled as devi which word in later classical literature signifies a goddess as well as a quoen, and sho bears at times tho opithot anarra ll 'intact' 'She is widely ovpondod,12 oxtensivo, mistress of wido stalls '13 The Rgveda git es hier no definite physical fontures and thoro she is the porsonification of a pure abstraction14, but it is significant that & prolific class of terracottas, which has been identified with the mother goddess Prithvi or Adıtı by somo15, likewise lachs absolutely in distinct physical fertures except in the Rgvedic trait of being 'spacious and extensivo' (prthvī) and displays ů pronouncedly flat front Aditi has been further describod as bright and luminous and a prop of living beings 18 and, *RV VIII 101 15 Cosmology of the Rigveda p 45 ff * Die Religion des Veda pp 2017 cf SBE 46 p 329 Tedische Studien ? p 86 • Vedusch Brahmanische Periode p 94 * Transactions of the 9th Oriental Conference I PP 396 410 RV I 72 9 . ibid . ibid V 46 6 10 ibid I 72 9 11 abid II 40 6 VII 101 19 ibid , V 46 6 13 ibid VIII 67 12 14 A A Vacdonell 7 edte Vythology p 120 1 VS Agrawals Mathura Terracottas p 23 RI I 186 3 10 ·8 WOMEN IN NOVEDA as such, she belongs to all menl (viſvajanyām). She is invoked at morning, noon, and sunset.2 It is strange that this important goddess, whose name occurs in the Rgveda about as many as eighty times, should be so very rarely addressed alone in a separate hymn. She is constantly invoked with her sons, the Adityas. Perhaps the explanation may be found in the notion that this mother, the first nurse of mankind, who supplied the gods with her milk, 3 could hardly exist by herself. She could not be described divorced from her function which was the tending of her children and the guiding of the affairs of the household. A mother apart from her tender motherly care of her children had no existence and hence the sage questions in childish bewilderment: "Who may give us back to the great Aditi, that I may see father and mother ?"4 Diti Ditis, who in later literature becomes the progenitor of the evil forces as opposed to the gods, is not portrayed as ini, mical to the aspirations of men in the Rgveda! Still in the etymology of her name she carried the germs of the later trend which literally signi- i fied "bound,' 'not free.' She would appear to be a counterpart of Aditi, the freeing mother. Naturally the freedom-loving Aryan did not favour her and the notion that her nomenclature implied, and consequently we find that this goddess has been mentioned only thrices in the entire range of the Rgveda out of which twice7 her namo occurs along with Aditi. Later, in Puranic literature, we find her identified with the mothor of demons. 1 RV., VII. 10, 4. ? ibid., V. 69, 3. * ibid., X. 63, S. • को नो मह्या अदितये पुनत्पितरं च दृशेयं मातरं च ॥ ibid., I. 24, 1. ibid., IV.2, 11; V. 62, 8; VII, 15, 12. . ibid. * ibid., IV. 2, 11 ; 1.62, 8.

·THE TRANSCENDENT WOMAN Like Aditi Prthuvi, the Earth, also has been ondowed with & inothorly trut Naturally the gratoful Aijan could not forgot her on whose bosom ho rin to and Prthuivi fro in childlike frolic, fought and foiled his inseterto foes and under which he was at last laid to eternal rest To tlus kindly mother did the dood man go In the Atharva l'eda3 a long and beautiful hynın is addressed to her which lias boon so ably analysed by Dr Mookorji in huis Nationalism in Hindu Culture 4 In the Rgocda itself she ling beon frequently addressed 18 mother 6 She lins been given all the physical attributes of the Earth Abounding in great heights (balıtthä) she bears the weight of the mountains (par vatūnām khidram bıbharsi) She quichens tho soil (bhūmim)? and the showers of tho henion are caused by the lightning of hor clouds 8 Sho is great and spacious (mahi), sho supports the sylvan regetation (vanaspatt),10 so dear to the speculativo Ary an, and is firm (ardha)11 and shining (arzunt) 12 She was in this way tho sourco of lus lifo rs sho yaolded the crops She 'was the Cybele of tho Greols, and, like tho Vodas the Homeric hymns sang of the grant goddess 13 Besides hor oxclusivo motherly trait sho is also conceived as & wifo and her associntion with her husband, Dyāvā (heaven), * RI, V 84, I 159 160 185 VI 70 VII 53 1 18 10 oto . ऊणंम्रदा युवतिर्दक्षिणावत एषा त्वा पातु निऋतेरुपस्थात् ।। Ind, A 18 10 5 SII 1 • Pn 2022 " RV, I 159, 2, 185, 10, VI 70 6 otc & ibid V 84 1 * ibid • पत्ते अभ्रस्य विद्युतो दिवो वर्षन्ति दृष्टय Ibrd 3 ibid , VII 63,1 also in I 159, 160 185 otc 10 ibid , V 84 3 11 ibid 13 ibil , ? " Clarisso Bader Pomen in Ancient Indua, p 4, c tho Homeric hymn quoted by Max Jaller in hus Indra, Mhat u can teach us ? p 156 other of Goda tho milo of tho starry Heaven ·10 WOMEN IN RGVEDA is so close that although her name is mentioned more than & hundred times in the Rgveda, she is oxclusively adored only oncol; otherwise she always finds montion in company of her lord, the heaven. As a joint pair they have six hymns? addressed to them. The association of the two is so consummate that even where she has been addrossed alone she is praised for sending the rain of heaven from her clouds and in this way the sense of association has been kept afresh. The dual compound Dyāvā-prthivi, with comparatively rare synonyms Dyāvā-kşāmā4 and Dyāvā-bhūmi, are called parents and are styled as pitarā,mātarā,7 janitrī.8 They are also separately addressod as, father and mother! and are conceived as the progenitors of the gods (devaputre). 10 They are primeval parents11 (pūrvaje pitarā) and they go on breeding 'all-round wide immortality'19 (amstam varīmabhiḥ). The parents begin their career of procreation in a conjugal love the legality of which is later rendered unguestionable by the poet having married the couple off in the Aitareya Brāhmana.13 Thus we find that at the very outset of the cosmic creation the parental responsibility asserts itself and the domestic sweetness springs up spontaneously. Dyävä-Prthivi have created the living beings and they maintain them.14 Both are rich in seed15 (retaḥ, retasā). Milk, RV., V. 84 * ibid., I. 159, 160 ; 185; VI. 70; VII. 58; X. 65, 8. o The farat lagt af ges: 11 abid , V. 84, 3. * A. A. Macdonell: Vedic Mythology, p. 126. ibid. 6 1 RY., I. 169, 2; VII. 58,2; X. 65, 8. ibid., I. 159, 3. ibid., I. 185, 6. ibid., 1. 159, 1-9, 160, 2. 10 abid., I. 159, 1; 185, 4; VII. 53, 1. 11 ibid., VII. 59, 2; X. 65, 8. 15 ibid., 1. 159, 2; 185, 6. IV. 27, 5-6. 1* RV., I. 159, 2; 160, 2, 165, 1. 1* ibid., I. 169, 2; VI, 70, 1-2.

·THE TRANSOENDENT WOMAN 11 Sita clarified butter and honey flow plentifully from them and they also yield the gods' food ambrosia, amria 2 In the manner of outhly parents tonding and protecting their childron they act as guardian deities guarding creatures and sheltering them from disgrace, calumny, misery and misfortuno 3 They win them undying fame and glory, spacious lands and dominions and grant them nourislung food and ondloss riches 4 Due to their gender they are also alluded to as sisters o Tho Earth is further praised under the name of some agricultural deities, liho the land (hsetra) and the furrow? (sıta) Sitā in lator literatures appoirs as the wife of Indra This is natural as Indra is the god of rin and thunder who sends his showers and fertilizos tho furrow, that is Sitī, which receives the sood and yields tho cror This is why Indru beurs the opithet of urvarupatro 'the lord of the field It is agun natural that in the Ramā yana Rām», meining Indra should have married a wifo namod Sitā obtained from a furrow newly ploughed by Jonahi pro genitor, during a terrible drught Sitū of the Rgvedic context is intoled to grant rich blossings and crops "Approach, thou, O fortunate Earth surnamed Sitū Wo honour thice that thou mnjost bo for us both propitious and fruitful ‘May Sıtā yield us abundant milk for many years 12 1 RV VI 70 1 5 * ibid , I 159 2, 185 6 पातामवद्यादुरितादभीके पिता माता च रक्षतामवाभि || ind I 185 10 . ibid VI 70 6 I 159 5 ' सगच्छमान युवती समन्त स्वासारा जामी पित्रोरुपस्थ । ibrd I 1875 o abid IV 57 ibid 57, 6 and 7 • Puraskara Grhyos im II 17 9 • RI VIII 21 3 cl IV 57 7 १० यथा न सुभगाससि यथा न सुफलसमि Ibrd IV 676 10 lho Rsi prys a 11 ibid " सा न पयस्वती दुहामुत्तरामुत्तरा समाम् | bid 7 ·12 WOMEN IN RGVEDA "May the ploughshares successfully till the land for us ; may our shopherds happily lead their flocks...,"l As many The most beautiful concoption of a goddess which the Rgveda presents to us is that of Uşã, the Dawn, the Indian Eos. Macdonellº writes : "Uşas is the most graceful creation of Vedic poetry and there is no moro charming Upā figure in the descriptive religious lyrics of any other literatue. The brightness of her form has not been obscured by priestly speculation nor has tho imagery as a rule been marred by references to the sacrifice." as twenty hymys3 are exclusively addressed to her which mako up the best portion of the Rgvedic poetry. Her namo occurs in the Rgveda moro than 300 times! She is the goddess of the dawn and so most naturally she strikes the Indian Tithonus as a resplendent and bright inspirer of life and love from the transparent blue. She is the danghter of the sky4 (duhitardivaḥ), the lady of the lights (vibhāvari rāya) and the radiant mover of sweet sounds with wealth of horses and cows. She is conceived as a matron carefully tending everything, rousing all life, stirring all creatures that have feet and making the birds fly up.? She is the breath and life of everything.8 She sends the busy forth, each man to bus pursuit. The same like a divine protector shines foes and enmity awayłº (ricchadapasridhah). शुन न: फाला वि कृषन्तु भूमि शुनं कीनाशा अभि यन्तु वाहः । Tri Pinant tant qulla: STATII THE TE4717 11ņ1.,8; also cf.ibid., IV. 4 • Vedic Mythology, p.46. . I. 48; 49; 92 (Usas and Asvins); 119 (Uşas and Night); 123 ; 124. III. 61 ; IV. 30; 51 ; 52; V. 79; 80; VI, 75-81 ; X. 179. abid , I. 30, 22; 48, 9; 2; fat great ibid., 92, 6; 48, 8. . ibid., 92, 14; 48, 10. • उपो प्रद्यह गोमत्यश्वावति विभावरि । bid. आधा योपेव सुनयुपा याति प्रभुञ्जती । जरयन्ती वृजन एद्वदीयत उत्पातयति पक्षिणः ।। ibid., 1. 48, 5 and 10; 49, 3. fasat FE a....ibid., 1. 48, 10. . ibid., 6. 10 ibid., I. 48, 8. J ·TIE TRANSCENDENT WOMAN 13 To the roligious Aryan who could be a greator helper than Usā, who brought all his gods from the firmamont so that thoy might accopt his offerings 21 She unites mon with gods? and cruses Agni to be hindled. She awakos before the rest of the world,4 and just as a inistross, riing in the morning, opens the doors of hor houso; so also does she dispel the darknogs at the end of night and opens the gates of hoaven. She quickens ovory croature to motion. The Dawns waken the drowsy and instil motion and vigour into the bipeds and quadrupods.? In the morning whon Usū shows lierself forth, birds tako to wings and men leave their bed, in quest of food and nourishmont. She wahens the five tribes and roveals and illuminos the path of men. Sho unfolds all creaturos, confers fresh Ifølo and drives away evil dreams to Trita Antya." By dispelling hor darkness 12 she removos the blach robe of night.13 She drives away the despicable spirits and tlie detested darknoss.14 The darknoss of the night having been warded off the manifold treasures onsconced in it are laid bare which she now distributes bountifully.16 Whion sho awakes in the morning the onds of the shy aro lit up.16 Sho is herself sometimes spoken of as a wakonod by worshippers with their prayers.17 Sho is विश्वान्देवा मा वह सोमपीतयेऽन्तरिक्षादुपस्त्वम् । R , I 12. ibid, I. 113,9, * ibid. * ibid , I. 123, 2. 341464 far farquet fara libid , I 18, 15 , 113, 4 • fara fra Te 1997 bid, I 92, 9, VII 77, 1 brd, IV. 51, 5 . ibid, I. 121, 12 ETT ATT gear staat 939 faralafaatalouait nabad, VII 79, 1 10 ibid , 80, 1 and 2 11 ibid , VIII, 47, 14 and 16. ibid, VI. 64, 9; 63,2 1% ibid, I. 113, 14. 14 Ibid., VII. 75, 1. 1. ibid , I. 123, 4 and 6. squiat feat want then tahrt ingatla i ibid, I. 92, 11. 17 ibid., IV. 62, 4; VII. 80, 1. 9 ·14 WOMEN IN RGVEDA invoked to arouse the liberal and the devout and to let alono tho ungodly and the niggard. The goddess shines like a mother bending her kind looks on all the world below. But then because she conceived as a woman the poot brings her down to the earth from tho heaven and paints her as a real woman, charming and graceful. She is a maiden decked by her mother showing her forms, who generates motion in overy living being and understands the voice of each adorer. The poet becomos moro fanciful, even extravagantly inspired, when he likens her to a professional dancer (nrlūriva) who arrays herself in gay, embroidered garments and lays bare (upornute) her breasts (vakşa) just as a cow yields her udder. In a most beautiful verse of delicato imagery she is described as an ancient goddess, (purāṇī) ever young, born again and again (punahpunarjāyamānā) decking her beauty with the self-same raiment (varņam) and wasting away the life (jarayantyāyuḥ) of mortals (martlasya) in the manner of a skilled butcher (svaghnīra) cutting birds in pieces (kytnur. vija áminānā).6 Clothed in light, the maiden appears in the eastern horizon and unveils her maddening charms to the beholders. The immortal goddess (amětā) has shone in days of yore, she shines to-day and she will shine hereafter, never aging (agarā). Like a shining silver wheel she revolves ever anew' and ever "shortening the ages of men, she shines forth, RY., I. 124, 10; IV. 51, 3. * ibid., I. 92, 9. THETA ARCA tanfattia poole çkinin 1 ibid., I. 123, 11. • विश्वं जीव चरसे बोधयन्ती विश्वस्य वाचमविदन्मनायोः । bid., I. 92, 9. • अधि पेशासि वपते नतरिवापोर्तुते वक्ष उत्रेव वर्जहम् । ibid., I. 92, 4. पुनः पुनर्जायमाना पुराणी समानं वर्णमभि शुम्भमाना। श्वघ्नीव कृरनुविज प्रामिनाना मतस्य देवी जरयन्त्यायुः ॥ ibid., 10. ॥ एषा दिवो दुहिता प्रत्यदशि ज्योतिर्वसाना समना पुरस्तात् । ibid., 124, 3. उपो प्रदर्शि शुंध्युवो न वक्षो नोधा इवाविरकृत प्रियाणि | ibid., 4. • शश्वत्पुरोपा व्यवास देव्यथो अद्येदं व्यावो मघोनी। अथो व्युच्छादुत्तरी अनु यूनजरामृता चरति स्वधाभिः ।। ivid., 118, 13; 118, 15. • समानमयं चरणीयमाना चक्रमिव नव्यस्या ववृत्स्व ।। ibid., 61, 8. 9 a ·TIF TRANSCENDINT WOMAN the last of the dawns that havo always gono, the first of those to come Iffulgent in poorless boruty sho does not give her light with discrimination but she floods the entiro world, all small and groat, with hor brilliant torch Rising rosplendent as from a bath, showing her charms she approches with light, dispolling the darkness 3 This description indeed puts Tennyson's Tithonust into the shade both as regards rhythm as well as sublimity of idors, while tho similarity of thio oxprossion of the two poots romains striking Tho Daun 19 borne on a chariot which is briglito (vibhāhi candraratha) and brilliant, shınıng and resplendent) (Jyotismatu), well adorned (supesa sam) and all edoring(śubhra), massivolo (orhata) and self zoled!!! (svadhaya yujyamānam) Sho comes driving in such a chariot drawn by fleoting resplendont steeds of a ruddy huo, 13 ovor yokodli and unrosisting 15 The rod morning clouds aro said in a vorso18 1 ममिवती देव्यानि प्रतानि प्रमिनती मनुष्या युगानि । ईयुषीणामुपमा शश्वतीनामायतीना प्रथमोषा न्यौत् ॥ RV I 1212 * ibid, 6 * ibid V 80, 5 and 6 . By the strong hours indignant work d their wills And beat mo down and marr d and wasted me And tho' thoz could not ond me luft mo maimed Thou seost all things, thou wilt soo my gravo Thou wilt ronow thy boauty morn by morn I earth in oarth forget these empty courts And thoe returning on thy silver whools * RV, III 61,9 . ibid , I 237 abid , VII 78,1 . ibid , I 492 . ibid , VII 75, 6 10 ibid , 1 49 10 11 ibid , VII 784 11 ibid , V 79, 1 10 1* ibid, VII 75 6 14 ibid, IV 51 5 15 ibid, III 61, ? 18 ibid , 1.92 % alzo ef I 134 11, V 80, 9 ·16 WOMEN IN RGVEDA to be tho cows drawing her chariot. Sho drives in a hundred chariots all at once and traversos thirty yojanas a day? (trinsałam yojanāni). Her functions are allied to those of a matron in the agri. cultural Aryan home and she is frequently associated with the cattle. She unfastens the gates of darkness as the cows their stalls,3 Her radiant rays look like herds of cattle.4 She is discornible from a distance leading and scattering out the cattle (paśūn). "The ruddy beams fly up, the ruddy cows yoke themselves, the ruddy dawns weave their web (of light) as of old."6 Constant association with the cows gives Uşā the opithet, *mother of kine"? (mütā gavām).8 Everyday Uşā appears at the appointed spot and she never infringes the ordinances of order and of the gods. She is fully acquainted with her way and proceeds unerringly on the path of order.10 She is besought not to tarry but to rush forth so that the sun may not scorch her as a thief or an enemy.11 She brings with her the train of gods to drink soma.12 She makes the path for Sürya to travel13 and brings this eye of the gods on the horizon and guides the spotless beautiful horse. 14 1 T H RV., I 48, 7. * ibid., I. 123, 8. ibid., 1 92, 4. . ibid., IV 52, 2 and 4 . ibid., I. 90, 12. • ते हि वस्वो वसवानास्ते अप्रमूरा महोभिः । व्रता रक्षन्ते विश्वाहा । ibid., 2. Trans. by A. A. Macdonell : Vedic Mythology, p. 47. + Kuhn: Enturchlungsstufen, p. 181. • IV.52, 2 and 3 ; VII. 77, 2. • garant samt at ibid., I. 92, 12; 121, 2; VII. 76,5; UR 1791 न मिनाति धामाहरहनिष्कृतमाचरन्ती ।। ibid., I. 123, 9. 10 ऋतस्य पन्थामन्वेति साधु प्रजानतीव न दिशो मिनाति / ibid., V. 80, 4. 11 ibid., 79, 9. 1* faaraat maiserfariga497 1 ibid., I. 48, 12. 13 ibid., 1. 113, 16. 1. देवाना चक्षुः सुम at the end agai971 ibid , VII. 77, 8.

·IIIE TRANSCENDENT WOMAN 17 2 Sho gets nglow with the light of her lover! (Jarasya), the sun Sürya follows hier 19 a young man cha-os a maidon,3 and then at last sho nccopts and ineols the god who desires her 4 Sho Is concelled as both lus tuiles and mother accordingly as lio follows her and sho precodes lum Bosides being described as daughter, wifo and mother, sho 1, also concorsed os sister Sho is thus the sister of Bhngry and the hingwoman of Varuna 8 Down and Vight haic been froquently alluced to in a dual compound (usāsānal la or naktoscāsā), both standing in relationslup of sistors to each othor, the Dawn sometimes reforred to as tho older sistor of the Night 10 To Dyaus Ugā is both daughtor," being born in tho sky,!? as well as a beloved!(priya) becauso perhaps she rests in the lap of the firmament Agni, being an aspect of the sun, has also boon called for lover 11 Ho goes to meet the radinnt Usā as she comes, and begs for hor fair riches 18 She je also ofton 894ociated with the twin gods of the early morning, the Aſvins, 18 and is once connectod with tho moon 17 1 योपा जारस्य चक्षसा विभाति Iny I 92 11 *** HRT ibid I 119, 9 सूर्यो देवीमपरा गेचमाना मर्यो न योपामभ्यति पश्चात् । यत्रा नरो देवयन्तो युगानि वितन्वते प्रति भद्राय भद्र 11 ibid I 115 2 RI, 1.123 10 सूर्यस्य योषा ibnd VII 755 पत्नी सूरोtbrd IV 5 18 . ibid , VII 78 3 " TIE FEET ibid , I 123 5 वरुणस्य जामि Ibrd 79TTTT sbid, I 119,2, Frant ibid, 8, FAITHEOITT ibid , X 127,8 10 ibid , I 124 8 11 ibid , I 80 22 48, 9, 49 2 48, 8, 92 5 1% ibid , VII 75 1 c89 12 18 abd , I 46 1 14 ibid. 1 69,1, VII 10,1, cf X 8,8 11 bid III 61, 6 14 ibid, I 44 2, 183,2 IV 62 2 and 8 VIII 9, 17, III 59,1, X 89, 12 11 ibid , X 85, 19 8 ·18 WOMEN IN ROVEDA The Rși often implores Uşā to dawn upon the worshipper, to bring to him riches and progeny, to bestow protection and long life' and to confer fame and glory on all his liberal benofactors. 2 In filial joy he prays to her for motherly affection.3 Whilo during his supplication of the goddess he visions hor as receiving the soul of the dead manº and as the Fathers sitting in her lap, the incubus of a sad reaction all of a sudden siozos him in an iron grip. The poot is staggered by the force of a remorseful reflection, and ho wails: "How long is it since Aurorn has been coming to visit us ?.... They aro dead, tho human beings who behold the splendour of the ancient Aurora : wo shall meet their fate, wo who aro beholding her to-day ; thoy also will dio, those who will behold tho Aurora of tho future." 91 Rātri, the Night, is invoked in a singlo ligning and is styled like her sister Uşā in the domestic epithet of the daughter of heaven" («luhitardirah). Goddesses behave as rages mako them do. Tho Aryan was gay, never pensivo; that Retrt is why oven the Night does not strike nbhorrenco in him and, forgetting her dark aspect ho visions only the bright starlit onc. She is all decking herelf with exceptional splendour slio foods the valleys and altitudes with light and drives away darknncs8 Gjyotişi bidhalc timah). At ler advent inen retraco their steps to their homes and birds fly back to their nests,9 agog with eyes, and Where Uxi and Rūtri, the Dawu and Night, aro addressed jointly as a dual compound the conjuro up vivid pictures of * RI., 1. 90,22; 49, 1. * ibid., V.3, 6; cf. I. 49. 4. T : nilis., VII. 61, 4. . ibid., S. 59, 8. ibid., 15, 7. • bil., X. 197. ibid., 197, 8. . ibid., X. 127. ord s. f7 67573 247f7f7175. itit., X. 197, 6.

·TEE TRANSCENDENT WOMAN 19 domestic affoction Thoso rich goddesses, the divine maidens, aro the lovely daughters of horson 3 Sometimes Dawn and Night they are visioned as two wives4 abounding in milk 6 Once the Rgvodic poet thinks of a maiden born, he soon imagines her growing fast into an adolescont belle, a loving housowife and an affectionate mother with breasts tcoming with mulk The Down and the Night in like manner suchle (being co wives) a single child who beams between heren and ourth They are two sistors, of one mind but of different colour, whose path 29 the same and ondless, who, taught by the gods, move alternatoly and nover clash or stand still'7 They aro the radiant mothers of the eternal ordinancos of Naturo 8 Thoy conduct evory offoring with bright bours and thus worve tho web of sacrifico 10 Thoy aro bountiful, gront and well adornod and sit on the griss for tho offoring " Appearing alternately thoy walen all living creatures 19 Sūryā,13 one of tho goddessos of the Rgveda, is the typical Aryan hrido Sło romains to this day the Hindu ideal of a brido and it is tho prayers associated with her Surya murringo which aro generally uttered oven now on the occasion of a Hindu marriage IRT II 81 5 1706 atau fost ibid VII 26 110 6 . ibid V 41 71 70 6 Toft ibid I 122 ? ibid II 36 • नक्तोपासा वणमामेम्याने पापयते शिशुमेर समीची। द्यावाक्षामा रुक्मो अतविभाति देवा अग्नि धारय द्रविणोदाम् | bd , 1965 ibid I 113 3 • DET HATT ibid , I 1427 ibid 41 7 10 तन्तु तत संवयन्ती ind II 36 11 ibil \ 86 1 110 G I 13 7 142 11 bid VII 9 6 18 abd II 91 5 3* ibid 5 116 1 117 13 118 5 119 5 IT 432 49 6 46 8 73 5 VIBS f35 VII 69 S 69 4 VIII 8 10 298 29 I 85 9 and 86, 181 ? etc ·20 WOMCN IN ROVEDA Sūryā is the light of the sun which is lont to the moon. with which the lattor shinos and this transference of light from one to the other has generated in the Aryan poet somo tender, humano feelings of the heartlı. The sun, where the light, Sūryä, in generated and has her abode, is conceived as her father and the moon, Soma, as her husband. marriagel is arranged between Sūryā and Soma in which the Ašvins, the twin gods of the morning and evening-twilight, representing the transition of the sun's light, play the bestmen and carry the bride in their chariot to her groom.” This daughter of Sürya3 (sūre duhitā) was given by her father over to her wooer (vadhūyu), Soma, who became her husband (patye) and it was then that the Asvins acted as the groomsmen* (varā). In another passage the gods are said to have given her to Pūşan. Very commonly the Asvins thenselves are mentioned as Sūryā's husbands. They are called her two husbands® (patī) whom she chose? (vrnīta). Sūryā,8 the maiden (yoșaná), mounted their chariot10 (ratham) or chosell (vrnita) it. The Asvins possess hier 'as their own,12 and carry her away in their car.13 She is consequently styled as Ašvini.14 We shall have occasion later to refer to her in certain detail. Indrāni, otherwise known as Saci Paulomi, the powerful consort of Indra, personifies the Indian conception of the * RV., X. 85, 9. * ibid., X. 85, 9; 85, 26 . ibid., I. 34,5; fant UF9ibid, , 116, 17; 118, 6. + ibid., X. 85, 9. . ibid., VI, 58, 4. . ibid., IV. 43, 6; cf. I, 119, 5. ibid., VII, 69, 4. . ibid., V. 79,5. . ibid., VIII. 8, 10. 10 ibid., I. 81, 5; 116, 17; 118, 5; VI. 63, 5. 11 ibid., 1. 117, 19; IV. 43, 2. 19 ibid., VII. CB, 3. VIII. 29, 8. 14 ibid., V. 46, 8. 7 1% ibid., ·THE TRANSCENDENT WOMAN 21 0 Sho is woman's placo in the housolold whore sho roigns (ketuh, mūrdha) as the supromo mistross ? She is a sourco of Indrini strongth to her husband and the object of his wholo-horrted devotion and loyalty. Her song aro tho destroyers of enemies and her daughter is great 4 In a verses of strıking lyrical beauty of which she is herself the Rsı she doclaros her might and absolute sway: "I am without a nal (asapaina), Ibno no longer an enemy, I trump) in dostroying tho passing glory (abhibhāvarī) and the fleeting riches of those women (anyāsām varco) who were desiring to eclipso mo Sho 19 a wifo with several rivals (sapatnī) whom sho fights and destroys ? (One of the most dramatic and powerful hymns of the Rgueda is uttered by Vāc, the daughtor of Amblırna horself tho Rsı of the hymns and is conceived Vác as the goddess presiding over speech In her uttornnco sho emphatically expresses the idor of the unity of the universe She is the force that bends the bow for Rudra that his arrow may striho and slay tho linter of dovotion (brahmadvise) Sho rouses and orders battlo for tho people and pervados henven and earthº Sho it is who brings forth tho fathor (prtaram), is the sun, on tho summit (mūrdhan) of the world ; her dwolling is in the ocean (samudra) from whero she oxtends over all existing creatures and touches even the far off heavon with her forehend 10 She breathes a + अहं केतुरहे मूर्धाहमुनाविवाचिनी । RV, A 169 2 - येनेन्द्रो हविपा फुल्यमवद्युम्न्युत्तम । bid, .. 1504 * bad, 12 • ममपुत्रा शत्रुणोऽयो मे दुहिता विराट् । bd, १ * ibid, 159 • मसपना सपत्नघ्नी जयन्त्यभिभूवरी। प्रावृक्षमन्यासा ! राघो प्रस्थेयसामिव । ibid 5 + abid , X 145, ibid, 159 . ibid, 125 . 3 STAT4 Hard gou trane arargfaat sy fad til bid 1 125, 6 10 ¡bid , 125,7 ·22 WOMEN IN RGVEDA strong breath which generates a tempest while she holds together all existence. Mighty in her grandeur she appears 'from beyond the heavens and from beyond the earth' (paro divā para enā prthivyai). She is the Sabdabrahma of the later times pervading the entire universe and accompanying all gods(viśvedevāḥ). She is the primeval energy of the universe, the feminine counterpart of the creating and annihilating God. Her hynın3 'is made the basis of Sāktaism.'4 Sir S. Radhakrishnan interprets her as 'the energy drawing forth from Paramātman the wholo universe from ākāśa downwards.' Here the conception of Vāc identified with the universal soul recalls to mind the lator conception of Sivā, who is the inseparable half of Siva. The goddess through this hymn establishes emphatically her important position in the governance of the universe. She is conceived as the real force, the guiding feminine principle in the scheme of creation and no work of God could be accomplished without his innately wedded śakti. In a passage of the Rgveda she has been actually called the queen of the gods, and divine.) Ilā, Sarasvati, and Bhārati are the three goddesses, who bring delight. Ila, the rite, is the first teacher (sūsani) of men? in the rules of sacrifice. She is the first higi2 priestess of the vedic religion. Since the clarified butter forms the chief ingredient of the offerings to gods, Ilā 1 RV., X. 125, 8. ibid., X. 125, 1. & ibid., X. 125. • Indian Philosophy, p. 487. ibid. * RV., VIII. 89, 10 and 11. that are tirerit. .ibid., I. 81, 11. * During the early stages of the human civilization the religious activities of men were mostly dominated by worden. They were high priestessos all over the world. The Druids of Britain had three classes of Druidesses, viz. those who had their families and wore appointed to carry out the duties attached to their office as priestesses of the temples; those who were the assistants to the Druids dwelling mostly with the latter and occasionally visiting their bosbands ; Ila ·TIE TRANSCEND ENT WOMAN 29 has boon given the epithet of 'butter-banded' and 'butterfooted, She forms tlie triad with Sarasvati and Bhāratī in the Aprī hymns. She also has her motherly traits. As feedor of Agni she is his mother.3 Sho is also tho mother of the herd (yitha) and is connected with Urvnsit the celostial courtesan. Later she becomes the daughter of Manu, the subsequent codifier of social and religious rites, and of Mitrā- Varuņn. Sarasvati is the purifier? (pävaka) and the flowing knowledge-the mighty floods (maho arṇaḥ). She is the Indian Minerva, who incite all pleasant songs and inspiros Sarasvati and brightons all gracious and pious speculations (cetanti sumatināni). Sho is the patron deity of all wisdom, imagination and invention and the protectress and lastly, those who lived in rotired soclusion. Tho first of the above class is reprosented by the sisterhood at Kildare in Iroland, who devoted themselves to the service of Brglut, the goddess of poverty, medicine and smithy. Tho Kayans of Borneo haro even to the present day preserved an interesting coremony through which the consecrated priestess loads men and girls at a festival to tho family's sacred fiold where she chants hymns while tho men dig the land and tho girls plant the rice soods. The Dyahs also of that place had at a time women sorving as the entire priostly caste In Assam where the matriarchal system is considerably in vogue femala divinities hold the religious fiold and in Khyrım, the high priestess or tho head of the state is a woman Women physicians occupy a very important position in the occult rites and practices of roligion among the American Red Indians of the Algonquins Likowise priestesses woro held in high honour who performed the mysterious agricultural rites for ensuring excellent harvest connected with the worship of Demeter and Persephono in ancient Greece. RV., VII. 16, 8. + bid , X, 70, 8. . zbid., III. 29, 9 and 10. . ibid., V.41, 19. " SB., I. 8, 1,8; XI. 6, 3,5 • ibid., I. 8, 1, 27; XIV.9, 4, 27; Ašv. Sr. Sü, 1.7, 7. RP., 1.3, 10. . ibid, 12. • ¡bid , 11. $ ·24 WOMEN IN RGVEDA of fine arts. In most cases she has been associated with the Brahmāvarta river of her name as we shall seo later. But there is no doubt that she has also an oxistenco distinct from the river as she forms one of the celebrated triad with Ila and Bhārati or Mahi which is pre-eminently a class of non-physical and moral powers: Bhārati, one of the Aprī triad, is the all-surpassing (viſvatūrtiņ) goddess of speech. She is the 'poetical union of gesture and voice, "2 as also perhaps the personified Bharati offoring of the Bharatas. Mahi is probably identical with her. Hotrā,3 the holy (sucih), has her male counterpart in Hotrā and Agni. She is the personified invocation, while Varutri Varutrit is one who is to be chosen, tho excellent. Saraṇyü,6 Tvastā's daughter married to Vivasvān, is the mother of the primoval twins, Yama and Yami. Bloomfield inakes efforts, to identify her with the sun-maiden Saranyű Sūryā or Uşã, the Dawn, which Macdonell approves, but the identification can hardly stand scrutiny. The goddess is explained by the Rgveda itself as thie wife of Vivasvān,' who is Sūrya and in later literature the story is narrated as to how the solar deity being too dazzling and hot for her, his orb had to be scraped by Tvaşçã, the father of the bride. J RV., I. 22, 10. Clarisse Bader : Fomen in Ancient Indra, p. 8. RV., I. 22, 10. . ibid. . ibid., X. 17, 1 and 2. • यमस्य माता ibid. JAOS., XV. 172-88. • Vedic Mythology, p. 51. 11 faaral n., X. 17, 1. .

·THE TRANSCENDENT TOMAN 25 9 Sinivālī' and Rākā” aro lunar goddesses aiding the birth of children Gungū is also allied to thom 3 Sinivali is mentioned as a sistor of gods 4 She is invoked to Siniväli and Gungu grant offspring Sho recoitos particular attention by the Rgvedic poet and is graphically portrayed as possessing an ideal fominine physique She is brond huppod6 (prthustuhe), fair armed (subāhuh), frır-fingerod (svangurih), prolific (susumu balusūarī), a mistress of the family? In the Yajurvedas she becomes more marhod by her 'fair braids (suihapardā), bonuteous crest (suhurīrā) and lovely lock (svaupasa)" Perhaps it is theso now features of hers ndded by the Yajurveda wluch have found favour with the pro- Mauryan clay-artist who lavishly finishes hus terrorcottn femalo figurines with striking hair-coiffure of locks and braids, amplo lups and slight waist These figurines are sometimes to identified with Siniväli, Aditi and Prthivi Rāhū, who is invoked with Sinivūli, Sarasvati, Dhisanā and Gungū, is a rich and bountiful goddess Brlindduvā, whose name occurs four times in the hymns to the Visto Raha, Bphaddıva dovās, I called a mother and is mentioned with Ilū, Sarasvati nnd Rūhā 12 Sunrtā,13 Purandhalt and Dhisanāls are onified goddesses of abundance and plenty Purindhi is identical with * I, II 82, Y 184 * ibid, 11 32,7 V 42, 12 töid, X 838 • देवानामसिस्वसा brd , II 82 6 ibid, ibid , \ 184 (insoked to strengthen the lotus) . ibid , II 39 6 या सुबाहु स्वगुरि सुपूमा बहुसूपरी । तस्यै विश्सल्य ibd , II 82,7 • XI 56 • सिनीवाली सुकपर्दा सुकुरीरा स्वीपशा। 10 VS Igranalı Vathura Terracottas, pp 22 25 61 10 1: ibid, II S1, 4, 41 19, etc 1. ibid, I 40, , 1141, 1. ibid, 19 5 II 31 4 etc 1. ibid , 1 0 10 1 11 RT + ·26 WOMEN IN RGVEDA Pārendi, the Avestan goddess of riches and plenty. Dhiņaņā has been mentioned about a dozen times in the Sunytá, Purandhi, Rgveda. Asumati2 is the personification of the Asumati, Nirīti spirit-life and is implored to prolong life and grant strength and nourishment. Nirītis presides over decay, disease, dissolution and death. The Rgveda refers to a number of goddesses who are nothing but personified abstractions. They are Sraddhā, Anumati, Aramati and the common Dampati. Sraddhā, Faith, is symbolical of the innate yearning for the company of Sraddha and devotion to the gods. All offerings and processes of sacrifice must be accompanied with faith. Offerings and prayers without faith win no merit and a mere mechanical chanting of hymns is of little avail. The sage sings: "Through Faith is Agni kindled, by faith is oblation offered." All those who perform sacrifice draw near hers (śraddhām upāsate) for the strength of their prayers. But the winning of Sraddhā is not an easy task. She can be pleased only by a constant longing of the heart (hırdayya yākütyā). She is therefore herself besought to endow the worshipper with faith. She is said to be invoked in the morning, at noon and at night. In later literature her pedigroe is traced to Sūrya8 and Prajāpati' and 'her relationship is still further worked out in the Epics and the Purāņās.'10 Anumatill is the personified favour of the gods. She is implored to be gracious and let her worshippers Yaşt 8, 83. * RV., X. 69, 5 and 6. ibid., 1-3. श्रद्धयाग्निः समिध्यते श्रद्धया हूयते हविः। ibid., X. 151, 1. ibid., 4. Anumati 1 . . ibid. ibid., 5. D .S.B., XII. 7, 3, 11. T.B., II. 8, 10, 1. 10 A. A. Macdonell : Vedic Mythology, p. 113. RV., X. 59, 6; ibid., 167, 8, ·TUR TRANSOENDENT WOMAN 27 long seo the sun. She is prayed for giving protection. Aramati is the personified goddess of Dovotion, Pioty. Macdonell seeks out her counterpart in the Avesta, Aramaiti, Aramati 'n genius of onrth as well as wisdom,"3 but he, however, is of opinion that 'tho porsonification can hardly go back to the Indo-Iranian period.'4 Love itself is idolized, and, Dampati deified, for to the Aryan the act of procreation was something divino. To Dampati, Dampati conceiyod as god and goddess, s hymn has been addressod by the lady Rşi Lopāmudrā and Agastya, her spouso. It is quito in the fitness of things that Rati should have found her Rşi Lopāmudrā, who perlaps stands moro for an idea than for a physical personality as hor name literally signifies one whose mudrā, i.o. sign or characteristic mark (sexual ?), has become extinct, who shows little sexusl instinct. Prénio is another mother goddess roprosenting the mottled storm-cloud which has beon sometimes called a speckled cow.? Sho is the mother of the Moruts.8 Araṇyāni is Pršni the goddess of the woods, tlie sylvan vegetation. She is propitious and benovolent and nover kills anybody, and mon eat of tho savoury fruit of her trees. This Aranyani queen of the wilderness, sweetly scented and redolont of balm (āñjanagandhim surabhiin), is the mother of all forest population (mrgāņām mātaram) and she possosses plenty 2 RV., 59, 6. * ibid., 167, S. * Vedic Mythology, p. 120. . ibid. RY., 1. 92, 10, . ibid., I. 29, 10; 84, 10 and 11 ; VIII. 6, 19; 7, 10; 68, 8; VII. 103, 6 and 10. IfTT ibid., VIII. 58, S. • 39 PE TOAT: ibid., I. 29, 10. • Fart: 974 475974 947** Tad ir ibid., X. 146, 5.

·28 WOBEN IN RGVEDA of food even without tilling the land! (balvannāmakſșīcalām). A whole hymnis addressed to her. Varuņānīt Varunāni, Agnyāni is the spouse of the mighty god Varuna and so is Agnyānit of Agni. Next we pass on to the fertilizing streams which have been addressed as mother goddesses by the patriotic Aryans. An entire hymns (Nadyo Devatā) has been addressed to them, find, besides, their names occur in several other passages. Of ! the river goddesses, altogether twenty-one, known and unknown, the following are prominent, namely Sarasvati, Sindhu,6 Vipāśā, Paruşni,7 Asíkni, Marudvědhā,' Vitastā, 10 Arjiki Kubhā, 12 Krumu, 13 Gomati, 14 Sușomā, 10 Sutudri,16 Rivers Drşadvati, Yamunā,17 Gangā, 18 and Sarayü.19 References to Sarasvati are most prolific. She is lauded in three complete hymns20 of the Rgveda and in several detached The strength of her Sarasvati current21 and her course are the constant subject of allusion. She is visioned as a dear mother and is implored not to withhold her milk.23 She has seven Verses. 1 आजनगन्धिं सुरभि बह्वनामकृषीवलाम् । प्राहे मगाणो मातरमरण्यानिमशसिपम् ॥ १., X 146,6 . ibid., X. 146 * ibid., I. 22, 12. * ibid. l' ibid., X. 75. . ibid., X. 61, 9, 75, 1. 2. 4. 6. * इमं मे गगे यमुने सरस्वति अतुद्रि स्तोमं सचता परुष्णया। असिकन्या मरुद्र्धे वितस्तया/कीय शृणह्या सुपोमया ॥ ibid., x. 76, . ibid. . ibid. 10 ibid. 11 ibid. 12 ibid., 6. 1. ibid. 14 ibid. 18 ibid., 5, 10 ibid, 17 ibid. 1. ibid. 14 Ft Hey: feraelula: ibid., X, 64, 9. 30 VI. 61 ; VII, 95; VII, 96. 12 ibid., VI, 61, 2 and 8. 11 ibid , VII, 96, 1 and 2. 11 44771 RT 17 97 97 ibid., VI. 61, 19.

·THE TRANSCENDENT WOMAN 29 10 sistors, and is the mother of rivers and goddessos, tho very best of mothers 4 She is called tho wife of a hero, Sarisvān, who is involod by worsluppors dosiring wives and offspring, protection and plenty? Sho mounts the same chariot as the Fathers and comos to the picritico & Slie is & purifier) and is besought to bestow wealth progeny, immortality and vitality She is also associated with the divinition assisting pro creation " She is prused for having bestowed a son named Divdasn on Vadhiryaśva 19 As mother (amba) she grints fame to the ronow nod!3 and her unfailing bronst14 yields werlth of overy lind Bs lior act of granting riches, abundanco and nourishment 10 sho has won the title subhaga 17 bountiful Sho stimulates directs and prospeis tho dovotiong of lor worsluppor 18 She is addrossed along with the goddesses of prayer 19 Sho destroys the revilers of tho gods" but affords shelter to her worshippers and conquers their onomies ITETET RIVI 61 10 अम्बितमे नदीतमे देवितमे सरस्वति । अपास्ता इव स्मसि प्रशस्तिमम्बनस्कृधि 1bd II 41 10 ibid * nfrar ibid at ibid VI 49 7 . ibid VII 96 46 21 ibid . ibid. 17 8 • पावका न सरस्वती ibud I3 10 10 ibid X 80 19 II 41 17 11 ibd 184 2 11 fatta ak42974 EITT I itd VI 61 i 13 ibid II 11 16 14 ibid I 164 49 " रत्नधा वसुविद्य सुदन ibd 16 ibid VII 95 ? VIII 21 17 IX 67 82 X 17,8 9 17 abid I 89 3 VII 95 4 and 6 VIII 21 17 2• 1bd 1 8 10 11 II 88 VI 61 + 19 ibid VII 87 11 1 65 18 10 ibid VI 61 3 an 17 11 abrd VII 95 45 II 80 S VI 49,7 ·80 WOMEN IN RGVEDA Sacrifices are performed on her banks and on those of the Dịşadvatī. Her later character as a patroness of fine arts is hinted at in the Rgreda itself through her association with Iļā and Bhārati where she makes up with these the triad of the Apri hymns. In the Vājasaneyi Samhitā” and the Brāhmanass she comes to be clearly connected with Vāc, speech. A special class of celestial women, Apsarases, have also been treated as goddesses in the Rgveda. Thoy signify nymphs and are associated with water. They are, howevor, Apsarases mentioned only five times in the Sanhită. The Apsaras smiles at her lover, the Gandharva. Tlius her association with the Gandharvas is already established and her flirting favour hintod at. Still she possesses a son like Vasiştha, dwells in the lighost heavens, and her path is marked out in the sky.? Soon after in the Satapatha Brāhmaṇas the Apsarases come to bo engaged in pursuits like dance, music and frivolous play whero they are reforred to as possessing great beauty. In the Rgueda their lovo is occasionally enjoyed by men,10 besides the Gandharvns. Only one of them, Urvasi, is specifically named. The reference is slightly vaguo, neverthelesy conclusive, as Vasiştha at ono placo is called the son of Urvasi and at another of an Apsaras. 11. Therefore Urvasi must be an Apsaras, and, then, besides, we have regular allucions in later literature to Urvasi as a celestial courtosan, There is a beautiful dialoguell in the Rgveda between this . nr., III. 23, 4 • XIX. 12. . S.B., III, 9, 1.7; A.B., III, 1, 10. *HT ARHET NI'., X. 123, 5. . ibid., VII. 33, 12. • ate fi 97 51947 ibid., X. 195, 5. ibid., 196, 6. . XI.1. • ibid., XIII. 4, 9,7-9. 10 X. 95, 9. 11 ibid, VII. 83, 11-12 . 11 X. 95.

·THE TRANSCENDENT WOMAN 31 nymph and Pururivas, hor ezrthly lover and spouse The story is further narrated in the Satapatha Brahmanal and romantically worked out by Kálidāca in luis celebrated play entitled tho Vikramorvast (The role played by the goddesses in the Rgleda, the onrliest litorary document of mankind, is of singular importance, although Macdonell thinks otherwise 2) It is truo that they are not so terrific and warring as their divino spouses or sons, but this is simply becauso thoj have boon endowed with the tender truits of woman tending the horth Gods sro the roul Aryan men, fighting and vanqui hing their enomies, whilo goddessos are women abounding in virtues of the heart It is not logical to show that thoy pre insignificant simply because in many casos the names have been formed by feminino endings of those of their spouses, nor is it wise to judge them by statistical standards It is enough that the Aryans could seldom conceive of a god without conceiving of a corresponding goddess I'ven the satanic Vitra is gi on a mother Dānu :( In fact anything that sounded fominino to the ear becime a goddoss to tho ros pectful Argan Indrānı, commanding her household is the all powerful source4 of tho strength of her husband Indra The vigour of Vac 19 unparallelled not only in other religious literatures of the world but avon in Inter Sanskrit literature itgolf Usa is the most tonder and mighty conception of the human mind She is the veritable dawn of poetical genius Aditi is the progenitor of the entire universe and the great gods, and Prthi is more important than Dyaus her husband All the fine arts are the sphero of the goddesses over which Sarasvati presides Pravers become the personified goddesses, and though they oro addressed to gods the sacrifice is presided over by goddessos Gods alone are not the guests at the sacrifice Oblations are ready, gods are awaited and the Rsı prijs to Agni 1 XI 5 1 * Veda Alythology pp 51 124 RY I 32 9 येने द्रो हविषा कृत्य्यमवद्युम्युत्तम bid,x 159, 4 9 4 ·32 FOMEN IN RGVEDA their harbinger, to bring them to the soma draught, but no alone. Their wives must also accompany them, for it is not th organizer of the sacrifico alone that invokes thom but also huu wife, and most naturally therefore the goddess must figur along with her lord. Hence the sago croons the prayer "Unite them, Agni, with their dames" (patnīvataskydhi). Thi sort of invocation is not an exception but very nearly the rule in the Rgveda. Nestar is invited with his consort to the sacrifice and Agni is asked to bring the willing spouses (patnī. rihā) of the gods. Again Agni is besought to bring Hotrā, Bhārati, Varutri and Dhişanā?, and the presence of a whole host of goddesses with great ardour and devotion is invoked.3 The list is not yet .exhausted and Indrāni, Varuņāni and Agnyāni are invited for weal to drink the soma juice.4 But it may be remarked that the Rgvedic goddess was never too free. Just as the wife in the earthly home of the Rși commanded hor household like an imperious matron, always under the protection and watch of the kind loving husband, so also did hor divino sister behave under her lord in the Heaven. Even the Dawn, the freest and the most wilful, is conceived as the mother of a mighty son, the daughter of a great father and the beloved of a brilliant adoror. The most haughty Indrāni herself has a powerful Indra for her husband. Thus it is clear that in the spiritual sphere, which was more important for the dovout Aryan than the secular one, the part played by the woman was deeply permeating. $ + अग्ने पत्नीरिहा वह देवानामुशती रुप । razit ta 11 KV., I. 22, 9. आ ग्ना अग्न इहावसे होत्रां यविष्ठ भारतीम् । et fout 11 ibid., 10. . ibid.; Ibid., 11-19 . ibid., I. 22, 12.

·CRAPTER II THE MAIDEN Rgvodic Aryans woro a raco dovoted to homo. Affection was doeply rooted in their heart Wife and cluldron were thoir anxious concern who received all their love and care. Aryans had colonizod & foroign land held and owned by u powerful and civilized roco and wore castly outnunbored by thoir onomjos. They inust linye yery often felt for and deprecatod the comparativo dearth of men and their consequent desire for moro warriors was but natural We find a very frequent longing for a malo chuld? in the Rgueda In sucli A strto the importanco of the woman becomes Daughter-lior singular and the birth of a daughter ns potentınl plico in the houschold mother is not altogether unwelcome It is sur prising, lowoter, that no desire for the birth of o daughter 14 over orpresged in the entiro rango of tho Rgveda Her birth is ovon deprecated in the Atharva l'eda,In this Samhitú roforencou are modo to mystiu charms for undoing the offoct of a fornalo fcotus and for changing it into a malo ono 3 The aitareya Brahmanat preserves an ancient gällà in which a (laughter line boon charactorized as a nusery (hrpanam) But novertheless, wo find frequent references m the Rgueda to daughtors being fondly crossed and affoetionately brought up by parents llins were los ingly treated by their mothers and shielded by the strength of their father and brother A simile has boon drawn upon the relntions of the fomalo children with their prrents to express the Heaven and Earth "Foring together, young, with meating lumits, tumn sters (svasarā humi1177on their parents' bo-om (pitrorupasthe) "I 91 20 92 13, III 1, 23, X 85 25 41 42 45 1 VIII 6 25, VI 11 VI 11 III 23 VII 15 'संगच्छमाने युवती समन्ते स्वसारा जामी पित्रोषस्थे । RI1855 Wint 2 5 ·34 WOMEN IN RGVEDA 4 contract the daughter vas to hor Arabian sister, who met her death through burial. Beforo the appearance of Muhammad the horrible practice of burying alive of female infants prevailed among the Arabs. Perhaps prompted by some savage superstition, and certainly for economic and martial reasons, the cruel custom was indulged in upto the time of the prophet, who denounced it. "Kill not your children for fear of impoverishment," said he, "we will provide for them and for you : verily their killing is a great sin."'1 In the Rgveda we read the existence of the son and the daughter side by side, the former taking to the profession of the father while the latter inheriting the glory and honour of her mother, Here the reference to the daughter receiving honour is one to her potential motherhood. Since the wife and mother were held in high regard, as we shall see later, the daughter also received her due share in the respect and love of her peoplo. It 18 one desire of the couple to reach their full extent of life with sons and daughter s3 (putriņā tā kumūriņā) growing by their side. In another passaget a father is commended for having many excellent daughters as his quiver for containing unfailing darts, both being effective in assailing the hearts of We have several allusions to daughters fondly nourished in their parents' family and even growing old (amājūriva) while staying there. men. 1 The young girl was called by the name duhitr,5 which term, denoting daughter, is found in almost all the Aryan Qoran, Ch. XVII. ' शासदाह्निर्दहितुर्नपत्यं गाद्विद्वां ऋतस्य दीधितिं सपर्यन् । पिता यत्र दुहितु सेकमृञ्जन्स शम्येन मनसा दधन्वे ।। न जामये गान्वो रिक्यमारंक्चकार गर्भसनितुनिधानम् । यदी मातरो जनयन्त वह्निमन्यः कर्ता सुकृतोरन्य ऋन्धन् ॥ RP., III. B1, 1-2. पुत्रिणा ता कुमारिणा विश्वमायुर्चश्नुतः । ibid., VIII. 31, 8. बह्वीनां पिता बहुरस्य पुत्रश्चिश्चा कृणोति समनावगत्य । इपुधि: सट्टाः पृतनाश्च सर्वा : पृष्ठे निनदो जयति प्रसूत : || ibid., VI. 75, 5. ibid., III. 31, 1.2, etc, ·THE MAIDEN 85 Flor duties languages. The otymology of her name indicates her principal duty in the Rgvedic family, namoly tho milking of the cow SC Sarkar, following Delbrück1 and the oditors of the Vedic Index, ? intorprots her name as the potential nourishor of a child' which interpretation is hardly tenable Hor association with milk and its other prepirations is brought out in several instances Sistars of priestly ministrants Gāmayo adhariyatām) mingle their sweetness with the milk (prñcatīrmadlıunā payah) The joyous muden is behield whore the butter flows* (riyate ghrlama) Thus milking of the cow and preparing clarified butter and curds seem to havo beon hor chief concern Besides tonding the cow sho had some other duties to porform She had to do the work of the spinstross and she novo cloth (tantum) and ombroidered gır monts 6 Since womon in general aro referred to 18 sewing thoir muntlo (sīvyalvapah) with a nover-breaking neodles (sūcyācchidyamānayā), girls also, as now, must have boon employed in needlework Thoy brought water in jars7 (udalam lumbhınīriva) from wolls and watched the standing crops of the fields 8 The custom of girls watching fields endured till the end of tho classical period and has been roferred to by Külidīsa in his Raghuvambaº whoro girls watch fields of paddy and sugarcones and sing the pinogj rics of Raghu as thoy do so Thus we find that the murden wis mainly occupied with the domostic work But it must be noted that material cares alono Noro not hor lot and thot she also red Dorel 1 Ind Ver p 454 2 Vol 1 p 371 . Some Aspects of the Carliest Social History of India p 104 विगूनता ददृशे रीयते धृतमा RY I 135, 7 • तन्तु ततं सवयन्ती समीची यज्ञस्य पेश मुदुघे पयस्वती । bid , II 3,6 • सीव्यत्वप सूच्याच्छिद्यमानया ददातु वीर शतदायमुक्य्यम् I ibd , 82 4 are fac fault 367 foaia it ibid , I 191, 14 * ibid , VIII 80 • शुन्छायनिषादिन्यस्तस्य गोप्तुर्गुणोदयम् । भाफुमारकपोटात शालिगोप्यो जगर्यश !! 20 ·96 WOMEN IN RGVEDA education, for, side by side with men Rşis, Indy reers have also been credited with the composition of hymns as we shall see in due context. The affection that was bestowed on the maiden by hor relatives and the place of importance that she enjoyed in the family would make Zimmer's exposure of children a myth. Apart from her parents, her brother had some control over the maiden. This was bound to be for he was soon to occupy the place of the paterfamilias after the Her rights death of his father. He therefore looked after the social relation of his sister. He was a companion of hers and thus a great help, her chief support as his namo bhrātſ, the root of wluch may be traced in almost all the Indo-European languages, signifies. It was therefore feared that a free girl in the absence of a brother might go astray? and that gallants might take advantage of her helplessness.3 Naturally the brother and sister were best acquainted with each other in the family. Sarkare therefore thinks that jñāti 5 primarily meant brother and sister. Her claim to the protec- 11on which she required in her weakness is well recognised in the Rgveda. The Rai implores : “As a virtuous maiden, who lives with her father and mother, and expects from them the support to which her devotion to them gives her the claim, as such I come to ask thee for a share in thy favour."6 It will be well to consider hero the legal status of the daughter. The evidence on this point is slightly conflicting and not quite conclusive as may well be supposed from the nature of the work. It would seem that she had some share 1 Alt. Leb., pp. 819-20; cf Delbrück: Ind. Ver., p. 595; Weber : Ind. Stud., p.5, 54, 260, etc. quoted in the Soc. His. of Ind., p. 105. प्रभातरो न योपणो व्यन्न. पतिरिपो न जनयो दुरेवाः । पापासः सन्तो प्रनता प्रसत्या इदं पदमजनता गभीरं | RV., IV. 5, 6. . ibid. 3 Asp. of Soc. His. Ind., p. 77. RV., X. 117, 9. * Wilson : Roteda, Vol. 11. p. 257.

·THE MAID EN 87 in the property of hor father inasmuch as she was allowed as an unmarried daughter of the family not only to stay with her parents and brothers, but even to gron old' Qīryanti) in der father's family The Atharia T cila even ofers to daughters remaining in the parental family until derth Unless she had somo sharo in lor father's property in her own right, it is difficult to comprehend low her long stay in the family was not resented The stay of a insiden in her fatlier's family until she is married muy bo considered her birth right overcisablo in any situation of life but her residence thore until old age, or death, or oven after her marriageable age is passed, would indicate the oxistence of such privileges in her favour as in certain cases would bad her almost perpetually to her father's family and pormit her to enjoy its pleasures not as an act of patornal bounty but in hier own right Thus her maintenanco was her legal right and a charge on hor father's property It ceased to have an effect only when sho sovered her connection from hor paternal family after her marriage But if she chose to romain unmarried all her life she could get dopend on her right of mointonanco in the family she was born into Mention is made about the wealth being given away by the spouse's brothers (syalat) to his brother in law Thus is a clear reforence to dowry and would go a long way to prove the girl's right in the ancestral property Wealth thus dowerod passed to her as her separate property tho strıdhana of later times an unmarried daughter had her own ornaments which she could dispose of as sho liked 4 It was at the time of marriage generally that she go away riches and ornaments (sumulyam, bhaja, rasu) to Brahmins 6 This was evidently another item of the stridhana * R I 117 7 9HTI ibid II 17 7 X 89 9 SI 14 3 प्रश्ववहि भूरिदा बत्तरा वा विजामातुरुत वा पा स्यालात | RP I 1009 • परा देहि पामुल्ये ब्रह्मभ्यो विमजा वसु । ild A8329 . ibid 3 ·98 WOMEN IN RGVEDA The brother, a father's legitimate son of the body (tănva).—was the sole inheritor of the ancostral property, and in a passage of the Rgveda” he is even referred to as leaving no share of that property to his sister. But this very allusion would indirectly show that in the absence of her brother she inherited the property of her father in her own right and not through her son, though her son also elsewhere has been made the heir to the property of his maternal grandfather. The latter case refers to a different context when the daughter had become a mother. The former reference would clearly place the claim of the daughter to her father's property over adopted and such other sons or over other cognate relations. As a matter of fact the idea of adoption was abhorrent4 to tho Rgvodic Aryan. There is another allusion in which it is said that 'many a maid is pleasing to the suitor who fain would marry for her splendid riches. '6 Here is a clear evidence of inheritance of the ancestral property on the part of the daughter in her own right before her marriage. Naturally a plethora of suitors would be attracted to such a rich girl and they would vie with each other to win her love. Even if there were any disqualıfications, such as lack of charms, education or culture, attaching to the person of the bride their effect would be easily overcome by the corresponding attraction of money. Indeed, otherwise the job to find a husband would not be easy for a maiden lacking in worth and accomplishments particularly in a free society like the Rgvedic one where girls vied with each other to gain a husband. To such & girl wealth would prove a sure assistance as there was naturally no dearth of needy young men, who would fain marry her 'for her splendid riches' (panyasā vāryeņa). For one who was gifted with both worth 1 RV., III. 31, 2. . ibid. • ibid., 1. * 7 Fiat gr 404 hatiku taa1 fa ya: 11 ibid., VII. 4,7; cl. ibid., 8. • कियतो योपा मयंतो वधूयोः परिप्रीता पन्यसा पार्येण ibid., X.27, 12. • ibid.

·THE MAIDEN 99 and woalth tho poriod of wooing would have boon one of enough prido and flirtation It has boen asserted that for such a maidon it was easy to find a 'friond'--& lover and prospective husband- Among the peoplo 1 The above discussion may show thint the daughter had on assigned share in the property. A fow more points may be montioned in this connoction. Verso III, 31,2 lins already boon roferred to above. It reads: "The son loft not the portion to tho brothor, he modo a home to hold him who should gain it " This makes it clear that a person was at liberty to leave his share in tho property to his daughter and to his son-in-law through her in dofiance of his brother This would bo contrary to tho principle of the Hindu Mitālsarā Law which awards such share to the nearest cognate relntion of the father in & joint family. It is obvious that the Rgiodic system was moro alive to the rights and susceptibilities of tho woman Another passago in the Agueda: points out that the drughter's son could succeod to the proporty of his maternal grandfathor and thus a 'sonless man gainod a grandson through his daughter' Tho maiden enjoyed singular freedom which may appear almost exceptionablo to the modern Hindu accustoinod to imposo endless rostrictions upon his womon Soclusion of women was absolutely unknown, and the maiden Freedom was free to move anywhere sho liked She appenred guy and smiling on fostive occasions and tournaments (samana).* The Samanas, which were gonorally tourna. monts where the horse and chariot racing was the special forture by tho day, specially attractor the maidons by night There in the briliunt torch lights thoy appeared, duls docked - भद्रा वधूभवति यत्सुपेशा। स्वय सा मित्र वनुते जने चित् । R', x 10, 12 * न जामये तान्वो रिवयमारंक्चकार गर्भ सनितुनिघानम । RI * III 81,1 * ibid , I 48, 6, 124, 8, IV 68, 8, VII 2, 5, 9,4, 86, 10 ibid. 163, 2 • सुसदृशा भानुना यो विभाति ibul, VII 9,4 ) ·40 WOMEN IN RGVEDA And anorously smiling(smatjamánáso) and there they sometimes spont the whole night. The most striking feature of the samana was tho wooing of lovers,3 Such unrestrained freedom was naturally not always desirable and made the maiden at times daring enough to elope with hor lover. She made appointments and kept them. Hor opon meotings with her lover at trysts" made her bold enough to secretly receive her paramour at night in her own chamber.8 Freedom of this sort was sure to result in occasional moral laxities. The daughter in a Rgvedic family was thus not a meek, shy and weak creature like her modern represontative in the Hindu family, but she was bold, free, and strong. The maiden was an individual with a distinct personality that thought and acted. The graceful dignified wife that she was later destined to be must need have a proper beginning and even during her early adolescence she proved beyond doubt that she was worthy of the responsibility with which she was soon to be entrusted. In tho Rgvodic family the status of the wife and mother was one of remarkable importance and so the society gave to its maiden the proper degree of boldness which was expected to generate in her a sweet yet imperious tomper which was necessarily required for the command? and management of a household ringing with the activities of free men and working slaves.8 1 RV., IV. 58, 8. * ibid., I. 48, 6; çf. X. 69, 11. * ibid., VII, 9, 5. ibid , 1, 112, 19; 116,1; 117, 20; X. 83,7; 65, 12. 5 frota ibid , X, 84, 5. . ibid, I. 194, 9. ? ibid., X. 85, 46. • ibid., I. 126, 3; V. 47, 6; VI. 27, 8; VII, 18, 22; VIII. 19, 86 ; 08, 17; cf. ibid., 1. 18,1; 112, 11.

·CHAPTER III MARRIAGE Marriage was a flourishing institution in the Rgredic society It was almost & natural nood In the whole range of the Rgueda thero is not tho slightest indication of its evolu tion or establishment through the humın agency Tho Alana bharatal refers to a period in tho history of manland when the vomin was approached by man wlicnever he felt tho orgo to mate This epic preserves legends which depict ovadently the lifo of an age much anterior to that envisaged by the Rgocda and which i armut the custence of in anyrchuc condition of the society before me rriago got the recognition of an established social institution Tho Rgveda hnows of 10 such lustorical dovelopment Tho institution had taken root long before the hymnswere composod and the momory of tho Rgvedic poet could 'not recall to itself the age lion marriage had not yet bocome bindmg on men and womon or even conceive a period hon marital ties were loose Already it had been given s roligious sanctity and was performed under an elaborate systomi of rites The married state of an individual alone was normal and tho Rai dwells at length on the happiness of the couplo bound through a sacro montal wedloch There 19 doubt about the foct that marriage was evolved at a considerably advanced stage of human civilization It is to some outent an incident of culture If the Rgveda, is a literary document, was composed in the socond millonnium before Christ, as is gonerally held it can be shown that marrage as a well established and flourishing insti tution had already becoine a common feature of the dny During the age of tho Rgveda and about five centuries earlier Egypt was a land wure inarrige was obtaming well, and no * Tide the legends mganling Sretaketu and Dirghatamus in Vol I Ch 122 9 4721-35 and ild Ch 101 : 42021f respectivos 6 no ·42 WOMEN IN RGVEDA know that both the king and the queen were objects of adoration in the land of the Nilo. The pyramids Marriage disclose mummies of both the sovereign and his wife together with the valuable objects which had been kept there to form some of the amenities that they had enjoyed during their eternal rest. There is only one civilization yet known which is supposed to be anterior to that represented by the great rogal dynasties of Egypt. This is the chalcolithic civilization of the Indus valley tho vestiges of which have been recently laid bare by the spade from the mounds of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. The antiquities that have been unearthed at those sites undoubtedly give ample testimony to the existence of a highly developed material civilization which had never been equalled anywhere in the ancient world of Egypt, Assyria, Akkad and Elam. But we are not sure if marriage had become an established institution there. The inscriptions of the Indus valley are being deciphered by many scholars and the future might crown their efforts with success and throw some light on the institution of marriage. It is commonly held by anthropologists that birds and monkeys show & natural tendency to stick to a singlo mate and to cohabit exclusively with it for a considerable period of time. The small home-sparrows may be commonly witnessed in dwelling houses living in the happiness of family life. It is said therefore that man learnt to live in company of a single woman in imitation of birds and monkoje. Sarols then in its crude unattractive form it may havo como into existence much prior to the chalcolithic age and the rituals And sacraments may have grown round it as Beginning man evolved his religious tendencies, although it must be remembered that the primitive man was in no way less gifted in his love for rituals than his descendents. In fact the occult practices of some of the primitive tribes aro an exceedingly interesting subject of study. So when marriage had already become an established custom during the second ·MARRIAGE 43 and third millennis before Christ its origin indood in that case must be dated very much earlier It may have originated some time in the beginning of the chalcolithic ago or oven earlier It 19 natural therefore that the soors of the Rgveda should not refer to a condition of life when the custom of marnage had not yet tahen a doſinite shape But the opic Purānos, as we shall see lator do presorve such traditions--two have already been quoted above from the Mahabharata-as depict a society in which matrimony is not yet definitely established These traditions may have been current much earlier, and it is even possible that the Rgvedic seers may have known them but i reference to them would not be called for bocause of the nature of the work It is not thrt the Rg veda lacks in allusiong to historical incidents as a matter of fact, it does refor to such events and we shall have occasions to discuss a fons of thom, but the point is that tho want of & possible context may havo beon lacking and thus an omission may have been tho result Howover, the society of the Rgveda had advanced to a remarkablo degree where marriage had alrerdy come to be regarded as an unavoidable social or even religious sicrament which overy Arya had to undergo The social and family tres of mother and father brother and sister son and daughter mother in law and father in law daughter in law and son in law, brothers in las uncle and nephew and other cognate and agnate relationshus lvad grown up to such an admoble degreo that marriage was bound to become the basis of a pormanent and 11 unsererable union and it sought after necessity As it has alrendy been mentioned above marriage was considrod important duo to soveral reasons The clief of tlioso reasons was the Arjan occupation of India Importance of Marriage Tho enemies were for greator in number and the land was unknown The material pray or there foro aroso May the husband be the eleventh male member ·WOMEN IN RGVEDA 'I was of the family, the rest ten being his sons. In Athens and Sparta, in the latter especially, in like manner free men were outnumbered by the slaves brought from distant conquered lands, and the result was woeful. Not only that the masters dwelling in perpetual awe had to live the life of an ever ready soldier but that corruption followed and the purity of blood of a free man began to be questioned. The Indo-Aryan was more concerned about preserving the purity of his blood and was wiser in handling his slaves. Every Arya seems to have taken a vow to add at least ten men to the existing number of males in his tribe. This could be properly done through a permanent vife alone. Secondly, the zeal to preserve the purity of blood itself was a reason that favoured the institution of marriage wliere one woman to associate and be intimate with one man alone. Thirdly, in the religious belief where the torship of the manes is indispensable the need of a male child plays an important part and becomes imperative. He was needed at the time when his father, the Arya, worn out by perpetun) strife and struggle, terminated his martial existence and lay still. Ho took from the hand of the dead hero the bowl and the quiver with tho, responsibilities and duties that their acceptance entailed on the new man. It was a queer legacy-not of wealth and riches and of consequent pleasure but of peril and war and of eventual hardship and pain. Lastly, the nomadic life being over, there arose tho urge of a permanent abode and a sottled home. A settled home was the necessary outcome of a well administered household. Here it was that the need of a permanent companion asserted itself. Here was felt the want of an imperious mistress who could command the household (gârhapatyāya)3 including the bipeds and the quadrupeds4 and who could be an empress (samrājnī) unto her 1 CATEQİ 7 ela faim 11 RV., X. 85, 45. धनुहस्तादाददानो मृतस्याम्मे पाय वर्चसे बलाय ! ibid., x. 18, 9. * ibid., 85, 27. 36. f19€ iTu ibid., 85, 43. 44. 7 ·MARRIAGE 45 father-in-law and the sisters-in-law,1 Hero a real woman was the need who could throw in her lot unreservedly with hor man and not one who would prove only a time-server and a possible de orter. Hence the inarriage, which sought to fusa two hearts together by enjoining upon the couple the importance of perfoct self-abnegation and which annihilated altogother the sense of individual aloofness through absolute self-surrender, was a socio-religious necossity. It has been already pointed out that the maidon enjoyed considerable freedom the degree of which would becomo a matter of gravo concorn to the olders of the modern Hindu community. She was free to go about in the society and join in all social functions. The samanas, to whiclı Ireedom of reference has been mado above, attracted Marriage maidens of all ages. Here they movod in company of their lovers.3 It was in fact a place where lovers mot and it thus provod a tryst. Maidens flockod hero in great numbers to find a husband.4 Sutors wooods their future wives on this spot and maidens npproached it after properly decorating themselves with a viow to marringe. It is interesting to note that the samana was not an institution which had grown undosired and it was not the mere result of the frco frolic ofriotous youth but it had the support of the entire society and the olders nover rosented its existenco although it must have aided the casual moral laxities in the community as such a free institution is bound to do. It provod to bo a place where the difficultios of marriage wore spontaneously romoved. This lessened very much the worry of the parents about finding a match for the drughter as occasions multiplied in favour of the doughtor 1 सम्माजी श्वशुरे भव सम्राज्ञी श्वश्वा भव । ननान्दरि सम्राज्ञी भव सम्राशी मधि देवपु II 8.,x. 85, 46. * ibid , IV. 59,8; VI. 75, 4; VII. 2,5; X. 86, 10. SAI., II. 86,1; cf. RI', VII. 2, 5; IV.68, 8 . RI., VII. 2,5. ibid., IV. 58, 8; VII, 2, 5. • ibid.

·46 WOMEN IN ROVEDA seeking her helpmate. The qualities and drawbacks were naturally adjusted for, men and women of different tastes! met here and very easily & shortcoming with one became an accomplishment with another. Therefore the attendance of maidens at the samanas was even encouraged by the elders of the family and we have a reference to the mothers decorating their daughters for attending them with a view to matrimony. Kaegi evidently gives the picture of a lively samana when he says: "Wives and maidens attire themselves in gay robes and set forth to the joyous feast ; youths and girls hasten to the meadow when forest and field are clothed in fresh verdure, to take part in the dance. Cymbals sound, and seizing each other lads and damsels whirl about until the ground vibrates and clouds of dust envelop the gaily moving throng."3 On such festal gatherings and similar other occasions, which were very frequent, there were often opportunities of forming acquaintance between young men and maidens which, when matured, resulted in wedlock. Its control In a society, such as the Rgvedic, marriage by free choice would without doubt be normal. Ordinarily the young maiden was free to choose the man with whom she should unite her lot. Yet her freedom was slightly qualified by parental advice. It was the duty of the father or, in his absence, of the brother, to assist the maiden to obtain & worthy husband. The brother, who was a great support of his sister as his name bhrālp would suggest, seoms even to have had a little control over his sister's social habits and movements; for, it is suggested in the Rigvedat that in his absence a sister was likely to go astray in her youth (abhrätaro na yoşano vyantah) and so he had to be watchful Kalidasa malos an interesting reference to the difference of tastes among men and women in matters of matrimony in his phrase भिन्न हचिहि लोक: Raghu., vi. 30. • सुसङ्काया मातृमष्टेव योपाविस्तन्वं कृणुर्षे दृशेकम् । Ry., I. 123, 11. * The Rigreda, p. 19 * IV. 5, 5.

·MARRLAGF 47 lest bid mon should take advantage of his sistor's woakness In tho absence of both tho father and the brothor the maidon had to be bold and to turn to mon to sook out bor husband (abhrāteva punsa eti) "Sho scoketh mon," sings tho scor, "as sho nho hath no brothor mounting hor car as't woro to gathor riches "2 1 It is, however, to be notod that m spite of all this freedom the sanction of the parents, if they wore living, was almost imperativo It looks difficult to bolieve in the faco of the extraordinary freedom cnjoj od by women, but it is almost an established truth, that normalls the father or brotlier sought out Q suitablo match for the girl Thus custom to day has degenerated into a passivo and indifforent interost on the part of tho girl or boy in tho ovent of hior or his own marriago but in the froer atmosphoro of tho Rgvedic times it was a vortablo blessing on the society, otherwise too froo r choice of husband by a girl would havo rosultod in nothing else than a moro motohunting This may be witrossed as obtaining in consequence of such frcodom in cortain parts of tho modern world whioro overy couple starts anow and alono, althongh the way is too dark and difficult for individual experiments The modern dolusion of looking at norringe as an individual affair is, of courso, tho ossenco of the solfish, egocentric habit of lifo It focuses degiro on porsonal advonture and porsonal needs With more courago to face tho ronlit109 of lovo vo shond have a curer idea) There should be less sentimentality but much dooper feeling about morringe Kūlıdāsa, a lator o ponont of Indian culture following the erlor traditions of tho Vedas, dolmos conjugal lovo as bhara bandhana prema, love which springs up from a conscious, responsiblo feeling of affection and not from a selfish and sensuous appetito "To lonso mou and women unguided," says Hortley, "with their own ideas of what is good to do and 1 RV I 124 7 . मनातेव पुम एति प्रतीची गारुगिव सनये धनानाम । जायेय पत्य उशती सुवासा उपा हलेव निरिणीते प्रप्स | ibud Raghu, in 24 ·48 WOMEN IN RGVEDA what is evil, is the dry-rot very surely destroying the ideal of marriage....No longer must marriage be regarded solely as a personal relationship. Marriage is a religious duty." So was it with the Rgvedic Aryan. To him it was not a lappiness in itself ; it was a means to an end. He had an ideal, and man, and woman both jointly walked up to that solemnly. Marriage was a discipline, it was not an adventure. This is why the hand of the father controlled the marriage of his daughter to some extent. The Rgvodic Aryan know well what would happen if inexperienced girls were left to seek out their match without restraint or guidance so ho always strove to find out a suitable husband for his daughter. This truth has of late beon realized by somo modern thinkers of tho west. An authoress of considorable roputo suggests an injunction. She observes: "It would, I am certain, lessen the chance of ondless unhappiness in marriage and provent many divorces if some moro fixed enquiries, within the case of any one (shall I nay, under twontyfive) the consent of one parent of either party, if living, if not, that of a guardian were obligatory before the inarringo could bo entered into.... If wo desire really to preserve marriago let us treat it with seriousness. Marriage is not considered a vocation, it has become a game." The idea cinbodied in the above quotation had found favour to a great extent in the Indo-Aryan community. Wo read of marriages bemg normally stopped whero parents objected to them. When Syāvāśın, the son of a priest, begy of King Rathaviti, son of Darbha, the land of the princesa, luis daughter, the queen objects to the match as her ideal of a xon-in-law is ono who is a poet and the consent, therefore, is refuscd. Consequently the inarriage is stopped although both the lover and his fiancé, the princess, are eager for it. Again in the Gambler's hymn the greatrst dread to the gumbler is liis mot]wr-in-law2. * RI., 1.61 : 52-61 ; 81-69; VIII. 35-39; IX. $2. दैष्टि दवयूष जाया कमदिन नापितो बिन्दने महितरम् | ivid..X. 31, 3.

·50 WOMEN IN RGVEDA her of he who woos hor 2" This situation when compared to its modern type will look remarkably humane. A blind bride to-day survives more by chance than care. What was true of women must have been to a great extent true of men as woll. At least we have one instance in Syāvāśva whose marriage had been stayed because of his poverty and lack of poetical genius.2 Later as soon as he was able to procuro wealth through his services to the princess Saśīyasi and Purumiļha, he married his lady-love.3 . In Vimada's case also consent had been withheld which stopped the marriage as a result of which the lovers olorod.4 But both theso cases of Syāvāśva and Vimada are those of the aristocracy. It is possible that the commoners were froer in this respect. Tho marriagoable ago fell in the post-puberty period. It ig significant triat tllore is not a singlo rcferencu to cliild inarriago in the wholo of the Rk Samhitū. The Marriagoablo maiden was more than conscious of tho love sho Age ras making and the brido was perfectly awaro of the rituals sho was a witness to. As we shall sco below bor assent to several fcaturos of tho marriage ceremony was obligatory. The marriago hymn of Sūryā contains soveral references which show that the bride at the time of lor marringo was quito grown up and fit for consummation and procreation. In fact consummation was an essential part of protracted Vedic marriago ritual.? Tho rituals themselvos suppored the bride to be a grown up woman.8 । यस्थानमा दुहिता जात्याम कस्ता विद्या प्रमि मन्याने अन्धाम् । पतरो मेनि प्रति तं मुनाते य ई वहाते य ई वायरेयात् ., X, 27, 11. * ibid., 9.61; 62-61 ; 81-62; VIII. 95-33; IX. 32. . ibid., 1. 117, 8. * ibid., 1. 112, 19; 116,1; 117, 20; X. 33,7; 65, 12. . ibid., X. 85. • ilid., 25; 11 ; 42, 43; 45: 46. ibid., X. 85. ibid., 111. 55, 8. Y ·BIARRIAGE 51 Thon wo find that words used to denoto womon, most of which refer to unmarried maidons, signify their maturo, youthful age Thus the word lanya,w7th its soveral other derivations hana, Janinahiz and hanyanā,4 moins a woman, muiden and young Yuvali, dovelopoul enongh and fit to unito with a lovorº (marya), is likowiso a youthful muiden Tho words Yosa,? Yosan, Yoşanao and Yosit10 imply tho sonso of & young woman ripe for marriage Wohavo alrendy given a number of roferences to freedom of love and marriage, to the attendance at fostırals and samanas and to meetings of los ors at trysts 12 An allusion has also beon made to fatherless and brothorless girls boldly stepping out in quest of a suitablo husband Such a stato of thmgs could be possible only when post-puberty marringos wore a rulo Of an o\coption to the contrary wo have not a solitary record There is another lio of roasoning which will prove marriage to havo beon performed of maturo girls alono and of no others Mention is made of the rite of Visvävasu in the verses of the Rgieda 13 Gandharva Visvīvasu has been explained in later Sanskrit litorature as a rod placed on the bed by the side of the brido to act as a witness of the couple s abstinence from When, at last, the first four days following the marriage coremony were over, the husband prepared himself for the * RV, I 129, 10 161, 6 III 23 10 ibid, 61,5 ibid, IV 92 29, X 40 9 ibid VIII 35 5 ibid I 118, 6, II 85, 1, III 61 14 IV 18 8 V 212, 86, 16, X 80 5 • abid , III 81,7 33, 10, IV 20 6 IX 96, 20 * ibid , I 117, 20 • IV 6,5 . ibid , III 52, 3, 56, 5, 62, 8, VII 95, 9, 10 ibid, IX 28 4 11 brd, I 48,5 92, 11, III 93, 10 39, 8 1* ibid , \ 34 5, ct ibid , 40 6 1$ ibid , 85, 21 22 union ·52 WOMEN IN RGVEDA consummation of marriage. To. Viśvāvasu lie addressed the following lines placing his foot on the bed: "Rise up from hence; this maiden hath a husband. I applaud Viśvāvasu vith hymns and homage. Seek in her father's home another fair one ( anyamiccha ), and find the portion from of old assigned thee. "Rise up from hence, Viśvavasu ; with revorence we worship theo. Seek thou another willing maid and with her husband leave the bride."2 These verses occurring in course of a marriago hymn evidently prove the consummation of marriage just after the conclusion of the marital ritual which could have been possible only when the bride was mature for it. Then we have to bear in mind that Vißvūvasu was the fourth deity to whom the brido was supposed to be ideally wedded bofore the actual marriage took place. Before him three guardian deities of maturity hold sway over her body. These were Varuna, Soma, and Agri in order of precedence. Varuņa, the king of the nntural order, made lier inviolable; Soma infused her with the rasa, the natural flow of the sexual socrotion; and Agni animated her for thn act of procreation. Varuņa ropresents tho stago anterior to the visiblo signs of maturity and lic is oxpectod to kcop watch over the maiden until she slows signs of womanlood. Just at this stage her clarge passes from Varuna to Soma. Soma signities a liquid flow and thus implies the menstrual flow of the girl. It is not that a chango comes ovor the girl and she is fast changing to womanhood. Yet an urgo to coliabit with man doce not quite start 85 menstruation begins. It takes a little time. This interval is the charge of Agni who gireg warmth to the body. It hatches in the adolescent woman the madness of love and gives fullness to her limbs and lustro । उदीति: पतिदनी होपा विश्वावमुं नममा गीमिगळे । मन्यामिच्छ पितृपदं व्यसां स ते भागो जनुषा तस्य विदि Rv.,x.65,21. , उदी तो विश्वावसो नमसेनामहे त्वा । मन्यामिन्छ प्रफव्यं सजायां पत्यामुज Uibid., 22. -T ·MARRIAGE 53 to her body, animates hor and gonorates in her the wild urge to mate which, mien rosisted and stayed, results in an clopement of Kamadyu and Vimada.. Thus when Agni had made the brido strong enough to conceive, Viśvāvasu, tho presiding deity of conjugal arts and accomplishmonts, violded to the tempornl god, the husband, who hod to begin tho solemn and sacred act of procreation which was so very essential for the propagation of his race and for appeasing tho thirst and hunger of the manes It was a time when multiplication of the race was a dire neod and whon the nowly wedded husband hoped that his wifo would soon become & mother of ten mighty children. It was a time whon 'lack of sons was consilored a misfortune and adoption only a muheshift. Viſvävasu thus took charge of the mudon when all physical signs of maturity including puberty were distinctly doveloped in her. This makes it sufficiontly clear that tho bride at the time of hor marriage was in a full-grown stato fit to give birth to children and not a phything Sho was--if wo are very punctılıous about knowing her age in years—at least sixteen years old. Just after her marriago she drove with hor husband and took command of her now housoliold which toomod with life of both 'bipods and quadrupeds It is inconceivablo otherwise how she could becomo on ompress, samrajñī, unto her futhor in lats and mothor-in-law and unto her sister in-las and brother in law '4 3 Grown up inarriago was the order of the day Wo read of old-age marringest and of unmisrried women growing old Olil ago Marri in their fathers' house Kaksivin, a grert sage Agha and Sorual Intalids of the Rgveda, married Romaśā, tlio grand 1 RY, I 112, 19, 116, 1, 117, 20, 39, 7, 65, 12 ? ibid, X 85, 44 45 ; ( T 49075 abd , 43 44 . ibid , 46 ibid , I 61, 13, 117, 7, II 17, 7, X 39, 9, 40,5 • abid , I 117, 7; II 17,7, X 39, 3, 40,5 ·54 WOMEN IN RGVEDA daughter of king Bhāvya.1 In his old age he married another princess Ghosā, herself an old woman.2 Such old-age marriages: in certain cases resulted in the invalidity of the husband and the unproductivity of the wife. We read of childless weaklings3, being helped with children by the Asvins. "Ye came unto the calling of the weakling's dame (radhramatya)," prays Kaksivān, "and granted noble offspring to the happy wife."'4 Ghoşî, his wife, in like manner chants her prayer: "With', liberal bounty to the weakling's consort, yo heroes, gavo & son Hiranyahasta." .'5 But such cases were certainly few in tho society as marriages were generally contracted wlien both the bride and the bridegroom woro in a completely developod and youthful state. It is possiblo that in cases of polygamous husbands such circumstances took rise. Kaksivän himself in his young age had alroady been married to the grand-daughter of king Bhāvya whilo Ghoşā, his second wifo, had to stay unmarried until old age because of her skin disease, which when curod, sho was takon in as to wife. $ In a socioty where freo lovo and frco choice of the husband was normni, the idea of parivcttā, i.e. Inarrying in order of seniority in age, of the later literaturer could not havo found favour with picople. It is natural that when several youthful sisters visited the samanas or such other festivals Marriago in order of Age with a view to matrimony and slien tho youngers were able to nttract attention of young mon and marry them, tho cider ones should suffer tho undeserved humility of staying unmarried at thrir fathers' bouse and thicre growing old. We liave no conclusivo cvidence in the Rgreda on tho point but rrlying on the testimony of the ·ņI., 1. 51, 13. * ibid., 1. 117, 7; II. 17,7; X. 39, 8; 40,8. * ibid., X. 39,7; 1. 117, 24. . ibid, X. 99,7. • हिरण्यदलमश्विना रामा पूर्व मरा वप्रिमाया प्रदत्तम् । iid., I. 117,21. • Tát. D. Sül., XX. 7. (cl. Våja. Sam., XXX, 9); cf. alho Toitt. Sam., IL 9, 4, 4; Kal. Sr. Sü. IL 1, 22, Kauk. Su. 8,5; 187, 37.

·BIARRIAGE 55 later Samhilas, Brahmanas and the Sätra literature Prof Sarkār thunks that "in spite of somo amount of socia) fceling nguinst broal ing the order of soniority in matrimony, younger sisters were not wanting who were anxious to woo boforo thoir elder sisters, and found husdands bravo enough to face denunciations or opprobrious opithets-Vedic society this appeirs to have talen it for granted that the woman lid for likes and dislilos, her loves and joj s, as much as the man This personal freedom of action of the unmarried womın dovelops into a dignified wifehood after her marringe 'l This state of society could not possibly stich to a particular marital code of law In later times the custom of marrying in order of ngo developed becauso child marringe cime in voguo and it fell wholly to the parents to seek out suitable husbands for their daugliters It was difforont in tho society of tho Rgveda Thore is no doubt about the fact that although the casto systom in its present form lind not been evolved nov ortholess its begunings woro already marked in the Rgueda At least the Brāhmana and tho Rājanya classes had boon formed and tho common peoplo were called the Visa from which Intermarriage the Vaisy as of later timos derived their name The Br ihminas had alrendy dovoloped into a conspicuous class specializing mainly in the priestly vocation It is thoy who form the groztor number of tho Rgvedic soors In the marriage of Sūryâ occurring in the comparatively later portion--the tenth booh-of the Rgveda thoy aro gn en largesses hy the bride But although tho Rgveda Samhrta warrants the com mencement of tho cisto system its ovidence clearly points out that the hnbits and customs which later on grow as peculiar traits to the distinct classes had not yet acquired their rigidity Thero tos no ban put, for examplo, on interdining and intor marrying Intermarriages, of courses lingered in a week form Soc Hus of India pp 108 9 . परा देहि पामुल्य ब्रह्मभ्यो वि भजा वसु । RP X 85 29 ·56 WOMEN IN RGVEDA till quite late in the classical period. During the Rgvedic age the occurrence of such marriages was very frequent. We glean a few instances of intermarriage from the Rgreda where the exigonoy and the context permit the poet to dwell upon, or. refor to such matrimonial connections. This form of marriage was so common that it nover struck a dissentient note among the peoplo. It is but natural that such intermarriages should frequently occur as a result of the freedom that the maidens: and young men enjoyed in making love and maturing it into a happy redlock. In the Rgveda there is absolutely no restriction about intermarriages among the Aryans. We have no conclusivo evidence in this Samhitā whether there was any definite control ovor tho forms of marriago which later on camo to bo called Anuloma, a man of higher casto marrying & woman of a lower one, and Pratiloma, a woman of higher class taking for hvor husdond a man from a lower one. In fact tlio case for such a distinction was definitely lacking. And wo have evidence showing the existence of both in the socicty although the lattor form inay not havo boon frequently obtaining. But the growing importance of tho Brāhmaṇas as an exclusive class was suro to usher in tho Anuloma form of marriage. Of this we liavo foveral instances in the Rgreda itself. The marriages of Cynvīna, Syūvāśva," Kaksivülis and Vimadam refer to the Anuloma form of intermarringe. All these Brāhmaṇi rşis and sons of rķis narried in the Rājanya families. Of these the last three deservo to be treated in a little detail, Tho most interesting episode is that of Syāvāśva. Syāvīśva was tlie son of a prominent pricst attached to the court of king Rathariti, son of Darliha. There were occasions on festivals 1 Cyarāni's neno occurs in teroral verses: RY., I. 116, 10; 117, 18; 118,6; 1.31,5; VIL 69, 6; 71,5; X. 99, 4. * ibid., V. 61; 52-61 ; 81-82; VIII. 85-99 : IX. 32. cl. Brhada., V. 498. . ibid., 1. 126, 9; 51, 18. • jbid., I. 112, 13; 116,1; 117, 20; X. 83, 7; 65, 12.

·DIARRIAGE 57 and sacrifices whon Syāvāśız and the daughtor" of Rathaviti saw and mot orch othor Thoy vero attracted to each other and froe lovo dovoloped botween them Syāvāśta had a tender hcart and theroforo sufforod subjectively more Byavisva than lus fiancéo Then in order to make tho princess his wife ho approrched the king and bogged of hum her hand in marringo Tho fathor was quito willing but the mothor folt moro cancomed about her daughter for she had strong misgivings as to the accomplishments of the young man Besides, tho queen knew that Syāvāśva wis too poor to provido her daughter with her lodly requiroments Then agrın, her ideal of a son in law had beon a rich young man ondowod with tho gonius of a poot The queen therefore nnturally thinking the wooer of her daughter to be falling too short of hor o\pectations refused to give her permission to the marringo and the nogotiations fell through Tho striking bonuty and grace of the princess had struck too doop a root in tho heart of Sjās aśva to make him forget her and to lot tho affair alone Loro caused him to suffer frontly llo guned ono thing from his pleasant pain He began to muso His hoart was tender and his mood reflectivo His sifont pondoring, ovor his love and boauty of tho princess gwo hun the cloquent idens with which has tonder heart and suscortible mind helped to turn out touching and sweet images of pootrs IIo soon doveloped into a mystor poot He sang cloquenths and the sad story of lus rejected love sluch lus composition ombodied fillod the air and echoed through tho valloys His famo as a poot spread far and wide Thoro was a like sufforor in love It was tho princess Hor position had naturally grined ber a throng of admirers Sho hnd rejected all of thom But later her choice fell on a liandsomo Rijanja prince Tho son of king Puru miſha sio thought could cligibly aspiro for her hand, and she solocted hum But it seems there arose some difficulty in the realization of her objective perhaps the prince did not know 8 Saſiyası ·58 WOMEN IN RGVEDA that she loved him ; porhaps he would not consent to the wedding. Tho princoss began to suffor from the pangs of lovo and whilo yet suffering she heard of the painful story of Śrīvāśva. The fame of the latter as a poet and the nature of kis malady won the sympathy of Sabīyasí, ho considered him withal an apt spokesman of hearts agonized by love. She sent for him while he was yet suffering from the refusal of the queen. Tho princess opened to the poet the secret of her heart and ontrusted him with the mission of carrying her love-message to tho son of Purumiļa. No other porson was better fitted for the mission than Syāvāśva. He was smitten by the same ailment from which Sasiyasi suffered and he could well imagine the sorry state of her feelings. He agreed to go on the errand and proceeded to win for Saśīyasi the man after her heart. He was & poet and in love. Ho brought his negotiations to a successful Cluse which resulted in the marriage of Sasiyasī and the son of Purumilha. The newly married couple were "lavish in their benefactions towards the ambassador") and they gave him 'droves of cows and horses'2 and hundreds of chariots.3 Syāvāśvs had already become a poet and his gain of wealth through Sašīyasi had completed his need rogarding the conditions which the queen had put for bor daughter's band. The grateful poet "extolled in magnificent language the princess' liberality and the support that her husband would find in her firmness of character." "Sasiyasi has given me droves of cows and horses," sang le "together with a hundred chariots. For the husband recommended by Syāvāáva, she has becomo a strong and powerful support. 5 8 1 Clarisse Bader: "TWomen in Ancient India, p. 25. Sani tagliare I KV., V. 61, 10. ibid. सनत्साशव्यं पशुमुतगव्यं यतावयम् । श्यावाश्वस्तुतायया दौर्वीरायोपववृहत् ॥ ibid., 61, 5. !

·WARRIAGE "Difforing from other shomon, Safiyası has provod kierself more generous than a man who no longer honours the gods and who is greedy for gain "Amongst the Doras, sho sceks liim who may be fatigued, oppressed by thirst or want, and it is upon lum sho lirocts her 1 thoughts '2 Thus was indeed a snd reflection upon lus poor dis appointed, rejected self Ho was singing the glory of ono who had succooded in her lovo and in gaining the object of lier desiro, whilo ho, tho man who had brought about her loppiness was himself pining for tho attainment of his objectivo ! The thought ombodied in his song reacted, and the voice of the poot rang out in tho hush of night and rent the air O Night, carry my hymn to tho son of Darbha Goddess become tho chariot of my prayer 3 Sponk of mo to Rathavīte at the moment of pouring out the libation Tell lum that my love for his daughtor 19 not ortinguished '4 These lines were the procursor of tlo lator Meghaduta ind of miny other worls that followod it sioned Yaksı attuned these in the stillness of night and then ho boggod tho Night itself to convey thom to the soparated beloved and lior people And they woro horrd For we rond in later liternturos that Syavuśva married the princess whose hand he had sought for The story of Syavasva is a clear and conclusive proof of intermarriago between a Bralımana and a Ksatriya It also incidentally servos os i caso in point for tho Anuloma marriago as in it a Brāhmına youth marries a Rajanya mridon Thoro aro at lorst ton hymns attributed to the उतत्वा स्त्री दाशीयसी पुसो भवति यस्पसी। अदेवनादरापस ॥R V 616 • विया जानाति जसुरिं वि तृप्यत वि कामिनम । देवत्रा कृणुते मन ॥bar एत मे स्तोममूम् दााय परा वह । गिरो देवि रथीविव || brd 17 • उत मे चोचतादिति सुतसोमे रपवीती। न कामो अप वेति मे || nbrd 18 . Brhadd, V 41 ff The first impas 1 ·60 WOMEN IN RÚVODA authorship of Syāvāáva while his name occurs many a time elsewhere. Naturally his story had become dear to the people and so it found mention at soveral places. We shall now pass on to the stories of Kakşivån and Vimada. Kakşivān, a great sage of the time and one of the authors of the Rgveda, was polygamous. He married first Romaśā, the grand-daughter of king Bhāvyal, and then Ghosā, both Rajanya princesses. Kakşīvān was returning to Kaksivän his family after the completion of his studies. Fatigued by his long jonrnoy he lay down to rest by the roadsido under the luxuriant shade of the forest trees and fell fast asloop. Prince Svanaya, the son of king Bhāvya, came driving in his chariot in the meantime and saw the tired Brahmacãri sleeping on the ground. He woke him up and invited him to his chariot. The learning of Kakşīvān bad already gained some fame and his talented talks soon won the admiration of the Rājanya prince. Ho had a charming daughter, Romaśā by name, whose marriage he proposed to the young graduate, who at once accepted the enviable offer. Kakşīvān, instead of returning directly to his parents, drove to the palace of king Bhāvya, who married his grand-daughter to him and offered him, besides, gold, slave girls, droves of cattle, chariots and horses. Followed by numerous escort and accompanied by his wife, Kakşīvān reached his father's house and there he related to his family the joys and triumphs of his journey, the munificence of prince Svanaya and the romantic circumstances in which he had married his bride. Then his wife, the young princess Romaśā, timidly advanced in her turn to her father-in-law and identifying herself with the family addressed him with much familiarity: "He has accepted me as his wife and I cling to him liko the rider to the whip which he grips in his hand. My husband grants me the enjoyment of a thousand precious gifts.? * RV, I. 126. . ibid., 8-6.

·MARRIAGE 61 "Suffer mo to approach you Havo pity on my workness I shall be always Romaśā, that is to say, the ewe of the Gandhūras'1 Sho aguin Later on Koksıvūn married anothor wife was a Rājany a princess (rajñaduhita) who naturally had for hor iden) of a husband in car borno chieftain rich in stoods 3 But unfortunately hor desiro remained unrcalized as sho folla sictim to a skin diseaso, perhaps leprosy, which, in those days of direct choice of a husband, proved an unsurmountable impodimont to hor marriage So in the house of her father sho lay growing old and praying to the Aśving to cure her of lier disoase and to find her a husband The heavenly physicians took pity on her condition—muiden yot strickon in yoors cured hor of hor loprosy and found hor a husband Kalsivān married her in his old nget, and thus tho liko wodded the lil e Vimada, again a Rsi, married Sughnyu, otherwiso called Kamadyu, who was a Rājanya princess, daughter of king Purumiļha and porhaps the sister in law of Sasiyası for whom Syāvāśva had strivon and found a husband in the son of the king named above Vimada and Kamadyu Vimada loved each othor and the former with a viow to making tho lattor luis legally wedded wife asked tho pormission of her father, the king, to thoir marriago But the king seems to have had an inperious tomper and his aristo cratic consciousnoss revolted against the idea of a moneyless man iparrying his daughter Ho thoroforo refused to give his consent The couplo, howevor, had gone too long a way in their love to retraco their stop, Thoy wero very unlike Syūvuśva and lus fiancéo and rofused to suffer in silenco liko them Thoy resolved to become husband and wifo, and taking उपोप मे परामरामा मे दमाणि मायया । सहिमस्मि रोमशा गपारीणामिवाविका || RV I 1267 abid X 40 6 'भूतं मे अह्न उत भूतमक्तवेऽश्वायते रथिने शक्तमवते । ibud . ibid, X 40 ·62 WOMEN IN RGVEDA a daring step, cloped together to an unknown destination. The parents considering it foolish to stand in their way eventually agreed to their marriage and even commended their conduct. Reforencos to the incident sro made in sovoral passages of the Rgveda. In later works the Anuloma form has found a frequent mention and Prof. Sarkar instances several cases to show that this form of marriage was quite common. "The Atharvaveda," he observes, "glorifies the brühmaņa as the best husband for women of all other 'varnas,'2 though from the same context it transpires that tho 'brahmani' often hold opposite views, and had to be roclaimed from persons of other 'varņas' with the help of the king's justice. “Vaiſi-putra's are known to the early Brāhmaṇas; in the Yv. Arya-Sūdrā connexions are subjects of jest amongst court and priestly circles, so that legal marriage between such must have been frequent..." In like manner the Pratiloma form of marriage had also found sanction in the Rgvedic society to which several allusions are made in the Sanhitā. Saſvati, the daughter of tlo sage Angiras was married to king Asarga. King Svannya Bhāvayavya, the son of Bhāvya and the brother of Romaśū the wife of sage Kakşīvān, was wedded to a Brāhmani wife descended from the family of Angiras.? Tho name of Yayātis may also be added to the list. He married Dovayānī, tho daughter of the sage Sukrācārya. The story of his marriage with tho daughter of the Rsi is narrated in the Purāņas while the names of both the son-in-law and the father-in-law occur in the Rgveda itself. * }y., I, 112, 19; 116, 1; 117, 20; X, 39,7; 65, 12. SAV., V. 17,8.9. * Tartt., Bra., III. 9,7,8; Sat., Bra., XIII. 2. • Vāja. Sari.., XXIII. 30-31 ; Taitt. San., VII, 4, 19,2-9. • Some Asps, of the Soc. His. of Ind., p. 102. * RY., VIII, 1,84. * ibid., 1. 126 . ibid., X, 63, 1.

·MARRIAGE 63 Thus it can be assorted with amplo forco that intormarriago among the rarnas was not considored bad and uns a common feature of tho day. And it may be shown with sufficient cleamess that it obtainod not only het woon tho Aryan varnas but also botweon tho Aryans and tho conqnorod natives, Dāsas, tho slaves. The condition of tho society consequont upon conquest modo it almost a custom for a man to bring along with his wifo 'marringoablo' slave girls. We road frequontly of rşis being prosonted with fomslo slavoq' by princos who must have at occasions furnished their Aryan masters with wivos from amongst thom. Tomale slaves havo boon ovon called vadhūs, legally marriageable brides. Anny important Rgvodio Aryans were sons of slavo mothers.4 Kaksivan, the colobrated seor and the son-in-law of two princos, Svannya Blīvayavya and the father of Ghoşā, was himsolt born of a fomale slavo, So also wore Augija, Kavasa or Vatsa sons of slave mothers (drīsī or Sūdrī). It is very natural that in most cases where chancos of a legal wedding woro remoto tho slavo girls might have served well as concubines. Prof. Sarkar romarks vory judiciously: "Tho uso of the torm 'dāsi,' as compared with that of 'dāsa,' in Vedic texts, shows that tho 'dāsi' very early came into contact with Aryan mastery, 24 & rosult probably of the oxtermination and subjugation of aboriginal tribosnien; accordingly, 'dāsi-putra's bocamo quito cominon, and slavo-girls presonted to priosts by conquerors could be callou vodhu's or 'wodablo' women." Intermarriago is the outcomo of both a circunstantial nood and a choico. Conditions for both woro presont in tho Rgvedic socioty. Freo love and froe choice of a partner in lifo 1 RY., VIII. 19, 36; 68, 17; VI. 27,8. ibid. * ibid, VI. 27,8; VIII. 19, 96; 69, 17. . ibid., I. 18, 1, 112, 1. * ibid. . ibid. Some Asps, of the Soc. Ilis. of Ind, p. 102 ·64 WOMEN IN RGVEDA as well as free mixing of the sexes are bound to result in intormarriages. Love is seldom the result of calculation and it always acts with the swiftness of an avalanche on young people. The oxistenco of young slave girls, bosides the wife, in the Aryan homo was sure to attract the notice of tho Aryan master and it is no wonder that the latter occasionally lapsed into the laxities of the age. Tho Yajur Vedal alludes oven to Sūdra-Arya connections and the Atharva Veda2 contains a charm directod against the wifo's paramour, who is a slave 'winning her love by sheer physical strength.' The Āśvalāyana Srauta Sutra3 refers to the ancient tradition that the family slave (dása) could lawfully marry the widow of his master.' Thus we see that in spite of his best endeavours the Rgvedic Aryan was not always able to keep his blood pure. It was the need of the time, the pressure of circumstances, which outwitted him and over which he had no control. The society had come to acquire varied needs. Marriage among the Hindus to-day has bocome stereotyped, formalized and fixed in all details. It has come to have a single form and naturally therefore all the different types of it mentioned and detailed in the Smộtis havo become superficial and obsolete. Surely the society of the Rgveda and that of slightly later times had served as the earlier and later models for the Smſlis. The eight forms of marriage of which we read in them were cortainly current at some time or other in the Aryan society and they may have been features of the institution of marriage in the Rgveda itself, although we do not find all of them referred to in the Samhită. The omission of an allusion to all of them may have been due to the restricted subject matter of the work. The Rgveda is, in the first instance, a work of rituals and of philosophy in embriyo and roferences to mundane affairs can not but be scarce, only few and far between. Nevertheless, most of the later forms have found & mention cither directly * Vāj. San., XXIII. 90-31; Taitt. San., VII, 4, 19, 2-3. · Some Asps. of the Soc, Hus. of Ind., p. 102. 3 IV.2, 18. * ·MARRIAGE 65 or indirectly They are tho following, viz (1) Asura Brāhma, (2) Prājāpatya, (3) Svayamvara, (4) Gāndharın, hin ls of Marriage (5) Ral sisa and (6) Contractual Iho terms quoted above are not of the Rgueda but of tho Manusmrti and other Smrts The Samhıta doos not specifically refer to them by nime and it is doubtful if the actual names of these technical catagories had been evolved by tho time when theso hymns were composed But the circumstances and the nature of the matrimonial connections referred to in the Samhita Tro such as may oysily and conveniently be classed under one or the other of the forms enumorited above Thus, to begin with, we have two reforences to the bride money being pused by the bridegroom and accepted by the bridos father It seems that when a suitor was desertless (vijamaluh) and bosoft of accomplishments he was obliged to win tho consont of his future fathor in law by pleasing him with laboral gifts Tho toit of the Rgveda clearly reads ror I have heard that 30 gave wealth more freely than worthless son in law or spouso s brothor: It is yet very doubtful of this can be clofinitely tormed as purchase money It will be geen later on that dowry was generally given by Asura Bril na the father and the brother to the bridegroom along with the brido though no stooping asser tion can be mado ng unst the possibility of the existence of the custom of purchase of lorido The usual gift seems to have boon ir of olon the grert noce stry of igricultural lifo of the early Aryan The case in point may not be altogether isolatod and singular, and such maringes may live been more frequent than actually oyidonced inasmuch as there the status onjoyed by tho woman was one of privilege and it is possible that 1 worthless min-in those days of marriago by the frec choice of the maiden and in the absence of a compelling control on her will-may have found it easier to influence 1 अथव हि भूरिदावत्तरा पा विजामातुरुत वा पा स्यालात् | RV I 109 2 also ibid VIII 2 20 ibid I 109 2 ·66 WONEN IN RGVEDA the nearest relations of the bride by handsome presents than to venture on the doubtful result of opon wooing. And if we bring history to our aid we shall find that India has been seldom freo from the existence of such an evil as this side by side with the ideal sacrifice impliod in the Prājāpatya form of wodding. Kālidāsa mentions the possibility of such an incident as the existence of marriage through payment (duhiły sulka samsthayā).1 "We find that the custom to a considerable extent endures till now and many cases of the type are being registered everyday by institutions working in the society to erradicate the unwanted evil. Very commonly is being disclosed the working of secret gangs employed in stealing or purchasing and selling away brides in Bengal, Bihar, the United Provinces and the Punjab. Therefore the existence of such a custom would not have been altogether impossible, although, it may be asserted that it militates against the ideal of free love which was a strong condition of marriage of which we shall have occasion to treat below--particularly when the father left almost a free hand to his daughter in matters of the choice of her husband. The evidence on the point is rather meagre and inconclusive and the one we have in view itself contains a reference to dowry paid by the brother of the bride to the groom. This form of marriage, however, would be covered under the torm Asura- Brahma. In the Åsura form of marriage payment of some consideration, to the relatives and father of the bride with a viow to marrying the bride is imperativo. This form of marriage differs from the Brāhma form inasmuch as consideration plays an essential part in it while in the Brāhma it does not. Tho Prājāpatya form of marriage seems to have been most normally obtaining in the society. In this form the father of the bride adorned his daughter with ornaments Prājāpatya and Save her away to the bridegroom after the completion of the necessary ceremonies. These rites mark the beginnings, in howsoever crudo a form, of thoso Raghu., xi, 98.

·MARRIAGE 67 that wero porfoctly systematized in tho Smrlis, Satras and T'ralapaddhatıs (manunls of mrrriago rituals) The Prājāpatya was considered, as now, the ideal form of marringo and tho Rgvedic seer could not concone of a botter and more sacred form with which to bind the typical Aryan wifo Süryū with hor lord Soma! It is almost tho only form of mairiage now permitted by law and provailing in tho Hindu community Its incidents are the samne as thoso that fonturod in the wedding of the first I nown pair in literaturo The marriage of Suryā may lavo boen an outcome of an orrlior Svayamvara to which wo find allusions in the very hymn which consecintos it but the fact romains that tho logul sanction rosulted only after the porformince of tho nuptial coromony incidental to the Prājāpats n form Tlio incidents to shall describe later in certuin dotul Hero is a system in the listory of human marriago which purports to make tho nuptial umoh pormanont and its coromones tho sacramental basis of such unson The systom must have tal on a conşılornbly long timo to ovolvo It has none of the patriarchal traits of marriages elsow loro It ling its biso in the sacrifico of the parents and in no consideration of valuo Tlus londs us naturally to tlo systom of dowry Dowry in whatever form is its necessary inculont and essontial feature Unfortunately tho systom to day has taken an opprossivo turn masmuch as it puts a prico Dowry on tho head of a prospoctivo bridegroom but so long as it lorme part of tho grent guit-unait is undoubtodly a glowing omolument of the Prajaprtya form of marriage Later antliory of the manuals of Hindu marriage and of other cultural documents and literaturo call the giving away of the doughter & great gift hanyadana It is inconceivenblo low for the marringo can be callod a hanya dana i wluch the bride would form an article of sale Tho Prājāputza forin of marriago, which mnkos the gift of daughter almost conditional on providing hor porson with such 1 BV, Y 85 ·68 WOMEN IN RGVEDA ornamonts and robes as the father or the brother easily can, was indeed a high ideal attained by the Rgvedio Aryan. Later tho system degenerated which to-day means so much oppression to the parents of an adolescent daughter. Still the ideal is so dear that they bravely suffer it. Even now it is seldom that the Hindu parents or other elderly kinsmer of the brido eat at her expense and enjoy anything which would be of any material value to her; and cases there liave been when punctilious parents have refused even to look at the house of their daughter for fear of enjoying that which is their daughter's property. The bride's parents or thoso in loco parentis still do not accept any invitation to meals at the bride's house. This may be an absurd extreme but it does, for the matter of that, point to a determined altitude to spare and protect the deal. In the Rgvodic society, not only the young girl was not sold to her betrothed, but she was, as mentioned above, oven dowered by her father and brother. We know it for cortain that the system of dowry was an exceptionally raro event in antiquity. The purchase of bride was the normal custom in other cultures and thereforo tho existence of the system of dowry among the Aryans eloquently proves that thoy realized tho moral value of their women and the dignity of marriage. They did not consider their women as chattels for salo but as possessors of souls who could give themselves away. We learn from the incident of Kaksivūn's marriage that the bridegroom recerred besides his viſo, gold, numerous Rocks of cattle, chariots and honcs. The brother of the brido has been especially mentioned as giving away riches as dowry to lus brother-in-law." Tho prospects of a richi dowry or tho wealth that the bride would or did receive from her ancestral property made it naturally so easy to find a good husband.3 This verse says: "How many a maid is pleasing to the suitor · RW., I. 126, 1-3. * ibid., 1. 103,2; also cl. VI. 23,5; X, 27, 12; 85, 6. * ibid., X. 27. 12.

·JANRIAGE 69 1 lord '2 who fain vould marry for her splondid richos ? If the girl bo both good and fair of forturo, sho finds, herself, a friend among the peoplo Agun ve read of 'treasury' (hosa) bemg sont along with the bride to the homo of her husband "Thought 129 tho pillon of lor couch, sight was the unguent for hor ojos Hor treasury was enth and liegvon then Sūrzā went unto her This verso would also suggost that besides other valuable treasuros, tho dowry of the bride consistod of articlos of toilet (calsurü abhyañjanam); and other overyday necessities liho a couch and bed pillow (upabarlanan) 4 It may be noted that those articles or on now form port of tho bridos dowor The preceding versos refers to anudeyi, the giver, possibly the father or the brother lho slavo girls, who sory often woro given away along with the bride to the groom, may have, in tho first instanco, accompanied her as her personal maid. servants and thus formed part of her dowry These items of the bride's posse con wluch figured as the dowry undoubtodly formed her personal property, hvor stridhana of lator legal literaturo Whatover the form of morriago through which the couple dosired to unite, ono tlung was obligatory, cycopt porlaps in the Gān rvo form it was the performance of tho nuptial sacriments of the Prājāpatys form at tho time of marriage Thus, however, would not have been binding in cases of Gāndharva marriago in which secrecy must Inve beon of the essenco and in which even elopement was an inciclont at times Wo shall deal with the rituals and othor fentures of the Prījāpatya form lien treating of marriage proper । वियती योपा मयतो वधूयो परिप्रीता पन्यसा वार्येण । भद्रा वधूभवति यत्सुपेशा स्वयं सा मित्र वनुते जन चित् ॥ RY, Y 27, 12 'चित्तिरा उपबर्हण चक्षुरा अभ्यञ्जनम् । चोभूमि को मासीद्यदयात्सूर्या पतिम् ॥ lbid , 857 # ibid 4 ibid . ibid, 6 ·70 WOMEN IN RGVEDA The epic system of Svayamvara seems to have germinated in the Rgvedic period. Svayamvara is the self-choice of a husband by the bride out of her many suitors. When too many gods aspired for the hand of fair Sūryā, Savitā, her father, arranged for a Svayamvara fixing a goal which Svayamvara the winner of the bride must reach first of all. The assembled divine suitors assented to the stipulation and in the race that followed the Asvins were victorious thus winning the bride in full glory! In another verse also the same sort of choice is evidenced, as for example: "Then she who came for friendship (i.e. seeking for a husband), maid of noble birth, elected you as husbands, you as her lords." Gündbarys Gāndharva marriage has not been specifically mentioned but its existence may be easily imagined from the free life in the society and from the free lovo-making. We read in the Rgueda of Foung unmarried women mooting their lovers at trysts and inviting them in their own chambers at the dead of night. Its comparatively clear evidence may be found in the love of Vimada, a Bralinin Rși, and Kamadyu, a Rājanya princess, which, since it led to an elopement, must have resulted in a Gāndharva wedlock. This form of marriage was entirely an Affair of lovo which consuminated in a union without tho proposal of marriage. It proceeded entirely from free love and mutual inclination of a youth and a maiden, and was concluded with the mutual consent and agreement of the couple without consulting their relatives. ' पदश्विना पृच्छमानावयात त्रिचक्रेग बहतु मूर्यायाः । विश्वे दवा मनु तदामजानपत्र. पितराववृणीत पूपा ॥RY.,x. 85, 14, आ वा रथ दुहिता मूर्यस्य पाप्मेवातिष्ठदवंता जयन्ती। विश्वे देवा धन्वमन्यन्त हुभिः समश्रिपा नासत्या सचेये | ibid., I. 110, 17. + आ यां पतित्त्वं सस्वाय जग्मुषी योपादीत जेन्या युवा पती !! ibid., 119, 5. X. 34, 5. . ibid., I. 184, S. * ibid., 1, 112, 19; 116, 1; 117, 20; X. 89, 7; 65, 12.

·MARRIAGE 71 It was later rtified as 1 fari accomplı under the Hindu law of Faclum Valet by the parents of the contracting parties as was actually done by Purumıllın, the father of Kamadyu, the cloping bride The most mterosting case of a Gāndharia wedlock in Indun history las bcon furnished by the Mahnbharata in the story of Dusyanta and Sabuntalā wluch later became the theme of Kālıdāsn's immortal play, the Abhijñana Saluntala The incident of elopement, mentioned abovo, would indirectly rofor to another form of marriage-that of Rāksısa of the Inter dny classification in which tho carrying away of the brido by force was considered essential It was not necessary that the womon, thus cuiried, should be inimical Raksasa to such a project In later literature Subhadrā, Rukmını, or Visa adattā proved 7 great help to the flight and aided the abducting horo-Arjuna, Irsna or Udny ana–in the during ovploit Tho eloponient of Vimada and Kamadyu thus equally furnishous with an instance of the Rāksısa form of marriago as with the Gāndharva one In a lymn of the Rgveda ne come across & sort of marrige absolutely unknown to the later writers and uncovered by their classification It is a companionato sort of contractual marriage In the hymn addressed to Urı aś by Purūruā we find a sort of agreement for the breach of which the ling had to ruo afterwards when Urvasi deserted him and flew up in the sky Sho had consented to live with the ling on the condition that the latter must look after her owes and must not appeir nahod bofore her Urvasi originally belonged to the Gandharvns to whom she led to return if an occasion per mitted her The Gandhar is, sad and unhappy due to their soparation from her, thought ont project and launched upon 16 On a dark night they disturbod Purūravā in his sleop und wulo protonding to steal anay the exes the bleated liho lambs? The hing left his bed in a dosporate huriy and pursued 1 RT 95 * ibid , 95, 8 ·OMEN IN RU E-A them little minding that he had been in bed and undressed. The wily Gandharvas at once contrived to cause a flash of lightning and thus revealed to Urvasi the naked form of Purūravā. Urvasi was rendered instantaneously free from the contract. Referring to the stipulations of the agreement she addressed tho bewailing king thus : "I knew, and warned theo, on that day. Thou wouldst not hear me. What sayest thou, when naught avails thee ?''. This temporary union was evidently based on one-sided love. Urvasi, liko the wind? 'difficult to capturo', did not respond to his mad lovo but being compelled by the condition of the contract she 'coldly received his fond caresses.'3 She 'yielded to his desires and made him the master of her extemal body,' The case of Urvasi is that of a courtesan. Sho acts in the manner of a common prostitute selling her body to any man. Naturally such a woman cannot give her soul away to the man who wooes hor. She is not a common Aryan woman but a temporary mistress. The agreement clearly, looks like ono with a mistress, wlio on a cortain consideration agrees to live with an influential king, reverting in the end to her old profession. In clear words she says : "Go homo again, thou fool, thou hast not won me.''And then she explains the woman that she is, & veritable courtesan: "With women thers can bo no la-ting friendship : liearts of hyenas aro tho hearts of womon." In vain dues Purūravă threaten and wail : "Thy lover shall flee förth this day for ever, to scok, without. return, the farthest distance. Then let his bed bo in Destruction's bosom, and there let fierco rapacious wolves dovour hiin." ' अशाम त्वा विदुषी सस्मिन्नहानम मागणोः किममुग्वदामि ॥ १.,x. 5, 11. SITT 917 59164fn 11 ibid., 2. 'त्रि: स्म माह्नःश्नथयो चैतमेनोत स्म मेऽव्यय पृणामि ।। ibid., B. पुरूरवोऽनु से वेनमार्य राजा मे वीर तन्वस्तवामीः || tbid. प्रतते हिनवा यत्ते प्रस्मे परेास्तं नहि मूर मापः | ibid , 18. न व स्त्रंणानि सस्यानि सन्नि सालादाणा हृदयान्येता || ibid., 15. सुदेवो मद्य प्रपतेदनावृत्परावन परमां गनवा ! अघा मीन निऋतेस्पस्थेऽधनं दवा रमसामो प्रयुः ॥ ibid.,14. . . .

·MARRIAGE 79 Urvasi listons to nothing: nothing movos hor to pity or passion. Such marriago cannot obviously bo an ontcomo of sacraments. This samo story lins boon immortnlizod by Kalidasa in liis famous play Vikramorvašī. Thoo too no sacramonts aro porformed for tho tomporary union. Tho nymph comes, lives hor lour of joy, and disappenrs. A looso kind of association oxisted at times betwoen tho Aryan mastor and his female slaves. At the timo of marriago thoso slave girls wero in certain cases given away along with the bride for soxual needs.' Thoy are callod varlhus,1 marringonblo womon. Although hy conforring on theso women tho titlo of vadhu, legal sanction line been given to a union with these, yet it may bo supposed that such connoctions would have proved no botter than virtual concubmago, and undoubtedly whore such connections josulted from a casual laxity of tho mastor, the favourod slovo would not liavo fared botter than a concubine in comparison with his legally wedded wife. It is, howover, of smgular value to note that wlintover the Rgvodic Aryan touched ho turned ito gold, and it may give us a cortain degroo of satisfaction to learn that whenover ho cnrod to touch his slavo le raised lior to tho status of & wifo in inany cases enjoying the privileges of the legal wife. Tho son born of such love would be considored logitimato. Kaksivan, ay so have aheadly noted above, was tho son of a slavo mother and so also worø some other important Vodic porsonnges like Auśija, Kalasa or Vatta No body con doubt the perfoct legitimacy of Kaksivän, for not only was lio one of tho important authors of tho Rgveda but was also favoured with two excollent marriages both making him a son-in-law, of ruling princos. Thon, again, Ayus, the son of Purūrarā Ails, to wliom the Rgveda rofors as alreacty concoivod hy Urvnsi," is consecrated as the heir apparont of his father in the t'ikramorvaſi3 of Kālidāsa. 1 RV, VIII, 19, 36; cf V. 17, 6, ibid, X. 95, 12-18. • Act Y. 10 ·74 WOMEN IN RGVEDA Perhaps another way of getting a wife in marriago was through service. Syāvāśva and Vimada, whose names and stories we read in the Rgveda itself, are described in later literature to have received from their respective fathers-in-law their brides through their services to them. We shall now pass on to marriage proper. It has already been stated above that on festal gatherings and such other occasions there were opportunities when unmarried young men and maidens formed acquaintance. If such an acquaintance proved lasting and love doveloped, permission for marriage was sought from tho parents, especially from tho fother and in his absence from the brother. The negotiation Was effected through the best friend of the suitor who was tormed vara and who escorted the bride homo. The best friond of Soma and the varas of Sūryā were the Asvins. When the consent of the father had been received, tho marringo took place in which the bride was given away with her dowry. The marriage was porformed in the traditional manner Marriago in tho presence of both the parties and their friends proper in the house of the bride's parents as in the case of Sūryū which we shall describe below. The Rgveda gives us enough material, which, when pieced together, would make up the incidents that proceded and accompaniod tho tying of tho nuptial knot and the religious rites that consecrated it. An account of the details of marringo is found in hymn 85 of tho tentu book of the Rgoeda which may bo analysod now. This wedding hymn, it may be said at the very outset, is n disjointed piece of rerxes loosely strung together. It has very littlo unity. Sūryā's brida) ja the theme of this hyrnn. Sūryū is the typical Aryan bride and lıer instanco may serte 33 a type to show the way in which the common Aryan marriages were performed. In the hymn thero a referenco to a Svayamvaral tournament in which the suitors were ? RV., X. 85, 14.

·MARRIAGE 76 asked to drive their chariots to a fixed goal, the foremost driver to be rowarded with the land of the brido Svayamvary of course was not the common type of marriago as wo road of other forms, already enumerated abovo, which were tho rosult of free love It may have beon a feature in the wedding of royalties In the Svayamvarı alluded to the Asvins drovo their chariot foromast' thus proving thoir ologibility to marry Sūryā In this hymn there is a clear indication of tho fact that Soms was the wooer and therefore Aſvins woro only the bestmon of the bridegroom, dut novortheless, from other references it would appear that they thomsolves woro the husbands that Sūryū choso for her Tho rorson of this apprrent contradiction is that the various vorses which contain this conflicting ovidenco are composed by different poets at differont periods of time This union is a piece of Nature my th Sūryā is tho light genointed by the sun and so sho has beon called the daughter of Savitā This light is borrowed by the moon, Soma-to whom spocific reference is made in tho oponing verses of the hymns—with which sho shines and which she reflects to the Carth The light itself is carried to the moon through the medium of the morning and evening twilight, thint the twin Aſvins aro This is why there is a referenco mado to tho Aśvins on those car the brido Sūryū is sud* to bo bomo to Soma, 'hor husband This is why again she has boon mentioned as choosing the Asvins also as her husbands But we are not concerned here with the innor sense and mets physical interpretation of tho hymn or its several incidents We shall deal hero only with the human element which featurca in the verses and in the personified phonomena which aro om bodied therein It is becauso of this reason that a study of the similes and such othor seemingly superfluous points becomes 1 RV I 116 17 मा वा पतिवं सख्याय जग्मुपी योपावृणीत जन्या युवा पती । ind , 1195 ct I 118 5 * ibid X 85 15 ibid, 9 पूपा त्वेतो नयतु हस्तगृह्याश्विना त्या प्र वहता रथेन | ibrd 2G 1 ·76 WOMEN IN ROVEDA most essential for our subject. Griffith observes : "Tho main object of this composito liymn, which is one of the latest in the Rgreda, is tho ceremony of marriage in general and more especially the wedding of Sūryā, the daughter of-the Sun, who is regarded as the typical bride. The various deities and deified objects, of which Soma, Sūryâ, and Marriago are the chief, aro onumerated in the index of hymns. The Rishi or seer is Sūryā,''ı 'In Aghā days,' i.e. in the month of Māgha, February, when the moon is in tho lunar mansion maghā, the fostivities prior to marriage commenced. This was the beginning of the Spring. An important feature of these festivities was the slaying of oxen for the purposes of feasts. Feasts even now precede the actual marriage. Tho festivities perhaps marked the commencement of the decorations, the anointing of the body with termeric, etc. In the next month of Arjuni, i.e. Pliālguna, actual wedding took place. The verse in point is very conclusive. It reads: "Tho bridal pomp of Sūryā, which Savitar startod, moved along. In Maghā days are.oxen slain, in Arjunīs they wed the bride."2 This verse with which the hymn should have opened had its author cared for logical unity, however, comes slightly late, and the opening verses, 1 to 5, aro utilized in an attempt to identify the celestial Soma with the moon. These are followed up by others. G to 17, which relate to the wedding of Soma with the sun maiden Sūryā. The Aśvins hero appear in the capacity of groomsmen and they ask for the hand of Sūryű from her father on behalf of Soina, the moon.3 The brido had a dear bridal friend" and was led to her husband's homne by another 1 The Hymns of the Rigreda, p. 266, footnote. सूर्याया वहतुः प्रागात्सविता यमवासृजत् । अघासु हन्यन्ते गोवोऽर्जुन्योः पर्युह्यते ॥ RV.,x.85, 18. * ufq71 TT ibid., X. 85, 8; a TRITTHT TTT ibid., 9; also cf. ibid., 14. रंभ्यासीदनुदेयी ibid., 6. 1 1 ·MARRIAGE 77 such friend. In the present caso Rabhi and Nūrūšamsi, the personified sacred song and praiso, havo beon conceived as acting for euch friends : She took with her a bod (suggested by the pillow), articles of toilet4 and riches conprising of several items of dowry The Asvins were her hridesmen' and 'Agu was the leader of the train'? when thio sun-god Savtu 'bestowed his willing Sūrzī on her lord '8 Tho chariot on wluch Sürz ū was borno to her new liomo was 'n spirit-fashioned car,' well-shaped, coloured with a golden Yellow huolo and provided with twoll strong clean whoels13 and an avle 14 It was canopied 15 light rollingle chwuot deched with a bezutiful railing of cross bars17 and yohod to two white bulls 18 It was inade of the wood of Salmalı10 ol the silk-cotton treo and was decorated with Kimsuha flower - 20 The bride put on her draplanous attirol and then Artan fuerit NV,1 85 1 ibid & 3992 ibri, 3774 ITT ibid att ibid 5 & ibid , 8 10 13 अग्निरासीत्पुरोगय ibud सूर्यां यत्पत्ये शसन्ती मनसा सविताददात् । ibd , 9 76 77 ibid, 12 ferogaui ibid , 20 11 * ibid, 11 12 सुची ते चके 1brd , 12 57. ibid , 20 3787 bid , 12 कुरीर छन्द ओपदा ibud , 8 छदि ibl , 10 To bed , 20 11 set ibid , 8 T71115 TETIFIT ibid, 10, Trat ibid , 11 28 TETT ibid , 20 ghaharapi ibid $* HAETet ibid , 6 16 16 16 90 ·78 VODIEN IN RGVEDA mountedł the sacred car. The drive to the ner homo was accompanied with hymns and chants. Next there follows in course of two verses3 a description of the couple the sun represented by Sūryū and the moon-the prototype of human marriago, asan insoparable pair. "Moving in close succession by their magic power," sings tho seer, "these children twain come dancing to the sacrifice. One of the pair beholdeth all existing things; the other ordereth seasons and is born again. He, born afresh, is now and now for ever: ensign of days he goes before the Mornings. Coming, he orders for the gods their portion. The Moon prolongs the days of our existence."'5 "Stanzas 20-33," says Griffith, "contain a collection of formule repeated when the brido mounts her chariot, while she is travelling to her husband's house, when she arrives there, and on the following morning." But this arrangement of the verses would hardly be correct, for the verses 21 and 22 are clearly addresses to the Viśvāvasu Gandharva, the last guardian deity of the virgin, on bed at the time when the husband approaches the newly wedded wife with a view to consummato the marriage. But of this we shall treat in due course. Thus while the priests were kindling the fire and praising Agni and juice was being squeezed out? under the pressing mortar, the chief priest intoned the marriage hymn. The bridal Pomp started and moved along. Both the parties pressed forward within the enclosure. Then the marriage proper and the rites incidental thereto followed but of these we have no arteredt gran ., X. 85, 12; ar tik ibid., 20. ibid., 23. 32, ete. . ibid, 18-19. पूर्वापरं चरतो माययतो शिशू पीळन्तौ परि यातो अध्वरम् । विश्वान्यन्यो मुवनाभिचप्ट ऋतूंरन्यो विदधञायते पुनः ।। ibid., 18 नवो नवो भवति जायमानोऽह्नों केतुरुपसामेत्यग्रम् । भागं देवेभ्यो विदधात्यायन्न चन्द्रमास्तिरते दीर्घमायुः ।। ibid., 19. • The Hymns of the Nigteda, p. 270, footnote. * RY., X. 85, 3. सूर्याया वहतुः प्रागात्सविता यमवासृजत । ibid., 18. $ YT ·MARRIAGE 79 clear ovidence. Tho marital coromonies being over, the injunctions and the āśirvacana of tho priest followed. Ho addrossod the brido: "Now from tho nooso of Varuņa I free theo, whorowith most blossod Savitar hath hound theo. In Law's seat, to the world of virtuous action, I give thee up uninjured with thy consort."! The nooso of Varuna in the above verso refers to the waist-band with which the bride was girded after she had been bathed, combed and dressed for the marriage ceremony. Tho verso is slightly subtle and embodies a somewhat hidden sonse. The maidon before her marriage is naturally the ward of Viruņa, who is the guard and ordainer of all lots of naturo. His nooso, which is the chastizor of all evildoors, is hero the bolt of virgin chastity. I'rom this restriction with which the father binds the daughters till her marriago the priest now froest tho bride and gives her over 'in law's sent's—under the established rules and ceremonies of marriage to her husband in soxually uninjurod state for further virtuous actions in the world.? "Hence, and not thence," the priest onjoins her, “I send thoe free. I make thee softly fettered there, that, boundless Indra, she may livo blest in her fortune and her sons,"8 Onco tho wifo is permanently settlod with her husband her froedom is tenderly rostricted. From her father's house and from his caro sho is set free but she now takes chargo of now responsibilities in her husband's homo. In course of his nuptial benediction trio officiating priest announces her now status as a wifo in the following words : "Go to the house to म त्वा मुञ्चामि वरुणस्य पाशायेन त्वावघ्नात्सविता सुशेवः । ऋतस्य योनी सुक्तस्य लोकेशरष्टा वा सह पत्या दधामि R', x 85,24. Mar Nullor: Rıgreda Samita, Vol. VI Profaco, p. 14 • cf. sat sa aruar: ., X. 85, 25. ibid. Wafatal abid , 21. . . • ibid. सुवृतस्य लोके ibd. • प्रेतो मुञ्चामि नामुतः मुबदाममुतस्करम् । qùafarz He:TYTI Tatrala it ibid , 23.

·80 WOMEN IN NOVEDA be the household's mistress and speak as lady to thy gathered people. Happy be thou and prosper with thy children horo : be vigilant to rule thy household, in this homo. Closoly unito thy body witli this man, thy lord. So shall yo, full of years, address your company."2 Soon aftor the idea of inauspiciousnoss haunting auspiciousness asserts to the mind of the priost and he refers to the possibility of the fast clinging female incubus in the next verse from whom he absolves the bride: "Her hue is blue and red : the fiend who clingeth close is driven off. Well thrive the kinsmen of this bride : the husband is bound fast in bonds." The husband himself is no more freo. He is as much dependent on his wife as she on him. At this stage the bride gives away her woollen robet and other riches to Brahmin priests: in daksiņā as a consequence of which all inauspiciousness leaves her. Her very maidon misfortune, as though, leaves the bride and like herself is wedded to a kindly husband. Then follow two verses, 31-32, ensuring the safety of the route of the bride to her husband's home and then again the benedictions, 1 As members of both the parties pressed into the sacred enclosure to have a look at the bride, the priest addressed them thus: "Signs of good fortuno mark the bride: como all of you and look at her. Wish her prosperity, and then return unto your homes again." This incident in later marital literature is technically called Sumangali which word bas endured till now. The term actually occurs in the above lıymn. The गृहान्गच्छ गृहपत्नी यथासो वशिनी त्वं विदथमा वदामि ॥ V.,x. 85, 26. इह प्रियं प्रजया ते समृध्यतामस्मिन्गृहे गार्हपत्याय जागृहि । एना पत्या तन्वं सं सृजस्वाघाजिवी विदथमा वदायः || ivid., 27. * ibid., 28. Tra ibid, 29. * ब्रह्मभ्यो वि मजा वसु 1 ibid. कृत्यैपा पद्धती भूत्व्या जाया विशते पतिम् ॥ ibid. मुमङ्गलीरियं वधूरिमा समेत परयत । atau cari fata 11 ibid., 33. 9 6 T ·MARRIAGE 81 girmonts of the brido woro at this stage given away to the priest Hor robo vas no longor fit for uso and tho priost advised her "Pungent is this and bittor this, filled, it woro, with orrow. barbs, ompoisoned and not fit to ort Tho Brahman who knows Sürgā well deserves the garment of the bride 1 the cloth that dechs hor hond, and then the triply parted robo,- behold the hues which Sūryū weals theso doth tho Brahman The fringo, purify '2 "Tor After the eldurs had blossod her, the husband tool her hand in his and pointing out the moral ohjoct of the marriago addressed his wifo "I tako thy hand in mine for happy fortuno that thou mayest reach old nge with me thy husband Gods, Aryaman, Bhaga, Savitar, Purundhı, have given theo to be my household's mistross "3 Aguin the husband invohes Pūban to bless hun and lus wife in their affection ,"O Pūsın, send hor on as most auspicious, hor who shall be the sharer of my plea sures , her who shall twino hor loving arms about me, and welcomo all my lovo and mine embraces' 4 In versos 38 39 the priest again invokes Agni thee, with bridal train, thoy, first, escorted Sūrzā to her home Give to the husband in roturn, Agni tho wife with progongo Agni hath given the bride again with splendour and with amplo Info Long lived be he who is hor lord , & hundred outumns let him live' The husband turned to his wife again and 1 तुष्टमेतत्क्टुकमेतदपाप्टवद्विषवन्नंतदत्तवे । सूर्या यो ब्रह्मा विद्यात्स इदाधूयमहति ॥ RV 18584 . आशसन विशरानमयो अधिविकतनम । सूर्याया पश्य रूपाणि तानि ब्रह्मा तु शुधति ॥ ibid 87 गृह्णामि ते सौभगत्वाय हस्त मया पत्या जरदष्टिर्ययास । भगो अयमा सविता पुर िधर्मह्यं त्वादुर्गाहपत्याय देवा ॥ibid 86 तो पून्छिवतमामेरयस्व यस्या बीज मनुष्या वपन्ति । या न ऊरू उशती विश्रयाने । यस्यामुशन्त प्रहराम शेपम | ibnd 37 तुभ्यमग्ने पर्यवहन्त्यूर्या बहतुना मह । पुन पतिभ्यो जाया दा अग्ने प्रजया सह ॥ bid 88 पुन पत्नीमग्निरदादायुपा सह वर्चसा । दीर्घायुरस्या या पतिर्जीवति शरद शतम् ।। ibnd 89 11 $ .

·. 82 WOMEN IN RGVEDA addressed his wife in two verses, 40-41, which logically should have come before or after the verses 21-22, as follows: "Soma obtained ber first of all; next the Gandharva wag her lord. Agni was thy third husband : now one born of woman is thy husband. Soma to the Gandharva, and to Agni the Gandharva gave: and Agni hath bestowed on me riches and sons and this my spouse." .*2 In course of the next six verses 42-47 the formula were repeated when the bridegroom had returned with his brido to his father's home, and offered sacrifice. The couplo aro addressed first, and then the bride is exhorted and blessed. The priest in solemn tone abjured the pair to koop closo to each other and to part never. "Bo yo not parted ;" said he, "dwoll yo here ; reach the full time of human life. With sons and grandsons sport and play, rejoicing in your own abodo." Vorso 49 seems to have boon addressed to the bride by tho bridostoom. In tonder simple words the husband says: "So may Prajapati bring children forth to us; may Aryamon adorn us till old ago come nigh. Not inauspicious enter thou thy husband's houso: bring blesuing to our bipeds and our quadru. reds."* In this speech tho husband gives over to his wilo the charge of his cntiro household. The priost of the bridegroom's party joined his voico with tho husband's and welcomed two new wiſe, "Comr, O desired of the goda, beautiful one with tender heart, with the charming look, good towards your husband, kind towards animals, destined to bring forth heroes. May you bring happiness for both our quadrupeds and bipeds." सोमः प्रथमो विवि गन्धर्यों दिवित उत्तर gairt anfrared of IETÚTTA 972741: 11 RV'., X. 85, 40. 'मोमो दद्गन्धर्वाप गन्धवों दददग्नये । रदिप पुरिचादाग्निमधमपो इमाम् ॥ ibid., 41. हैव रख मा वि योष्ट विसमायुययवन् । कीटनी पुर्नप्तभिभोदमानी ग्वे महे || iid., 42 • बाम: प्रजा जनमतु प्रशातिराग्माप ममनातवयंमा। बांगली: पतियोमा विध नो नव दियदे । चतुप || ibid., 49. * पोरम रहिम्दैघि दिया पामः मुमनाः मुवः । बीरमूवामा स्पोना नो भय हिरदे परदे !! juit, 44.

·MARRIAGE 88 The priest getting further alive to the duties and rights of the bride and of her status in tho now home, raisod his voice and in A sweet tompered speech invoked Indra, to mako her 'blest in lier sons and fortunate' and to 'vouchsafo to ber ten sons, and make her husband the eloventh man'l; and then turning to tho brido he spoke of the nature of lior chargo in a grave authoritative tono: "Over thy husband's father and thy husband's mother bear full sway. Over the sister of thy lord, over his brothers rulo supreme." Hero the chargo is completed and tho nowly wedded wife is made the full owner and vigorous mistress of tho house of her husband. It seems that the bride directly took charge of responsibility of the new liome from her mother-in-law just as her husband took over the monly responsibilities of his raco from his fathor. Nay, the entire inmatos of the house-tho quadrupeds and bipeds, youngsters and olders, both malo and fomalobecamo henceforth the concern of the now wifo. She became tho empross (samrájni) of her now domain. Now thore romained only one thing more to bo sought for and ensured--the complote fusion of the hoarts of the wife and the husband. And both therefore knoeling, knee to kneo, and uniting their tones uttered the impassioned prayer in a ringing tender voico : "So may the Universal gods, so may the Waters join our hearts. May Mätariávon, Dhūtar, and Deştri together bind us closo."3 Whoro could the majesty of marriage bo bettor exprossed than in this bridal hymn, the kindly and gravo invocation of the bridegroom, the deop tonderness of the bride touching oven the animals, and the conjugal devotion and the impressive statoliness and imperious dignity of womanhood? The main features of the Rgvedic marriage ceremony are still preserved इमा त्वमिन्द्र मोढवः सुपुत्रा सूमगा शु। दशास्या पुत्राना घेहि पतिमेकादशं कृधि ॥ Rv.,x.85, 45. समाशी श्वशुरे भव समाज्ञी श्वध्रुवा भव । ननान्दरि समाज्ञी भव समाजी अधि देवपु ॥ ibid , 46 समजन्तु विश्वे देवाः समापो हृदयानि नौ । से मातरिश्वा सं पाता सम देष्ट्री दधातु नो ॥ ibid., 47. 1 ·84 WOMEN IN RGVEDA in the marital rites of the Hindus and they have endured well for the last several millennia. When the marriage ceremony was over the bride was escorted by her groomsmen to her husband's home where some other rites completing bør marriago awaited her ; Departuro of the Bride part of these has already been alluded to in course of the analysis of the hymn regarding Surya's bridal above. She mounted a beautiful car made of silk-cotton wood, yellow coloured, decked with railings, canopy and red flowers and drawn by two white bulls. The details of tho outfit of the chariot have already been described above. As the chariot drovo off chants and prayers were crooned' to mako the highway on which the pair was to journey free from lurking dangers and other obstacles. "Straight in direction be the paths," blessod tlie priest, "and thornless, wheroon our fellows travel to the wooing (and back). Lot Aryaman and Bhaga lead us : perfect, O gods, the union of the wife and husband.'' Tho priest continuos, "Let not the highway thieves who lie in ombush find the wedded pair. By pleasant ways let thom escape the dangor, and lot foes dopart."3 Then he prayed to undo the offect of thu diseases and other inauspicious and ungodly impedimonts: "Diseases, which from various folk follow the brido's resplendent train,--these let the holy gods again bear to tho place froin which they camo." Of the post-inarriage rites which the newly married couplo hod to perform the chief was ono relating to the consummation of marriage. Soon after the arrival at the Consumidation husband's dwelling the pair proceeded to conof marriage fummato their marriage. Tho purpose of marriago *ņV., X. 85, 23. 32. अनुभरा ऋजव. सन्तु पन्या येमिः सखायो यन्ति नो वरेयम् । समर्पमासम्भगो नो निनीयात्म जास्सत्यं मुयममस्तु देवा: ।। ibid., 23. मा विदनपरिपयिनो य आमीदन्ति दम्पती। fi F111496734: II ibid , 82. • वारश्चन्द्रं वतुं यदमा यन्ति जनाइन् । STEINITAT 791 748 9731731: 11 ibid., S1. 2 + ·MARRIAGE 85 has already been discussed above as being one of procreating chuldren and porpetuating tho race But overy act of the Rgvedic Aryan was imprognated with symbolism and was supposod to havo divino sanction behind it very thing must be done with tho aid of sacraments and in profound dignity And now therefore when the husband proceeded to becomo intimate with his wife he approached tlie nuptial bed with duo coromony It was not the stiflod passion of two beasts waiting for the hour let loose but an act the sanctity of which was uphold with sacrod mantras Tho stages of the development of the brida's physique vele presided over by divino forces of which we have already trented above Soma was the deity who held sway over her first of all when the various humours of her body shaped lier proper form 1 Thon she came under the charge of the Gandharva," who having endowed hier with accomplishmonts gavo over to Agni, lo animated her and made herself yield to hor last husband, ono born of a woman' It is to be noted that all the four have been referred to as husbands The order, howevor, has been changed in the Brāhmana litera turo where the husband takes the charge from the Gandharva and not from Agni The Rgvedic poet does not seem to have been very caroful on this point as ho clearly gives the order noted above while lio is equally ovplicit and emphatic in upholding tho order of the Brāhmann literature and in acting As its forerunner Here again the earthly husband trhos chorgo of huis bride not from Agni but from the Vištavasu Gandharva ? On the association of Gandharva with the Aryan marriage Macdonell observes, "The union of Gandharva with tho woter nymph ny typical of marriage Hois therefore connected with the 1 T 1981 fafat Ri 1 85 40 गधर्वो विविद उत्तर | 1brd qaldt afrit afat sbid तुरीयस्ते मनुष्यजा || ibid $ . . ibid . ibid 40-41. ibid, 21 22 ·86 WOMEN IN RGVEDA wedding ceremony, and the unmarried maiden is said to belong to Ganhdarva as well as to Soma and Agni (10, 85, 40-1). The Gandharva Viśvāvasu in the first days of wedlock is regarded as a rival of the husband (ib. 22), and the Gandharvas' love of women is prominent in later texts (cp. MS. 3, 73). The Gandharvas and Apsarases thus preside over fertility and are prayed to by those who desire offspring (Paņcavimśa Brāhmaṇa, 19, 32)."1 After the first four days following the marriage the husband approached his wife lying on her bed by the side of a rod symbolizing the Viśvāvasu Gandharva and acting as the witness of the couple's abstinence. He put his foot on the bed and addressed tbo rod in the following words: "Rise up from bence : this maiden hath a husband. I laud Visvāvasu with hymns and homage. Seek in her father's home another fair ono, and find the portion from of old assigned theo. "Rise up from hence, Viśvāvasu : with reverence we worship thee. Seek thou another willing maid, and with her husband leave the bride."'3 The prayer over, he removed the rod from the bed, stopped into it and united his body with that of his wifo with a view to propagato his race. The Atharva Veda even furnishos details of the union and gives formula and prayers to be addressed to the male gonital (śiśnadeva) itself in the manner of a deity. The wedding dress of the bride is not specifically described, but mention is made of the pro and post marriago dress of the bride. It seems that she put on a woollen Wodding dress dress on the ovo of actual marriage. This dress 1 Vedic Mythology, p. 137. 'उदीतिः पतिवती होपा विश्वावसुं नमसा गीमिरीळे । अन्यामिच्छ पितृपद व्यक्तां स ते भागो जनुपा तस्य विद्धि | RP.,X.85,21. . उदीर्वातो विश्वावसो नमसेळामहे स्वा । अन्यामिच्छ प्रफयं सजाया पत्यासुज ॥ibid., 22. Tad ibid., 29.

·MARRIAGE 87 was not considered nuspicious,' but pungent, bitter, filled, as it woro, with arrow-barbs, empoisonod and not fit for her use." It was given away to the officiating priests who well desorvod it. Then the brido put on a lovoly robes coloured in soveral hues. There seem to have bcon threo items of her dress--tho fringo or the border cloth (aśasanam) which was perhaps an overgirmont, the head-cloth (viſasanam) and the under-garmont or the divided skirt7 (adhivikartanan), the same as the samulya, 8 the woollen lower garment. This post-marriage mantle was an nuspicious robe purified by Brahmão and was fit for the use of tho bride in contrast with one which she wore beforo tho marriage to which there wero possibilities of fomalo fionds sticking 10 Tho Rgvedic custom of the bride's robo being given away before the Pūnigrahaņa still onduros but with the distinction that it is not given to the priost but to the barbar aiding the nuptial coremonios. We have marshilled in tho foregoing pages enough material which may give an iden as to the purport and necessity of Aryan morringe. The Rgvedic priest and soor Somo romarks about marriago knows of no noblor and moro tender relation than that existing between the hindly husband and his devotod wife. She is praised as tho very homo and bliss of his hearth. This condition of lifo can bo comprehensible only if love was the basis of marriage and religious duty the end of it. It was always a wllingli bride that was given away in * cf. RV., X. 85, 29. ibid., 34. . सूर्या यो ब्रह्मा विद्यात्स द्वाध्यमर्हति || ibd. ibid. * ibid , 6 omfor ibid., 35. Tibid. ibid , 29. . MICA TRITI TYT II ibid., 35. 10 cf. ibid., 28-30. 11 FAST ibid., 9.

·88 WOMEN IN RGVEDA marriage. “Win thou his heart and let him win thy fancy'; and he shall form with thee & blest alliance'l was the ideal on which the marriago and the home restod. This idea was so closely adhered to that in the absence of it we read of a rupture in relations of a wife and her husband. "The story of Purūravă yearning for the fleeing Urvasi may be quoted for an instance. The nymph looks down and reproaches the entreaties of the king: "Go home again thou fool, thou hast not won me." This marriage had been contracted on the stipulations of an agreement and in it the winning of hearts, which was a necessary precedent in the Rgvedic marriage, had not been an antecedent feature. In such a companionship when the infatuated man embraced his woman thrice a day she received each time coldly his fond embraces and to his desires she yielded only lier body3 but never her spirit. On the contrary it was the ardent desire of the husband to wed a wife, 'who should twine hor loving arms about him and welcome all his love and embraces.'4 Thus the winning of hearts was & necessary preliminary to marriage. The poet sings : "In pride of beauty liko a maid thou gomst, O goddess, to the god who longs to win thee. And smiling, youthful, as thou shinest brightly, before him thou discovereth thy bosom.” “Loveless marriages," rightly observes Oscar Wilde, "are horrible. But there is one thing worse than an absolutely loveless marriage. A marriage in which there is lovo, but on one side only; and in which of the two hearts one is sure to be broken." The Rgvedic society knew of no such relation between the husband and wife. Love, the foundation of marringe, itself had bocomo sanctified. It was not only walking round a rose garden in the bright moonshine ; it was living together and working together. 1 तस्य वा त्वं मन इच्छा म वा तवाधा पुष्व संविदं सुभद्राम् ।। RP.,x. 10, 14. TIETEI TRE R19 t| ibid., X. 95, 18. • त्रिः स्म माह्नः श्नययो वैतसेनो तस्म मेऽव्यत्यै पृणासि । पुरूरवोनु ते केतमाय राजा मे वीर तन्वस्तदामी: 1 ibid., B. •यान करू उशती विश्रयाते पस्यामुशन्तः प्रहराम शेपम् ।। ibid.,x.85, 97.

·MARRIAGE 89 It ontailed great rosponsibilitios, both spiritual and temporal. Honoymoon is triſling in the schomo of a weddod lifo and is absolutoly incapable of satisfying the deop ncods of mon and women. These needs aro not always easy to understand. Evon to ourselves wo oro strongors-such are the complexities of lifo. The Aryans married not so much for love as for higher and more permanont noods, for the propagation of their race, and they woro 'bound for the world of life immortal'l and 'to the world of virtuous action.' Tho bride was a veritablo Arundhati-one who never obstructs. The passago-'perfect, 0 gods, the wife and the husband'3—points to the samo iden and so also does the following: "Bo yo not parted; dwoll yo loro, reach the full time of human life. With sons and grandsons sport and play, rejoicing in your abodo."4 404 FT RY , X. 85, 20 सुकृतस्य ibnd,24 'सं जास्पत्य सुयममस्तु देवा | bid , 23. ibid., 42. 12 + ·CHAPTER IV MARRIAGE-ITS FEATURES, CUSTOMS AND USAGES In the Rgreda ve get sororal features of marriago and we have references in this Sanhitā, direct and indirect, to tho oxistenco of widows and their remarriago, the custom of sutteo or widow-burning, beginnings of the later lovirate (niyoga), monogamy, polygamy, polyandry, and incest comprising of marriages between brother and sistor and connections betweon father and daughter and mother and son. The evidence is mostly of an inconclusive nature and the material absolutely scarco. The text at places suffers from apparent contradictions and the task of the historian becomes difficult which is further rendered complex by the obscurity of the senso of a passage. Tho similes, which generally refer to tho mundono affairy of the Rşı or the duty, frequently draw the scholar into the moze of a Inbyrinth and lead lng reasoning to an absurd conclusion. Therefore the inferences and conclusions from such allusions can hardly bo final There ja no doubt about the fact that the frco Ravedic focirty had ziedle of an endless typo ns is always the caro wit, communities the resources, liabits and ambitions of which love But become stagnated and boon rendered stalo by muduranco. The early Aryan community mae young and fresti. It had roun entered a tot land from beyond tho Ilindukush whero it had lived and fought with races, akin and foreign, and with which it had only recently sovered its cupunction. Naturally it inu-t have imbibed social featuris peculiar to other rares and third its own influence over them. This existence of inutual in. furgens among raras must account for thos diversity of custom slich sers often loul foreign to the Aryan usage. It is (utile to argue that a particular trait ia not one of a certain race s it has not lim a umanent mature with that race while the sarne luge ben a characteristir one of a crrizin othar. 170 ·MARRIAGE-ITS FEATURES, CUSTOMS AND UBAGES 91 fact is that in tho long life time of a raco sovoral traits and fentures aro acquired, dovolopod and porpetuated They somo times grow from within and at times aro imported from without Theso truts sometimes endure and sometimes die out Thore fore the argumont is indeed fooble wluch says that a particular fenturo, sinco it is acquired from olsewhoro, is foreign to a certam The ondervour should always bo to properly woigh such customs and locate them in their duo placo, to draw inferoncos which are not prejudical and to trace them, if possible, to their earlier environments rico We shall deal with tho above onumorated social features one by ono The oustonco of widows is warranted by a fow pissagos of the Rgvedla These reforencos, how- Wadows over, are fow and far between, nor ortheless they do reflect a condition of society in which widows, howsoovor small their numbor, had a place A vorso reads "Krsa and Sayu yo protect, yo Asvins twain yo two assist the widow and the worshipper'i This roforenco clenrly shows the existence of vidows who had not remuriod In another passage? & similar state of a particular widow is referred to In it an onquiry is made as to who it was that made Indra's mother a widow We find an indırıct allusion to the wdows living in the society in verse 7 of the funeral hymn3 of the tenth book The verse may be quoted in full to bring out its purport clearly "Let theso unwidowed daines with noblo husbands adorn thomselves with fragrant balm and unguent Decked with fair jowels, tearless, free from sorrow, first let the matrous pass unto their house ! 1 युष ह कृश युवमश्विना शयु युव विधन्ते विधवामुरुष्यय । RV, x 40,8 * ibid IV 18 12- HTC fatalny * ibid 18 'इमा नारीरविधवा सुपत्नीराजनेन सर्पिषा सं विशन्तु । मनधयोनमीवा सुरला मा रोहन्तु जनयो योनिमने ॥ bid R.18, 7.

·92 WOMEN IN RGVEDA In this verso a procession of married women in coverture ( nūrīraridhavāḥ supatnih) is described. It seems that like one in modern Hindu society the widow in the Rgvedic community also suffered the privation of being kept away from auspicious ceremonies. Tho present occasion was one of the remarriago of a widow whose husband had just died and who was yot lying by the sido of the cload man. The sad occasion was at onco turned into a happy and auspicious one. The procossion of ladies in coverture (nārīravidharüh) was perhaps expected to docorate the widow for her remarriage and so on this auspicious occasion the presence of widows was doprecated. The poot, therefore, expects only such Indies to form the procession as woro unwidowed dames. Tho plıraso riūrī. ravidharüh thus implies such widows as woro extant in the society and had not remarriod, Wo find that in a work of the bulk of tho Rgreda instances of widows oro but a fow. Although nogativo ovidenco doos not conclusively provo the authonticity of a proposition, it may bo aswerted with ample certainty in the present caso that this negativo evidenco when coupled with other additional data establishing the fact that the number of widows was almost negligible, for, as wo shall sco below, most of tho widnwa of child-bearing ago were absorbed in the society by reinarringr. The extremo need of mon to protect tho nowly Remarriage of colonized land froin the frequent inroads of Widows its earlier inacters, the aboriginal Dāsas and Dasyus, and to push the Aryan expansion eastwnrds would not leave the child-bearing widot by lierself. It would reem that almost always he was remarried to the younger brother of her liusband or liis near kinsmen soon after his demise as this ie bome out by a particular rite in the funcral linn of the Rareda. 17en the husband dired and liis dad body was takon to the cremation ground or the cemetary cither to lo burnt on the funeral pyre or to be entombed, his widow also "RT, X:15, &.

·MARRIAGE-ITS FEATURCS, OUSTOMS AND USAGES 93 accompanied it with unwidowed dames and other mombers of her fomly and the community Sho was then askod to lio down by the side of the corpse of her husband This was a romanant funeral rito of a roinoto ngo of whuch we shall have occasion to discuss below Whilo she thus lay there her rola tions gathored round tho romains of lior husband 'whom timo hnd struch down and thoy 'nccording to thoir ago madlo efforts to borr hın to the gravo ? 'Unwidowed dames married to noble husbands, adorned with fragrant balm and unguent and with fair jowels, tearless, free from sorrow, 3 then gathored before tho blazing fire and proceeded to decorate thio now widow for a now life Sho was to be married at onco and so the priest addrossed her, 'Riso como unto tho world of life, O woman como he is lifeloss by whose sido thou liost Wifehood with this thy husband was thy portion, who took thy hand and woood theo as a lover'. The husband s brotlior who thus married her observed wlule taking away the bow from the hand of the docensed, 'Trom his dead hand I tal o tho bow he carried, that at may be our power and might and glory Thoro art thou, there, and hero with noble heroes may we overcomo all hosts that fight against us In tlus minner the brothor of tho deceased inherited the command of luis peuple through the bow, the dood hero appoiring to be a Ksatriya of tho princely order, and of the liousehold through his sister in law whom he married (didhisu--wooor) It is in the fitness of things that the danger of war may have beon hinted at in the very verso following one in wluch the widot is asked to return to the world of the living "Thero art thou thoro , says the brother of the dead hero, "and horo with noble horoos my vo overcomo all hosts that figlit ng unst us The perils of waz could be coinbatod 1 R 18 2 3 $ ibid 3 ibid 7 * उदीप्य नायमि जीवलोप गतासमेतमुम शप एहि । हस्तग्रामस्प दिधिषोस्तवेदं मत्युजनित्वमभि स बभूथ ।। Ibid 8 'अव त्वमिह वयं सुवीरा विश्वा स्पृधो अभिमतीजयेग ॥ ibnd 6 0 . ibid ·94 WOMEN IN RGVEDA to a great extent with the increase of numerical strength of the community and this could be ensured only when there were enough mothers to bear male children. The existence of widows of child-bearing age would indeed cost the Rgvedic Aryan dearly and so he utilized her by marrying her at once. She could not remain a widow even for a day. The purpose of her existence is alluded to in the phrase 'with noble heroes,' heroes whom she was to bear hereafter as the wife of her brother-in-law. 1 Thus soon after the death of the husband the widow was married to another man, probably a brother-in-law, oven before the obsequies ended and the dead body was disposed of. We are not sure if an actual ceromony of marriage was performed but it would seem that at least the widow roso and caught the hand of her brother-in-law and thus became his legal wife. This marriago actually formed one of the funeral rites. It looks, however, inhuman on tho part of the widow to give herself up to a life of married pleasures, to an existenco of mirth and merriment just after the demise of her beloved spouse. For, oven now, when we have unlearnt to respect our womon, much more the widow, we do not marry by the burning pyro, how, ono wonders, it could have been possiblo to wod a wailing widow at a time which witnessed the glory of If it was really so, the custom must have occasionally resulted in deliberate crimes. It may have been possiblo for a deprved woman to make sinister attempts to hasten the death of an unwanted husband and to get rid of him for marrying a paramour who may have wooed her and carried on with her oven in the lifetime of her husband. But such laxities, of course, are the fate of all communities. As to the sentiment, erring against human tenderness by marrying by the dead body of a deceased husband, it may bo said that the Aryans were a gay, materialistic (at least much less spiritual than their later descendants) people and their intrepid martial spirit did not TATT RY., X. 18, 9. women. 1 ·MARRIAGE-ITS FEATURES, OUSTOMS AND USAGES 95 vory much caro for tho pirtingy through dorth "We have como forth," says the Rsı on the occasion of the buril, "for dancing and for laughter't Everyday thoy fought and fell in the battle-field and it is possible that in ordor to Toep down tho number of their doad, and ovon to augmont the number of fighting horoes, thoy at once took tho widows as vives and started the propagation of their raco afresh Wo hnto anothor roforonco in the tenth book of tho Rg voda in support of widow remarringo Tho vorso rocords "Whore aro ye Ası ıns, in the ovening whoro at morn? Whero is your halting placo, whoro rest yo for the night? Who brings you homoward as tho widow bedward draws her husband's brother as the bride attracts the groom?' 3 The evidence ombodiod in this verso refors to the customs gonorally obtaining in the society of the brother in law marrying his sister in law The evidence is conclusive The similo is very homely and has been drawn from commonplaco incidents in the socioty whero it wis normal for the younger brother (devara) of tho husband to male the widow of his brother his wifo The wife herself has boon stylod as devrhanaf making hor love natural for her brother in law is also hor taking him for a second husband Montion is made in the Rgveda of other widows also lod to be romarried (gartaruh). The Atharva l'edas alludes to alrendy romarriod widows who inconsequence of their romarriage obtained the flattering style of punarbku, rebom rejuvenated * प्राञ्चो प्रगाम नृतये हसाय द्राधीय प्रायु प्रतरं दधाना | R' X 18 8 * ibid . 40 ? यह स्विटदोपा पुह वस्तोरश्विना फुहाभिपित्व परत कुहोपतु । को वा युवा विधवेव देवर मयं न पोपा कृणुते सधस्थ मा ।। ibil . ibi 85 41 . ibid I 124 7 • IX, 5 29 3 ·96 WOMEN IN RGVEDA In the case of disappearance of her husband1 a woman could consider herself a widow and could marry a now husband in the manner of a widow. We have no evidence as to whether the widow remarriage was accompanied with any nuptial ceremonies similar to those that figured in the first marriage. If we are to go by the evidence we have, probably no further rituals were required to make the widow a legally married wife. Sho was directly taken from the side of her dead husband and further begetting on her of heroes was hinted at. It was enough perhaps to make a widow lus wife when her brother-in-law took her hand in his before the assembled witnesses who attested to the fresh status of the widow. The procession of the unwidowed dames itself would suggest that a second marriage of the widow did not entail the performance of the various nuptial rites. The question of widow remarriage brings that of widow burning to the foro for discussion. It is significant that in the whole range of tho Rgveda there is not a single reference to the burning of tlie widow. It is very natural, for Buming of the the widows were absorbed in the society by re- Widow marriage. Macdonoll thinks, however, that "Traces oven survivo (RV. 10, 188.9) which indicate that his widow and his weapons were once burnt with the body of tho husband."2 Elserthere3 he obsorves, "The fact that in the funeral obsequies of the Rigveda the widow lies down besido the body of her husband and his bow is removed from tho dead man's land, shows that both were in carlier times burnt with his body to accompany him to tho next world, and a verso of the Atharvareda calls the dying of the widow with her husband ou old custom. Tho evidenco of anthropology shows that this was a very primitive practice widely prevailing at the faneral of military chiefs, and it can be proved to go back · RV., VI. 49, 8. . T'edic Mythology, p. 165. * Ilustory of Sanıltit Lilerature, ·MARRIAGE-ITS FEATURCS CUSTO VS AND USAGES 97 to tho Indo Luropoin age These romarl s aro based on a versol of tho Rgica which reads as follows Riso come unto tho world of lifc 0 wom in, como he is lifeless by whosu side thou liest But this part of the serso is noon followed up by the next line which gives the widow immediately away in marringe to the man who wooes her It rends Wifehood with this thy husband is thy portion who tool thy hand and woood thee as a lovor 3 Tho allusion to the lying down of the widow by the side of the romans of her husband s body contuned in thio oarlier part of the verso may be tal en to bo referring to a forture of the earlier times when widows may have been burnt along with the dead body of their husbands There is actually a verse contumed in the Athana l'edat which preserves such a custom of burning the widon and which it calls an ancient religious duty (dharmam puranam) It is probable that the anciont custom agzinst which the Atharia l'eda ruses & banner of rosolt on humanitarnu grounds had alreads grown too old to be followed during the time sluch the Rgıcda depicts But although the old custom had boen gren up the rites of its occasion it would seem still porsisted and the pronssion of unwidowed women to adorn the widow for the company of the dend husband boc ine ono to dech her as a new bride Tho process must have become very mechanical and sad for it is liardly human to be changed from 1 widow to bride inunedituls after the death of the nearest relativo and supporter of a wonian esen in the guy conditions of the Rgr edic societs The preceding verses ha & p9552go-arolantu yonimagre-. which has a specnl interest because is haegi romarks o with 118 8 9 vid . ibid + इय नारी पतिलोर षणाना निपद्यत उपत्वा मत्य प्रतम । धम पुराण अनुपालयन्ती तम्य प्रजा द्रविणं चेह धहि ॥ VIII 8 1 18 - * The I jeln p 171 13 ·98 WOMEN IN ROVEDA a very slight forgery it would give the highest sanction, tho Vedic authority, for the custom of burning the widow on the grave of the husband." It is, howover, correctly pointed out that the following verse contains an allusion to the ancient custom of burning the widow along with the remains of her dead husband. Nor is the allusion solitary and exclusive. We have already referred to the verse of the Atharva Veda which calls the custom an ancient one. And we know for certain that "widow-burning was practised among many primitive Indo-Germanic races in Asia and Europe, and it can only be expected to have existed among the early Indo-Aryans in some form or other," "But” observes Prof. Sarkar, "the Vedic literature shows very few traces of such a custom : partly no doubt because these texts are priestly in character, and widow burning is known to have prevailed elsewhero mainly amongst non-priestly warrior families ; and partly because even amongst the ruling classes, cases of widow-burning were rare (and prevented) throughout the Vedic period,--as shown by authentic Kșatriya dynastic traditions; while in the 'brāhman' society sex-relations seem to have been too lax to admit of the prevalence of such a practice." Besides, as we have romarked elsewhere women in the society were very dear and their existence was necessary for the physical as well as religious needs of the Aryan. Anothor reason why the custom must not have been curront is the useloss waste of life. Most of the military chiefs were polygamous and many had hundreds of wives, both Aryan and non-Aryan, as we shall seo in duo context, and the custom, had it obtainod, would have involved colossal taste and would have proved a great drain on tho meagre resources of tlle society. On the contrary, we find the services of the wido utilized immediately after her widowhood * Herodotns: IV, 71 (Scythian); V. 5 (Thracian); Porconius (Do Bello Gothico): II. 14 (Gothie); Weinhold : Altnord. Lob., 476fF. (German); cf. Zimmer: Ait. Leb., 331. * Some Asp. of the Ear, Sø. His. of Ind., p. 82. > ibid. 4 ·MARRIAGE-ITS FEATURES, CUSTOMS AND USAGES 99 by bostoving hor on a noar hinsman of her doceased husband 1 The recurrence of the custom in much later timos may have beon crusod by not reasons It may have been cluo to tho jealousy of the husbands eager to preserve the chastity of their wives from the foreign intruders who mostly come without wires and appropriated Indian women Again it may have been an ofsy custoin to practiso when respect for women had much Nanod and when tloj had come to be considered as chattels to be used without any resistanco or remonstranco The increase of women became appalling in tho Intor Hindu society and already during the time of Bhartiharı women had como to bo spolen of 'as incapnblo of being chaste,"? Whion the adolescent daughters had come to be compared to a basket of snales which the father las to carry ? The widows in the society woro surely those who had become such after the child bearing age or considerably later Thus it is clear that unlike the widow of to day, tho most miserable creature of the Hindu society about whom the great Urdu poet Hnlı writes feelingly-Jisne har randapā ghclu, dar use har dozahl kur hyri 2-hor Rgsedic sister enjoy ed more freely the air of liberty and the dictates of her conscience, and when remarried, she was a full fledged wife meant for lovo, progeny and prosperity The chuof object of marringe bomg the propagation of raco by procreating children, the woinan was alwars looked upon as a potentni mother Hor notherhood was the most distinguished trait in & woman The bogetting of chuldron was considered so very important that the impotency, absence or Niyog? death of a husband was no bar to her giving birth to children This maheshift was termed as Nryoga in later literature It implied the begetting of a 2 RI , X 18,8 IV N Nehta Foreword to Z omen 11 Rigteda 1st Edition, p iv. .bid RY, 18,8 ·100 WOMEN IN ROVEDA male child on married woman through agencies other than ler husband. The term itself is of a later origin as mentioned above but its implications vero freely practised in the Rgvedic times. Frequent allusions aro made in the Rgveda to the practice of lovirate (Niyoga). We read of Purukutsāni obtaining a son in the absence of her husband, who had been imprisoned elsewhere. We have several references to the wives of weaklings procuring children from agencies othekithan their logally married husbands. Thus Purandhi Vadlifimnti obtained a son during the impotency of her husband.3 Likewise another wifo is said to have been granted offspring whilo hor husband was a weakling. The text reads in praise of the Asvins : "Ye, mounted on your chariot brought to Vimada the comoly maid of Purumitra as a bride. Ye came unto the calling of the weakling's dome and ganted noble offspring to the happy wife."4 Again the Asvins are praised to have givon a son Hıraṇyalasta to another weakling's consort. + Although niyoga could be practised on a woman by any kinsman of her husband, her brother-in-law (devara) seoms to have been the favourite and the first proference. The widov, as we have soen in the foregoing pages, is gonerally married to him.6 Even during the life-time of her liusband he is generally the favourite. It is significant that while the brid is being married and the point of lier husband's unfitness for cohabitation with her is yet in no way explicit, she is qualified with the adjective devşhumā, desirous of a union with her अस्माकमत्र पित्तरस्त भासन्त्सप्त ऋपयो दौर्गहे वध्यमाने । त प्रायजन्त प्रसदस्युमस्या इन्द्र न वृत्रतुरमर्थदेवम् ॥ ?"., IV. 42, 8. पुरुकुत्सानी हि वामदाराद्वयोभिरिन्द्रावरुणा नमोभिः । प्रयाराजान त्रसदस्युमस्या यहण ददथुरर्धदेवम् ।। ibid., 9. 2 jbid., I. 116, 19; 117, 21; VI. 62, 7; X. 39,7; cl. X. 65, 12. ibid. युवं रथेन विमदाय मुन्ध्युवं न्यूहथुः पुरमित्रस्य योपणाम् । युवं हवं वधिमत्या प्रगच्छतं युवं सुपति चक्रयुः पुरन्धये ॥ ibid., X. SI, 7. ibid., 1. 117, 24. • ibid., X. 18,8; 40, 2. 8 ·915. MARRIAGE-ITS FEATURES, OUSTOMS AND USAGFS 101 dcvara or husband's brother Tho plıraso clevrhama occurs in the sacred hymn which trorts of the wedding of Sūlyti tho (Inughter of the sun god Suvitā It may also mcidentally bo suggested that the detara 11 as normally lookon upon as a possiblo Inusband after the donth or in the absence of his brothor and perhaps a second husband even during his brothers life time It may be notod loro in this connection that alınost all over nortlurn India tho der ara, brother in law, and his sister in law, older brotlior s wift, aro socially freo to cut jokes not always civil or dignified botween themselvos l'his would suggest the oustonco of sexual provimity of the two which when no more sanctioned in a later ago is found to develope into bularious oxprossions exchanged between them Thus point becomes vory significant when considered along with the taboo thint outs ovon to day against the husband's elder brother Varrying only one wife was generally the order of the day, although we come across instances of polygımy very frequently As we shall see in due contoit, polygamy was not an uncommon practico and it was inostly obtaining among the military chofs, princoly families and the influentrul rsis But the masses, the common population callou tho visah normally marriod a singlo we Thero aro roforoncts in the Rgveda, too many to be quotod hore showing that mono Vonogimy gimy was the rule and polygimy only in orcup tron, although an abnormal exception freely con tracted and oxtensively in vogno Monogimy however was tño normal usige The Yajainīna, sherificor, apposred along with lily only wife and not be alono but also the gods that ho invoked came in single pairs The brulo ontering the house of lior fitoi in law as a worthy wife was asked to reign over the motlier in law and the fathor in law and over the sisters in law and the brothers-in law This was possible only if a single wife was 1 RV, X 85 14 . ibid 46 ·102 WOMEN IN NOVEDA the object of this address of the priest, for her authority in her now dominions which she acquired through marriage was un. controlled and undivided, wholly absolute. The ideal was a 'never parting'? 'united pair"? 'sliaring tlie same married pleasures,'and the happiness of the married couple lay in 'the twining of their arms about each other'4 and in each welcoming the love and embraces of the other.'s Except for a few excoptions we generally find the reference to the wife in the Rgveda made in the singular number. The fond dame attires herself for her husband.? Gods Aryaman, Bhaga, Savitar, Purandhi give the only wife over to the husband to be the mistress of his households (garhapatyāya). It is a single wife that lies down by the body of her dead husband during the performance of the obsequies. With a few exceptions, for instance the polygamous Indra, most of the gods-Varuna, Agni, Soma, Sarasvān-are married to a single wife. This typical Aryan trait of monogamous marriage finds frequent mention in the Rgveda. But the prevalance of polygamy side by side would point to the weakening of the adherence to this earlier practice. It appears that the custom of monogamy slackened in course of time when the Indo-Aryan gradually embarked upon a career not only of colonizing the interior but also on that of spreading his culture among the aboriginies of India. It is significant that the references to polygamy are mostly found in those books of the Rgveda which have been declared by scholars to be of a later period. It is consequently not very improbable that when the Indo. 1 1 fagle RV., X. 85, 42. * FT) 41 ali ibid , 47 ; cf. ibid, 23 and 27. • ibid., 37. . ibid. ibid. . ibid., I. 124, 7; IV. 8,2; X. 71, 4; 85, 86; 105, 8, etc. a 164 3erit VATAT I ibid., I. 124, 7; cf. IV. 8, 2; X. 71, 4. . ibid., X. 85, 86. . ibid., X. 18, 8.

·MARRIAGE-ITS FEATURES, CUSTOMS AND USAGES 103 Aryan camo closest to the non Aryan some of the latter s customs may have slipped into tho social fnbric of the formor And in an age of strugglo and strife tho victorious leaders of tho battle field are naturally tempted to appropriate to them selves the belles of the enemy Such instances are innumerablo in the history of Indí down through tho conturios It was as true with the Indo Aryans Sakas Huns Turks Pathans and the Moglials us with the Portugese, the Dutch the French and the British employees of the East India Company Most of the cases of polygomy as we shall see below are those of slave girls tal en as additional wives and it is doubtful if rually the free Ary in woman could have boon induced to share the rulo of the household with another savo in vory oxceptional cases And it may be noted that silusions to polygamy pre mado mostly orthor to military chiefs or to intellectual aristocrats It may be doubtod if such roforences have been made to ordınıry citizens for whom monog my always remained the ideall as well as the practice We have already inentioned above that instances of polygamy are generally with roferonco to the opulent princes thoir aristocratic nobles and thoir courtier priests Instances, of course are froquont and common & fow of which may be quoted and discussed In a passage asimilo Polygamy has boen drawn from yourning wives (patrzrusali) cleaving to thoir yerrning husband (patnz usan tam) An interesting instance is contained in a verso in which the poet draws his simile from a min placed in a helpless and pitiablo condition by his rival uivos Tlio endenco reads Liho rival wives (sapalnırııa) on every side enclosing ribs oppress me soro Tho distress of the poor husband hard pressod between his tno poslous and quarrolling wives is comic of touching Indra himself is said to be rorolling among his 3 1 RT I 124 7 IV 32 V 71 4 . ibid I 62 11 3 HT ayala heritfra ria i bid I 10. 8 cf ibid 89 2 ·101 WOMEN IN RGVEDA soveral wives! (janibhiḥ) liko a king about which we shall rofer at longth below. Another passago refers to wives loving a single husband.2 Tlie liymn 62 of the Rgveda3 presents us another instance of the plurality of wires. It says, "For many thousand holy works the sisters wait on the haughty lord like wives (patnīḥ) and matrons (janayaḥ)."4 Again it has been mentioned that "Indra has taken and possesses all castles as one common husband (patirekaḥ samāno) does his spouses (janzriva)." In another context we read the 'wives embracing their lord, the comely bridegroom." Yet another amusing instance is preserved in the similo of a verse which records : "Between both poles the car-horse goes pressed closely, as in his dwelling moves the doubly wedded (dvijāriņ)."'? A similar example is provided in the line : "He comes as the lord of women to the holy place." The list of such instances is difficult to oxhaust and only a few more may be quoted to illustrato the point. A verse reads as follows : "Alone the babe sucked many a teeming bosom, Guard, for the bright and strong the fellow spouses, friendly to men and bound to him in kinship."9 Another vorse refors to the multiplicity of wives in the following words : "The chieftain of tho mighty strido whoso mother, the many young dames, who never disregard liim."'10 The passage-"Those cows who yield unharmed, their nectar, 1 राजेव हि जनिभिः क्षेष्येवावद्युभिरभि विदुष्कवि. सन् । BV., VII. 18, 2. उप प्र जिन्वन्नुसतीगान्त पनि न नित्य जनयः सनीळाः । ind., I. 71, 1. * ibid., I. 62, 10. पुरू सहसा जनयो न पत्नीवुवस्यन्ति स्यसारो अह्रयाणम् ॥ ibid ‘जनीरिव पतिरेक. समानो नि मामृजे पुर इन्द्र सु सर्वाः ॥ bid., VII. 26, 8. परिप्वजन्ते जनयो यथा पतिं मयं न शुन्ध्यं मघवान मूतये ॥ ibid., x. 48, 1. ' ' उभे धुरी वह्निरापिन्दमानोन्तोनेव चरति द्विजानि. 1 ibnd., 101, 11. नयनृतस्य प्रशिषो नवीयसी पतिर्जनीनामुपयाति निष्कृतम् ॥ ibid., IX. 86, 32. पितुश्च गर्भ जनितुश्च वभ्रे पूरिखो अघयत्तीप्याना.। वृष्णे सपत्नी शुचये सबन्धू उभे मम्मे मनुष्येनि पाहि || ibid., III. 1, 10. उममम. वहो यम्य पूर्वीन मर्धन्ति युवतयो जनित्रीः ।। ihid., 14, 14. 6 9 10 ·NARRIAGE-ITS FEATUNES, CUSTOMS AND USAGFS 105 Spouses of the far strider, over young united"! --rofors to tho sime practico A verse praises Vaišvānura ns 'celestial, truly mighty, most manly, having many a youthful consort"? Anotlior indirect roforonce points to the same custom tlus "Tor lumm tlıoy lengthon prajors and acts of worship, the mother weave garments for him, thoir offspring's A conclusive instance may be read in tho vorse “Rejoicing in the stoor's impregnablo contact, his spouses movo on paths of hen en to meet lum "4 So also is the tost ronding, "The mridons with lovely tresses hold him in embrace "The term usually used for a co-wife is sapatnī of which frequento mention is mado The most convincing, viud and conclusivo evidence of tho eustence of polygamy is, lowever, furnishod by hymn 115 of the 10th book The hymn itself is ontitled "tho Jealous Wife's Spell" (Upani sat spatnībūdhanami) Indrāni is the Rsı of thus hymn who wants to eclipso the mfluonco of her rol over lior husband Indra Tho interesting hymn may bo quoted below in its entirety 1 "Trom out tlio orrth I dig thuis plant, an herb of most effectual poner, Il lerowith ono quells the rival wife and guns tho husband for oneself 2 Auspicious with expanded leaves sent br the gods, victorious plant, Blow thou tho rial wifo au 35 and inaho my husband only mine 3 Stronger am I, O stronger ono, yea mightier than the nightier, And she who is my rival wifo is lower than the lowest dames मास्क सपत्नी अजरे अमुक्ते सबर्दघे उरुगायस्य धेनू ॥ MI , III 6 4 'स्वर्वते सत्यशुष्माय पूर्वीश्वानराय नृतमाय यह्वी ॥ ibud , I 59, 4 गि तन्वते धियो मम्मा अपासि वस्त्रा पुत्राय मातरो वयन्ति । ind, V 47,6 * उपप्रमे वृषणो मोदमाना दिवस्पथा यध्वो यन्त्यच्छ ॥ ibnd नमगुव केगिनी स हि रेभिर ऊस्तिम्थुर्मग्रुपो प्रायवे पुन । Ibrd, I 1408 bul, III 1, 10, cf I, 10. 9, \ 145, 197, 159, 5 1 3 .

·106 WOMEN IN RGVEDA : 4. Her very name I utter not: she takes no pleasure in this man. Far into distance most remoto drive we the rival wife away. 5. I am the conqueror, and thou, also art victorious : As victory attends us both we will subdue my fellowwife. 6. I have gained thee for vanquisher, have grasped thee with a stronger spell, As a cow hastens to bør calf, so let thy spirit speed to me, hasten like water on its way."! $ In a subsequent hymn2 the same Indrānī under a different name, that of Saci Paulomi, annouces the effect of the spell referred to in the hymn quoted above. Her rival was squashed and she gained the favour of her lord, Indra. The entire hymn is given below :- 1. "Yon Sun hath mounted up, and this my happy fate hath mounted high. I, knowing this, as conqueror have won my husband for mino own. 2. I am the banner and the head, a mighty arbitress am I. I am victorious, and my lord shall be submissivo to my wil. 3. My sons are slayers of the foe, my daughter is a ruling queen: I am victorious : o'er my lord my song of triumph is supreme. 4. Oblation, that which Indra gave and thus grow glorious and most high- This have I offered, 0 ye gods, and rid me of each rival wife. 1 'The translation has been quoted from Griffith's Hymns of the Rigveda, pp. 896-87. * RV., X. 159.

·MARRIAGE-ITS FEATURES, OUSTOMS AND UBAGES 107 5 Dostroyer of the rival wife, solo spouso, victorious, conqueror. The others' glory havo I seized as 'twere the woalth of weaker dames 6. I havo subdued as conqueror these rivals, thoso iny follow-lives, That I may hold imporul smay over thus hero and the foll "1 Thus we find that just as it would appear from other instances quoted above that in many cases the rolations between CO Wivos were liappy, it would follow from the two abovo montioned hymns that thoy wcio in cortain cases strained as well In the present case the situation hnd becoino so very acuto that one of the co wives had to talo recourso to a spell and a ritual It is also clear from this case that polygamy as a custom had become so common thint among those of a revengeful spirit nood was folt for supernatural agoncies through which to domnge tho fortuno of an ascendant co-wife It is also probable that the two hymns citod above may have been later used as spells for tho purposo by such co-wives as thought themselves eclipsod by the glories of those towards whom the common lord and husband appeared more consider te Kings, nobles and their priests were mostly polygamous as we liavo alrendy said abovo Cases of polygamy among thom as also among the aboriginal non Aryan chiots Polygumy among hings, have been frequontly inst incod in the Rgveda ? nobles and Indra, as shown above, has himself been several priests times alluded to as having a number of wives Kingy, it apperrs, had a regular seraglio full of wives legally married as well as slave girls loosoly so trosted Tho ovidence on tho point is quite explicit as it says that Indra dwells The among his wives in the manner of a hing (růjeza) '3 * Translation quotod froin Gnfhth s Hymns of the Rigreda p 998 ' I 62 11, 71, 1, 104 9, 105, 8, 112, 19, 186,7 V 18, , 26, 9, X 41, 1, 101, 11 # Taffeta ibid , VII 18,2, cf II 16, 8, 95, 9 ·108 WOMEN IN RGVEDA observation of Prof. Sarkar may be quoted hero to elucidate the point. He says, "Apart from this possession of slave-girls, the princes had at least four principal wives recognisod in regal ceremonial and rites, of whom the fourth, the 'pālāgali,' seems to be a comparatively later development, -or to have been given a place in the ritual somewhat later-in the Brāhmana age; the 'mahişi,' and the 'parivěkti' occur from the Rgveda onwards; and though the 'vāvātā' first occurs in the AV., she is implied by the 'parivặkti'; the 'pālāgali,' wife of the king is an indication that it was a political marriage, and that daughters of other and higher court officials also were customarily taken into his harem from similar original motives; the first three designations are essentially relative, and pre-suppose A regular harom establishment, the members of which experienced constant rises and falls ('parıvěkti') in power at court ('malıişi") or in personal favour with the prince ('vāvātā”). Such rise and fall is well dopicted in the chief wife's song of triumph, where she congratulates herself on the dawn of her fortunes, subjugation of rival wives and influence over the horoic lord with whom her name stands highest, and through whom she rules all the people,---on her son's rising to the rank of mighty warriors and daughters to that of princesses.". Purūravā seems to have had other wives” (ksonibhiḥ) in his barem besides Urvasi, who had joined him as a wife or mistress in consoquence of contract. From the Puranic literaturo also we know that this king had more wives than one. Kālidāsa, while following the tradition, makes Pururavā in his celebrated play t'rkramorraśī a husband of many wives. The word ksoni”, referred to above, lias also been used in connection with Indra whose passion would not be in any way satisfied with women (ksoņis).3 Mahişī, used several times in the Rgredat implies chiorship of a particular wife over other wives Some Asp. of the Ear. Soc. Ilzs. of Ind., pp. 87-88. RV., X. 95, 9. . ibid., II. 16, 3. . ibid , V, 2, 2; 37, 3. 3 ·MARRIAGD--ITS FEATURES, CUSTOMS AND USAGFS 109 of a hing Sho 19 thus in offect the chef queen Tho sago Kaksitān had married two wires, both being Rūjanya princesses As already citod in the last chapter So also Cyarana an ancient R41, is said to have married soveral water? m his old age Kaksi vān lumself was born of a slave girl and so wero many other Vedic personages like Ausija, Kav 188 or Vatsa 3 These would bo cases in pomt to show the provalanco of polygimy among priosts and rsis, for thio slavo girls must have been only secondary wives, nustre ses hent in concubinago, as we havo not a singlo instance in the Rgvcila of an Arya marrying a slave-gul w hon wedding an only wife The custom was to marry an Aryā and bring along with lior several elave girls, who, when it suited tho plousurs of thor Aryan muster, roadıly became hi vivos Of this we shall trent below We find thint polygamy was a flourishi ing institution not only among tho Aryans but that it had also mado a headway in the social usngis of the non Aryans as well Kuyavn ? non Aryan chuof, has two wives whom the poet denounces in prayer and whom ho desires to bo crowned in tho current of the Sipha 4 We shall now considor tho instances occurring in thio Rgvoda of slave girls taken in marringo as wives Wo hayo no clear ovidence, however, to show that they were bostowod on their liusbands is a result of regular nuptial Slaso girls ceremonial as in caso of the Arjan womon Tline It is not safe to say that they hold in the Aryan houschold a status similar to that of the log ully wedded Aryan wife To the Rg edic Aryan sacraments und ritunls woro necessary precedents to marriage and similar other functions and it is doubtful whetlier in their absenco tho sovual connou tions botween the slave girls and their Arjan miastois could hivo meant anything more than looso concubinnge Heliaro 1R I 126 SI 61 13 bid I 116 10 cf V 14 5 ako c I 117 13 118 6 1 68 6 71, 5 X 89,4 SI 18 1 ibid 112 11 • eitty FIT 94769 ata ed à forat savileri4T || sbid, I 104 3 ·110 WOMEN IN RGVEDA not a single instance where she appears along with her Aryan husband to perform yajñas or other religious rites. It appears that they were never ceremonially wedded to Aryans but when the latter married Aryan wires they also came in the train and while they were thus conferred over the husband presumably to serve his newly married wife all their lifo, they were styled as vadhūs.1 This designation would confer upon them cortain rights and privileges which may have been in inost cases of the naturo of those of a full-fledged wife. Now since they were termed as vadhús they could be appropriated as wives. Their designation of the radhū scoms to havo been meaningly used in which the idea of tlıcir boing tumed into vives by the master who held them was implied. And when they had already been bestowed on the liusband in tho capacity of radhūs thoy were already his somi-wives, and therofore whenover he wanted to appropriate them ho could do so without any domorit attaching to his act. Tho dignity of tho wiſo rose at its highest when she became a mother. With licr motherhood and the number of children lor prestige also grow. Thus when tho slnvo-girl was taken by hor Aryan master ng his wife her status at that stage must have been lower than that of his legally wedded Aryan wife, but onco sho gavo birth to a male child and thus justified her now position hor status slot up and came in level with ler Aryan co-wiſo's. If it were not so, it is difficult to comprehend the nature of tlo status, rights and privileges of the mothers of Kakſivān, Ausija, Karosa or Vatsa, all of whom had been klavo-girls. It ynust be noted in the ineanwhile that these names are great in the Rgicida and their bearers were the leaders of the society and inodels for men to emulate. They, being reis, were the koepen of the religious order,--the hymnus vero revealed to them, as thougi-and consequently nobody could have dared belittle their mothers or doubt their status as wives or mothers liichi mut hare been se high as that of an Aryan wife or mother. · '., 1.126,3; 1.47.G; 11. 27,8; VIII. 19,96; 69, 17.

·MARRIAGE-ITS FEATURES, OUSTOMS AND USAGES 111 1 Prof Sarlar remarks that 'tho Vedic princo and his priest who could give and rocento scores of slave girls as vives woro no donbt living in an age of flourishing polygamy Thus observation is not much exaggerated and we have considerablo data furnished by the Rgveda to bear this statement out to a frent oitent Wo read of several instances of slavo girls being given away to husbands along with their brides in the capacity of so many vivos (radhus) Wo find that just as buffaloes, horses, camels and cons wero prosonted to the priests and rsis by their royal benefactors slave girls with a vow to servo as wives, vadhus, voro also given way? Kmg Trasadasyu is mentioned to havo presented to Sobları Kūdva fifty female slaves to serve as vadhús 3 To read of chariots full of such slave wivos carriod by Kaksiyān on the occasion of his marriage as also by others Thus it is cloir that polygamy w29 a licensed custom though not the common and normal form of marriago which fenturo was that of monogimy alone In fact the social sy stom ovolved by tho Aryan left little to be desired from & multi plicity of wives Where hindling of the domestic firo with faith and loyalty was imperative for the woman who thus prepared a clenr way to salsation for her husband it must nut late boon vory affectionate desire on tho part of the husband to court and marry other women bosido her Still however polygamy being a feature associated with power opulence and luxury Imgerod or to & cortain oxtent even flourished in the society Two more points yot romun to be discussed in connection with marriage, namely tho custom of poly indry and incest, of thich we shall deal now in the following pages as their oustence has been asserted by a fow scholars with somo rigour * Some dsp of the Ear Soc His of Ind p 85 RI VI 27 8 VIII 68 17 * ibid , VIII 19 SG et 47 6 • उपमा यावा स्वनयन दत्ता वधूमन्तो दारयासो मस्थु । ibd 1 1283 VII 18 22 el ·112 WOMEN IN ROVEDA At the very outsot it may be observed that on both these points the evidenco furnished by the Rgveda is meagre and mostly negativo. And whatovor roferences we havo, are indirect. But these very allusions, howsoever meagro and indirect, warrant and ostablish the oxistence of both polyandry and incest, oven though not as contemporaneous features, yot surely current incidents of a remote past. Polyandry is generally considered to be a non-Aryan custom, but from the Polyandry references that wo lavo, which we shall quoto presently below, a contrary view is established. The evidence on the point is bound to be conflicting and incon. clusive as the references to such cases are generally concealed in similes sometimes too vague to be understood. In the first place such references are about three in round numbers although they are mentioned twice and in certain cases oven thrice in the saine simile without any touch of originality. These references are made to three sets of gods, who in their physical sense are allied olements of nature. They are the Asvins, Maruts and the Viśvedevas. These three groups of gods, specially the first two. signify natural phenomena of a very close type. Ašvins, the etherial healing physicians, the morning and evening twilight or stars, are twin gods Asving attached to the sun and the moon. They are the groomsmen of Soma, the moon, and woo Sūryā, the daughter of the Sun-god Savită for him. Several times they have been alluded to as wooing Sürya or driving home with her, or competing in the chariot race of the gods for her hand, perhaps on behalf of Soma, the moon. In a passage we read : "The youthful daughter of the sun, delighting in you, ascends there your chariot, heroes."1 Another records, "Then she also came for friendship, made of noble birth, elected you as husbands, you to be her lords."2 Hero the allusion sounds rather emphatic while giving a maid two husbands at the same timo. Nevertheless, it may be noted that tho samo आ वां रथ युवतिस्तिष्ठदत्र जुवी नरा दुहिता सूर्यस्य । V., I. 118, 5. ar ai afad me474 Format 19 quite as tai adi u ibid., 1. 119,5.

·MARRIAGE-ITS FEATURES, CUSTOMS AND U6AGES 113 bride is united sometimes with Soma and at othors with the Aśvins and that the lattor aro insoparablo twins and must always bo roferred to as one and the same individual. Sāryā, the daughtor of Savitā married to Soina, is porlaps the light borrowod by tho moon from the sun which she roſlocts during night. This light is transforrod to the moon through the evening twilight, which is the Asvins, the bestion of the bridegroom, Tho real bridegroom is the moon, Soma, and verse 9 of hymn 85 of the tenth book conclusivoly corroborates what has boon pointed out above. It runs as follows :- "Soma was he who wooed the maid : tlio groomiosien were both Asvins, whon The Sun-god Savitar bestowed his willing Sūryā on her lord."'1 The verso has been quoted from duo context. It occurs in tho the wedding hymns of Sūryū whero the Aśving aro ontrusted with the work of winning the bride for the principal wooor and escorting her home. Again in thio hymn X, 39 oddressod to the Aśvins by the lady Rşi Ghoşā, a reference to the same theme is made in the following words : "Whom, Aſvins swift to hear, borne on your glowing patlı, yo with your consurt make the foromost in the race." This also refers to the clinriot raco 'consented to' by tho gods in which the Aøving, Soma's groomesinon, succeeded in (riving Soma's chariot fastest and consoquontly winning tho hand of Süryā for lum. Maruts, tho foromost cavaliers of Indra's army, aro tho objoct of allusion in the following lino: "Upon their car the youths have sot the maidon weddod to glory.' "3 In the two preceding vorsos there is a roforonce to a sädḥārani wifo onjoyod commonly by tho Maruts4 and to Rodasi boing dovoted to * RV., X. 85, 9. । यमश्विना मुहवा रुद्रवर्तनी पुरोरथं कृणुयः पन्या सह ॥ ibid., 39, 11. 'मास्थापयन्त मुवति युवानः शुभे निमिश्ला विदथेषु पनाम | bid., I. 167, 6. • परा शुभ्रा प्रयासो यच्या मधारण्येव महतो मिमिक्षुः । न रोदसी अप नुदन्त घोरा जुपन्त वृर्ष सख्याय देवाः ॥ ibid., 4. 15 ·114 WOMEN IN RGVEDA hor lords, the Maruts, like Sürya to Aśvins.1 Again in an address to the Maruts we hear, “Go, ye heroes, far away, yo bridegrooms with a lovely spouso.' 12 Here the lovely spouse' is Rodasī, lightning wedded to the Maruts, wlio are the clouds. We know too well to be explained here the relation oxisting between the Maruts and Rodasi as between the clouds and lightning, and between Soms and Sūryā es between the moon and the borrowed light of the sun borne through tho evening twilight, that is the Asvins. Maruts in the singular number cannot be conceived by the imagination of a poet, who, when he looks up to the sky, finds a host of them, as it cannot be done in case of the morning and evening twilights, the Aśving. Višvedovas, a host of gods are addressed in a hymn which appears to contain a reference to the custom in the line : "Two with one dame ride on with winged steeds and Viſvedevas and others journey fourth like travellers on their way."3 Although the anukramani is silent on the point the above verse may have been meant for the Aśvins. We have a few more references to a woman marrying more husbands than one and to fathers-in-law but these in their bearing and purport are as obscure and veiled as the above. According to Prof. Sarkar the three previous divino husbands of the maiden, who are respectively Soma, Agni and Gandharva, actually point to the custom of polyandry, and they may "be best understood as a relic of a gradually disused custom of polyandry, which was transformed into an allegory, most probably representing the life stages of a maiden till marriage." But this remark is hardly sound and cannot be जोपद्यदीमसुर्या सचध्ये विपितस्तुका रोदसी नृमणाः । मा मूर्येव विधतो रथं गात्त्वेषप्रतीका नभसो नेत्या | RV., I. 167, 5. sq TTHCSET 491 5179:1 ibid., V. 61, 4. : faf TT TT 4T #Ha: Iibid., VIII. 29, 8. - ibid., VII. 99, 18; VIII, 17,7; X. 85, 37. 38; cf. X. 95, 12. * ibid., X. 95, 12. 1 ·M IRRIAGE-ITS FEATURES, OUSTOMB AND USAGES 115 borne out by the ovidence of the text by any stretch of imagina tion either directly or indirectly As has been observed elsewhore the throw supernatural agencies presiding over the differont stages of the girl's physical dos elopmont alo allegorical from tho very inception and they fail to mark at transition from ono custom to another Likewise two more points of the learned professor are open to grito doubt that the matrony mics? pomt to the samo direction is too fcobla to be made a point of discussion liere So olso hus suggestion that niyoga at some timo or other was a gonorrl practice in the form of polyandry? cannot be seriously maintained There is onls ono more point that needs mention in this connection It is the ider implied in the phrase deurhana 3 It is important that while the wifo is in coverturo, nay, when she is yot in tlio process of boing married, sho is styled ns devrkama, desırıng union with the younger brother of her husband It could have beon oasily ovplained away had the occasion been ono of funoral or had the phrase been used in referenco to a widot, but its use respecting a brido during her nuptial is rather porploving It can be ovplained only with reference to a stato of society in vluch all the brothors married a common wife, such roferonco pointing to a post period Tho marriage hymn in which the plıriso occurs is made up of formula strung together wluch naturally woro anciont and had come down to that ago bemg repeated from very romote tinos on the occasion of marriage Such verled referencos, as noted above, huwover cannot bo tohen literally They seldom rofor to sunile dr 172 upon positivo social habits of tle people but thoy aro natural and hazı pictures as thios esmo to tho phyical ojo of the Aryan poet accustomed to look upon tho phenomeni of nature with a roverental ano Inch he adjusted as similes to lus inetaphysical and vory obtruse mystic conceptions Ind the efforts to look 1 Some tsp of the Far Soc His of Ind pp 77 78 ibti P 78 *R, 85, 41 ·116 WOMEN IN ROYED A for much matorial senso in them will not always yield the worth of labour. Yet oven theso indirect and indistinct references cannot bo dismissod sumniarily as barron and unmeaning. They have to bo telescoped with ovents fore and back to yield some senso. After all, these aru not absolutely isolated incidents in our traditional history. There are others as well of which the instanco of Draupadi marrying the five Pandavas stands out conspicuously. No amount of explanation as given on the pomt in the great opic can convince a student of ethnology of its being incidental except as a makeshift and an after-thought. Then that which is most intriguing in the incident is the proxi. mity of the father of the family, Pāņdu, who lived in the Himalayas, with the Tibetans, who are noted to this day to practise polyandry and whose practice of the custom has been implicdly noted in the term Goyüthrkam of Vātsyāyana. We are sure of one fact only, which is that the evidence in the Rgveda is too scanty and feeble to establish conclusively that the custom was prevalent in the Rgvedic age, but that it does refer to ſ stage however remote from the Rgvedic age when the practice actually obtained but had become defunct in the period under our survey. The most controvorsial point, that of the evidence on incestuous marriages, may now be considered. It is generally believed that the Rgveda knows of no incestuous connections and that its society was altogether immune from the influenco of incest. But s close analysis of the small evidence furnished by tho Samhilā on the point coupled with a searching reference to the Puranic traditions and the Buddhistic Jataka stories alluding to conditions both prior and posterior to the incidents of the Rgveda luavo 110 room for doubt regarding the prevalence of the custom at sometime or other in the Aryan Incestuous inarriages society. By the evidence of the Rgveda itself and by that of other sources which yo shall notice below it becomes manifest that the usuage was not only ·MARRIAGE-ITS FEATURES, OUSTOMS AND USAGES 117 considered unworthy of an Aryan but also that it did obtrm in the society at sometinie or other The custom may be studiod under two distinct hends, namely sou relations of an incestuous charactor between brothers and sisters and parental incest We shall doal first with the former festuro Tho most outstanding ordonce on the point is the dialoguo of Yami and Yami contained in hymn 10 of the tenth book of the Rgveda Yomi and Yamı are twins, brother Brother and sister marriage and sister, and, says Professor Roth, "the first human pair, the originators of the race As the Hobrew conception closely connected the parents of mankind by making the woman formed from a portion of the body of the man, so by the Indian tradition thog aro placed in the rola tionship of twins This thought is lard by tho hymn in question in the mouth of Yamı herself, when she is made to say 'Lven in the soinb the Creator made us for husband and wife'" Prof Muller, on the other hand, says (Lectures on the Science of Language, second sories, p 510) "?here is a curious dialogue between her (Yamı) and her brother, where she (the night) imploros her brother (tho day) to male lier luis wife, and where ho declines her offer, 'because, as ho says 'they have called it a sin that a brother should marry his sister Again, p 521, "There is not a singlo word in the Voda pomting to Yama and Yami as tho first couple of mortals, the Indian Adam and Ivo If Yamu had been the first created of men surely the Vedic poots, in speaking of lum, could not lave passed this over in silence See, however, the passage from tho Atharva-reda, XVIII, 3 13, to be quoted further on [Rover once yo with an oblation Yams, tho son of Vitasvrt, the assemblor of men, who was the first of men that died and the first that departed to this (celestial) world] " The passage of the Atharva 1 eda cited in tho above quotation would clearly show that the belief of the people during the Athari z edic times vis in favour of the twins being the first mortals, and · Quoted from Muir, O S Tezts, p 288 ·118 WOMEN IN ROVEDA tho Rgveda itself in the hymn-dialogue of the twins hints at it. Although sido by side it seems to allude in a passage of tho dialogue to human society existing prior to Yama and Yami. We shall now analyse the hymn itself. The rșis as well as the deities of the hymn are the twins, Yama and Yamī, son and daughter of Vivasvān. In the opening Analysis of the dialogue verse the sister in passionate words entreats her brother to draw to her and to beget on her a son for their father, Vivasvān; but the brother repulses her advances in gentle speech. He says: *Thy friend loves not the friendship which considers hier who is near in kindred as a stranger, Sons of the mighty Asura, the heroes, supporters of the heavens, see far around them." This verse makes it explicitly clear that the merit of exogamous marriage had already impressed itself on the Aryans who had come to attach stigma to incestuous connections. The second line of the verse declares the sexual connection between the brother and sister as banned. This, however, also refers to its existence indirectly in times gone by. Yami puts in another plea. She points out that the principles of law are meant for the mortals alone while it is an immortal seeking union with him, her brother, but the latter retorts her attempting to show historically that incest has never been an Aryan practice. "Shall we do now," says he, "what we no'er did aforetime ? We who spake righteously now talk impurely ?"5 Hero is an endeavour on the part of the composer of the hymn to sliow that the custom nover existed among the Aryans whiclı, when considered along with other data, falls to 1971.......RİF4-not the first born but first dead-AV., X. 10, 9. . ibid., 4. न ते सखा सख्यं वष्टयेतत्सलदमा यद्विपुरूपा भवाति । महस्पुत्रामो असुरस्य वीरा दिवो धर्तार उर्विया परिस्यन् ॥ ibid., 2. • 31 T dari TT ..ibid., 3. •न यत्पुरा पकृमा कद्ध नूनमृता वदन्तो अनृतं रसेम | ibid., 4. 1 ·NA JAUN-SA UR UUDCONS AND USAOES 119 the ground Yami alludes to an carllor common notion of the people with regard to twins whell suctioned and praised their marringo and sho even throstons Yams that in refusing hor proposal lio would be exposed to divine wrath and chastize ment on account of lus Inch of respect for an ancient custom Sho throntens him "Evon in the womb of Twashtar, vivifior, shaping all forms, croator, made us consorts None violates lus holy ordinances that we aro his thio honvons and earth acknowledgo'! Non since history does not bear Yuma out, and sinco Yami speshs of extant ordinances in favour of incest botucon brother and sistor, Yama has no arguments but wrath in roply He &nswers "Who hnons that earliest day where of thou spendest ? Who hath behold it? Who can loro doclore it? Gront is the loss of Varuna and Mitra What wanton! wilt thou say to men to tempt them ? : In roply Yamı omphatically commits her love to Yama and declares it in tho following words "I, Yam, am possessod by love of Yama that I may rest on tho samo couch beside him Ins a wifo would yield mo to my husband Lihe car wheels let us peod to mut ouh other's But Yuma is conscious of tho new ethical standard now obtaining in the society, and ho warns hor in the name of the watching sentinels of Varuna "Thoy stand not still, they noter close their eve lids, those sentinels of gods who wander round us गर्भन नौ जनिता दम्पती वर्देवस्त्वष्टा सविता विश्वरूप । नकिरस्य प्रमिनन्ति प्रतानि वेदनावस्य पृथिवी उतद्यौ ॥ RE ! 105 को प्रस्य वेद प्रथमस्यान कई दर्ग क इह प्रवोचत । वृहमित्रस्य वरुणस्य धाम कदु अव माहनो वीच्या नून | bilo ' यमस्य मा यम्य काम भागन्तसमाने योनौ सहोम्याय । ata t'feftast falacha TT TT 11 ibid 7 ·120 WOMEN IN RGVEDA Not mo--go quickly, wanton, with another, and hasten like a chariot whoel to meet him."1 Then thinking him obsessed with tho foar of breaking a recont principle of law and herself realizing the implications of transconding social laws--as she calls her proposal 'an unbrotherly act' (bibhryādajāmi)-Yami in a fit of passion takes all the guilt that hier brother would eventually incur upon herself and declares :- "May Sūryā's eye with days and nights endow him, and ever may this light spread out before him. In heaven and earth the kindred pair comminglo. On Yami be the unbrotherly act of Yama." In the verse spoken by Yama in reply to Yami the existence of the custom either as prevailing in the contemporary society or in an age gone by the reminiscences of which are yet fresh in the memory of the poet is clearly evidenced. Says Yama :- "Sure there will come succeeding times when brothers and sisters will do acts unmeet for kinsfolk. O fair one, seek another husband, and make thine arm a pillow for thy consort."3 Not me, The succoeding times have alrearly passed by or are yet extant in the poet's genoration. The future curse is in fact a reaction against the custom which had now been declared as bad and unwanted. In the following reply Yami implies and perhaps alludes to an old custom when the brother was considered a natural husband of the sister, although the outward sense of the verse enjoins upon a brother to find a husband for his 1 न तिष्ठन्ति न निमिषन्त्येते देवानां सस इह ये चरन्ति । FRIGHTETIT TE Tu e fa a 77111 ., X. 8. . रात्रीभिरस्मा प्रहभिर्दशस्येत्सूर्यस्य चक्षुर्मुहुरुन्मिमी यात् । दिवा पृथिव्या मिथुना सबन्धू यमीर्यमस्य विभृयादजामि | iiid., 9. 'पा घा ता गच्छानुत्तरा युगानि यत्र जामयः कृणवनजामि । उप वहि वृषभाय बाहुमन्यमिच्छस्व सुभगे पति मत् ।। ibid., 10.

·MARRIAGE-ITS FEATURES, CUSTOMS AND USAGES 121 sister and the lattor to find a wife for the formor. Yami robukos Yama :- "Is lo n brother wlion no lordi is left lier? Is slo a sister when Destruction cometh ? Forced by my love these many words I uttor. Como near, and hold me in thy closo embraces.'' And Yama, reforring to the custoin as declarod sinful by tho peoplo of his ago, roplios : - "I will not fold mino arms about thy body : Thoy call it sin whon ono comos near one's sister. Not mo,--preparo thy pleasures with anothor : thy brother seeks not this from thoo, O fair ono.". Then tlo sister, rorolled in her nttempts to overciso lior anciont right, becomes rightcously indignant and directly calls her brothor a coward with no traco of heart or spirit. She throws out an impassionod inducement to Yama :- "Alas ! thou art indeed & weahling, Yamn; we find in theo no trace of heart or spirit. As round tho treo the woodbino clingy, another will cling about thee girt as with a girdlo,"3 Tho brothor, adamant in his bolief and action, fools tho strongth of lus sistor's argumonts and of her right on his porson as a twin, but rominds her of the implications of the breach of a nowly introduced custom, and himself dreading the trath of the eldors in agrooing with Yami's proposal, Yama in gentlo compassionato words apprisos her of tho now standard of morals accepted by the society : किं भ्रातासद्यदनाथ भवाति किमु स्वसा यनितिनिगच्छात् । याममूता बढे तद्रपामि तन्वा मे तन्वं स पिपग्धि | RI., X. 10, 11. न वा उ ते तन्वा तन्व स पपृच्या पापमाहुर्य स्वसार निगच्छात्। अन्येन मत्प्रमुद वल्पयस्व न ते भ्राता सुभगे वष्ठभेतत् ॥ ibrd , 12 'बतो बतासि यम नैव ते मनो हृदय चाविदाम। मन्या विल त्वा वक्ष्येव युक्त परिप्वजाते लिबुजेव वृक्षम् | bid , 13. 16 - ·122 WOMEN IN RGVEDA "Embraco anothor, Yami; lot another, oven as the woodbine rings the troo, enfold thee. Win thou his lieart and lot him win thy fancy, and he shall form with thee a blest allianco."1 This hyma will amply prove that incest had onco received the sanction and approval of the society which now was fast bocoming dofunct. Wo have two more references alluding to the same custom. Hymn V1, 55 of the Rgveda almost endorses incest.? The hymn X, 162 constitutes a charm for the prevention of abortion the fifth vorse of which seems to refer to incest. The Rși says, “What rests by thoe in borrowod form of brother, lover, or of lord, and would destroy thy progony,-- even this will we exterminate."3 But the most convincing proof of the existence of incest between brother and sister which comes in aid of the evidence of the Rgveda is that of the Puranic traditions. Support of Pll. It must be remembered that the Puranic tradiranio traditions tions in most cases illustrate the condition of society provailing prior to the Rgvedic. We know, for instance, that Trasadasyu-Purukutsad and Yayātis figure in the Rgveda as heroes of past whoso exploits are sung in the Sanhiti, but the Purāņas opon with their genealogical table and history even several generations earlier. Yama himself figures in them as a descendant and not as the first progenitor of a family. No less than two dozen casos from the Puranic traditions (80 ably discussed in details by Professor Sarkar) may be cited to अन्यमूषु त्वं यम्यन्य उ त्वा परिप्वजाते लिबुजैव वृक्षम् । तस्य वा त्व मन इच्छा स वा तवाधा ऋणुप्व संविदं सुभद्राम् ॥ TV.,x. 10, 14. Tbe translation is quoted from Griffith's Hymns of the Rigreda. पूपणं व जाश्वमुपस्तोपाम वाजिनम् । स्वसुर्यो जार उच्यते ।। ibid., VI. 55, 4; FAUST: ibid., 5. • यस्त्वा भ्राता पतिर्भूत्वा जारो भूत्वा निपद्यते। oth forefa af at strafall ibid., X. 162, 5. . ibid., VIII. 19, 36. . ibid., X. 69, 1 1 ·MARRIAGE--ITS FEATURES, QUSTOMS AND USAGES 129 show the prevalenco of incost both before and aftor tho society onvisaged by the Rgueda Savo for a fow oxceptions all these allusions refor to instances in much brothors marry their own sisters, the fathor's daughters (pilr-kanya)? And in theso o coptions thomselves brothors marry their half sisters or first cousins Vona's father Angr married hus fathor's drughtor (mtr hanyü) Sunītā 2 Vipracıttı married lus fathoi Kaśyapa's daughter Simhika Yama and Yami's goneration comes in tho tonth stop after Angr and Sunītī as they are the children of Vivastan, the step-brotlier of Vipracitti and Silkā Manu, another son of Vivasvān, marriod Sraddliā, who 19 mentioned in the Mahā bhārata3 as & anugliter of Vivastan Nalusi Ailn, in liko mannor, married a pitr hanyā namod Virajā, 4 who gave birth to Yayatı of the Rgueda Acchodā, a prir hanyā of Amūvasu Aiła, chose the latter as her husbando Sukra-Uśnuas, who later became the father-in law of Yayāti, is stated to have married hug 'fathor's daughter' named GāO Devī, Dovnyūni's (daughter of Suhra-Uśnnas) older sister, married Varuna, who, being an immediato descendant of Sukra Všanas, must have boon other & brother, a half brother, or a first cousin Bharata, among the Angirasas, wedded lus threo sistors 8 Hzmavatı Drsadvati, daughter of Samhatāśva, married lus two sons Krśāśva and Abgayāśva Mändlãtr's son Purukutsy, the same who figures in the Rgveda, married his pitr hanya Narmada 10 Sagara's grandson Amśumat also is stated to have weddod lus piir hanyā called Yošodā 11 Profossor Sirkar suggesty that · Matsya Purana, 1, 43 44, Vayu P II 93 12, etc * In all accounts of the Puranas and epics regarding Vena * XII 265, 9149, cf ibid , 4507 • Vayu P, II 93, 12, Brahma P, 12, 1, Hanray isa, 80 1599, Matsya P, 15, 23, In iga P, I, 66, 60 1, hurma P, I 22,5 * Matsya P, 14, 1ff , Brahmanda P, III 10, 6111 • Matsya P, 15, 15, Brahı anda, III 1, 74 77 Mahabharala, I 66, 2616 ibid, XIII 85, 4149 . ibid , III 219, 14133 37 10 Matsya P, 16, 25, Brahmanda P, III 10, 98 11 Matsya P, 15, 18 19 0 ·124 WOMEN IN RGVEDA Dasaratha married Kausalya who must have been a first cousin (paternal uncle's daughter). From the Dasaratha Jātaka it follows that Rāma and Sita were brother and sister and, may be, Sita's appellation ‘janaka-duhitā' was equivalent to 'pitp-kanyā." At this stage, it would seem, porhaps the Rgvedic society revolted against the custom and assortod itself, and incest fell in abeyance for a time becauso for about twenty-seven generations after Rāma we do not read of sistor-marriages in the Puranic traditions. Later, however, the 129ago proved too strong to dio out and onco again it roared its lead up during the Mahabharata ngo. Suka, the son of Krşņa-Dvaipāyana-Vyāsa, is stated to have married Pivari, who was his father's daughter. '3 King Drupada likewiso married his sister. Satrājit was wedded to ten sister-wives." Srñjayi's son married two daughters of Srõjaya. Again Sātvata married Sātvatī, who must have been his kingwoman.7 His great-grandfather was wedded to an Aikşvāki and their son again married an Aikşvāki (Kaušalyā). We may hero add a few instances from Buddhistic traditions to show that even after the epic age the tendency did not dio out but it tenaciously persisted until & much later time, instances of which are not absolutely extinct even now as wo shall see below. A jätaka storyo mentions Sītā, Buddhistic the wife of Răma, to have been his sister, and, traditions according to another, Knnn's twin brother is stated to havo married the daughter of his mother by her second Some Asp. of the Ear. Soc. Hrst. of India, P. 125. * ibid., 126, • Haritamsa, 23, 1212-8. . Mahabhirala, 1, 167. * Vāyu, P. 96, 53. ibid , 96, 2-6 ; Brahmana P., III. 71, 8-6; Ilario., 98, 1999-2003 ; Brahma P., 15, 30-34; Alalsya P., 41, 47-50. * Väyu P., 93, 47; 96, 91. • Matsya P., 44, 45-47; Brahma P., 15, 27-30 ;, Ilario , 37, 1991-2000. • Cowell: Játakas, IV. 79-82.

·MARRIAGE-ITS FEATURES, CURTOMS AND USAGES 125 frusband ! Udayabhadra of Kāśi married his half sister Udaya blindrā ? Among the Sāk; as marriage with sistors had becomo A common foature and a recognised custom 3 Mahāhoshla, father of Pasenadı, king of Kosala, married his daughter Kosala dovi to hing Bumbisāra, and princess Vajirī, daughter of Pasonadi, vas voddod to Ajātaśatru, her cousin * *Limitations on marriago imposed by Brahimauic usago are conspicuous by their absonce in Buddhist literature and even sister marriago 19 reforred to 's Marriages betwoen cousing woro by no means unusual in the Buddhist period 8 Thus we find that incost botwoon brother and sister has boon a conspicuous feature of the Hindu marringe since tho Rgiodic and still earlier timos down to the Buddhist poriod It is significant that it should have provailod in both tho solar and lunar racos of tho Kşatriyas It 19 thus ovident that the caso of Yama and Yami occurring in the Rgveda is not on isolatod oxample of it, and long beforo it, about ton generations otrlier, its existenco has been warranted in tho samo line of Kantriyag by tho genealogical records of the Purinas Iven now the custom has not wholly disapperrod and may be traced in tho matula hanya marriages of Mahrrashtry and south Thoro proferenco is given to marriagos betwoch cousins, 10 maternal unclo's daughter In face of these numerous data at will bo futilo to hold that incest is un Vedic 7 1 Jatakas Y 226 . ibid Y 919 * Bunala Charn Law Worien in B ad lhist Literature p 12 . ibid p 1 . ibid p 2 Huro a vory important point may be discussed which take its ruge from the numerous oyr aco cited above from the Puranio traditions Dr Pran Nath the distinguish xl Profussor of Ancient Middlo Cast History and Antiquities of the B naros Hindu Univorsity contributed a sorras of o gut articles in tho Illustrate 1 lVeekly of India (in the your 1935 in its gos aral usques from July to Novembor) entitled the Arvaus Buforo BC 1000 Subsequeatly be published an alltd papor entitled the Sumoro-Egyptian Ongio of tho Rg Veda ·126 WOMEN IN RGVEDA In vory primitivo timos when the society was governed by a strong patriarchal system and when the number of women was small there were cases of incestuous con- Parental incest nection between a father and his daughter and a son and his mother. A few of such cases liate been warranted by the Rgveda which seems to preserve these instances with a sense of approval. Or, at least, it is certain that the Rgvedic poot could imagine with freedom such connections existing between a father and his daughtor and between a son in Vol. I, Part 2, of the Journal of the Benares Hindu University. In these contributions the learnod Professor presented a unique and bold front by asserting that the Rgreda in its origin is a Sumero-Egyptian document. His conclusion has not beon seriously challenged nor has it beon accepted which shows that either it has been deliberately ignored or its strength has bewildered scholars So far as the presont writer knows only one attompt was made in tho next issue of the Journal of the Benares Hindu University to cambat tho situation taken by Dr. Pran Nath, but it proved abortive as it did not even touch tho subjoct seriously. The evidence of the Puranic traditions as marshalled into array in the foregoing pages and ag ably detailed by Professor Sarkar in his work, Some Aspects of the Darliest Social History of Indra, pp. 116-185, supports Dr. Pran Nath's viow to an amazing degree. We know that incestuous marriagos betwocn brothers and sisters wero a peculiar trait of the Semitic races. They aro even now so to & great extent. (This position is admitted on all hands). Such incostuous marriagos are best illustrated by the social history of Egypt. There sach marriages were a common foature. The ancient kings of Egypt olways married their roal sisters. Now, it is generally hold by Rgvodic scholars that the composition and compilation of the hymns of tho Rgveda wero much posterior to the existence of the Egyptian royal family and to the erection of tho pyramids. The Puranic traditions describe conditions and illustrato cases of a society which flourished at a period much anterior to the composition of the Rgreda. It is theroforo easy to show, as has beon dono above, that the parallel casos of the agveda ero incidents of generations liguring several sters later in tho Puranic genealogical tablo. Yania of the Roveda como about ten generations later in the Puranie list and so do Yayāti and Trasadasyu- Purukutsa who thus represont a later period in the Parāņas. Tbu instances of incestnous marriages preserved in the Puranic accounts are in most cases of a time much prior to the Rgreda. And these instances aro not a fow bat aumerous, prolific. In the greda itsell the custom of marriago botwoun brother and sister is so defunct that to get only threo indirect referencce to it in its wholo rango. These themselves prusorye only instances of a bygono oge, ·MARRIAGE-ITS FCATURES, OUSTOVS AND USAGES 127 and lus mother Tho former typo 18 ovidencod in the lovo and union of Prajāpsti and his daughter and the latter is ovidonced in the example of Pūs in rooing (didlısu) his own mother 2 Tho formor c390 is substantiated by a fow similar instancos in the Puranas as well which do not fall within the provinco of our discussion Tho c190 of incostuous connoction botween mother and son muy also be cited in ono existing (at lorst so concoivod by the poet) between Usā, the down, and Sūrys, tho sun The down has boon described as the mother gonorating Sūryny and boaring him as hor illustrious child 4 Sho is also Sistor marriages It wo whilo thoso of the Paranas aro numorous and como from still oarlior timos It 19 probable that the two sets of ovidonco bolong to the samo poriod of tuno or that tbo Rgvodio data are slightly later Thus it may be shown without foar of contradiction that both tho ligueda and tho darker accounts of tho Puranas refer to conditions in an ancient society of tho Aryans in which sistor morragas woro common and prorsoworthy Now which was this society of tho Aryans in which sistor marriages sore considered normal? It 19 hero that the conclu bion of Dr Pran Nath comes to our aid and solves tho riddle are held as a distinguishing trait among the social babits of tho somatic Løyptians It nlo provailed among the early Hebrors and Arabs accept Dr Naths conclasion that tho Aryans vero agnates to the Egyptiang on whom tho latter s social legacy dovoli ed we shall have no difficulty 10 oxplaining the apparently un Vedic and non Aryan custom of sister marriage references to which aro presort od in tho Rgoeda and instances of which aro multiplied and detailed in the traditional accounts of the Puranas * RI'. * 61 57 It is interesting to noto the observation of Profesor Max Valler regarding this myth of Prajapati and his dughter Whan Kumarılı 19 hard pressed by his opponents about tho immoralities of his gods, ho answors with all the frcodom of a comparativo mythologist It 19 fabled that Prajapati the Lord of Creation did violonce to his daughter But what does it inern? Prajapati tho Lord of Creation N a name of tho Sun and he 3 called so becauso ho protects all croitures His daughter Ushas as the dawn And when it is said that he was in love with her, this only means that at sunriso, the sun runs after the damn tho damn boing at the same time called the daughter of the Sun becauso sho rises wlien ho appronchos II.story of Ancient Sanskrut Literature, pp 529 30 * Highafee RV, VI 65 5 * ibid VII 78 3 . ibid, 1 113, 1 ? He Buys

·128
WOMEN IN ROVEDA
roferred to as the wifo of Sūryal shining with the light of her
lover, and being pursued by him as a young man follows a
maiden.3 She is constantly mentioned as tho daughter of tho
heaven (duhitardivah) but at one place sho is spoken of ovon
as his beloved (priya). We have, however, no counterparts
in the Puranio traditions of incest betweon a mother and her
son.
* V., VII. 75,5; Il'. 5, 13.
. ibid., 1. 92, 11.
. ibid., 1. 115,2; cf. l. 123, 10.
* ibid., 1.0, 92, elc., vide onte.
. ibid., I. 46, 1.

·BITRATO CHAPTER V THL WITE AND MOTHER Tho free bold muden, approached and adored by a crowd of young suitors, could not but be the cause of a little prido in her conduct Prido to 1 considerablo oxtent rosults in dignity and the Rgvedic wifo who was first flattored with attentions and ropeatod visits by young men of promiso and eminonce was bound to be dignified and gracious when later wedded to an Arya under the nuptial ceremonies to which Agni ono of the greatest gods of the Indo Aryan pinthoon, was tho chiof witness Thus tho dignity of the wifo which was to survive in the mother the progenitor of the Arys and a member of uniquo importanco in tho Ary in family, v rocognised in the Rgrodic society Shoras not only an auuliary in the management of tho house hold but the vory contre of the domestic world and emprossi (sanırajñi) in her homo The husband identified her with his vory home, hus abiding hearth A wife O Mnghavan sys tlio grout seor Visvamitra is home and dwelling ? She 15 auspicious3 (halyanī) tho most nue picious (sıvatama) 4 who brings blessings and prosperity to the bipods and quvdrupeds of her husband s household Not fierce of oyo tho priest sonds the bride to her now home after blossing hor, "no slayer of thy husband bring Teal to cattlo radiant gentle hearted loving tho gods do 11,htful, bearing horoes, bring blossing to our quadrupods and Wife hor d znity bipods ' 1 RT X 8 46 'जायेदस्त मघवन्त्मेदु योनिस्तदित्त्वा युक्ता हरयो वह तु । bil III 63 4 ? ibid 6 ibid 185 37 11 49 44 . ibid 41 17 ·180 WOMEN IN RGVEDA The wife was the perfect companion of her husband and it was one prayer of the Aryan to be wedded to an auspicious wife, who should be the sharor of his pleasures and who should twine her loving arms about him, and welcome all his embraces.1 Indra after he has drunk the Soma juice need hardly bo reminded to turn himself homeward (astam) for his joy lay in his home,' his gracious and auspicious wife' (kalyānīrjāyā).2 After the liquor has had its full effect on the senses of Indra ho becomes the charge of his dear loving wife. The poot regards him with apparont envy when he sends him to Indrāņi: "Therowith in rapturo of the juice draw near (upayāhi) to thy beloved spouse" | (priyān jāyam). The Aryan combined in liis person the traits of both & materialist and spiritualist. Later Hindu society compartmentalizod life, as it were, and divided it into four periods most suited to the changing conditions of aging life. It was realizod very early that man was not merely a boing but a bocoming, a fast chonging complex and so the individual was provided with the activities suitablo for his growing needs. Thus fourfold division, technically called the four āśramas in the hfo of a dnja, twico-born, which starvod no sphere of human developmout and which doveloped later into an important institution, had its obscure beginnings in tho Rgvoda itself. Because we find that alongside the spiritual quest tho Aryan sought leis temporal beatitudo as well. Domestic happiness and conjugal affection Aro the constant topics Domestic of allusion in the Pyreda and the scers of the happiness Samhiti are not fatigued while secking repeatedly the hond that binds them to a happy home governed by a con. tented wife. "True to the kindred points of heaven and homc,' the Aryan blended together his storn and austero duties to the gods and afl-ctionato conjugal habits of the carthly 1 तां पूपश्वितमामेरयस्व यम्या वीज मनुष्या यान्ति । या न ऊरू उसनो विश्रयाते यस्यामुगन्तः प्रहराम गेरम् ॥ Rv.,x. 85, 97. मपाःसोममम्ममिन्ट प्र पाहि पल्याणी या मुरणं गृहे ते। itil., III. BI, G.

·YIFE AND NOTIER 131 homo in & proportion that generated the habits of a most balanced life Such a hio is reflected in a verse of incalculablo social value "Close to her husband,' sings the poet, "clings the wifo And in embraces inter twined, both gire and take the bliss of love"Such a state of relationslıp also, by the way, reflects upon the character of the wife She could make lier home a paradise only when she herself was giltless and bestowed hier affection unroservedly on her husband wlule the intter overnhelmed her with his morning and undivided caresses The love of a married couple is undoubtedly an movitablo as sumption but naturally a 'blameless damo 2 (anaiadya nara) was Very dear to lier husband and she could easily rely on the absolute fidelity of her spouse Nor was love an affair of the husband alone The strength and vigour of the wife lay in the power of her love and the man was considered singularly fortunate who, while leading home a vigorous wife, found her loving too 3 Such a wife was bound to be cheered as she came close 4 How much miserable the domestic life of a couple becomes when ono of them cannot completely return the warm ombrices of the other ! Onesided love is a great danger to the established etlucal limbits of tlio society The Rg edic priest was conscious of such a peril and it was his ardent desire to see his home deeply rooted in the love of a wedded couple He implored his gods to hoop disaffection at arm s length and prayed to them So inay the universal gods, so may the waters join our hearts, May Maturśvan, Dhātar, and Destrı tugt ther bind us close 5 Tho cementing of the married hearts was considered the founda tion of all worldly happiness arising from the domestic lıfe and the sight of children Tlus allez is brought honut very griplu 8 + अमिदा उ मर्थिन मा जाया युवते पतिम् । RI I 100 2 पुर सद रामसदो न वीरा मनवद्या पतिजुष्टव नारी ।। ibd 73 3 वधूरिय पतिमिच्छन्त्यति यई वहाते महिषीमिपिराम् । ibi! 1 37 3 also el ibid I 131, 9 . ibid V 97, 9 . ibid X 85 47 ·192 WOMEN IN ROVEDA cally in the following blessing of the priest on the occasion of marriage "Happy be thou and prosper with thy children hero : be vigilant to rule thy liousehold, in this homo. Closely unite thy body with this man, thy lord. So shall yo, full of years, address your company." The very ideal character of an Aryan wife has been brought out in verse 6 of hymn 86 of the tenth book uttered by Indrāņi: "No dame with amplor charms than I, or greater wealth of love's delights. None with moro ardour offers all her beauty to her lord's embrace. Supreme is Indra over all."2 . Nowhere can be found such an ideal in practice as one onibodied in the lines quoted above. Here is a total negation of self on the part of a woman for the man she adores. She bares her heart and lays all its hidden treasures without any reserve at the feet of her husband. Here was a complete surrender which was thoroughly returned and likovise responded to by tlo husband. And in the absence of such a return thoro wero un. doubtedly chances of a foreigner making his unchasto advances on the unfortunato woman and thus vitiating the pleasures of a married homo. Such a notion is hintod at in the lino, "This noxious creature looks on mo as one beroft of a hero's lovo.” Herein Indrāņi referes to the liberty Vrşākapi lias had the audacity to tako with her person as one would tako with a woman who has not a liero, i.o. a loving husband, for her protector. Slio further assorts that besides her husband sho lias her other protectors, for example her sons. Says sho: "Yot 1 इह प्रिय प्रजया ते समृध्यतामस्मिन्गृहे गार्हपत्याय जागृहि । एना पत्या तन्वं सं सृजम्वाधाजिबी दिदथमा वदाथः ॥ ४y.,x. 85, 7. न मत्स्त्री सुभसतरा न मुपागुतरा भवन् । न मत्ातिच्यवीयसी न सरय्यद्यमीयमी विश्वस्मादिन्द्र उत्तरः ॥ iiid.,x. 86, 6. • प्रवीरामिव मामयं धराएरभि मन्यते । bid.,9.

·VITT AND MOTIIER 199 horoes for my sons have I, the Marut's friend and Indra's queen" Similes--for instance, 'Loving the loving one, as wives their husband'oro drawn commonly from sweet domestic relationslup, betweon the husband and his wifo In a passago no rond tho prayor : "May we onco firmly cling to thio faroury ovon as husbands to their vivos. 93 Anothor has, "Dawn, like a loving matron for lier husband, smiling and woll attired unmasks her beauty." Tho wife had to porform duties which were both of celestial as well as torrestrial naturo. Hor religious dutiey were even moro important than tho secular ones Hor principal function in the Aryan household was to heop the domestic fire kindled at all hours Tho various sacrifices woro the chief visible forms of Aryan worship and they dominated tho roligious coromonies of tho society. For the purpose of sacrifices firo was essential; besidos, Agni was ono of the most important gods of the times. Agni was the priost+ (purolıtam, rivyan) of the gods. It was through him that the Arya hod communication with other gods and so firo was to be hopt constantly kindled And this duty of over keoping the fire Lundlod in the family hearth was mado the concern of tho. Hor duties wifo. It was the same nuptial fire which had witnessed hor union with a new soul when this Intter took lier round it and which act gave to the coremony of wedding its namo-parinaya Macdonell obsorves "Tlie taking of her hand placed tho bride in tho power of her husband The stono on which she stoppod way to give her firmness Ilie soven stops which she took with her husband and the sacri. fiunt food which slio shared with hun wore to inaugurate friondship and community. Future abundanco and male off- उताहमस्मि वीरिणीन्द्रपली मरत्सखा विश्वस्मादिन्द्र उत्तर ॥ R', x 86, 9 . ibid, I 71,5 सत्सु ते सुमतिभि शतक्रतो स पत्नीभिर्न वृषणो नसीमहि ॥ Ibnd , II 16, 8 • अग्निमीळे पुरोहित यशस्य देवमुत्विजम् । start THT 11 ibid, I, 1, 1 1 3 ·184 WOMEN IN RGVEDA spring were prognosticated when she had been conducted to her, husband's house, by seating lier on the hide of a rod bull and placing upon her lap, the son of a woman who had only borne living male children. The god most closely connected with the rite was Agni for the husband led his bride threo times round the nuptial fire and the newly kindlod domestic fire was to accompany the couple throughout life. Religious Offerings are made to it and Vedic forinulas pronounced. After sunset the husband leads ont his bride and as he points to the pole and the star Arundhati they exhort each other to be constant and undivided for ever." Agni was one of her earlier symbolical husbands and he later presided over the rite of wedding when the bride took for her a mortal husband. Agni thus being the witness of the nuptial! ceremony becamo almost symbolical of her coverture and auspiciousness, saubhagya, and so the keeping up of the domestic, fire meant the lifelong coverture of the wife. Such being the case, and further for the repeated use of firo in sacrificial worship the wife who was in charge of all domestic concerns, she had for her principal duty the keeping alive of Agni at all hours of the day and night. The wifo, worshipping the various gods, · has been frequently referred to in company of her husband : "The united pair, worshipful and righteous, waxing old in their devotion seek Agni together." The Soma juico which gavo colour to the eyes of Indra and strength to his arms had to be washed and pressed out by both the husband and wifo acting with ono mind, one accordz (yadampatī samanasā). The dutiful and sacred life of the couplo is brought out in a most vigorous verse which reads as follows:--- "Serving the immortal one with gifts of sacrificial meal. and wealth, $ 1 History of Sans Literature, p. 254. यहयो वृहते तुम्यमाने पियाजुरो मिथुनास: मचन्त । '., V. 43, 15. . या दम्पती समनमा मुनुत पा च धावतः । att firaun II ibid., VIII. 91, 5.

·WIFE AND BOTIIER 195 1 Thoy satisfy the claims of love and pay duo honour to the gods." Gods are constantly kept in mind and whatovor tho nature of engigoments of the couplo thoy cannot afford to lose sight of them. The verso admirably sums up the two complomentary parts of life, tho worldly and the godly. Immodiatoly after the wedding, especially in cases of love-marriages, men and women forgot all else in the drowning passion of their love. Married pleasuros aro apt to engross the couple and to render them forgotful of their duties to the society and to tho gods. Tho Rgvedic scer therofore, conceding to them the enjoyment of the material luxuries and worldly pleasuros, reminds thom of their real duties which woro ostra-terrestrial. Claims of lovo and the aids to them aro suroly the noods of a householder but ovor and above these are his duties which draw him away from the ossentially earthly engagements and join him to the moro lasting onds of religion. The verse ombodies a sonso of middlo courso botweon the two oxtremos of lustful appetite and austere ronunciation. The harmony of both the material and spiritual pursuits is voll hopt in viow. It is significant that most of the sagos of tho Rgvedic times lived up to tho idoal proservod in this lino We know that most of the soors of the Samhita wero married householders enjoying the luxury of many wives, children, slaves and cattle. They woro in most cases priests attached to royal courts and nobles. And yot their greatness in the field of religion and philosophy is a proved fact. It is generally hold that the germs of all later philosophy and metaphysics of the Hindus may be traced in tho Rk Sanhita. The conceivers and utterers of such truths-- the contents of the hymns being lield to have been rovealed to them (mantradrastā ļşayah ; sākśāthşladharmāṇaḥ psayaḥ)— must nood bo men of great spiritual attainments. It may with great omphasis bo said in referonce to the lifo thoy led - वीतिहोत्रा कृतद्वमू दशस्यन्तामृतायवम् । ut that at ang sugat 79. il ., VIII. 31, 9.

·136 WOMEN IN RGVEDA that 'thoy satisfy tho claims of love and pay due lionour to tho gods.'1 The wifo attended all the sacrificos in the Aryan family.” Hor presence at all sacrifices instituted by her husband was essential. She appeared as the sacrificor along with her husband just as the gods invoked came in pairs to accept the offered oblations. The religious functions and sacrifices could not be complete unless they were performed by the wife and her husband together. This would show that the religious ceremonies which in later times were banned against the Hindu wife could be performed by her in the Rgvodic times in her own right. In conjunction with her liusband she is the subject of common allusion in the Samhita on the occasion of the religious functions. The ideal of Kālidāsa regarding marriago as embodied in his phrase sahadharmacaraniyas_wedding for the purposo of performanco of the social and religious duties in company Gointly by both the husband and wifu)--was i literally realized in the Rgvedic society. Instances of the wifo appearing at such an important occasion as the sacrifico may bo multiplied innumerably from the Rk Sanhitū. "Nigh they approach," says tho Rsi,"one minded with their spouses, kneoling to him adorable paid worship."4 Angiras Kutsa praises Agni! for having bestowed his blessing upon the pair, 'who with upliftod ladle sorvo him, husband and wife.'s In a third passago an analogy is drawn between women attending on their lord and tho pair together performing the sacrifice. Wo read olsowhoro, “They sain sufficient food; thoy como united to tho sacred grass and never do they fail in strongth. Nover do they deny or seek to hide the favour of the gods. Thoy win high * ņV., VIII. 91, 9. • tử H C HTC HH4 44 Tefal ibid,x. 80, 30. * Abh. $.11., p. 165; Fitut ibid., p. 260; X'u., rü. 23; TEXTmetu ibid., 51 : c. (TAMİ Satui Hipate cu ti ibid., vi. 19. • अधिद्वयोरदधा उक्थ्यं वचो यतचा मियुना या मार्यत: 1 RP., I. 83, 8. " Jeta 1719 1721 34 okta: 1 ilid., 95, 6. . ibid., VIII. 31, 5, ·WIND AND NOTEER 187 glory for thomsoli os Thus the inportance of tho woman 14 evidenced by tho fact that her appearance at the most important occasion of the religious life of the Aryın, 1e during sacrifices, wis modo imperatu o Such a mombor of tho family must neod onjoy considerablo influonco und status in the society We shall nou piss on to hor worldly and domestic duties Boaring of male children as the main purpose of tho Rgvodic marriago The end was both religious as well as Tomporal temporal The wife was aspected to boar hieroos for the propagation of her husband's raco as also porhaps for fighting lus enemies Not so much for the purposes of inhoritance as for the latter reason sons wero needed This 19 why the Arya reportedly prayed for a pretty largo number of malo childron The usual number prisod for was ton2 Already a number of referoncos has beon quoted from the Rgveda to show on ardent desire on the part of the husband for baving male cluldron The wife in this way was oven a political necessity and her influenco must have grown rapidly in proportion to the number of her sons The idea of tho woman's strength lung in her sons hulds good in the Hindu community oven now, although it scoms to have come in vogue in the Argın society very much earlier thinks to the political no loss than to religious roisons In course of tune when the former vis no moro a potont reson duo to the settled condition of the country the latter alone survived and oven grined ground It was this religious consideration winch influenced the ideas of the later Aryan so much so that fits progeny inhorited tho principle as an instinct Tho proprgition of the rice and moro particularly the performance of the obsequial rites are the chief notions that govern the desire of the modern Hindu husband as is the case with one of tlo modioval timos, in begotting a son on a legally married wifo, apart from tho considerations of inheritance and the instinctive affection for a child of the flesh 1 RY VIII 31 6 7 THANAT GHe aici sfu 11 zbid 1 Eu 45 etc 18 ·188 WOMEN IN RGVCDA In the despatch of her domestic duties the wife ran to and fro. She was a busy matron controlling her household and looking after her charge. She was an 'honourable dame, a truo active worker.'l First of all she was expected to attend on hor lord who was the grhapati just as she was the grhapatnī. The post observes, "For many thousand holy works the sisters wait on the hauty lord like wives and matrons.''3 In her capacity as the grhapatnī she had the charge of the entire household, of tho members of the family, the domestics and slaves and of the cattle and other animals. As soon as she became a wife she was exhorted to tako charge of the quadrupeds and the bipeds of the new family and to bear a benign temper towards them.4 She was expected to look after the needs and requirements of her parents-in-law, brothers-in-law and sisters-in-law.6 Soveral times in the Rgveda Uşā has been compared to a matron who makes life astir, carefully tending everything. "Rousing all life she stirs all creatures that have feet, and makes the birds of air fly up." "She cometh liko a matron waking sleopers.", Thus tho wife, tho mistress of the house, left her bed beforo all others and in the manner of Uşā, who unlocked the bolts of the great castorn gate of the sky to let in the light of the sun after tho expiry of the night, she oponed the door of bor house, and sent out the mombers of her family, the domestic slaves and the cattlo to their respoctivo duties of the day. She was like a mother unto all lifo-human beings or animals--and so cared affectionately for it. From 3 शुचिभ्राजा उपसो नर्वदा यशस्वतीरपस्युवो न सत्या | RF., I. 79, 1. situt faad ft 11 ibid., X. 85, 29. पुरू सहस्रा जनयो न पत्नीद॑वस्यन्ति स्वसारो महयागम् ॥ ibid., I. 62, 10. ti ya fame to l ibid., X. 85, 43. 41. . ibid., 46. • मा पा योपेव सूनुर्मुपा याति प्रमुजती । Art Tİ TERET Theft 9:19: 11 ibid., I. 49, 5. • अपमन्न ससतो बोधयन्ती गरवत्तमागायुन रेयुपीणाम् || ibid., I. 124, 4. • उपो यदद्य मानुना विद्वारावृणवो दिवः । ibid., 48, 15. दुरोकशोचिः ऋतुनं नित्यो जायेव योनादरं विश्वस्मै । ibid., I. 66, 8. 9 ·WIFE AND MOTIER 199 A fow compari very ancient times, tho Rgueda informs us, tho matron had been ontrusted with the duty of responding to invitations and attending the social and religious functions and fostuities : Agn within the houso has beon compared with a faithful wifo beautifying Osory tlung Tho conjugal relationship and the domostic lappiness which it engendorod naturally $ & mattor of pride to tho Rgsodic poot to which ho makes & raforonco Conj igal Thonov er an occasion pormits I lationship sions may bo citod "I invoko him," snys tho Rsı, "with tho tondornes winch a husband has for Duis wife'3 Anothor passigo lins, "He invohes you and prays to you with the faith which & wifo hos in her husband's A third involos Indrn to "accopt our offerings, liston to our prayors, bo to us what a husband is to his young wife's Again the god is implored, "Loso our prayor as the husband loves his wifo " Tlio samo don 13 brought out in the line "Love our voicos, os the husband loves tho soico of a well boloved wifo' 7 and in Thou lovest us, as a wifo loves her husband 's Tho mutunl feeling of love between the husband and his wifo was so doop that it pormentod all tho actions of tho Rsı His pray org roflect again and again the ploasures of huis wedlock and roveal his affection for his wifo Ho ropoatedly returns to the fidelity, charms and the love of Ing wife and drows lus similes and mota phors from the sucot incidents of Inis happy hoino The busy movements of lug wifo w seems to be and her ringing voice to hear whilo crooning hus prayers Hor association sooms to fill tho ideas of the poet and her voice o hoes and ro ochoos in ITEM FAGITT TT 1747 ara taeka II BV, 86 10 - Vikon Rig Veda Yol I abil III p 100 v 5 • bd p 366 3 . ibid p 82 v 5 • ibid p 110 v 8 ibid, p 181 v 16 . ibid, Vol V p 336 Y 4 1 P 1793 ·140 WOMEN IN RGVEDA his tremulous notes. The poet seems as though he cannot grow out of his house and its governing angel, his wife. The hymns of the Rgveda abound in tender references to the wife and everywhere thore bursts forth & passionate sympathy for her and a devout wish for her well-being. The wife with her love, fidelity and submission cast a very winning influence. Her silent suffering occasionally won back to her her. distracted husband and to the The gambler's latter his lost sense. Book ten of the Roveda prehymn serves a hymn which records the fate of a dice. blind habitual gambler, who kept present in the dicing hali at all ours like its prop, the middle pillar. The story is interesting and may be narrated here. The gambler was always transported with joy 'as the dice turned upon the table." The sight of the dice had the same effect upon him as the wino has over the drinker. He had staked all his property and finally luis wife and now he bevoiled the loss of her. His very loving and loyal wife suffered inwardly without a murmur or complaint all the indignities that he showered over her as a result of his extreme addiction to gambling. She never got vexed or angry but to him and his friends she was always gracious. The gambler feels full the remorse after he has staked and lost her. "For the dies' sake" says he, "whose single point is final mino own devoted wifo I alienated."?? The jingling sound of the dico had so ovorpowered his sonse of reason that even before his final folly his guilt had made his wife bitter and now when she had been thus staked and lost as chattel liis mother-in-law despired him and the weiche man ivund nono to givo lim comfort.'5 "As a costly horse grown old and feeble," repents he, "I find not any profit of the gamestor." His woe grows boyond 1 प्रावेपा मा वृहतो मादन्ति प्रवातेजा इरिणे वतानाः | PV.,x. 81, 1. ,नमा मिमेष न जिहीळ एपा शिवा सखिभ्य उत मह्यमामीत् । ibid.,.. मक्षस्याहमेपरस्य हेतोरन व्रतामप जायामरोयम् | ibid. • टेष्टि श्वश्रूरप जाया रणद्धि ibid., 8. •न चाथितो विन्दते मडितारम् । iid. • मश्वस्येव जरतो वस्त्यस्य नाहं विन्दामि विनवम्य भोगम् ।। ibid.

·YIFD AND MOTIER 141 description whon he finds others caressing and taking liborty with his wifo, when already lo has been dispossessod of lus riches, and when he sees his nearest hinsmon like his father, motlior and brother surrounding and renouncing him to lus croditor with the words, 'Bind Inm and take him with you 2 Not once but many 1 time lio resolves not to gamblo but he is in genuino plight when ho finds humself absolutely forlorn by his friends, the gamestors,' and 'whon the brown dico, thrown on the boird, havo rattled '4 ho cannot restrain humself and runs to tho gambling table 'like n fond girl to her rendez vous 's In course of four versos he describes the lure and attraction that tho dice had to his society and the magical power and hold which it had over him in a language full of vigour and in a style peculiarly the author's * The gamester socks the gambling louso, and wonders, Ius body all afiro, Shall I be luchy ? Still do the dico ortend his cagor longing, staking Ins gains against hus adversary "Dico, verily, arnod with goods and driving hooks, deceiving and tormenting causing griovous voe Thoy give frail gifts and then destroy the mon who wins, thickly anointed with tho player's fairest good ? "Worrils sports thoir troop, tho throo and fifty, liho Savitar thio god whose ways are farthful Thoy bend not ovon to the mighty s anger the king himself pays homage and roveres them 8 । अन्ये जाया परि मुसान्त्यस्य यस्यागुपद्वदने वाज्यक्ष । ] . पिता माता भातर एवमाहुर्न जानीमो नयता बद्धमेतम् | and । यदादीध्ये न दविपाण्येभि परायदभ्योऽव हीय ससिभ्य | Inds न्युप्ताश्च बभवो याचमतं एमोदेषां निवृत l • fuit ibid • सभामेति कितप पुच्छमानो जेप्पामोति त वागूसुजान । मक्षासो प्रस्य वि तिरन्ति वाम प्रातिदीन्वे दधत मा कृतानि ॥ild पक्षास इदड वगिनी नितोदिनो निवृत्वानस्तपनास्तपयिष्णव । पुमारदेष्णा जयत पुनहगो मध्वा सम्पृक्ता कितवस्य बणा || indi •विपञ्चाश क्रीडति प्रात एपो देव इव सविता सत्यधर्मा। उपस्य बिमयये ना नमन्ते राजा चिदेभ्यो नम इत्कृणोति ।। ind8 814 ·142 WOMEN IN RGVEDA "Downward they roll, and they spring quickly upward, and, handless, force the man with hands to serve them. Cast on the board, like lumps of magic charcoal, though cold thomselves thoy burn tho heart to ashes.". Again and again he rosolves to refrain from the evil and repeatedly the sight of the seductive dice humbles him and breaks his promise. He plays with a vengeance. He plays and loses and plays again, and his loss exasperates him. He has lost all. He borrows and loses again. One dark night he completes his ruin. 'Mad with despair, distracted with terror, pursued by a creditor' he repairs to his house but its doors are closed to him. He knocks but they do not open, and he stretchos himself on bare earth. The forlorn and wretched stato of his wife makes him reflect. He thinks that other wives are happy, that other homes are fortunate!' The night brings in romorse but the dawn ushers in hope and as tho day broaks lie is seen again os ever bending over the infernal dice. Ho 'yokes the brown steeds again,'2 as it were. But at lost absolution comes and the silent sufferings of his wife cast him out of tho dull stupor he has been in when the priest opens his arms to take him in with his sane and sombre counsel :- "Play not with dico : no, cultivate thy corn-land. Enjoy tho gain, and deem that wealth sufficiont. Thoro aro thy cattle, there thy wifo, O gamblor. So this good Savitar himself hath told mo.'3 .. The duties of the wife were of course tender, though responsible, mainly pertaining to the family and the hearth. The duties of the husband and wifo were different and distinct. 1 नीचा वर्तन्त उपरि स्फुरन्यहस्तासो हम्नवन्तं सहन्ते । दिव्या प्रसारा परिणे न्युप्ताः शीना: सन्तो हृदयं निदहन्ति || TV.,x, 31, 9. पूर्वाणे प्रश्वान्युयुजे ibid., 11. • अक्षर्मा दीव्यः पिमितपस्व वित्ते रमस्व वहुमन्यमानः । तत्र गावः कितव तत्र जाया तन्मे वि चष्टे सवितायमयः || ibid., 18.

·WIFC AND MOTITER 148 While the former fought and diod in strugglo and strifo tho lattor appliod horsolf to the moro dolicite and tonder causes of humanity Tło tonder truits of the woman vero Some other dities fully realized by the liusband who took on hun to braso all tho rough and tumblo of the liard lifo of a colonizor and prepared for hor a bod of rosos without thorns to trend and lio uron, although we shall seo that it was not always a bed of roses that the wifo trod and occasionally she sontured out in the opon, assisted mon in wars and bottles and oven fought and foll by them Tho wife of king Khela is said to have lost her log in a battlo field whilo fighting by the sido of hor Imsband Tło poot praises tho Asvins for Irving roplaced lior leg with an iron substituto in the followig vorso "When in the tune of night in Khola s battlo, a leg was sovered lil on wild bird s pinion, Straight yo gavo Višpalā a leg of iron that she might movo whint time tho conflict oponed'ı It was a clash of two civilizations in which tho Aryan wife must lave had her share and we find that sho actually lad hors It was Inrdāni whogo oblations made Indrs glorious most high2 and victorious in the wars On the call of a battlo tho hero took the aid of such stimulants as would make him ferocious and indifferent to pain Ho drank doop tho Soma beverago which was poured by his morry wifo 3 If tho martial Arya forescos tho approach of his onomy trunsintos Wilson and of tho moment of combat lias come let his wifo accompanied by those who pour the Som? givo orders that this gonerous liquor bo proprred 4 Indrini tho poporful and proud wife of Indrı, doclaros "All women are charmod by the courago and glory of tho husbands who love them A benutıful brido 1 चरित्र हि वेरिवाच्छदि पणमाजा खेलस्य परितक्म्यायाम् । a) nuti3T4 ad rem 11 NV I 116 15 ch ibid I 112 10 ns also ibid.102 ! . येने द्रो हविपा प्रत्य्यभवद्युम्युत्तम | ibud 153 4 * ibid 86 15 • Wilson Rig Veda Vol III p 169 y 8 ·144 WOMEN IN RGVEDA is happy, when she gives public homage to her well-beloved."1 "Women appeared as the worthy companion of the hero," writes Bader in her inimitable style, "and the Arya excited himself to valorous deods by the thought of her who after the victory would proudly lean on his victorious arm,"2, The mother outlived the wife. The latter reached tho climax of her power and importance when she became a mother. Alātę3 is the term by which she is expressed in the Agveda. Surely her high status and importance may be realized from the fact that mätarā4 alone was enough to signify both parents. We find that whenever she is spoken of along Mother with the father her name begins the compound, for oxample mātarā-pitaru and māta-pitaraḥ. The use of the metronymics in the Samhitā may point to the same idea. As we have already mentioned the importance of the mother grow in proportion to the number of children she bore. Paršu, the daughter of Manu, is lauded by Indrāni, for having borno a score of children at a birth. 'Her portion,' says the pootess, 'verily was bliss although her burthen caused her grief.' According to Indrāṇī the mother of & son deserved honour and she was actually much venerated in the society. The Aryan was naturally very rospoctful towards his progenitors and this trait ondurus to this day. "Sparo both him and her," prays tho seer, "who have givon no birth, o Rudra; abstain from striking the porsons who are dear to us."9 Wo havo already discussed in the opening chapter of this work 1 ibid , Vol. VI, p. 69, v. 12. • Il'omen in Ancient Indu, p. 49. * RV., X. 18, 11. ibid., HII. 83, 8; VIJ. 2,5. . ibid , IV. 6, 7. . ibid., I. 147, 3; 152, 6; 159, 6; IV. 4, 13; cf. VL. 10, 2. ' पशुई नाम मानवी सार्क समूव विंशतिम् । HTETUT LUFT 34199H JAT: 11 ibid., X. 86, 23. . Wilson : Rig-Teda, Vol. VI. p. 234, v. 10. * ibid., Vol. I. p. 807, v. 7.

·VIFE AND MOTICE 145 tho motherly traits of thio goddessos Horo a fou moro roforoncos muy bo added to bring out the dogroo of roveronco in which the mother was held and tho attachment which tho Aryan child boro to hor Tho wifo considorod hor domestics as hor sons and wo road. "Her servants are lılo sons brought up in tho samo houso, and whom a virtuous wife as well as hor husband cherish oqually."1 Tho child in distro's prays to Aditi, "May Aditi rocoito mo as a mother roccives her son and may my pray or go straight to her heart to abide thoro "9 "As mothors care for their nurselings," says the poet, "so do Heavon and Larth follow theo with solicitudo, o vigorous and rodoubtablo Inůra 1'3 "Tho gonorous and magmficont Soma, unites himself as tonderly to the waters, as a nurseling attachos itself to its mother's Thon wo lave linog liko "sporting liko young chuldron under the oye of a good mother, ''s "Liko children who submit thomsolves to their mother,'8 "O Porth, cover him, as a mother covory hor infint with tho shirts of her garmont "? It was tho function of the mother to adorn her daughter for finding a husband & Sho oven controlled tho marriage of her daughter as wo hyvo soon bofore in tho caso of the quoen of Ratlariti Wulo living, the Aryan loohod to lus mother for his strength and when dond, ho sought tho shielter of her lap, the touch of which ho considered as soft as that of wool Tho priest addresses tho romuins of tho dond body of warrior "Betalo thoo to the Inp of oarth tho mother, of outh for spreading, vory kind and gracious Young damo, sool soft unto tlo guordon giver, may sho picsorio theo from Dostruction's bosomo Wilson. Rig Vela Vol I p 195 v 8 * ibid, Vol III p 803, 2 * ibid, Vol v p 202, v 6 . ibid, p 362 v 2 . ibid VI r 211, v 6 * abid , Vol III P 421 y 8 ATAT TT 941 area File 11 BV, 1 18 11 Trgra hlauea 4191 ilibid I 123 11 • उपसप मातर भूमिमेतामुरुव्यचस पृथिवी सुशेवाम् । ऊर्णमृदा युवतिदक्षिणावत एषा त्वा पातु नितेरुपस्थात् ॥ ibd , 10 19 1 ·of Wife 146 WOMEN IN RGVEDA And then he implored the mother Earth : "Heave thyself, Earth, nor press thee downward hoavily afford him easy access, gently tending him. Earth, as a mother wraps her skirt about her child, so cover him."'I We now pass on to consider the status, legal and otherwise, of the wife, mother and widow. Already we have discussed in detail in tho second chapter of this Legal Status work the legal status, rights and privileges of the daughter. With regard to her there is some evidence, although scanty, which throws enough light on her status, but with that to the wife, mother or widow, we have not the slightest evidence on which to build up some facts showing her proprietory rights in the ancestral land and her inheritance of other property. Although we read in a passage of a partition made by a father of his property2 yot it is absolutely silent as regards a possible share given to his wife or his own share being reserved for his widow at his death if she happened to survive him and chose not to remarry. Thus the data with regard to her inheritance are negative. We havo nothing on record to show that the wife retained the items of dowry for her own distinct use although it is possible, as romarked elsewhere, that they might have formod her stridhana. We learn from the instanco of Sasiyasi3 that women could at times give away much wealth as presonts or alms, but again we are not sure if this right was one incidental to love and as a concession made to tho wife by her husband or it was a property owned by tho wife in her own right. Normally, it would seem, that the wife could not inherit or hold property. Thus the legal status of the Aryan woman was not as high as that of the Egyptian one during the time of Ankhesneferabra, who died before the conquest of Combysos, and "with 1 उच्छन्चस्व पपिवि मा निवाघथाः सूपायनास्मै भव मूपवञ्चना । माता पुर्व यथा मिचाभ्येनं भूम अणुहि ॥ P., I. 123, 11 वि त्वा नरः पुरुत्रा मपर्यन्पितुर्न जिनेवि वेदो भरन्त || ibid , TO, 5. . ibid., V. 61, 10.

·WIFE AND MOTHER 147 hor closes the most outraordinary history of the legal status of a country's womanhind that tho world has over known' The husband seems to have beon the master of his wife's person Ho had completo control over her and to find that the gorms of Manu's pradanam svamyaharanami and Kūldāsa's Upapanna ho dares prabhula sarıatomukhaº may bo traced to the Rgveda itsolf It is possible that the earlier usage of the patriarchal socioty liad not become quite defunct in this ago and women in cortain cases were regirded as chattels Such cases must be taken as onceptional, for in the whole rango of tho Rgveda thero is only one reference in the Social gambler's hymns whore & wife has been actually staked as chattel and lost But thero too tho wife, thus lost, is again roforred to in verso 13, if it is not another wife (which does not soom probable from tho gymbler s feeling of loss in his stahod wifo), as waiting to be reclaimed along with his proporty 4 The wifo thus stakod scems to have become the property of the winner and servod him as his wife for the toxt says "Othors ciross the wife of him whoso riches the dio hath covoted 'Still it would appear that the wife stayed in tho house of her winner only for a short time may be in the ful filment of a stipulation as we read in the vorso alluded to above the following iden There aro thy cattle thero thy wife, O gumbler,' & huich clearly shons that after some time the wife roverted to her original husband Nevertheless the idea of kor being care-sed ond fondled by anotker man in the interim 15 indeed revolting and point to tho complete suthonty of the husband over his wife But thus solitary instance mar not Jlarusmart V 159 * A Sah V 26 • RV X 84 2.4 • तत्र गाव कितव तत्र जाया तमे वि चष्टे सवितायमय || im,s 'मन्ये जायां परि मान्यस्य bad 4 • ibid, 18 ·148 WOMEN IN RGVEDA be taken as an evidence showing the existence of the usage in the society but as an abnormal and uncommon relic of a remote past. We may here refer to a remark made by Dr. A. S. Altekar on the point. He observes, "In India too in very early times women were regarded as chattel. They were given away as gifts in the Vedic age, as would appear from several hymns, which glorify the gifts of generous donors."! It is "hardly possible to agree with the latter part of Dr. Altekar's'. observation. Unfortunately he does not cite the many verses to which he refers as containing allusions to gifts of women. We have, however, collected together and discussed all these references in our chapter on marriage. It may be submitted that none of these references alludo to free Aryan women but to female slaves. It must be noted that since these women were given as absolute gifts and were classed along horses, cows and chariots, their status must have been lower than that of the real brido. Besides, the population of women was decidedly smaller than that of men as it was one desiro on the part of the latter to beget ten sons on their wives. Again thoso possessions, i.e. womon, of tho kings and noblos must not liave, been free women. They were thereforo slavo girls. Femalo, slaves, as otlier items of property, wore a marked featuro of the dowry or wealth given to tho bride or the bridegroom.? These slaves were the aboriginal women captured in war, for they formod commonly part of the non-Aryan armios. Thoro are soveral roferences to these being given away by kings and nobles to their priests and to others which we havo already discussed at length elsewliore. The view taken by the learned scholar has been evidently occasioned by the occurrence of tho phrase radhümanto in the passage. 4 Tho contoxt is the marriago of Kakşivān Pajriya with the daughter of Sranaya and the 1 1 The Position of Tonnen in Hindu Civilisation, p. 253. pr., VIII. 19, 36; 68, 17; V. 47, G; VI. 27, 8; I. 126, 8; VII. 18, 22; This point has already been elaborated elsewhere. Vido ante. 1 Vida ante. * RY., I. 126, 9.

·VIIL AND NOTIER 149 grand daughter of king Blīvya On this occasion the hing is said to huo gi on otvay to tho bridegroom hundreds of horses, ornamontod with gold coins, hundrods of cows and chariots full of vadhûs nlong with the brido 1 The torm vadhit 18 easily misleading as it normally moins a brido legally morringenblo or a wifo It may be romomborod that the fomalo slovos, who woro given awy along with tho Arjan brido, could mako legal wives without marriago Thoy were given away with that appollation so that thoy might bo approprinted without any further nuptual formalitios and could bo madlo to sorto their Arynı mestor as his wivos at his pleisuro Thus is what 14 implied by tho torm vadhut It was out of such legilly sanctioned riteless Nodlocks of tho Aryan fathers and slavo mothers that somo prominont Vedic porsonnges lihe Kaksiiūn, Auśija, Kavasa or Vatsı were born It would bo hardly rossonablo to boliovo that in thoso days of dearth of freo Aryan nomon, when polygromny utsolf was only a privilego and luvury of the fow, chariots full of brides could be given away frooly The referonco to vadhtīs in Dr Altelar's citation is to slave girls who wore the spoils of war And it may reasonnbly bo hold that froo Aryan ladies could novor bo given away as chattel oncopt in vory oxcoptional cases of which wo have a solitary, partinl and doubtful instance furnished by the Rgveda, 31, 2 and 4 Thoro 19 no doubt about the fact, not ortholows, that tho husband hand comploto mastory ov or luis wifo ns alrordy montioned The wifo suroly was dependent on man to a great oxtont even at that poriod when woman was kort comparatroly in Ingh honour The gimbler's case itself, 1101300 or exceptional may provo it The unfortunato habit of gimblıng anong royal personngos of the opics wuch minod tho virtues and oclipsod tho brightnoss of many o royal court, and causod or on the most truthful and rightoous Yudhisthira to stnke Ins own deur consort, hnd its innuspicious bogining in tho Rgvedic ago or still curlior, and the 'dico blinded' ronped no bettor consoquoncos than the ono * RV, I 126,23 ·150 WOMEN IN ROVEDA during the epic age. The gambler's hymn refers to royal personages also being addicted to the vice and respocting the institution of gambling, for the gambler says, “They bend not even to the mighty's anger : the king himself pays homage and reveres them,"I The slave vomen could always be freely given away as ! chattel in gifts. These women were undoubtedly non-Aryan for it is absolutely incrodible that Aryans were Female slaves sold in slavery. The very fact that the Aryans were ever fighting in the enemy's land shows that their soldiers, always ready for war, did not encumber themselves with too many women. Thus the possibility of men being outnumbered by women seems to have beer remote. And Trasadasyu, & mighty and benevolent king ir peace and a turbulent leader in war who is credited with having given away fifty female slaves,3 may have captured them. in war from the enemy's camp or cities. Then we must romember that there would have been a good number kept at home to allow fifty such slaves to be given away in charity. Such a good number cannot be imagined to have been of Aryan oxtraction so useless as to be captured and then thrown away in miserable slavery. These female slaves therefore must have been women of the aborigines, captured and enslaved, who very often made war upon their enemies, the Aryans, with their women utilized as soldiers trained for the purposes of war. A verse of the Rgveda rocords, "Women for weapons lath the Däsa taken. What injuries can his feeblo armies do me ?"4 In Vặtra's army his mother Dānu is also described to have fought Indra and to have fallen by the side of her son smitten by the thunderbolt of Indra. There is no direct reference 1 उग्रस्य चिन्मन्यवे ना नमन्ते राजा चिदेभ्यो नम इत्कृणोति ॥ Rv.,x. 84, 8. * ibid., I, 126, 3; V. 47, 6; VI. 27, 8; VII. 18, 22; VIII. 19, 86; 68, 17. • प्रदान्मे पौरुकुत्स्य. पञ्चाशतं त्रसदस्युर्वधूनाम् । ibid., VIIL 19, 86. • दासपलीरहिगोपा प्रतिष्ठनिएता प्रापः पगिनेव गावः । bid., I. 32, 11. • उत्तरा मूरघरः पुत्रः प्रासीद्दानः शये सदवत्सान धेनुः ।। bid.,9.

·152 WOMEN IN RGVEDA inlorit it. But in other social respects slio had no disabilities and she was treatod in household matters with due deference. The brido, as soon as slio attained to the status of wifo, assumed tho dignity and power of an affectionate and kind ruler looking after the benefit of tho individual mornbors and of tho household as a whole. Sho was thus a true sahadharmiņi of her husband and shared equally with him the responsibilities and the spiritual viows and vows of tho community. Sho had a right to grumblo and protest and she could rais hor voice against hor troubles. She was not the meek creature o the later times or that of other races of the contemporary world Even if it be a fact, as we have shown it was, that her right dignity and greatness were recognised in thoory, easily sh will rank high among the women of othor races of her contem porary times. For, as we know, women of other ancient races even of the other stalks of the Aryan race itself, have sufferoi logal inequities and social discomfitures to an enormous degree and to tlom freedom has boen unknown through the ages The shackles on the rights of women in so enlightened a countr. as England could be removed only so late as the last century and in other countrios of the continent the removal of women' disabilities is an event of yesterolay. The Rgvedic wifo 1101 her equality with her husband recognised by the society is theory and in social and religious matters she was his oqua oven in practice. In the matters of the management of th household, as we have already mentioned, she was all-supreme and there it seems to have been her voice that mostly provailed In lator times the Aryan wife became a play-thing, a non-indivi dual creature, living not as an end unto herself but unto another i.e. her husband. Her sacrifice and self-chosen suffering ver not proportionately remunerated and returned by her selt seeking husband who took advantage of her ungrunting stato The Smrtis prescribed laws for her submissive conduct to he husband and lord. She obeyed ungrudgingly. They com manded her to identify her life with his ; she went a stop furthe ·YIFE AND MOTHER 159 and identified her death with his But her Rgvedic sister had a tonguo and could wol it She lind an invincible personality, a distinct adı dualitz apart frora her liusband's She could assert horself and could remonstrate against the friling, of her husband And she made herself hoard The invalidity of her man brought forth a protest from her but she showorod lor congratulations upon his restoration to strength and manhood It has boon and "That timo hor husband's perfect restoration to his lost strongth and manlood was apparent, His consort Sasuntı with joy addrossed lum, Now art thou well, my lord, and shalt be happy " She was thus not a burdon but strongth to her husband, who tronted her almost as an equal women But sunshino has its shadows as well and the Rgsedic pictwe also lius its dark pitches to read a fow uncharitable romarks regarding womon A passage, which we have already quoted elsewhimie, psserts that many & mudon was an object of adoration to her wooer for the sale of hor admirable riches Another records disentis faction over the mdiscipline and the small intellect of It says, 'Indra lumself hath said the The other side of the picturo iuud of womon brooks not discipline Hoi intolloct liith little weight "3 A third is Oven moro vellement in its denunciation of women "Vith women," says the Rsi, "there can be no lasting friendship hearts of hyenas aro the hearts of womon 'This statement comes a sort of confession as it is put in the mouth of a woman herself But fortunately it is spohon by Urinsi, a courteson (apsaras) and courtesans aro proverbially known to 'मन्वस्य स्थूर ददृश पुरस्तादनस्थ ऊरुरवरम्बमाण । शाश्वती नार्यभिचक्ष्याह सुभद्रमयं भोजन बिपि ॥ RF VIII 1, 34 * ibiu , \ 27 12 इद्रश्चिद्घा तदबवीस्त्रिया मशास्य मन । bid , TIL 33 17 • न चै स्वणानि सरूपानि सन्ति सालावृकाणा हृदयान्यता || ibud x 95, 15 20 as 3 ·154 VOMEN IN RGVEDA lovo richies and wealth more than the person from whom thoy como In the prosont incident the lover, King Purūravā, lind entored into an ngrooment with the apsarā to live with hor until the oxpiry of a term of stipulation at the end of which his contractual wife loft him. Tho lover, infatuated by her charms and the pleasures her association had given him for a timo, ondeavourod to move her by threatening to destroy his life in her absenco and the remark, cited above, is one sho made in roply to his contemplated threat. Another roferonce, however, admits that many & woman is better than the godloss and the niggardly man. But this itself talks of women as being godly and generous with some resorvation, and then we must romember that this remark is oxpressed by a man who has beon immonsely obliged by a woman (of whose bountios he speaks) through her rich largesses to him. This passage, in short, is part of a panegyric. We shall have thus to admit that the woman who was / an object of great honour was also maltreated sometimes by man. This trait is not, however, peculiar to tho Rgvedic community. Every society, whether ancient or modern, civilized or uncivilized, has its quota of bad men and vile women, of villains and harlots. The domestic sourness is not the evil of a particular community. It is a failing of man; and likes and dislikes, lovos and hatreds, friendships and enmities are the incidents of human nature. And, as such, the Rgvedic community had its share of unmanly men and unwomanly The disparaging remarks, cited above, aro but the outbursts of casual passion and they refer only to individual In spite of these shortcomings of the Aryan life it can be said with unquestionable certainty that the domestic lifo was happy and contented where the husband cared for the feolings and sought for the satisfaction of his wife while the latter in her turn attended on him well and ministered to the needs and happiness of all those left to her charge inclusivo 1 BI ST ETT T4 Thi nafaqat 1 RY., V. 61, 6. women. cases.

·YTL AND MOTHER 155 of the bipods and tho quadrupeds The wifo thus contented by the authority sho worlded in her house laid all that was hers st the foot of her master,' and did all to afford lum the greatest dogroo of satisfaction when she waited lovingly on him having doched lier beautiful person with all the aids of winning charms Happy, contonted mothers with their babes roposing soundly in their arms attracted many a poot to draw similos upon them? The cluld in distress cried in grief to be restorod to his dear loving mother. “Who shall to miglitz Aditi restoro us, that I may seo my father and mother ?"*3 We have an oxample of the affection oxisting between the mother and son in a passage wherein the mother hisses him and he returns lior hiss., In the froo Aryan community life was gay and voriegated. Men and womon, as husbands and wives, strovo side by side, fought shoulder to shoulder in the struggle of life and rocounted their shortcomings to their gods whilo hneoling knoo to hneo It was a hfo of peace and plenty whoro tlo woman and 11e chosen mato loved and playod without tho drond of encroaching restrictions, whoro "With sons and daughtors by their side thoy reach their full o tont of life, Both dochod with ornaments of gold's न मत्स्त्री सुभसत्तरा न सुयाशुतरा भुवन् । न मत्प्रतिघ्यवीयसी न समभ्युद्यमीयसी विश्वस्मादिन्द्रि उत्तर ॥ RL , A 88 6 ibid , 18, 11, etc, vido ante 3351 ATEN afera graffa 4 HTET TIL ibid , I 21, 1 + THAT THE JOE HITTH ti ibid 114,4 पुत्रिणा ता कुमारिणा विश्वमायु व्यंश्नुत । 37 fazendant 11 ibid , VIII 31, 8 ·* 4 CHAPTER VI ADORNMENT Dress The life of tho Rgvedic Aryan was plain and simple and his necessaries were very few. He was a modest man of moderate means with the brilliant equipment of the mind and soul. Under his simple semi-stitched and loosely flowing garments there lay concealod a restless and inquisitive person possessing intelligence of much depth. With our meagre evidence we shall discuss in this chapter the nature of women's dress, ornaments, hair toilet and otlier physical embellishments as also, incidentally, a few items of furniture generally used by the fair sex of the Rgvedic times. We shall first treat of tho articles of dress. The data furnished by the Rgveda regarding the articles of dress for women are very scanty, yet they give us a glimpse of the social manners and customs with respect to the bodily adornment. We find that in spite of the simplicity of the agricultural life women were considerably given to dressing themselves in gay variegated clothes. The love of art and physical adornment is rather a peculiar feature of a free society. In a community where girls of marriageablo age are free to choose their husbands and where due to the freedom from soclusion a kind of intense rivalry in getting a suitable match ensues, certainly personal decoration counts to a great extent. The Rgvedic daughter was alive to this need of liers and she took pains to adorn herself in the most attractive and winning manner. Nor was her mother indifferent to this legitimate need of lier daughter's. She decked her to the best of her ability (and then sent her out to the festivities with a view to matrimony). Very frequently we come across references to girls attracting inen after dressing themselves charmingly. A passage refers to a maiden adorning herself and waiting to meet her lover.2 Even Uşā like a + सुसमाशा मातृमृष्टेव योषाविस्तन्व कृणुपोकम् ॥ Py., I. 123, 11. *747 THAT ibid., X. 107, 10.

·ADORNMENT 157 robo "4 loving matron for her husband, smiling and well attırod, un inasks hor boanty 'l Agrin she 'dechs hier beauty shining forth with sunbeams, lıke women trooping to the festal meeting '2 The sage Vāmadeva beholds 'maidens docking themselves with guy adornmont to join thu bridal fenst '3 Another pis92go hins hun whom sacrifices clothe oven as a woman with lier At anothor place we find both the wife and her liusband ducking themselve, 5 After having guined 1 fragrant dwelling, it was natural to place it under the charge of a new brido attuod in fair apparel In the manner of Usī, Vác also 'hath shown her beauty to another as a fond well diessed woman to hor husband '? Wo find almost tho same idea repontod in the following li 10 "Thus shrino have wo nado rendy for thy coming, as the fond damo attires her for her husband "8 Sometimes tho hymus thomselves aro reforred to as 'clad in white and shining raiment '9 Prayers to gids aro meant to clotho thom as though with a robe 10 Clothing was naturally indispensable And this is why we find the Rsı clothmg his gods and prayers as well as lus animals Wo rend of mantlo worn by Larth and Henvon "The robe,' says the poot, "thos sprend upon the horse to clothe hum, the upper covering and the golden trippings 'll Again wo aro mformed of fair and well mado robey,19 and of white and shining rument जायेव पत्य उशती सुवासा ।। 1 124 7 ' व्युच्छन्ती रश्मिभि सूर्यस्याज्यक्ते समनगा इव वा | bil 8 कन्या इव वहतुमेतवा उ अञ्ज्यञ्जाना अभि चकशीमि । bnd IV 589 *ot ar gafirqatsferiert aufta i ibtd VIII 26 19 • जने मित्रो न दम्पती मनक्ति बृहस्पने वाजयारिवाजो ॥ Ibrd 1 63 2 • भोजा जिग्यु सुरभि योनिमने भोजा जिग्युवध्व या सुवासा hd 107,9 * ibid 714 " जापव पत्य उशती सुवासा ibud II 32 • भद्रा वस्त्राप्यर्जुना वसाना सेयमस्मे सनजा पित्र्या धी | Ind III 992 10 bil 154 "यदश्वाय वास उपस्तुणन्त्यधीवाम या हिरण्यान्यस्मै | ibd 1 162 16 " वस्त्रेव भद्रा सुकृ ता घसूर रथ न धीर स्वपा प्रतक्षम् ॥ bid, In 29, 15 8 ·158 WOMEN IN RGVEDA The above references will make it clear that the Aryans were not merely a spiritual people but they also cared for mundane affairs and wore many articles of dress. It is here that our progress in the description of their robes is impeded with difficulties, for the evidence that we have lacks much clarity and it neither specifically names the articles of dress nor does it distinguish the robes of men and women. We shall, however, attempt to bring out this distinction in the following pages, but beforo making an endeavour to this end it would be wiser to discuss in brief the nature of the fabric which the Aryans utilized for making their garments. We shall therefore start with discussing first the material of which the cloth was made. It appears that the materials of which the cloth was made woro of three classes, namely the skin, wool and cotton. Of those skin is the clothing of all primitivo societios. Material Before other fabrics of wlach cloth is now mado of cloth) were discovered, skins wore the principal material of clothing as they could be easily obtained in pretty abundanco by the primitivo man, whoso occupation was mainly hunting. Tho love for the uso of skins as garments on the part of the ancient Indian sages and Brahmins may have been a remnant of primitive times which Shins thoy preserved till later anges when civilization had considerably advanced, Tho retirement and seclusion of the hermitages in the dense forests of India may have fostered the use of skins during even comparatively later times. The Rgreda also records tho use of skins with regard to the clothing of a few Brahinin sagos and the gods. "The Junis, girdled with the wind, wear garments soiled of yellow hue." Evidently these garments were made of tanned skin. Jaruts, in liko manner, are described as wearing deerskin. In later times we find Külidasa describing wet skin मुनयो वानरसनाः पिशङ्गा वमने मला ! १.,x. 186, 2. ibid., I. 166, 10. 1 ·ADORNMENT 159 girments (zalhala) leaving a track of dripped water in the hormitage of Kanta 1 Wo are not suro if shin robes were put on by women alo. It is possible that like the Munis' of the abovo reforenco rotirod womon sages or ovon worldly lady scors word shin garments In classical literaturo vo find roforoncos to lapasvinis and other wonen inmato, of hermitages mouing in skin dresses Sakuntilā woars a shin robe which boro hnots on the shoulders ? Sītī, in liko manner, is dressed up in skins3 in the horinitago of Vālmiki ūrnī or the shcop-wool was the most important matorial of which cloth was in de Roferences to it are numerous which show incuientally that the Aryans were living in a cold climato winch furthermoro necessitated the use of wool Samulya, uhuch the bride woro nt hor nuptial and gavo Wool away to the officiatug priest, was probably a woollon garment 8 Purified wool mahes the robes of the Varuts 8 The bank of the river Parusni, the basin of which was tho habitat of the Rgvodic Aryans, is associated with wool 7 The partiality of the poot for the wool of Gandhāras sheep 19 czıly ovplained by tho otcellent brood of tho sheor of its locality which produced the softest flroces This truit of the Gandhāra shoop is proscrved to this dry There can bo hardly any doubt as to tho fact that this īrnd was gonorally obtained from the shoop Wo have roforoncos to 1 तोयाधारपपाश्च वल्क्लशिग्वानिप्यन्दरेखाद्विता ॥ Abh Sak I 13 * ibid, p 28 . वन्येन सा बल्बलिनी शरीरं पत्यु प्रजासततये बभार ! Raghu XIV 82 •परा देहि शामुल्यं ब्रह्मभ्यो विमजा यमु । RVA 85 29 • Griffith The Rueda p 271 JA FA & Gouthaf au 17544 RV, V 52,9 cf IV 22 ? abid cf an antara arena 7 libid, I 26 G In the lattor reforonco perbups tho wool of sheep 18 mount as in the first line of tho verso the words kuca and fuca occur which respoctively connote & puro he goat and a puro she goat सहमस्मि रोमशा गधारीणामियाविया ।। RP, I 126,7 6 T ·160 WOMEN IN RGVEDA owes in the Rgvedal and in a passage the excellence of the Gandhāra owes has been celebrated.2 It may be added, howevor, that wool was also got from goats.3 Wool seems to have beon generally used for making cloth and it forms the poot's favourite simile to bring home to tho mind the idea of softness. The Punjab and its northern (Kashmir) and northwestern vicinity furnished the Aryans with enough wool for warm clothing. Of cotton we have no direct evidenco in the Rgveda but from the kind of clothes which tho Aryans wore it may be supposed to have been known to them. In the Cotton Sannitā itself we have no reference to the cultivation of its plant but the different decorativo patterns in the clotlı which we shall mention bolow could have been best worked out in cotton material. Perhaps the primitive societies all ovor the world wero ignorant of tho cultivation of cotton but undoubtedly the Indians know it as early as the chalcolithic ago as pieces of cotton cloth have boen found in the excavations of Mohenjo-Daro. The Indus-valloy civilization was anterior to and in its later stages even contomporanoous with the Řgvedic civilization. Therefore it may be lield without foar of contracliction that the cultivation of cotton was known to the agriculturist Aryans and that they had already started making uso of cotton for the purposes of dress. At least wo know that the Greeks of Alexander's train had soon fields of cotton plants, and had admired and mistaken thon for woolplants. The cultivation of cotton therefore must have been started in India even boforo tho advent of the Aryans. Wo sliall now proceed to discuss the articles of dress worn by women. It has already boon mentioned abovo that the Samhită seldom distinguishes between the respective 1 RI'., I. 126,7; X. 95, 3. fefe TTTT Termf421f781 11 ibid., I. 126, 7. • ibid., X. 26, 6. * FTT ibid , 18, 10, etc. 3 ·ADORNAIENT 161 robos of men and womon, and in most casos the simo articlos of clothing aro attributed to both tho soxos A nuinbor of articles of dioss havo boon montionod, namoly Articles of Adhrasa," Vasa," Sic 3 Samulya, 4 Drupus and Dress Pcśaso It would seom that tho woman put on four pieces of dress, 10 In undorgirmont, a girmont, an upper garment and a covering mantlo Of these the garment was perhaps a seldom usod pieco put on by personages enjoying an oxceptionally lugh status in tho society Sarī as put on by modern Indian ludios, forming botli tho plestod shirt as well as the covering of tho breast, vis unknown It would apporr that tho upper part of the body was genorally uncovorod although tho uso of 1 shawl adhrasa, or 1 closo fitting vost drupi, would have occasionally sorvod thint purpose Wo find that terracotta female figurines and sculptured images of the Sunga period and of subsequont ages support this custom as the absence of an uppor clothing in their cho must have been A continuation of the enrlier Rgvodic custom Probably tho instinco of Usā Leoping hor breast region uncovered has been taken from the habits of a dancing girl as the goddess has been compared to a nrlū 7 But excopt in a fow cases hardly an o13mplo ousts in the Samhrta to show that an upper garment was used by women and bosidos the evidonco of lator sculpturo on tho point is signi ficant Thereforo Dr Altokars suggestion that Samulya was probably a surīs is difficult to accept Undoubtedly it roferrod to an undorgarment, but probably to a shirt in the pleated effect The suri is wound up and partly covors the bosom Samulya Samilya 1 RV I 140 9 162 16 5 4 ibid X 102 2 * ibid 10 11 I 957 III 63 2 . ibid X 85 29 * ibid I 25 18 IX 100 9 * 1111 IV 3G 7 VII 42 1 TIJI 81 8 नदरियापोर्तुते यक्ष उसेव वजहम् । Ind I 92 4 "Te Position of 11 omen in Hindu Crealisation p 851 21 ·162 WOMEN IN RGVEDA was probably made of wool. Professor Sarkar, however, suggests that it oven may have been of 'silk-cotton wool.' The garment or tlle piece of dress at times covoring the uppor part of a woman's body was called drāpi. It seems to have been 'a close-fitting (RV., I. 166, 10) and gold-embroidered vest used by men and women'? of position. It Drăpi was put on by womon also as, although not in the Rgveda, a reference to it is preserved in the Atharva Vcda where its wearer has been likenod to a courtesan.3 It was decidedly a robe used by important men. In the Rg. veda Varuņa4 and Pavamānas wear it. Women in excoptional cases made use of dräpi. Normally the region of the bosom remained uncovered. Visa Occasionally an upper Girment, a kind of scarf (thio utlariya of later times) called Väsa, was worn by women. It covered tho head and may have perhaps oron ferved sometimos as a covering for the bosom. Mudgalānī's vāsa, evidently this upper scarf, was soon streaming up in the sky,6 Vāsa served tho purposes of tho modorn orhni. Sic was obviously its broad border with which a mothor covered the child in her lap.? It was tho anchala or the Sic border of the upper garment. The horizons at sunriso and sunset havo boen compared to tho borders (sicau) of the sky-cloth.8 Over and above thesc, women woro an outer looso-flowing garment, adhirāsa. Perhaps adhicāsa was an unsewn shawl Some Asp. of the Ear. Soc. His. of Ind., p. 53. * ibid., p. 67. • 7.7, 10. • ņY., 1.25, 18. ibid., IX. 100, 9. . ibid., X. 102, 9. * ibid., 18, 11. • उद्ययमीति मदितव बाह उभे सिचो यतते भीम ऋजन | ibid., I. 05, 7. cf. III. 53, 2.

·ADORNMENT 163 covering the entire porson of the woman orcopt her head. Its all-covering naturo is attostoel by the fact Adhirasa that the forosts on the Carth aro likened to it in the Rgocda1 Its use may have been made on occasions when women went out of the house to attend social functions A passage in the Samirtû refers to womon 'drossod in whito garments and moving slowly like the mill that colours at 2 Ordinarily women within the house put on an undergarment and an upper scarf covering tho head We may cito here tho pertinent romarh made by the authors of the Vedic Index on the dress of the Indo-Aryans “The Vedic Indian," thoy observo, "seems often to have worn three garments-an undergarmont (nīvī), 8 garmont and an overgirmont (adhrvāsa RV I 140, 9, 162, 16; X 5, 4) which was probably a mantle, and for which the namos atka and drāpı also seem to bo usod. Thus accords with the description of the sacrificial garmonts given in the Satapatha Brahmana which comprises a tarpya, perhaps a 'sillen under-garment', secondly a garment of undod wool and then a mantlo, while the onds of the turbin after being tied behind the neck, aro brought forward and tucked away in front A similar sort of garmonts in the case of womon appears to bo alluded to in the Atharva Vedo (VIII 2,16; XIV. 2, 50) and the Satapatha Brahmana (V 2, 1, 8) There is nothing to show exactly what differences thoro were between malo and fomale costumes nor what was exactly the nature of the clothes in either case"3 The Aryans thus scem to have been nell advanced in the art of worving which had long been known to thom Spinnerg and weavors were known Aufrecht, Muir and Griffith explain correctly the meinng of the word surut as the fomale weaver 1 I 140,9 * VIII 17,7 Vedic Indez, Vol II p 292 • RV , X 11,9 .

·164 VOMEN IN RGVEDA Brocades The art of weaving was a busy trade which was occasionally chosen as a career by women. Patterns of clothes were various. Stylish ladies affected dyed gay clothes. We read of Maruts also as putting on robes of purified wool. This purified wool may have been 'bleached or dyed.'? Brocades were known and rich gold threads were inter-woven with fibers of cotton or wool. The eastern and western horizons at the time of the sunrise and sunset with the bordering bright golden clouds have been compared to the borders of a scarf3 brocaded with gold threads. Uşā, the Dawn, is described as putting on such a brocaded robe. Peśas is explained by Professor Sarkar following Griffith and others as 'gold-embroidered cloth generally.'4 But if the word peśas alone could convoy that idea tho poot's use of the adjectivo hiranya in certain cases would indeed be rodundant. It Booms that the peśas was a costly cloth which when brocaded and embroidered with gold-threads was termed hiranyapeśas like tho hiranyadrāpi of the Atharva Veda. Our interpretation is borne out by a passage in the Rgveda? which rofers to young girls wearing beautiful dress (supeśáh). In the phrase supeśiḥ we find peśa, dress (precious, and bright og clarified butters), qualified by su, beautiful. Hiranyapeśas, n cross brocadod and inlayed with gold was worn by rich husbands and wives who could afford it. The thread of gold must havo mado tho cloth precious and beautiful, heavy and brilliant.'10 The intricato designell of the cloth give much credit Bv., 1. 92, 4; X. 1, 8. TOTA: ibid., V.52, 9; c Some Asp. of the Ear, llis. of Ind. p.69. RV., I. 95,7; III. 53, 2. • Some Arr of the Ear. His. of Ind., p. 67. RI'., VIII. 81, 8. • 1.7, 10. चतुष्पपर्दा युवति: मुपेशा पृतप्रतीका वयुनानि वस्ते । x. 114,3. 1 1 . ibid. HT FETTET 11 ibid., VIII. 31, 8. 10 ibid., VII. 84, 11. 11 ibid., II. 3, 6.

·ADORNBITNT 165 to the Indo Aryans for tlour renting Orcellonco Professor Sarkar mahos an important obsortation with Peu rogard to the articlo of dress called pesamst when used with referenco to dancmg girls (nrtī) Ho says that it might roſer to a pleated skirt inado of such brocaded cloth, like the medieinl and modern 'gliūghra' or 'pośw17 '"1 Wo liso no clear oudenco as to the outent of use of stitched clothes But since we hnon of the custonco of the noodle and the needlowork from the Rgveda Stitched cloth we may Anſely conclude that stitched clothes were also used In fact brocado work could not havo Leon possiblo without a needlo Tho peśas and drapi could harilli bo mado without the help of the noodlo Tho cold climato of the Punjab and the north-wostorn frontior inust haro necessitated the use of stitched clothies In the whole range of the Rgveda wo nowhoro como across a singlo roference to the foot wear and we may be thoroforo justified in concluding that the womon Uso of foot did not miho tiso of shoes Profossor Sarhar rightly thinks that in vlow of both tho mon and womon worring anklets tho use of the foot woar must liavo been limited car Loro of ornamonts has been a racial trait of tho Hindus, and the Aryans, whether mon or women sought thom with engerness The frequency with which gold Ornamenta has been inentioned attosts to the fact that it abounded in the country and ornaments made of gold and precious stones wero worn i profusion I'rom the carliest proces of terracottis and sculptures wo find the lovo of men and women for ornainents roflected in the abundanco of their uso Thero was a good deal of love making among the youngor people and wo froquontly como across roforoncos Some Asp of the Lar Hus of Ind, p 67 1 ibid ,P TO 2 ·166 WOMEN IN RGVEDA to damsels decking themselves for attracting men. Ornaments must have been a great auxiliary to such girls. Gods, like men, wore ornaments of gold and jewels. When we find the coursors decked with pearly trappings, '1 'chariots decked with pearls'2 and other such animate beings and inanimate objects as the horses and chariots decorated with precious stones, we cannot but naturally infer that women had access to dazzling jewelry. Many a time we read of the many-lued (citra) and bonoured necklaces (niska). A passage mentions the Maruts wearing a et of women's ornaments, i.e. anklets on feet.... gold on breast. ..., visors wrought of gold on heads.'4 Another has the following: "Your rings, O Maruts, rest upon your shoulders and chains of gold aro twined upon your bosom." Nışka, the small gold plates of which these necklaces were made, in later times came to mean a particular kind of gold coins. Is it possible that the coins named Nişka had already become current, in howsoever crude a form, in the Rgvedic period itself ? It is common in India to-day to string togother gold molurs or silver rupees to form a necklace. Women, liko mon, woro ear-pendants on the cars the like of which are perhaps represented on the cars of pre-Mauryan terracotta female figurines. We have also a reference to heavy ornaments decking the sloulders but it is difficult to oxplain or evon conjecture what these ornaments wero. On no pieco of ancient sculpture or pro-Mauryan or primitivo torracotta liave such ornaments for shoulders been found as the Rgveda mentions. We find, however, on ancient pre-Mauryan crudo terracotta pieces of the mother-goddess very thick and heavy 1 PV'., 1. 120, 4. * ibid., 85, 4; cf. ibid., 162, 16. . ibid., II. 34, 10; V. 19, 3; VIII. 49, 15. ibid., V. 51, 11. . ibid., VII. 56, 13. . ibid, L. 122, 14. : 9899 aka: ibid., 1. 166,9; cf. ibid., V. 64, 11.

·ADORNMENT 167 cir-rings falling from the low lianging car-lobes and resting on the slıoulders Sometimes it becomes difficult to decido whethor these wore designed by the artist as ornaments for the ears or the shoulders or for both Possibly the present roforence embodied a similar allusion Armlots,1 bangles and anklots3 were worn by women as well as bg mon Porhaps ring, for fingers Wero also in use although so do not find thom specifically mentioned Tho nose-ring is conspicuously absont from the list of ornaments furnished by the Rgvetla Nowhoro do we find the slightest allusion mıdo to it "It is curious," says Mír. Vchts, "that there is no mention of the noso ring, and thoso who connect this ornament with the Naqil or tho gilt chain, that was put round the woman to mako her fool that she was not the frco cronturo as she 115 in the past, but subject to the custom of the tribe to which sho wis introduced, would be able to point to the introduction of tlus ornament as marking the transition from the corly Vodic to tho much manacled Pauranic degradation "But Dr Altehar las vory ably shown that "the nose ring was unknown throughout the wholo of India during the entire Hindu period Hindu sculptures of Puri and Rajputana of the post-Muslim period begin to slow the nose ring for the first timo Both the positive and the negativo ovidonco thus shows that the nose ring is not a Hindu ornament 15 Hymn 85 of tho tonth book of the Rgveda rofors to women's ornaments Tho ornaments with which the bride 1778 adorned by hor brother and father wore hier own proporty tvhich she could give away on occasions like marriago Thus we have seen that on the noch she wore a necklace of poarls, and big hanging rings in the cars rosted on her shoulders Arms $ * RY, V 58,2 ibid , I 168,8 * abid , V 61, 11 • Foreword to IVomen in Rgveda 1st Ed, pp 10 IV Pos of "Vom in Ilın Cin , pp 863 64 ·168 WOMEN IN RGVEDA were docked with gold bracelets, wrists with bangles and ankles with anklets. Perhaps there were also rings adorning the fingers of the hands. Ornaments were only oxternal additions to beauty and women did not forget to enhance their natural charms by other means. Their attention seems to have Hair-cuillure been paid most to the hair. Hair was well combed and oiled, partod and braided, and let to hang down the shoulders and the waist. The sacred altar has been compared to a woman in the following line : "The youthful one, well shaped, with four locks braided, brightened with oil, puts on the ordinances."3 She thus used to brighten her hair by putting oil in it. Again we have a reforence to a dame with lovely hands and charms, with broad hair plaits and amplo hips. Broad hair plaits wero the most characteristic foatures of the hair toilet. Loose trosses have beon roferred to in the Rgveda with procision and frequency. Rodasí has loose tressess beautifully hanging on her back. A flame of fire has been compared to the tresses of a maidon : "The maidons with long tresses hold himn in embrace, dead They riso up again to meet the loving one. Siniväli has been noted for her long broad tressos.7 Theso trosses woro ovidently knit after the hair lad bocn combed. Soveral fashions of wearing hair seem to have been in voguo. The inter variety of styles of arranging hair as evidenced by the ancient paintings and sculptures of India appears to havo already made a mark in the Rgvedic period. These stylos, however, aro only too vaguely indicated in tho Sanhila to bo "6 1 RT., X. 114, 3. * ibid., I. 140, 8; 167, 6. ibid., X. 114, 3. . ibid., 86, 8. ibid., 1. 167, 5. . ibid., II. 39, 2. ibid., II, 32, 6; VII. 55, 8. $ ·ADORNMENT 169 describod horo. The young girl socms to havo worn hor hair in four braids? although the fashions of hair-dressing had not becomo storeotypod. Tho senso of art and aesthotics had reached a high watormark and wo find quite a good number of the articlos of toilot enjoinod for the use of a nugaraka by Vātsyāyana already put to use by the mon and women of the Indo-Aryan society. Thus we have already survoyed women donning diaphanous attiros and wearing the choicest ornaments of gold, pearls and procious stones (mani). Wo have also seen how they arranged their hair in various winning stylos. Wo shall now describo in briof the last item of their toilet,--the embellishment of the body with tho aid of ointments and porfumes. Embellishing the body with sweot perfumes had already come into Perfumes 11so. Wo read Aśvins compared to two foro damos ombellishing their bodios.2 Aranyāni, the forest queon, is similarly described in the line : "Now have I praised the forost queon, sweet-scented, rodolent of balm."3 Similarly wivos attonding the funeral woro oxpocted to ombellish their bodies with perfumes.4 Tho matrons, whonover they went out, were perfumed and enbalmed with the 'odorous sweets.' This finished, womon put unguents to their oyos tho charm and strongth of which havo bocomo so much a subject of description in the works of Kāldūsa. It has been noted by a celobrated scholar that thoro woro porhaps four particular occasions for such sprinkling of porfumes. Girls might have usod them to attract notice. The apsarases, the prostitutos, might havo bathed in perfumed water to ontico lorors. The wife who always waited for her loving husband did not forget to embellish her body with all sorts of adornments, os Kūlidūsa's later autref gafa: RV., X. 114, 3. . ibid , II. 29, 2. . ibid., X. 146, 6. . ibid., 18, 7. . ibid , VII. 65, 8 • ibid. ; ibid., X. 85, 1. 92 ·170 WOMEN IN RGVEDA 'notion--strīņām priyalokaphalo hi veśaḥl_had already been realized by the Rgvedic woman and was actually being lived by her to a considerable extent. The following verse of the funeral hymn brings out a partial picture of the toilet of the Indo-Aryan woman :- "Let these unwidowed dames with noble husbands adorn themselves with fragrant balm and unguent. Docked with fair jowels, taerless, free from sorrow, first let the matrons pass unto their houses." Although it will not be strictly logical to discuss in this chapter the items of furniture which decorated her household, nevertheless, & succinct reference to such of these as were used by women, it is supposed, will not be altogether out of place. We may therefore give below brief account of their furniture. Wo find a few articles Furniture of furniture especially associated with women and the inner apartments of a house. Talpya, montioned in the Rgveda3 and associated with the bridali and the couples in the Atharva Veda, is such an article of furniture. Prof. Sarkar correctly thinks that it was the nuptial bod. He further suggests that it may havo boon a 'combination of a settee and a coffer;"? "such marriago-coffors," continuos the learned Professor, "ovidently could be used as couch or bod; and it is noteworthy that both these types of bed (Talpa and Vahya) are found in the innor apartments of the mid-Himā. layan villager's dwelling house."8 From a passage in the 3 1 Ku., vii. 22. इमा नारीरविषवाः सुपत्नीराजनेन सर्पिपा सं विशन्तु । भनवोनमीवाः सुरना भारोहन्तु जनयो योनिमग्ने | Rv.,x. 18, 7. ibid., VII. 59, 8. • XIV. 2; 31, 41. * V. 7, 12. * Some Asp.of the Ear. Soc. His. of Ind., p. 50. ibid. . ibid.

·ADORNMENT 171 Rgveda wo learn that tho talpya was tho furnituro of a palatial building or a princely house (harmya)' on which we find ladios reclining? Thus shows that tülpya was kept in the innor apartments of a house It was perhaps a horvy structure fixed at a spot within the houso Tho lervy nature of its structuro may also be inforrod from the fact that talpa in the Manasāra3 literaturo and the works4 of Kālıdāsa moang also & turrot Thus talpya would mean a heavy and high bedstead with small turrets Wo uso even in those days high beds with railing Talpya may have boon such a bed Vahya," on the other hand, as its etymology suggests (10 ono which could be cssily borno) may lave been a lighter couch used by women Possibly it was the nuptnl bod of which the marriage hymn indirectly speahs o It may have been given away to the brido in dowry (as it is tho custom oven now Among the Hindus) and would have thus boon carried (rahya) The Rgveda associates it with womon? who aro said to be sloeping on 1t8 It is significant that the Atharia Veda associatos it with the nuptial ceremonyo which tho brdo mounts10 and on which she sloops with hor husband 11 Kośa,12 which is gi on to the brido in dowry and is sont away to the house of the bridegroom, mny, besido moaning treſsure or proporty (dowry) of somo doscription, also connoto the object in which such trossure is kopt It might thon 4 * RV, VII, 55 8 * STÖTUT RV, VII, 65, 8 Acharya A Dictionary of Ilundu Architecture Of thoso all but XVI 11 moani Raghu V 76 \VI G 11 XIX ! high bed · RV, VII, 65, 8 & ibid, 85 7 * ibid IV, 6, 8, VII, 55, 8 ibid IV, 5 3 • XIV, 2 30 10 ibid , IV, 20, 8 11 ibid , XIV, : 80 11 RY , X, 85,7 ·172 WOMEN IN ROVEDA mean a coffer containing objects given away to and meant for the use of the bride. Kos, meaning a coffer, is still used in certain parts of the United Provinces and Bihar speaking the Bhojapurī dialect. It is significant that both, these articles of furniture, the bed-stead and the coffer, should still form the items of dowry of a modern Hindu bride.

·Tuo treud CHAPTER VII EDUOATION Religion influenced ovory branch of lifo of tho Indo Aryan Sacrificos plnyed a groat part in the roligious and spintual society of tho Rgveda When tho Aryans first set foot on the Indian soil they were impressod greatly with the forcos of nature, both cruel and benign The prayors in gratitude to these forces were uttered by them which, with otliors, give rise to the Samitās Tho immigrants were born poets and whater or their impassioned language touched was beautifiod. Tho poots who created the great literature of the Rgveda woro bords of divinities and woro mostly attached to the royal courts Thor learning and woalth of poetry bad become tho property of the family which descended from fother to son Tho fomily itself had become an institution for importing education--the family lore-wbero the sons, as also probably the daughters, wero taught in the language and literaturo of the times In the Rgveda is proserved an allusion to such a school where tho tercher and tho taught met and tho commingled voices of the lattor in imitation of the lessons of the former rang out like those of the frogs gathered together in the rainy season The text so ably translatod by Griffith rends "Lach of these train rocoives tho other kindly, while they aro rovelling in the flow of waters When the frog moistenerl by the ram springs forward and Greon and Spotty both combino their voicos 1 When ono of theso ropoats tho othor's language, as ho who learns tho lesson of tho teacher, Your overy limb sooms to be growing larger, as yo convorso with oloquence on the waters" अयो अन्यमनु गृभ्णात्येनोरपा प्रस, यदमन्दिपाताम । मण्डूको यदभिवृष्ट कनिप्वन्पृश्नि सम्परक्ते हरितेन वाचम् ।। RP VII 103, 4 'पदेपामन्यो अयस्य याच शाक्तस्येव वदति शिक्षमाण । सर्व तदेषां समृधेव पर्वयत्सुवाचो घदथनाध्यप्सु || ibd ,s ·174 WOMEN IN RGVEDA It is very probablo that the daughters of the family also mingled their voicos, for they must have been taught somewhere to make themselvos seers and poetosses (as we shall soo below that they were) and nowhero indeed could so healthy an atmosphere be found as the company of their father. The teaching was mainly by rote the futility of which has been noted by the Rgveda where it registors its protest through a hint against the parrot or frog-like reciters of the Veda. Women, it would appear, were educated both in the spiritual as well as temporal subjects. The spiritual side comprised of a training in the religious loro and perhaps also in the historical tradition and mythology which mado them at times șsis of hymns ; and the temporal side comprised of a training in the fine arts as well as in the military science in certain special coses. Wo shall make an attempt in the following pages to give an account of this liberal education imparted to women. The society which aimed moro at tho spiritual attainments of life and gave its women an important and imperative function in the daily and occasional sacrifices, was alive to their mental needs and it endeavoured to equip them with a training to that end. The maidon who had to Necessity of geak a husband for herself with the aid of her Education olders would find her task easier if her intellectual attainments wore added to her physical charms. As a qualification for marriage the education of the meiden was congidored as important as that of the man. The text stipulates : "An unmarried young learned daughter should be married to a bridegroom who like her is learned. Never think of giving in marriage a daughter of very young age."? The Yajurveda, which depicts almost the same conditions and + उत त्वं सख्ये स्थिरपीतमाहुननं हिन्वन्त्यपि वाजिनेषु। अधेन्वा चरति मायथेष वाच गुथुवाँ अफलामपुष्पाम् ॥ RV.,x. 71, 5. * मा धेनवो धुनयन्तामशिश्वीः सबघाः शशया प्रप्रदुग्धाः । FAUT quan Hart 497914 radna ti ibid., III. 55, 16.

·DUDATION 175 It says, times as tho Rgieda, also records a similar Vion "A young daughter who has observed brahmacarya (10 finished hor studios) sliould be married to a bride groom who liko lier is learned " Tho Atharva Veda is oqually emphatic in its support of female education It records, "A ling by observing brahmacarya (the vow of study) can protect his hingdom 01sily An ācārya cin import education to his students if he big himself observ od his brahmacarya A young daughter aftor the observanco of brılımacarya should be married to a young man In this manner education was made almost a necessary condition of marringo This oducation was imparted to tho gırl in her maidenhood and, as alrondy montionod, under tho ojo of the fathor perhaps in compiny with her brothors and such othor kinsmen 2 The nature of the maiden's education is not directly ovidenced in the RI Samhita and it is difficult to determine whnt subjects she rond Wo shall, however, at Naturo of education and tompt to moce together the indiroct data that subjects of we havo, and bring out the courses of the woman s study education There is no doubt that in the age of warfare in which the Indo Aryans lived the nature of training for common men, noblog ind princos, oxcopt in caso of tho priestly famılios, would have beon mostly military in charactor But in the ciso of women savo in a fow instances of the Kortriya families, the coursos of study must have boon more humane On olammation, wo find that normally their education contred round the acquisiton of langungo and hitornture the fine arts and the military science Wo shall discuss thogo heads one by one below * उपायाम्गृहीतोस्पादित्येव्यस्त्वा । विष्णुरगार्यपते सोमस्त रक्ष्यस्व मा त्वादवन | Y VIII 1 . ब्रह्मचर्येण तपसा राजा राष्ट्र विरक्षति । भाचार्यों ब्रह्मचर्यण ब्रह्मचारिणमिच्छते । ब्रह्मचर्येण वयायवानं विन्द्यते पतिम् | AV II 8 17 18 ·176 WOMEN IN ROVEDA That women, were educated in the cultured and polished language and current literature can hardly bo doubted. Wo find the anukramani of the Agveda ascribing Language and to them a number of hymns. A Literature score of names of women are on record showing their eligibility to become rsis and the nature of the poetry thoy could compose. The compositions of these ladies are no ! less gifted in point of music and poetry than those of the men.' With great tremour and zoal thoy send forth their prayers to the gods for the good of the suffering humanity. Tlie foremost of these rşis is Ghoşā, tho wife of the Ghoşā great seer Kakşīvān. She has bocn mentioned several times in the Rgveda while two long hymns, 89 and 40 of the tenth mandala stand to her credit. This daughter of a king' is equally mighty in her conception of divinity and the invocation of the Aſvins, who, in consequence of her prayer to them, give her Kakşīvān Lopamudra for husband in an advanced age. Lopāmudrā, another lady Rşi, is credited with having composed a hymn3 jointly with her husband Agastya. Apālā ad- Arila dresses hymn 91 of the tenth book and in liko manner invokos Agni in the fifth book. To Romaśā, another wife of Kakşīvān and the daughter of king Svanaya and the grand-daughter of Bhāvya is ascribed a beautiful vorse of fine imagery and tender feeling in which she says that she is as harmless and Romaga docile as the 'owes of the Gandhāras'. This sho acters to her father-in-law, the father of Kakşīvān, whilo presenting herself after her marriage to the Sürya kinsmen of her groom, Sūryā, the daughter of Savitā, the sun, is a remarkable Rși who narrates the incidents of her own wedding with Soma, the moon, This Visvavārs 1 1. 117; 7; X. 86, etc. * ibid., X. 40, 5. * ibid., I. 179. • सहमस्मि रोमशा गन्धारीणामिवाविका || ibid., 126, 7.

·EDUCATION 177 mother hymn,' howovor, is composed of a traditional sot of forty sovon Vasakara s wilo verses loosely strung together The scor and speaker of the first vorses of hymn 28 of the tenth book is Vasuhara's wife, while the mother of the Gaupāyanas Gaupayana B along with lier sons, Bandhu, Subandhu, Srutabondhu and Viprabandhu, is that of X, 60 The Intter is also the independent seer of tho sixth verso of that hymn Indrāni, the powerful consort of Indra, is the speaker of the verses 2, 4 7, 9, 10, 15, 18, 22 and 23 of the hymn 86 of the tenth book She is also the independent Rs of a powerful hymnº, ontitled 'the Jenlous Wife's Indrani Spell', which she utters while digging out a horb for arrosting the influence of an ascendant wife over her husband Indra Under the name of Sacı Paulomı --Very probably anothor namo of Indrānı-she is mado the author of another hymn], which records her succoss over her other rials probably as a result of the efficrcy of the herb to which she rofors in the earlier liymn Both tho hymns of Indrāni are romırkablo specimens of lyrical boruty which contain, besidos, m language endowed with oxceptional vigour Indra s mothers The mothors of Indra are also credited with the composition of a hymn 4 and thus we see that nll the inmates of Indra , house 110 gfted with tho talents of poetry This would also incidentally show that at lorst among the hugher classes oducation among women had Sraddht reacliod a high watermark Juhū, the wife of Brahmā, sporks the hymn 109 of the tenth book, and Sraddhā Kāmāyani is creditod with the authorship of a Another Sarpnraji i and hymn of which sho herself is the deity Indy Rsi Sarparājui nddresses tho hymn X, 189, whilo Mamatā is tho author of the second vorse of VI, 10 IRI 85 * ibid , 143 ( 39f7964) ibid 159 * ibid, 153 ibid 151 23 Juhi Mamita > 1 ·1 178 WOMEN IN RGVEDA Yamī, & powerful woman, who speaks undeterred of her love for her twin brother and calls him a coward and a weakling, is the author of the hymn X, 10 jointly Yami with her brother. In the entire range of the Rk Samhitā she stands out conspicuously as a lady of her own type, unparalleled and uncontrolled. The dialogue, contained in the hymn of which she is the principal speaker, is the earliest piece in the diroction of dramatic literaturo. Another such piece is preserved in the hymn X, 95 of which Urvaſi is partly the author. Urvaſi, an apsaras wedded to king Purūrnvā in accordance with the terms of a contractual marriage, is a defying party in the dialogue of tho Urvali hymn. She is the seer and speakor of the vorses 2, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 16 and 18 of hymn 95 of the tonth book. Even rivers have boen personified and they enter into conversation with the sago Viſvāmitra in RI'. III, 33. The evidence cited abovo will amply show that women woro freely trainod to grow into rșis and that no resentmont on the part of men was felt on this account. A study of the vorses and hymns composed by theso authorosses shows that thioy were vorsed in the folkloro and the traditions of the time. Tlieso hymns give Tradition and Mythology us & glimpso into the religious beliefs, social superstitions and the mythological traditions and casual pro-historic ideas of the times prior to tho Rgrela. Wo know that the Purāņās, which wero compiled at a much later dato, contain traditional history of a pro-Rgsedic society in their earlier parts. It is possible that somo such literaturo oxisted during tho time of the Rgveda in fomo form from where the Purūņās drew their contents. It would appear that these traditions tere a subject of study for the Rgredic fomen. One of tho most vigorous hymns of the Rgreda ig that of thich the authorship is due to Vūk, the daughter of Ambhina. It embodies in a language of tromendous forco .8. 195.

·EDUCATION 179 Fino arts and vigour the conception of the unity of the universo Vāk identifios Lorself with the latent forces of the Nature and asserts that it is she who governs the laws of tho universo and sends the guardians of the cosmic order to their respectivo dutios of creation and preservation Tlus hymn is ono of tho earliest procursors of the non dual doctrine of the Intor Vedānta philosophy This would show that not only tho mythology and traditions woro trught to womon but oven the most intricate principles and concepts of metaplıysics formed the subjects of their study Váh mirks the beginning of the line of the brahmavadınıs, who flooded the later Vedic period with their number and philosophical discourses, discussions and speculations We have indications in tho Rgveda strong enough to permit us to conclude that a fow of the fino arts formed subjects of women's syllabus of study It is, howover, a fact that many of the fino arts which are now counted in the class had not jot developed For olamplo, scultpture and painting were perhaps little known and there are but few instances of the Ary in architecture furnished by the Samhita Poetry had considerably advanced to which the ovistonco of tho Rgveda itself, bomg tho oarliest poetical ovpression of mankind, points Tho hymns dodicated to Usi ranh among tho best piecos of thio poetry of all literatures of all times Since womon aro credited with their sharo in the composition of the Rgvodic pootry they must also liuvo learnt the elementary rulos of prosody, vluch, though not very advancod, must hato existed to render the distmction between prose pootry possible The dramı had had just a begining and the women seem to have had their shoro to Drama wluch the dialogues of Yama and Yami and Urvasi and Purūrīvā directly allude Women may have learnt this performinco as woll The earliest forms of dramy voro theso dialogues in which women played their part admirably The Samanas, merry outdoor ftstivities of the Poetry and ·180 WOMEN IN RGVIDA Aryans, perhaps included also dramatic porformances in the form of these dialogues and it is possible that a degenerated state of these Samanas themselves, which had been reborn in the institution of the Mauryan Samājas, may have been the cause of Aſoka's stopping? them altogether.. The interost of the Indo-Aryans in music is well ovidonced by the existence of the Sama Veda which deals entirely with the music of the Vedic hymns. Music, besides being an acquisition of the priests, must also have been Music a necessary equipment of womon. Songs wero sung on all important occasions and functions, for example at the timo of squeezing out the Soma juice. The following verse is a case in point: "Driving thee in Vivasvān's course, the seven sisters with their hymns Made melody round thee the sage. "2 .. Another reference to music is preserved in the passago, "Ten dames have sung to wolcome thee, even as a maiden greets her lovor." The Apsarases and Gandharvas to whom the lator classical litornture ascribes the art of music and dancing as a profession have found a mention in the Rgveda. This we have already noticed elsewhore. Dancing, Dancing is a necessary auxiliary to music as an art. Urvasi and others of her profession must have maintained. dancing along with music, for, after all, the profession of courtesans was not unknown to the authors of the Sainnitā. We have direct referonces to female dancors in the Rgreda. Uşā has been compared to a female dancer. The famale dancer put on peśānisi and was called nſtub and whilo dancing 1 Rock Edict I. . समु त्वा धीमिरस्वरन्हिन्वतीः सप्तजामयः । faxr37f967:11 KV., IX, 66, 8. प्रभि त्वा योपणो दश जार न कन्यानूषत । ibid., 56, 3. • Vide ante. RY., 1. 92, 4.

·EDUCATION 181 she kept hor bosom uncovorod Tho following 14 an interesting Vorso pointing to the above inforonco .. "She liho a dancor, puts hor ombroidered garnionts on As a cow yields hor udder so sho bores lior breast "I This, without doubt, 13 the picture of a profossional dancer We have roforencos also to swings (prenhlam)"; and from swinging with music, dancing 19 but one stop Wo hrvo no direct ovidonce of mixed danco, but Kaogi, quotod olsow horo3 , suggests its existence and oven assorts that young mon taking maidons by the hand whirled about in accompani. ment to the sound of the cymbals until the very ground thoy danced upon vibratod Music and dancing thoroforo inust also have formod part of the maiden's acquirod knowledgo, whother for making hor an accomplished woman or for aiding hor in cortuin casos in the spocializod vocation of a courtes un In a foroign land whoro tlo Aryans had to fight thoir foes day and night for ovory inch of ground it must hnvo beon vory difficult to advanco in tho interior with thio oncumbranco of a household so long as the womon could not protect thomsolves and so long ns thoy hung on tho protoction of their husbands Womon in such a circumstanco would bocomo a burden if thoy were not trainod in self defonco But the sundry rofor onces in tho Rgreda show that women, at lenst in special enson, had the knowledgo of the uso of tho bow and arrow Sometimes wo find thom going to dreadful battlos along with Militnry thoir husbands Vispalā, tlo wo of king Khela 24 such nu amazon Sho, liho Knihoyi of the Rāmāyana, accompanies her lord to the battlo fiold whoro slio losos hor log wluch, lowovor, 19 ropincod with an iron ono training + अधिपेशांसि यपते नरियापोते यक्ष उम्मेय यहम् । RV, I D24 . ibid , VII 87, 6, 88 8 1 Vido ante ·182 WOMEN IN ROVEDA by the Asvins. This evidence is contained in the following interesting verse : “Whon in the time of night, in Khola's battle, a leg was severed like a wild bird's pinion, Straight yo gave Vispalā a leg of iron that she night move what time the conflict opened,"1 RV., I. 112, 10 furnishes us with a proof of Vispala's being an assailant rather than the assailed. She is reported to be aggressive and seeking booty, though powerless Viſpalá to move. The passage reads, "Wherewith yo helped in battle of a thousands spoils, Vispalā seeking booty, powerless to move.' The incident finds repeated mention in the Rgveda. For example, we read the following: "The quail from her great misery ye delivored and a now leg for Vispalā provided, "3 Again We have the lino, "who....in a moment gave Vispalā power to movo." Mudgalāni's is another case where a woman is equipped with military training. She was the wife of Mudgala and is credited with having driven the chariot for her husband in battle like Subhadrā of the Mahabharata. She Mudgalāni is mentioned to have conquered her husband's enemy, who, thus dofeated, took to his heals chased by her. The following in the text alluding to it: "Loose in the wind the woman's robe was streaming what time she won a car-load with a thousand. The charioteer in fight was Mudgalānī : Sho, Indra's dart, heapod up tho prize of battle.'' परित्रं हि वरिवाच्छेदि पर्णमाजा सेलस्य परितक्म्यायाम् । सद्यो जयामायसी विश्पलार्य धने हिते सतवे प्रत्यवतम् || RP., I. 116, 15. + RV., 1. 112, 10. ? ibid., 118, 8. * ibid., X. 99, 8; cf. I. 117, 11. रवीरभूमिगलानी ibid.,x. 102, 2. • उतस्म वातो वहति वासो अस्या अधिरथं यदाजयत्सहस्रम् । रथीभून्मुद्गलानी गविष्टौ भरे कृतं व्यदिन्द्रसेना | bid. 1 *** ·EDUCATION 183 "In hope of victory tliat bull was harnessed Kasi, the drior, urged him on with shouting As he ran swiftly with the car behmd hun lus lifted heols prossed closo on Mudgulāni "1 Hore is perfect picture of tho closo pursuit of a conquered Dāsa by an Aryan woman A fow moro casos aro recorded in the Rgueda, V 61, 80, 6, VII 78,5 , VIII 39, 19,91 The aboriginal Dāsas, it would apporr, had rogular Armies recruted from yomon Wo have a vorso referring to them "Women for worpons latli the Dāsa talon What injuries can his feeblo armios do mo ? '? Their number in tho non-Aryan armies had become so grent that it was not thought ungillant to fight them as would follow from tho above citation, Even Indra is suid to lavo thrown lus bolt upon tho mother of Vrtry, a woman fighting by the side of her son, and killed hor 3 01 en Thus to find from the abovo discussion of the ovidence collected from tho Rgveda that the woman in the Indo- Aryan society reconod a liberal education in almost all the branches of physical and spiritual instruction obtaining at the time Thoy were, like the latur Brahmavādınıs mombers of the Vidalha, a popular assembly, whoro (liko Sabhā) reciting of versos, 'singing of holy psalms, tolling of the loro of being' and 'laying down of the rules of sncrifice's wore perhaps the common fontures With l'idatha womon aro directly connectod which thay aro exhortod at the timo of their marriago to address o 1 RV, X 102 8 'स्त्रियो हि दास मायुधानि चक्रे विमा परन्नबा प्रस्य सेना । Ibrd , V 30, 9 'उत्तरा मूरघर पुत्र प्रासीहा गये सवत्सा 7 घेनु ibud , I 329 * ऋचा त्व पोपमास्ते पुपुष्वा गायत्रं त्वो गायति शक्वरीषु । ग्रह्म त्वो पदति जातविद्या यज्ञस्य मात्रा वि मितीत उत स्व ॥ bd ,271,11 ra fagyhata li ibid , 85, 26 fa6471 T 11 ibid , 27 ·CHAPTER VIII LIBERTY No wise and far-seeing nation can ever harbour tho idea of socluding its women and no nation can hope to attain greatness and prosperity which suppresses the healthy habits of its mothers. The Aryans gave full liberty of outside movement to their women. There is not a single instance in the whole of the Rgveda to prove a contrary conclusion. In the Rgvedic society where the woman was a divine singer and a gifted seer and where she had made a considerablo headway in the art of music and dancing and in warfare, her froedom must have been ensured. Learning, being an art attainablo by all worthy recipients (adhikārī), defies tho principle of aristocracy and its possessor can neither remain concealod from the public gaze nor can bear the insult of being unfree. Many a time the custodian of learning has been the woman in India. Occasionally an amazon--& woman of war of the national battle-field, she was over out in the open and could not but come in contact with tho rost of tho world. Tho daughters of the freedom loving dwellers of the valleys of tho Sindhu and Sarasvati swung in the plains of the Punjab and on the heights of the Hindukush. The very conception of Uşā would have been an impossibility and her lovely picture an undrawn sketch had the rşis not seen their own free matrons in shining raiments. The free-moving woman of the Aryan household is conspicuously present in her secondary type of Uşā. It? is the beauty of the loving wife in changing robes (to attract her husband) combined with the charm of the professional dancer (nrlu) with her 'broidered garments on' that makes Uşā 'melt away the life of mortals, her lovers, like tho fowler cutting birds in pieces.'

·LIBERTY 185 There was no soclusion of women and the hated purdakı of later tunes will absolutely unknown Postal inectings attricted women in largo numbers Tho prosonce Parlah of in itrons 93considered essential nt such githorings Somo wont thoro in holiday dressos as spectators, others as activo participators in the function in ceremonial costumos A possigol of the Rgreda has the follow ing roforonco to womon proccoding to social fostivitios in groups "She docks hor bosuty shming forth Fostal grthorings, with sunborms, liko women trooping to the festal the assembly and the Samada meeting 2 We get a further allusion to it in the line "Like muidens for tho gathering they adornod thom '3 The prosonco of womon at the popular as somblies vis? common forture in the Rgrodic society А common reference to women attending these assemblies is mot with in the following p1990 go "Along the tricos of the Wind thoz hurry, thou como to him as dames to an assembly 4 In those gatherings women sented themselves in a row and witnessed and assisted the sacrifice with longing interest and faith in the sacrificial fire as is ovidenced by the following lino “Liko womon at a gathering fair to look on and gently smiling thoy inclino to Agni 6 This mstanco makes it clear that there was no purdah and that the poet saw the gontlo smiles of the sitting womon It sooms that Aryan women vero quite unlike thoir Grook sistors in the post Homoric times who wore forbidden to bo pre ont at any banquet In Grooce mon proferred to dino by themselves rather than osposo their wives to their neighbours' gazo And in order to defy all possibility of temptation the womon vero to wrap up every part of their I 124 8 'गुच्छती रश्मिभि गूयस्याज्यडक्ते समनगा इव या ॥ ibid पूर्वी गिन मातरा रिहाणे समग्रुवो न समनेष्वजन् ॥ Ibrd II 25 • सम्प्रेले अनु वातस्य विष्टा ऐ गच्छति समन न योपा ।ld x 168 2 •मभि प्रवन्त समनेय योषा कल्याण्य स्मयमानासो मग्निम् । bid IV 598 24 III ·186 WOMEN IN RGVEDA bodies. In addition to these external arrangements such stringont laws were passed as might deter the most venturesome. Tho popular assemblies to which women flocked and in which thoy spoke undeterred, wore the Sabhal, Vidatha2 and the Samana3. Of these the first two we have already explained elsewhere and the last we shall have occasion to discuss in the next chapter. Here it may only be added that the Samana was a popular gathering of men and women, mainly grown up boys and girls, where they met and played, loved and parted. Pischel, quoted in the Vedic Index, takes Samana to moan "a general popular fostivity, to which women went to enjoy themselves... Young men and elderly women (RV. II. 86, 1; VII. 2,5) sought there to find a husband and courtesans to make profit of the occasion." Sacrificos, as we have already seen, were another class of festivals at which the presence of women was obligatory. At the bridal feast were beheld maidens approaching it after having decked themselves with gay adornment.* And at the time of the departuro of the bride womon gave her a grand sond-off out of the village. We have a graphic picture of such a scene in the verse quoted below :- "After theo, courser, come to the car, the bridegroom, the kino como after, and the charm of maidens." It seems to have been one of the duties of women, especially girls, to bring the Soma plant from the hills for extracting its juice for sacrificial purposes as may be noted from the following passage : "To him, the lord of power,..ng to a hill with speed the loving ones ascend."5 Women vore 60 free with men that sometimes we find young girls playing tricks with them. In the Rgveda, II, 15 7 wo have a referenco whore some girls tease a blind and crippled man who is cured 1919 190 RV., I. 167, 8. så fant actft 11 ibid., X. 85, 26 ; ibid., 27. * ibid., I 124,8; IV. 59, 6; VI. 15,4; VII. 2,5. • कन्या इव वहतुमेतवा उ प्रम्यजाना अभि चावशीमि | ibid., IV. 53, 9. पति दक्षस्य विदयस्य नू सहो गिरि न देना अघि रोह तेजसा ॥ ibid., I. 56, 2.

·LIBERTY 187 of his disease by Indra, who appears at the sceno and talos pity upon him The interesting vorso is as follows Knowing the place whioroin the maids were hidung the outcasto showed himself and stood before them Ilie crippled stood erect, the blind beheld them'? In liko manner we read of womon moving froely in company of their children and lovers Those mootmg liko a woman says the Roi beur motheliko their children upon their booom 2 Such references to the outdoor activities of womon and to thoir approntments at trysts and festivals4 where they ovon spont their nightó muy bo multiplod endlessly from the Rgveda Thoy noro free to onjoy tho company of their lovers We liave already soon that women were free to chooso their husbands and we have cited the instanco of Sjavasva and Vimada Thoro was very littlo control of tho parents over their chuldrons morringe Only brothers had some control over their sister s marringo but tho nature of such control was limitod to a kind of suporvision Brothers soom to lavo advised their sistors in their marringe rather than controlled thom They were only ovpected to watch that no solfish mon had dosigns ovor their stors? And we learn that brothorless sistors turned boldly towards mtn and chose their helpmatess fron among them with tho help of their attractivo charms In fact we have an interesting vorso in tho Rgveda which calis bhadru that radhu alone who having brilluntly attırod, borself solects her husband from an assemblage of mon 1 रा विहां अपगोह कनीनामविर्भवप्नुदतिष्ठत्परावृक । प्रति श्रोण स्थाइयनगचप्ठ सोमस्य ता मद इद्रश्चवार॥ I II 157 • ते पाचरन्ती समनव योपा मातेव पुत्र विभृतामुपस्थे । trl Hot * ibil 31 5 406 abd IV 69 8 VI 75 4 VII 9 5 86 10 etc . ibid I 49 6 VII 9 4 IY 005 I96 20 cl II 10 5 + ibd IV 56 . ibid I 194 47 • भद्रा वधर्भवति यत्सुपेशा स्वयं सा मिन वनुते जन वित् ।। ibd 2,12 9 . ibid III 31 7 93 10 ·across cases 188 WOMEN IN RGVEDA In thought and very often in action women had full liberty. In the foregoing chapters we have seon that there was a good deal of love making among the younger people which could bo possible only when there was access to one another. Women in most cases were left alone and checked mildly to love and part. Sometimes we como of an immoral type in the Rgveda (we shall havo occasion to discuss them in the following chapter) which must have resulted from a few cases of too free association between the sexes. Such uncontrolled or even partially controlled freedom was bound to result in moral laxities. The very type of marriage called Svayamvara, tho self-choice of a husband, could not have been possible in a society of women of obstructed vision. In a community where modest maidens were at liberty to argue out the case of there own marriage! and choose their husbands, purdal was absolutely inconcoivablo. It is truo, however, that when women moved outside they perhaps wrapped thomselves up in a shawl. This was liko the orhni of the present Indian women. In the Rgveda VIII, 17, 7 thoro is a reference to women dressed in whito garments moving slowly like the milk which colours the Soma juice." There is, howover, & verse which may bo supposed by & critic, unfamiliar with the traditions of the Roecda, to contain a reference to the seclusion of women, It runs as follows: "With whom is joinod the doftly fashioned ladle, as 't were a lanco's butt with gold and adornnont, Liko a man's consort moving in soclusion, like talk at gathering or in festal synod."3 " NV., X. 10. * ibid., VIII, 17, 7. • मिम्यक्ष येप मुपिता घृताची हिरष्यनिणिगुपरा न ऋष्टिः । गुहा परन्ती मनुषो न योपा समावती विदयेव स वाक् || ibid., I. 167, B.

·189 LIBERTY The phraso 'moving in soclusion' (guhā caranli yosa) cannot bo taken too litorally The word guhu though it qualifios yosu has novertlioless, the sonso moro of private apartments in a house than of so lusion With the innumerablo rofcronces quoted here and olsen here this vorso does not fit woll if so intorpret it as alluding to the custom of scclusion of women Other versos malo it abundantly clorr that there is no scclusion of women at 3l! In exceptional cases thoy could bo oven strkod and lost, which fact also points to the same iden Guha (secluded), thorofore, implies on allusion to the inner apartmonts of a house Lven to day the most modern and airy type of re idence has its private rooms Aftor all man needs some privacy Ho must have his unguarded moments wluch require the shield of innor chambers If He turn to the pages of the laterly Manasura we shall find that residences wore fitted with inner apartments So tho referenco here is not made to seclusion but to the movements of women in the inner chambers and tho courtyard of a houso Then it may be remembered thint the referonco in point is a comparison drawn between a woman moving in the interior of a house liho a deſtly fashioned ladle covered with gold and adorninent and a talk before it 39 delivered at a gathering in a festal synod In such a case the allusion is made to the woman inovmg in the interior of a houso as also to an undelivered specch and both theso instancos uro relativo, the former to the woman s oxit vut of the house and the latter to the talk later oxpressed lho phrase in itself is much too incomplete to yiold tlo senso which we have opposed If it were not so, low could the Rgvedic womin be expected to address the Sabla and the Vidatha and to visit the Samana ? In a land whero there was little fear of molestation women were not prevented from going out for the dread of an outrageous assault and were thereforo unchecked to go wherov or thoy liked , as such, the first and foremost roason for soclusion 19 wanting in the case of the Aryan women and ·190 WOMEN IN RGVEDA their confinement within doors is consequently a myth. To have evidence in the following line attesting to the safety of roads: "She stayed not for a herald to conduct her, this is the kingdom of a ruler guarded." This makes it clear that busy women ran to and fro unguarded by escorts on the public highways in execution of their errands and their passage was not stayed for want of guards or heralds. It is possible, however, that ladies of rank may have walked under the guard of a splendid retinue. Nor is an instance of an unguarded woman being molested altogether wanting in the Rgveda and we read, although only once, of the Vņşākapi assaulting Indrāṇī and of Indra shielding him from the latter's wrath.2 Yet this instace itself indirectly proves the woman's free and unguarded movements out of her house. I - 1 The position of women in Rgvedio India was to great extent similar to that in Homoric Athens. In the epoch Homer lived and wrote in, women in Athens wero digni. ned and free. Women there, at least of the upper classes, enjoyod considerable freedom in thought and deed as may bo gathered from tho ovidence of the Iliad and the Odyssey. “There is nothing better or noblo," says Ullysses to Nausice, than wlien husband and wifo being of one mind rule a houschold." This position, however, deteriorates during the following ages and by the time we reach what is called the Goldon Ago of Pericles, women have already fallen to a piteous lot and are nothing short of cloistered slavos. At this stage when yo compare the status of the Aryan women with that of thio Athenian ones, we Athens aro surprised to note that the lives of women at Athons wero passed as slaves in a slave State. "When wo think of the incredible galaxy of great names, Socrates, Plato, Sophocles, Aeschylus, Euripides, Aristophanes, Pericles, Alci- 3 2 न दूनाय प्रधे तस्य एपा तया राष्ट्र गुपितं क्षत्रियस्य II RP.,x. 103, B. ibid., 86, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8. * Odyssey, YI. 182.

·191 LIBERTY biades, Thomistoclos, Demosthiones, Horodotus, Aristotle, Thu cydides, Pratolos, Xonophon who livod and flourished within a vory fov jears of ono another, who tro known, everyone by namo at lorst to overy educated person, it is important to romombor that those sons of womon achuevodi thoir eminenco at tho cost not only of a hordo of male slaves, but of the onslavement of the wholo fomalo sol "Plato himself classes togothor 'chuldren women and sorvants' procisely as the tenth commandment of the Hebrow and Christian religions classes together ono's neighbour's vifo, his sorvants, his or, huis ass and the rest of Inis property" The Rgodic womon hd little m common with these women of Athens Egypt give to her womon entirely i contrary status There womon onjoj od oven gronter liberty than mon, and Sophocles had such mon in lus mind when ho wrote "O truo image of the ways of Egypt that they show in their spint and their life For there men sit werving in tho houso, but tho wives go forth to win the daily brend" This ronds like a trait of a matriarchal state of society and nothing could be further from it than the condition of the Rgrodic women who were considered ornaments of the household Thoy wore neither tlie cloisterod slaves liko thur Athenin sisters nor were they the virgoos of the yard like tho Lgsp tion women They wore froo in their movements within and without the house, but thoy nover roplaced their mon in thoir outdoor duties It is the peculiar distinctivo feature of the Aryan social structuro to do marcato completoly the functions of its consti tuent mombers, both men and women, and this trait and alrendy made its apporrinco during the Rgedic opoch Theso functions of men and women wore romarkably fusod, yot this fusion norer G310 rise to any confusion as to tho respective duties of the sorts, both working in their 0177 spheres Women were free in thoir morements but only up to & point within the bounds of civility and modosty Indo Aryan women ·192 WOMEN IN RGVEDA Although they did not suffer from any restricting injunctions of the Greek type yet they grow in their habits such healthy conventions as gave them the liberty of action without making them wild and without compromising their dignity.

·CH\PTER IX MORALITY In a spiritual society morality is view od 18 & nocessary virtuo The Rgvodic society wg both spiritual and material where liborty of womon ras recognized and onsured But it is to be noted that much foodlom of intercourse betwoon tho opposito soles and a sory high dogreo of othies do not well combino in practico This was what happened in the errly Aryan sottlomont in India Although the Rgvodic socioty 14 gonerally noted for its high typo of morality set it has to bo admitted that it was at timos not ontiroly freo from tho incidonts of moral laxitiog But these woro few and for betweon The normal state of morality is instancod in the citation below which points out to the fact that ordi narily girls prior to their marriage woro entirely ignorint of tho so\ual ev porienco The lady Rşi Ghosã, who had grown old in hor fnther's house yoarning for a worlthy and powerful husband, prijs to the Asvins, tho twin gods "Of this we havo no knowledge Tell it forth to 118, how the youth rests within the chambers of the bride Tain would wo rorch tho dwelling of the vigorous steor who loves the timo, O Asvins this is our desiro "i To be born of natural paronts was considered proper Indra humself los beon commended as "Lat born and Law Thus law could be duly protected Normal morality by him alono who lumself was an offspring of a Inn ful wedlock Indra was the leador and defender of the poople in his caprcity is a king Ho had cclipsod Varuna in might and prowess and in kingly virtues न तस्य विन तदुपु प्र वोचत युवा ह यावत्या क्षेति योनिपु । प्रियोस्रियस्य वृषभस्य रेतिनो गृहं गमेमाश्विना तदुश्मसि ॥ RPI 40, 11 PLAYT da ibid VII 20 6 25 protector '2 1 ·194 WOMEN IN RGVEDA and splendour. Ho has therefore been addressed as ‘Law born and Law protoctor.' Thus the normal state of society was the wedded oxistence of man and woman loving each other and keeping strict sexual fidelity. A dame, free from all social blemishes was over dear to her husband and was considered by him the very apple of his eye. Lawless unions and sexual transgressions, however, as we have already suggested above, were not altogether wanting in the society for they happen to be the necessary incidents of a free community like the Indo-Aryan which sanctioned freo meeting between its men and women. There are a numbor of roferonces in the Rgveda to lawless unions botween man and woman and to the criminal acts resulting from them. Wo have an interesting instance of it in the following Lawless unions line : "Upholders of law, yo strong Adityas, remove my sin like her who bears in socrot.' ..2 Illegitimato children woro thus not unknown to the early Aryan socioty to which we have a few more instances. A passago? in the Rgveda refors to the most daring and hateful act of casting away the now-born babe by the erring mother for fonr of social ostracism. “Lord of bay steeds," prays tho Rşi, "thou broughtest from the antlıill the unwedded domsel's son whom onts woro eating." Another verso rofers to the samo idea: "So Indra, lord of hundred powers, causod the unwodded damsel's son, Tho casteway, to share tho louds."6 Tho hymn X, 62 rofers to a sin incurrod from destroying the fatus and thus killing the child in the womb and is meant for tho purification of it. 1 Taurafere Art 11 RT. I. 37, . धृतग्रता RT=c4T EFOTT TT 69 Tartart: 1 ibid., II. 23, 1. ibid., IV. 19, 9. • वनीभिः पुत्रमावो प्रदान निवेशनादरिव मा जमर्थ । ibid. उत्त त्वं पुत्रमगुवः परावृतं गतस्ततः IT TT36 11 ibid., 80,16. 3 ·MORALITY 195 Jara, paramour, is a common torin denoting a lover usod frequently in the similes of the Rl Samhita The occurrenco of this word warrants tlo oxistence of love of an Jara unlawful type not permitted by the society I'rom the frequency with which this word occurs in tho Rgueda wo con safely conclude that women enjoyed sometimes too much freorlom to bo morilly safo and chasto Professor Sarhar obserios in this connection that 'It 19 presumod by a domestic ritual formula in the Rgvedal that every married woman might have her Jura ? This observa tion however, 19 not quite apt and tho goneralization contained in the remark of the Professor 19 unwarranted by adequato evidence of the Rgueda lover (Jura) Wo e bolow somo of the roforences contnined in the Samhtu alluding to unlicensed love and to paramours The poet says in a passago 'I'or me Rjrası, like a youthful hath cut piecemeal ono and & hundred wenthers 3 In RV, I, 134 3 tho poet wakes up intelligonco as when a lovor (gara) awakens Ing sleeping love * Another passage makes Indru tho lover (jura) of maidens 6 The sun has been imagined as following the dawn like a youthful lovor maryo chasing an attractive woman Wo read of lovers enhancing their grace? maryasrı by affecting attractive cos tumo 8 "The virile young man ( marya ) is normally a lover, constantly in company of youthful maidong (yuvalı) ) 3 1 RV 169 66=AV TI1 6 7 8 * Some dsp of the Ear Soc Hust of Inil P & जार पनीन इव चक्षदान ऋग्राश्व शतमेव च मेपान् | RV 1 17 18 प्रबोधया पुरधि जार मा ससतीमिव । ibd 184 3 प्रयन्तमित्परि जार कनीना पश्यामसि नोपनिपद्यमानम् 1 1111 1104 सूर्यो देवीमुपस रोचमाना मर्यो न योपामभ्यति पश्चात । ibd 115 g ? ibid II 10 6 मर्यो न शुभृस्तव मृजानोऽत्यो न सूत्वा सनये धनानाम् ibud IX 98 99 ibid III 31 7 83 10 IV 20 & IX 96 20 So ne Asp of 118 Ear Soc Hist of Ind p 96 6 ·196 WOMEN IN RGVEDA . Young women are alluded to have wooed their lovers! (jāra ). A grown up girl is mentioned as carossing her lover (jāra) in the manner of the fingers pressing the Soma?. Tho lover ( marija ) puts on bright garments3 to attract notice. A passage has the following: "The cows have sung with joy to him oven as a woman to her love" (jára ).* The lover (jūra) is said to have 'sped to his love”.5 The onticing lure of the dice is compared to the passion of the lovo-leri girl (jāriņi) who runs to meet her lover at the rendezvous. We have a referenco to å paramour (jāra ) in the following line : "Ten dames have sung to welcome thee, even as a maiden greots her love."7 Another passage runs as follows. "So maidens bow before the youthful gallant who comes with love to them who yearn to meet him."8 Verse VI, 75,4 has: "These mooting like a woman and her lover bear mother like, their child upon thoir bosom."9 In another verso the poet draws & boautiful comparison botween a bow-string and a ladylove -- "Close to lis ear as fain to speak she presses, lolding her well loved friend in her ombraces. Strained on the bow, she whispers like a woman, this bow-string that preservos in the combat."10 In cases where a girl was left both fatherless and brotherless it was her own affair to seck out a husband for Diorself. * PATTA) 9198 | Fliga RV., IX. 32, 5. 'प्रभित्वा योपणा दश जार न कन्यानूपत। out TH TITETU II ibid., 66, & * ibid., IX. 96, 20. . ibid., IX. 32, 5. TERRITT 7 1197 11 ibid., 39, 4. न्युप्ताश्च वभवो वाचमरते एमीदेपा निवृत जारिणीव || ind.,x.81, 5. ? ibid., IX. 56, S. . ibid., X. 36, 6. ATT HT 191 ha geti feralitat i ivid., VI. 75,4. 10 वक्ष्यन्तीवेदा गनीगन्ति कणं प्रियं समाय' परिषस्वजाना । योव शिक्ने वितताधि धन्वज्या इयं समने पारयन्ती | ibid., VI. 76,3.

·MORALITY 197 In such a casa thoro was the possibility of her going astray and it is to such a definite fact that a reference is made in IV, 5,9:- "Like youthful women without brothers straying, like dames who hate their lords of ovil conduct, They who are full of sin, untrue, unfaithful, they have ongenderod this abysmal station."? In an interesting hymn' wo aro told of a lady-love lying half asleep in hor louso amidst lier people o pocting her dovout loyer, while tho lattor steals into the houso aftor propitiating and invoking gods and praying the watch dogs to sloep, awakens and enjoys bor till dawn. Wo have references to young girls receiving suitors freoly, to maidens choosing their frionds? (mitran) and to hanyūs bending themsolvos to roccive the warm ombracos of their lovers in tho mannor of the rivor offering an oasy ford and passage to mons Indra has been made a frequent and common lovor enjoying the company of young womon. He is colobarated as a lovor proud of his beloved ladyo (yosa). Ho is said to be moving with the young dames of heaven.20 Ho is lauded with prayers for his strength and vitality. Tho poot sings of lim : "Born master of the lifo that shall be born, tho maiden's lover and matron's lord." Ho comos as the lord of women to the holy placo. Agrin we have such a roference in tho following verso:- Indu hath started forth for Indra's meeting placo, and slights not as a friend the promiso of lııs friend. भभातरो न योपणो व्यन्त पतिरितो न जनयो दुरेवा । पापास सन्तो अनृता भसत्या इद पदमजनता गभीरं ॥ RF, IV 5, 5 * ibid. I 181, 18 प चक्षय रोदसी वासयोपस श्रवसे वासयोषस Mind • ibid. X. 27, 19; cf so, 6 * ibid, X. 27, 12 •नि ते नसै पीप्यानेव योषा मर्यायेव कन्या दारवर्ष ते। ind, III 93, 10 • मर्यो न योपामभि मन्यमानोऽन्छा विपरिम पुरुहतमिन्दम् ॥ ind , IV. 20, 5. गुहा teateforfa ftafiliat oralni Tata II ibid, DJ 1,9 11 yang sulitat nataeft. afastafarge arft facrta ibrid, IX. 86, 82. * ibil, ·198 WOMEN IN RGVEDA Soma comes onward like a youth with youthful maids and gains the beakor by a course of hundred paths.''1 The poet was made an onquiry into the secret love of Uşā. Like her type the Eos of the Grock inythology who is loved by a mortal she is also considered by tho Aryan poct to Lo loving a mortal and hence his curiosity :- What mortal, o immortal Dawn, enjoyeth theo ? Wiero loves thon ? To whom, O radiant, dost thou go? When a woman concodos to prayor the task of her suitor bocoino: an .sy ono, for it is almost a part of his nnturo to bo subworviont to and complying with tho wishes of tho wornan ho ndores. At the time of making love the lovor is at his weakut point and is prepared to stoop down to the lowest typo of undesorvod praiso for hor lore. The Aryan psychologist is well aware of it and ho hunts at tho idea in renin I, 83,2 wlcro lio draws a sunilo from the common life of the peoplo and snya. "liko suitory thay delight in eum who lovethi prayor."? In another simile thu poct shows that people approaching a friend's fister censured by the suciety, but, neverthclo94, inunuce prove that non comtimes cirl approach them. This 18 zaanilo-t from the following Ime : "llo corny as it wore to his friend's sistor roarm.z." This lm, however, dor, not yiell knough anpa lor a satisfactory interpretation.. "1?20 croeping in of moral Inuits in the fociety to fomo oxtont was natural when plyginymeren polyandry, although in a very few and uncertain cle* cunsumably in rogue. More than onco man in the rigeeda luas beren mulo a lord of youthful inaident' by the beneso!? JÁrn, tre bıraling polyricians of thir firmami who specializa, Bide this trutinent of tlır ayo, in giving vitality nud siruruth to aljing or invalid 11-..ndx. पन्टिम्म नि गण : मिना लाम् । **** *1. TESTI TERJI !!!!., IX. 145, 10. 17. URI*}' il.. 1.65, 2. (tu llit, IX. 55, 22 wero ·MORALITY 199 Mans a time they have beon alluded to as giving children to the wives of ounuchs Irom the days of tho Rgvodio king Vin da down to the epic figure of Pandu thoy ore known to bo treating the invalid and coining to the rescuo of the lord lot of tho lattor's wives Pandu limsolf, who could not bogot A single child and died of tho vory first union of Mūdri, cannot but be considered laching in vitality, sufforing from jaundico withal Aśt ins are friends of such woahlings' wivos as Vimadin and Pandu and of girls liko Ghosū growing old in thoir fathors' housos Vorso I, 116, 18 rends "In the groat nto the wiso damo callod Nīsatz as, you lords of many tronguros to assist her Yo honrd the wenkling's wifo, n8't woro an ordor and give to her a son Hıranynhastr "l Agrin wo got tho following "Victors, carborno, jo ront the rock asundor bulls horrd the calling of tho ounuch's consort' Othor such referoncos, which can bo multipliod innumorably, have alrendy been citod elsowhero 3 9 Mony vorsos con bo cited to show thnt poworful peoplo rovollod in wino (Soma bevorngo) and womon to whom the lattor must hnve boon an article of luxury To such mon do the versos IV, 5, 5 and II, 35, 5 alludo The Inttor ronds as follows "Tho novor sullon wators youthful maidong cnrofully doching, wait on him the youthful Tho very noxt torso difficult to undorstand and intorprot roads as follows "To him tliroo damos aro offoring food to food lum, goddogsos to the god whoin nono may injiiro Within the wntors hath ho pregsod as hollows and drinks their milk who now aro first mido mothors" $ RV , I 116 10 abid , VI 69 7 * ibid, 6.

·200 WOMEN IN ROVEDA way.' Women have also boen accusod of stealing looks upon mon which is borno out by the line, 'Those who aro glancing forth liko women, in thoir ." To thus find that women word as much guilty as mon in making immodest advancos at tiinos. Tho criminals of ono sex woro amply responded by those of the other. Both wero equally abhorred and thoir nets dotostod and denounced by the society. The frco mixing of the sexes on tho festivals and in popular aszomblios garo occasions to young men and vonon to make friends with each other. Thoso friendships wero not always approved by the parents of the partios and whicro they were so disapproved and opposed by the olders lovo hall not a smooth sailing. Cogent lovo conan. Cloponents quently broko nli barriory in such casos ond sought ordross through clopeinents. Many n caso is on ricorl in which the love-led maiden has inndc hirr escapo along with luer licroic knight in order to shield berself from the chiding Iders of the society and frowning parints. Of ruch allusions tho-o of Varnasla nnd Kamadya stand out cona. picuously 12in pores pro of thor apsirases amon: the godly por-onngro of 1). Ryre ta is a clear proof of the existence of courtrane, ani arm prohnju nf prostitutes, in this nociety. A Arhu. coinpared to the lişi ond gival xining Crane and hold farments, forging open lirea-e«,"containis roft TK ( guropesional dancers w me one in fura ani marriments for maling acquaintanen of lalin lose among the prin panjols. llymn X, 35 points out in cazurire of this apeara*r$.$ King Jururarii lisch murde tu fufier on armunt of thn crestial chartran Urakt. * B.T; 1112, 19; 116, 1:117,7; X. * 1;0", 12. • 11:1.1.8, 1.

·201 MORALITY Adultory among married women was a rare instanco in the Indo-Aryan society and the Babylonian type of prostitution was entirely unknown to the timos of the Rgveda In Babylonia prostitution had bocomo almost a Adultory roligious duty among women and was recognized as such. Herodotus noticod it in his travels. He says that every woman born in the country must sit in the tomple of the goddesses and consort with a stranger; the borutiful aro soon free but some remain for throe or four years. Such a state of affairs could not bo imaginod in the Rgvedic community. Wo shall hero moko a briof roforenco to a kind of social institution called the Samana We have had occasions to rofer to this institution at soveral placos in tho previous chapters along with other institutions like the Sabha and the l'idatha The nature of the Samana has alroady been explained but hore its survey at a little length may not be altogether fruit. less. Samana Was & social institution which Samann had become very popular among tho Indo- Aryang. It was a sort of fair to wluch both men and womon of all ages flochod It was dominated mainly by pooplo of the younger sort who ongerly awaited its advent It was a bugy contro of amusomont and its conspicuous fertures woro frolick, mirth and merrimont By day manly sports like the chariot and horse racing wore a common fonturo whereas by night moro tender and absorbing amusemonts wero soon progress Dialogues like those of Yama and Yami and Purūravī and Urvasi may have been stagod in those Samanas They were behold in progross all night by firo-light and torchosl and they disporced at the appronch of the dawn? By far the most prominont and arresting feature was the quest of suitablo matches for mon and Lovers of both sovog braving adorned them olvos in women 1 RI', I 19 6 ibid, also VII 9, 4, c X 69, 11 26 ·202 WOMEN IN RGVEDA with diaphanous attires of variegated colours moved to and fro with a view to matrimony.) Young auspicious maidens wearing a jovial look and a buoyant countenanco2 and moving with amorous designs took the very breath of young men away. Mothors often came to the help of those dam. sels by giving them all help in way of decorating their persons and with advice. Even those ladies who had failed to find a husband till old age appeared heavily decked nt these Samanast as also perhaps those widows who cared to remarry and return to & stato of fresh coverture,5 Samanas with their busy programmo in progross at the fire-lit night must havo rosembled in their main foatures of mirth and merriment the modern exhibitions and carnivals with their various lightful and engaging activities with the only difference that in the latter case the main features of tho Samanas, viz. the outside sports of chariot and horse racing and the wooing of lovers, aro wanting. Yet tho gala appear. anco at both the festivitios was mainly similar. Professor Sarkart suggests that Indrāņi, a sox-goddess, wag worshipped at the Samanas according to an ancient custom. This iden is suggested to liim by an indirect roferonco contained in the following vorso :- "Trom olden timo trio inatron goes to feast and general sacrifico. Mother of heroes, Indra's qucen, tho rile's or dainer is extolica." * RV., VII. 2,5. . ibid., IV, 69, 8. . ibid., VII. 2, 5. . ibid. ibid., X. 40, 2. • Sie dop.nf the Ear. Soc. llist. of Ind., p. 94. संहो स्म पुरा नारी ममनं वाव गच्छति । वेषा ऋतस्प वारिणीन्द्रपनी महीपते विश्वम्मादिन्द्र उत्तरः | mr.,x.86, 10. 1 ·203 MORALITY Here we muy make a slight historical survoy of tho Samanas During Rgyodic timos these woro & licensed institution the existence and continuanco of which wero ensured and encouraged by the olders of tho socioty, thomsolvos taking part in them and sending their sons and daughtors to them with a 110v to finding suitablo matchos for tho purpose of wedding Thus the institution served & great social noed of the Indo-Aryan community by bringing together at the nightly gatherings young mon and women Such mootings naturally could have ongondered laxities in the morals of tho young foll and the Samanas would have well boon viewed with a groat disapproval by a later, more conservativo, Hindu society To such a community bound with now formula of social civilities, the earlier Samanas must have apperrod as shocking and surely their degenerato stato mode 1 puritanical Indian emperor attack the institution with much vehemence The Samana of the Rgveda scoms to have been the samo as tho Samajja of the Asohan odict of which tho objectionablo typo wis stopped by Asoha The first of the Tourteon Rock Edicts forbids the holding of the Samajja in the following words "Nor should any Samaja bo hold Ior his Sacred ind Gracious Majesty sees much objection in such Samaja But there aro also certain varieties of same which are considered commendable by his Sacred and Gracious Majesty' Here we mny quote the note made on the word Samaja by Dr R K Mookorji in his soha to olucidato tho meaning and features of this institution It is as follows "The objectionable kind of Samajja is described in the Digha Nihiya [Vol 11 p 183, P T S] 18 comprising tlie si\ featuros of dancing, singing, music, story-telling, cymbals, and tam tims Anothor hind of samajja is described in the Commentary on Dhammapada (Vol 1v. P 59, P T S], whero at it statod how it was organised by a company of 'नो पिच सम (ज) फटव बहुक (हि) दोप स (मय) स्पि देवणप्रिय प्रियदशि रय () afa i afar fra gafar und ATAIRC (Slnkbazarlı), Asoha p 222 ·204 WOMEN IN RGVEDA actors (nāšaka) numbering even 500, who would give yearly or six-monthly performance before the king at Rājagriha for large rewards. These performances would last for seven days, at which the chief feat shown was that of a damsel walking, dancing, and singing on & horizontal bar. The mischief caused by this samajjū was that one of the spectators in the amphitheatre (mañchātimanchethita), Uggasena, the son of a rich merchant, fell in love with that performing damsel.... In the Vinaya, we read of a samaja held on a hill at Rājagriha with dancing, singing and music (11. 5, 2, 6), and another for a feast (iv. 37, 1]... In the Mahābhūrata, the samāja figures as a Saiva festival (Hopkins, Epic Mythology, pp. 65, 220] accompanied by drinking, song and dance...... Kautilya in one passage [ II. 25] refers to utsava, samāja and yātrī, where the drinking of wino was unrestrictod for four days, and in another passage [XIII. 5] points out the conqueror's duty of conciliating the conquerod people hy respectmg their national dovotion to their country, their religion (desa-daivata ), and their institutions, viz. their utsava, samāja and vihára.”! Samana thus seems to have been a kind of the samāja. It is very probablo that it may have degenerated into that kind of the latter institution which had for its features the vocation of fine arts like the music and dancing and which cast a few cornipting influences. Tho mischief roferred to in the commentary on Dhammapada, mentioned abovo, may have been alınost a common feature of the Samana. Tho kind of Samája forbidden by Asoka was tlio continuanco of the Samana which tho morality of the succeeding times discountenanced. Samāja itself in still later times degonerated into a very undesirable institution and it is quite in the Foot-note, Pp. 129-30. -- ·205 MORALITY fitness of things that those that accompany the courtesans in their professional performances and aid their singing and dancing with musical instruments should have bocn termed as Samājis in the dialect spolon in the oastern U P and Biliar Samana muy have had also some connection with the merry fostivities and musical performances held in the month of Srāvana in honour of Siva It is significant tlnt the month of Srāvan, and the musical performances of thint month in tomplo, aro called Sāman in the Punjab The anciont Rgvedic Sananas wore happy gathorings of young men and women which naturally soon showod signs of moral decry and even during the Rgvedic times thoy must have provod almost hot-beds of immoral associations We have already discussed in a provious chaptor the customs of polygamy, polyandry and lovirate (nuyoga) Those themselves were not considered objectionable Polygumy, in tho Indo Arjan society but with the chongo polyandry, and lovirito of ethical and moral standards they came to bo viowed as unwanted features of marriage The existenco of these, lionover, does point to a rithor questionable standard of morality according to the modern notions The children born of illicit love were brandod allegiti Fxposuro of mate and wore in many cases oxposed to dio illegitimnte in tho opon for fear of ostracism as is borno chil Irun out by RI', I 112 8 II 13, 12, 15, 17, IV 19, 9, 80, 16 19, 61, $ 99, 12 . Wo haro already seen in the chapter on Education that the non Aryan Indians who fought the Aryans had recruit od womon soldiers in their army It w3s not considerod ungallant and unchu alrous on the part of the Women soldi n Aryan warriors to fight women enemios and hill them on the battle field Indra cast his thunderbolt oven upon Dānu, tho mother of Vrtri The ·206 WOMEN IN RGVEDA following verse of the Rgveda refers to Indra fighting Dānu and killing her :- "Then humbled was the strength of Vſtra's mom ther, Indra hath cast his deadly bolt against her. The mothor was above, the son was under, and like a cow beside her calf lay Dānu."I A few cynical and uncharitable remarks against women contained in the Rgveda have already been referred to above. Nevertheless, they are not so cutting as some of the Christian words that fell from the tongue of the intolerant Tertullian; "You are the devil's gateway... You are she who persuaded him whom the devil was not valiant enough to attack...On account of you even the son of God had to die."2 And nowhere in tho whole range of tho Rgveda do we como across words such as those uttered by Gregory Thaumatur. gus, who says: "A poison may find one mon chasto among a thousand, but a woman never." The morality of the Rgvedic society therefore was of a high typo attended, of course, by the necessary evils incidental to a freo, merry and chivalrous society. • नीचावया अभवत्रपुरेन्द्रो प्रस्या प्रव वधर्मभार । उत्तरा मूरघरः पुत्र प्रामीद्दानुः गये महत्मा न धेनुः ॥ १., I. 32, 9. * J. L. Davies : A Short History of Women, cb. IV.

·Cir\PTER X SUMMARY In the foregoing chapters of this work we have survoyed the position of women during the Rgvodic nge under various headings, viz the Transcondent Woman, the Mardon, Marriage, Marringe—its Features, Customs and Usnges, the Vifo and Mother, Adornment, Lducation, Liberty, and Morality Wo sliall now give a short rosume of the contents of thoso chapters in the following pages and then elucidato comparı trvoly the succeeding stages of women's history in the light of those of othor nations In the ond an attempt will be made to find out the needs and requirements of the modern Indian women and to sketch tho possiblo lmos of their social and cultural progress The Rgvedic ngo saw the zenith of power and influonco which the Indo Aryan woman weldod in her household Sho figured so much in the daily life that the Ary in soors, accus tomed to think of a man constantly in company with his wifo, could not image their gods as lonely Always do we find the invocations addrossed to & god accompanied by his wifo, tho goddess "The spirit," says an outhority of roputo, "of the religion in Ind13 intuitive brooding, Waiting, has much of the essential fominino in it" Much of the froodom, rights and aspirations of the Indian womon of lator times were lost to thom but the vory goddesses of tho Rgveda embody the dream of India's futuro romanhood and reflect its spirations Aditi is the porsonified freedom, tho eternal mothor of all beings, who frees men from all their bondago “Whatov or sin no havo committod," says the Rsı, "miny Aditi cover us from " Indrāni 19 tho imperions mistress of the household whose oblations mako Indrı her spouso, * Reforences to the original text in this chapter are not given as they baro almondy been cited in tho previous chapters ·208 WOMEN IN RGVEDA strong and great. Vāk, the enternal cosmic energy of the universe, is the omnisciont, all-pervading counterpart of the Master of the entire creation, and she aids Him in tho administration of His unlimited dominion. Sarasvati is the patron of fine arts and learning. And that lovely Uşā, the breath and life of all beings yot the pointer to decay and destruction, is the embodiment of womanhood in all its stages of the maiden, wife and mother. The Rşi loves her as he loves his wife adorned with clothes of variegated colours and he feels attracted by her charming person as one by the winning, intriguing beauty of the female dancer. To her are addressed some of the most impassioned hymns containing the best poetry of the Rgueda. Sūryū is considered even to this day the model for the Hindu bride. The description and imagery of the goddesses woro nothing but a reflection of what the seers saw and thought of their own womon in their household. It has been said that "Among the early Aryans, tho paternal and maternal tie and evon the whole family bond was intonsely strong. If the father was venorated as the food supplier and protector (Pitā) the mother was beloved as the meter out (mater) of daily nonrislimont, tho arranger of tho household, measuring and ordering its affairs as the moon (also called mátä ) measured time. To the Aryan family the father and mothor were present gods." (Monior Williams : Rcligious Life and Thought in India). From this picture of the goddesses, the roflected portrait of the Indo-Aryan wornon, the modorn Indian woman can draw hor hopes and aspirations and build up a future of real prido and glory. curso The daughtor, who becamo a to the Hindu family of later times, was affectionately caressod and fondlod by her parents and brothers who lavished her with presents at the time of her marriage. Slie was an untiring worker of the Aryan household plaiting mats, weaving cloth, fering with unbreakable needles, bringing water in jars, ·SUMDIARY 209 squoczug juice from the Soma plant for the pui poses of wolship, thrashing corn, making firo by friction of sticks, milking tho cow, propiring curds and clarified butter, and doing other lonsohold work of the kind She inhoritod lor father s pro perty in hor own right in the absenco of a brother, onjoj od the right of maintenance in hor fathor's family until her marriago or until dorth if shio clioso to romain unmarried all her life, wrestod her dowry from hoi paternal possessions which thus formed hor strīdhana, and could give away her ornaments as largosses to Brahmins on the occasion of hor marriage Show18 froo to choose hor husband The maidon was gison away in marringo to her frooly choson match when approved by tho pronts, or by the brothor in their absence At the time of the nuptial coromony when the poir took tho soven steps together the bridegroom ompha tically addressed his bride "Bocome thou my partnor, as thou hast paced all the set on stops with mo Apart from theo cannot livo Apart from mo do thou not livo We shall livo togother, sharing alike all goods and powor combined" Those words, sus Margaret I Cousins, reported now to a chuldwifo, aro almost blasphemy, a mockory of tho implied conditions of the understanding copacity and freedom of circumstance of both husband and wife Mr A Mahadeo Sastri, o Sato Librarian of Mysoro commented on the words of Vom in tho Rgvedic brilogroom in the following words is to bo man's comrado in hifo bis sakli, with the same rango of hnowlodgo and intorosts maturo in body, mind and underst inding able to enter into & purposoful union on oqual terms with a man of oqual status, 19 lifo portnor, of her own free choico both dedicating their lifo woul 11 service to the divino lord of the Universe, both roady to fulfil tho purposo of married lifo from tho very vlny of marringo onwards" Marrigo to day has in most cases degonerated into a simplo sport In the West man and woman commenco with the warmth of romanco which does not last long and 27 ·210 WOMEN IN RGVEDA which ends in many cases as early as they settle down as husband and wife. Thoy are soon exhausted as happy partners of life, for love is a passion and passion has, like a tide, its ebbs and flows. And in the malady which is termed romantic love the paroxysms succeed each other at intervals, always more rapid from the moment the disease declares itself. But by and by the paroxysms are less frequent in proportion as the physical cure approaches, and gradually the fooling cools down. How seriously they rear their imaginary love-edifices only to realize too soon that they hang in the air ! Both are disgusted and lie in wait for the earliest opportunity to run to the divorce court. In this respect tho Aryan system admits of no comparison, Tho Rgveda contains no ovidence of divorce obtaining in practice. Tho very idea was almost abominable. Says Margaret E. Cousins, "Neither must marriage bo legalisod licenco, ruinous to body and soul, wrongly enforced as a duty or a necessity. Such things belong to tho reign of the human bruto. True marriage is sacred, and divorce is against all occult and spiritual law." The principle of divorce, lowever, has got to be recognized. Thoro may turn up circum. stances in a married lifo when the dissolution of the marriago alono may bo considered tho proper courso to couplo from social misery and ultimato destruction and the lead of the European peoples in this regard docs deservo a degree of praiso. In fact divorce in certain cases was recognizod oven by the Hindu treatises on tho Samskäras, but casos of its applicability woro cloarly defined and thoy oroso rarely. To-day in Europe and America thoro nro regular divorce courts to try divorce suits, and every year tens of thousands of such cases are being registered by tho legal authorities of the State. The disgrace of this state of affairs is appalling, nay criminal. The boast of a nation, which has dirorco courts to its credit or discrodit, is simplo bragging. It is certainly tho rery uncivilized state of the bruto where the animal in man impelled from sheer sexual SAVO 2 ·SUMMARY 211 impulse casts lus impuro looks upon any woman that ho Accosts The noble mind of the great Roman omporor Augustus rovoltod agamst too many divorces in Rome Ho warnod his pooplo ngamst thom and adı ised them to regard marriago moro seriously than thoy did from it our Tho romantic marriage has uttorly failed in countries whoro it has beon triod It is because plossure bias become the basis of marringo Religion, which onco played such an important part in marraigo, IS now entirely divorced Set principles, and fixed deal of lifo have been lost sight of, and this is the causo of tho immonse failure of marriage to day Wo cannot dofino our desires, and wherover 10 can, wo lude them, for thoy aro so commonplaco, so trifling, 80 ignoble The sonrch of individual pleasuro has caught hold of our minds and we cry lialt to the endorvours of thoso noblo mindod nien who wish to adviso us with tło wisdom and folly of their experience 'Hands off 18 challengo to them who make offorts to guide us Tho poison of plozsuro lins infested our ideas and wo caro inoro for the timoserving immodite noeds of the flesh Goorge Bornard Shaw ling sptly romarked in the Profaco to ono of his great plass thint "Thoro is no subject on which more dangerous nonsense is tollod and thought than marriage Our ocial institutiong are indeod drifting lowor and loxor overyday towards a crisis Tho firm ideal, tho fixed standard of conduct for both min and woman that the Aryans, thio plussou pionours of humanity, lind, aro no moro concorn Tho Aryans considered their marriage a very serious affur and thoy sancti fied their nuptial with appropriato religious rites To thoin at #19 life long arrangement whoro the husband and wife worhod together for a common ideal they did not unito for simple romanco This 139 inconcoiynble The end was something olso and marriago was only a means to thint ond Man alono vns nothing is the best aśrama was considerod to bo that of the householder, who umited with bettor lali to our ·212 WOMEN IN POVEDA make one single whole of which the later manifestations were Siva and Pārvati, Nala and Damayanti, Satyavāna and Savitrī, Rāma and Sītā. In a romantic marriage love ceases, romance finishes when the ephemeral physical charms withor away because there the plinth is too insecure. In old age the wrinkled face of a woman married in the romantic manner has little charm with which to entertain the spent up but greedy husband and so fails utterly whereas in the case of the early Aryan old age gave more impetus to the reciprocal sense of conjugal responsibilities. In tho absence of bodily charms conjugal duties alone remained, and they grow all the more important. To the Indo-Aryans temporary sexual arrangements would strike too unreal to endure. In the Aryan marriage both the human and the spiritual elements were properly blended. We must not forget that man, after all, is bundle of weaknessos, an embodiment of feelings and senti. ments. Here the companionate system of marriage fails to satisfy us. To work it properly the entire class of human institutions, social as well as political, will have to be revolutionized and refashioned to the very depth of their foundation. We cannot be too much of utilitarians. We cannot not as unconscious limbs of a machine. The procoss would be too inechanical, the marital bond too frail. Man cannot livo alone. He is a dependent being and he must have somebody to care and feel for lim particularly in l.is old ngo. The Rgvodic Aryan considered marriage a sanctity. To him every incident of marriage had considerable significanca. Ho folt a kind of responsibility implied in his very being. Ilis existence was a sort of lerulity which, le conceived, he must pass on to the undying line of his postority. This notion has been cmphasised by a few modern social thinkers as well and we may read in the following sentences of Gasquoine Hartley 8 beautiful summary of the ideal of marriage. Sags she, "We need a new consciousness of our social spirit and racial res.

·218 SUMUARY ponsibilities in marriage, the ideal of handing down at least as much as wo have received We are the guardians of tho life force Let us honour ideals of solf dedication, of fixed obligations of tho one sos to the other, of duties of our cluldren long before thoy are born, and let us sproad the now Ramınce of lovo's Responsibility to life, thon there will be in society in genoral and not in a moro fraction of it, happi nes> in murringe and passionate pirenthood Polygamy during the Rgvedic age was only a privilege of the fen-the kings, nobles and their priests Polyandry was not obtaining in the society although a few roferonces to it in the Rgveda would show that there did linger a fow cases hero and there and that the poot could yet think of it and allude to it A few cases of levirato are also on rocord which prove the oxistonco of the custom of Nryoga mennt to ease the condition of the society It was mostly because of this but tho widows wore absorbed properly in the community and their lot wis amply bettored Monogamous marriages were the general rule and the common pooplo, the vrśas, wedded a single wife Polygamy must have beon & legacy from a timo of military conditions when most of the additional wites were spoils of war and onslaved aboriginos Vedic culture never countenanced l society whoro multiplicity of wives bocime a fashion, 89, for instance among tho Arubs or the Jows Syed Amoor Ali obsorves, In the daya of ignorance, is the followers of Mohammed speak of tho timo befuro the birth of tho prophet the cluef feature with regard to woman in Arabia and near districts as tho unrestricted polygamy Among tho Arabs woman Vusa chattel the antogral part of the stato of her husband or fither, yot this polygamy was not what is undorstood in modern days by the term bat In Porsia rather the patriarchal system of the Israelities thero was no recognized law of marriage and in some of the moighbouring conntrios the custom of plurality of wives assumed somo of its most frightful aspects" (Infe and ·214 WOMEN IN RGVEDA Teachings of Mohammed). Among the Jews also polygamy was a prevalent practice and there seems to have been no limit to the number of wives and concubines allowed except the ability to maintain them and their children. Jad Hachasakab said, “A man may marry many wives, avon a hundred, either at once or one after another, and his wife cannot prevent it provided that he is able to give to each suitable food, clothing and marriage duty." This state of things could not prevail in the Indo-Aryan community. There the status of the wife was very high. As a bride she was given to the bridgeroom to bo the mistross of his household, to look after the slaves and the cattle with kindness, and to lord over her parents-in-law, brothers-in-law and the sistersin-law. She was identified with the very home. She kept the family fire always kindled, and she ever appeared as a partner of hor husband in tho sacrifices and other forms of worship. This could be properly realized only if monogamy was the general practico. Incest, whether parental or of tho brothor and sister, had become a defunct custom during the Rgvedic ago. Marriage was performed in many forms which slow: that the eight forms of the later times wore now beginning to take shapo. Thus the Brāhma, Prăjāpatya, Gāndharva and Asura forms liad already become a sight. Tho Rgvodic roman was at her greatest in her motherhood. Her strength lay in lier children. She was not considered a chattel. Slave girls also on soveral occasions bocamo wives of influential Aryang and could be given and received freely. At times they becamo mothers of influential Personngos of tlie Rgreda. The mothor or wife, liowever, does not seem to havo inherited landed property in lior own right. She was yet tho inistress of her entire houschold and the omission did not very much offend her. She was bravo, noblo and virtuous. It has been said of the Spartans that they "wanted strong non: the mothers therefore must be strong. The Spartans wanted bravo men: inotliers thereforo ·215 SUMMARY 11 must bo brave lho Spartans wanted resoluto men, men with decision of charactor the mothers must bo resoluto l'his WAS troo with tho Arjan mothors as woll "But in Sparta unliho in India, tho softer sentimonts Associ stod with mother hood in our eyes were also destroyed by a rigorous dis cipline, which required each now born babo to be brought boforo & committee of hygieno in order to bo judged strong enough to lno, or weak and thorofore fit only for donth by oxposuro This was absolutely inconceivable in the Rgvodic community Thoro the desiro for the son was onrnost both As a military as well as a religious neod and tho daughter was considerod tho very breath and life of tho family Widows wore gonorilly romarried soon after the death of their husbands, and the custom of satı had died out as tlin oxistence of tho widows would show Intor marriagos botwoon the Brahmins and tho Rājanyas as well as between the Aryans and tho non Aryans woro frequont and common The Indian woman has never greedy of wonlth or power She did not marry her own biother lilo the Egyptian Nofartnrı, the daughter of Ash Hetop I so that the worlth might bo porpetuated in the family Tho Rgvedic woman dressed in woollon and also perhaps in cotton clothes dy od in various colours Thoro wore about four procos--the upper and the lower girmonts the occasional hend dress and the all covering shaul The common orna ments that she wore were the nocklaco tho orr rings tho But tho uso armlots tho wristlots the anl lots and tho lilo of the noso ring is conspicuous by its absonco Women woro long hair, oilod and combed it and knit it in long brord plaits Thoy applice unguont to the ey og perfumed their porson and usod soveral other itoms of toilet The sos oral items of thoir furnituro included their boxca and bed stonds A particular kind of high hod 14 associated with them The Indo Ary ins gavo their women enough liberty of movomont There was no seclusion of women and conso ·216 WOMEN IN ROYEDA quontly no purdah and they went unveiled to festivo gatherings. A notod fair was the Samana whero maidens flocked to make merry and find a husband. Thoy even spent their nights there. They had the right of self-expression and could freely talk of their own marriage. There was rarely any restriction on their free choice of a husband. The discipline of the Athenian women during tho post-Homeric days was to be shut up in the house to breed. This was not true of tho Rgvodio women although their services as potential, herobearing mothors woro equally important. The Indo-Aryan woman was never secluded and she would have simply laughed at the words—"A free woman should be bounded by tho street"-of a charactor in one of Menandor's plays; and the idea ombodied in Thucydides' oxprossion--"That woman is bost who is least spokon of among mon, whether for good or for ovil"--would have sounded ridiculous to her. One of tho most important amusoments of women was swinging accompanied by songs. The Indo-Aryans well recognized the truth embodied in the dictum-Ignoranco is weakness, knowlodge power--and so thoy propared their women for power. Thoy taught them music and dancing, tho religious lore and tho military sciencc. They had among them great women rșis liko Ghosā, Apālā, Lopamudrā, Viſvavārī, Sūryū, Vasukora's wifo, mother of the Gaupāyanas, Indrāni, Sarparājñi, Mamatā, Yami and many others. Vispalā, the warrior wife of King Kheln, and Mudgalāni were experts in the art of fighting. Too much froedom and a high degrco of morality do not go hand in hand. Women during the Rgvedic age enjoyed much liberty as a result of which there wero bound to nppcar bad characters in both sexos. There was much of lovomaking among tho younger peoplo and the Samanas pero bot. beds of such nffairs. Appointments were mado and kept. Girls visited trysts and rendezvous where they met their lovers. They aron invited them at times in their own ·SUMMARY 217 chambors at midnight wlioro the lovers stayed until dawn Thore is no derrth of illegitimnto children who woro ovon desorted and exposod to die for forr of soenl ostracism But this very fact słowa that the society was so ero on those ovil doors Novertheless, in spite of tho fact that thoro was much of love mnking among the people, the Rgvedic society set up 2 lugh order of morality and thoro wore hardly any instances of adultery among mirriod womon Non-Aryan women joinod the army in large numbors and the Aryans did not consider it bad morality to attack and kill thoso amazons It lins beon rightly pointed out by Langdon-D:1109 that thero was no woman question at Athons bocruso all womon were as mero vegetablos, and thoro was no woman question at Sparta because both mon and women thoro woro littlo better than animals Moroover Sparta, tho ougonic paradiso and the first and only practitionor of tho oquality of the sovos, has loft litorally nothing to postority but a rocord of implacablo nttachmont to lifo, like that of a dog which hins its tooth fixod immovably in tho nech of an onomy ten times its sizo It was not so in India The social adjustmont of tho sexos was so porfect that wo ſind no complaint on the part of the womın ng iinst tho authority of thio mın At lonst novor did an Aryan woman cry out in distress in the mannor of Modon, who sou, Of all things that have kifo und sonso wo women are most wrotched, for wo oro com polled to buy with gold a husband who 15 also worst of all tho mistor of our porson And on his charactor, good for bad, our wholo fato doponds It has beon rightly held that the Grook civilization novor succcoded in giving rodrtys to the oternal complaint and that married life and its duties vero novor the ingliest Helle nic idont Athons, it is aptly pointod out for all its intellectunl grandeur died out, Sporta for all its ougenies bucamo liopolessly degonerite, all that was good and inluablo as luman ovperienco passod by way of Grook liter ture to later timos and younger civilizations 28 ·218 VOMEN IN RGVEDA Almost all the ancient civilizations have been offacod from the world, India alono las ondured the ravages of time and remains alive to this day. She is still living, howovor weakly, in her continuity and she alone solved her woman problem in the past. But time is a great factor in the rise and fall, progress and decay of nations. There is some such thing as good and bad time which may of course be so characterized as a result of events, auspicious or ugly. At the closo of the Rgvedic period there set in bad times in the history of social India and restrictions were gradually imposed on the freedom of women. Men took upon themselves to think and plan for their women, who henceforth sank into a secondary position whoro they began to play a second fiddlo' to their men. Tho idea of purity of blood caught hold of the Aryan mind and it generally dominated all their activities. Purity of blood as an othnic principle is a fiction and the admixture of races has beon a vigorous common truth. The Gauls and the Huns mixed their blood freely with tho high-bred Roman Indies on the banks of the Tiber and the Toutons in innumerablo casos lost themselves in the non-Teutonic racos. Aryan hordos that raidod the rich plains of India wero lost in the Aryan social fabric. The later Sakas, Ābhiras, Hünas and others likowise wero enveloped in tho Aryan folds and absorbed in the Indian social inatrix. And yot the law givers of India in tho post Rgvedic pcriod strove and struggled to doviso means to keep their blood puro and thus ran after an unrealizablo mirago! Thoy prescribed rules for oarly marriagos and bannod freedom of women in deed, speoch and oven thought. They onjoined upon them to identify themselves wholly with their husbands and reduce themselves to nothing in action as well as desires. Thic Grhyasūtras, tho Smſlis and such other treatises, all sang tho saino note and completed the ruin of womon. Women themselves bowed to these rostrictions and accepted them as their only lot. We never read of rorolts or murmurs on their part against the grinding Tho non- ·219 SUMBIARY misery which the codes enjoined upon thom It 18 indood an instance of unprocedented brivory on their part that whion thoz wero called upon to identify their life with thoir hus bands' they did so willingly, nay, they ovon identified then death with theirs The practico of sati of thio primitive times Tas soon rovived and 1 procession of unfortunato widows, following the bier of 3 deceasod royal husband to immolato themselves on tho funeral pyro of the dead became a com mon sight Tho woman lost her tonguo and wis strucl dumb, the min, trio officiating priest spoke for her the butcher spoke for tho cow 80XOS Tho Aryan social sy storn degonorated and it onunciated tho suicidal policy of cluld marriage and seclusion of women Child marriago produced widows and seclusion four of men on the part of womon This forr, says Cousins in her inimitable style is a minsan It is the nadır of degradation in social affairs and remains to this day a slur and a stigma on both Tho grent Rgvedic personages liko Indram Mudgrlanı and Vāk were forgotton and in their place thero steppod in the scomingly high statured women of the epics reflected in the shadow of their glorious husbands And then these sime were followed by an unbroken crop of pigmy women who could not roar themselves up could not evon lean on tho arms of their husbınds but had to be carried But now this crop is also nearing its roaping timo There is audible tho sound of & vigorous roghufflig under the surface of tho Indian society and tho 'stirrings of a new lifo are discornible Tho lamo has found legs to trend on and the dumb a tongue to ovpross himself Thoro is 1 surge of cosire for omincipation and an urge for pushing ahend A mighty wato of freedom has captured the hearts of women all over Asia Our women liavo rison in the wake of the West Thoy havo ndomed tho presidential churs of logislative bodies and of social conforoncos and political Congressos Tho history of the constitutional world has for the first timo been furnishod ·200 WOMEN IN RGVEDA with an example of women directing the affairs of legislatures in the Council Chambers of Madras and the United Provinces, And they have shown. that they can equal mon in these sphoreg. Mrs. Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit has achieved the unique distinction of filling the office of a provincial minister. The successful discharge of the duties attaching to her portfolio has amply justified our trust in hər. The excellence of her work has eminently proved her merit and she can to-day easily rank with the best of our men. Tursum Baya and Sarojini Naidu sweep away cverything before them. Everywhere our women aro shaking off their shackles. Education lias generated the promptings of a new life, a desire to work and a sense of sacrifice. But it is here that we need a word of caution. Caution in our progress has been necessitated because of a very potent reason. We are feoling tho influence of the West in our education, in cur manner of living and oven thinking, as a matter of fact, in overything. In the province of education it is most felt. We are getting both sips of ambrosia as well as dozes of poison. The wostorn method of education has made its point felt in every branch of teaching and learning. It is instilling its own culturo through the means of its method, and our womon, the nowly educated maidens, are imbibing most of its influonco, both beneficial and banoful. The former trait, of which tho main incidonts are a now outlook on lifo, an open vision, a rovolting urge for emancipation and liberty, a cause of equality and justice, a spirit against superstitions, a surgo of nationalism, and the like, is to be hailed as auspicious and benovolont, But the latter, with its incidents of artificiality, individual aloofness and personal considerations, egotism, love of the unrcal and the suporficial, of ultra-modernism and of unrestrained licenso, is to be discarded as malovolont. In fact, whateror we are importing in our culture wo havo to weighi and valno properly. No cannot stop altogether the influenco of the west and it will not be oven desirable to do so ; firstly, ·221 SUMARY becruso while doing so vo shall be losing somo of the noblest and finest of modem idone, the critical method and tho scientific outlooh, which are ossentially western, and, secondly, becauso vo shall be an isolated unit in the crowd of nations We cannot go back to tho Vodas, and wo cannot at the simo timo afford to romuin isolated in this progressing world To bo isolated to day is to court derth Our intorost lies in the preservation of our best traditions and in welcoming such healtlıy mfluonces of the West as would prove congenial to our growth In the field of education our women have mado considerablo outward progress This progress is mainly in the naturo of a revolt Revolt is not essentially good or essentially bad in itself Its merit or domerit has to be judged in the light of the cause to which it 19 applied Tho rovolt of tho pupil against the bonoficent instructions of the tercher, or of the son agamst the wholesome admonitions of the father is absolutoly of the wrong and objectionable type, whorors that agungt tho inoquitious, unjust and slavish injunctions of the society is exceedingly commendable Our girls, like our boys, aro out for a change and they rovolt nguinst everything They are developing within them a strango sense of values and resont aduce or guidance A poculiar trond of pompous display seems to capture their minds and our modern institutions of education are breedmg in thom a fooling of irresponsible ogo They aspire to be come the colourful buttorfly chased by number of lost hends This has got to go Tender feelings are indood somo of the most valuod possessions of humanity but the fuling woal noss or tho helploss inbocility can nevor be ad judged as lasting qualities whether in men or in Pliysical clinrms and attractions are bocoming tho daily concern of our young women slimness in body they seem to 11on now as their strength and prido and roundness of features as their weakness and despair Thoy seem to consider that their strongth lies in their wohness and that they should seem to withor with the touch But thus is not desired of our women ·222 WOMEN IN NOVEDA girls. Thøy are oxpectod instead to imbibe the real feminine virtues and grow into the heroic women of yoro. Thoy have to grow within them that impressivo, proud and distinctivo individuality which will make its impress felt on men and quieten their restlessness. This individuality will bo well-fused in that of the man's, nevertheless, it will remain distinct from his. She will not let him peep too much into her and will endeavour to keep in fact the enigmatic charactor of her sex so that man may not grow out of hor, so that he may not get fed up and fatigued, and may not sicken and die for want of that caro and affection which sustain and strengthen him without disclosing to him the full capacity of the undrying source of the fountian and the ever moistening and tendering Hippocrene. It is not proposed to lead hore a crusade against the use of the aids to beauty. Our women may have, if they 60 desire, all the heaps of wonderful things that are found arranged in a toilet shop-scent-bottles, powders, pots of perfume, odoriferous pastilles, pluials, washes and all those accessories which are requisito ere beauty can be mado perfoct. What is urged to be avoided is tho change of our women, the very pictures of health and freshness, into slim ladies of the hard sexless stamp of the cullured female. What is wonted of them is that thoy should develop vigorous womanhood endowed with the winning charms of naturo. Such vomen can never be appendages to their husbanda and will dofend themselves, when needed, against a liundred odds. That type of education must bo evolved which, besides giving the woman a knowledge of the languages and literntures and of thio sciences, further endows her with a charactor. She has got to bo resolute, brave and intrepid. She must be propared to 'ride in the whirl wind and direct the storm', and, if need bo, to daro and die. The typo of edacation that is being imparted to her is undoubtedly faulty and lacking in many things. In soveral cases it creates in 1 ·SUSIDARY 203 the modern girl an aptitudo to bocome unnocessarily conspi. cuous. Gandhi was porfoctly right whon ho characterized tho modorn girl as playing a Juliot to half a dozen Romoos. Co-education also is to goino oxtent the cause of doveloping such a framo of mind. But co-odlication cannot bo rolinquishod as thoro oro moro virtues thon vicos in it. Wo havo noithor tlo funds nor tho will to stop it. It will undoubtedly ongendor a degroo laxity in the mornis of our boys anıl girls but vo havo got to bravo it all. And wo shall havo ovon to rovise to somo oxtant our dofinition of chastity and to broaden its narrownoss. In fact, the dofinition of chastity has had to undorgo sovornl changes oven in the past. Thiero was a time, for examplo, when tho vory touch or oven tho shadow of another man was considored onough to dofilo tho purity of a marriod woman. Such chastity can hardly bo an objoct of pride with tho pooplo of to-cny. A cortain dogroo of laxity in the morals is incidental to ovory socioty wlero froo mixing of men and womon and co-education aro in voguo. It was so in the Rgvedic society also. Thus wo shall have to chooso the lessor ovil and earnestly strive for making co-education a success. Here is providod an opportunity for the young mon and women to moko an acquaintanco with each other which rnises the curtain for a while on both sides an lossens their onigintic character, which othorwise proves an unsatis. fiod curiosity. And an insatiated curiosity, whon accontuat. oll, broods many an ovil and that at a timo when it is impossiblo to hold back the curious, whothor man or woman. Womon liavo sufferod in India, as in the western countrios niso until vory rocontly, in many ways. But the most arrosting fonturo of this suffering has been the neglect of her right of inheritance in the patornal proporty. Slo las boon considored an appendago of mon. This conti. nuos to bo oven now hor lot and it indcod reflects on the sono of honesty of our mon. In the common Indian family thero is a tremendous differenco in tho degrees of care taken ·224 WOMEN IN RGVEDA of the boy and of the girl. The girl is a poor, neglected creature while the boy is 'the master of all he surveys.' Tho educated sensible families are doing much for amoliorating her condition but ordinarily her fate is woeful. Suchi is also the case of, married women. It is possible that spread of education and sense of oquity and honesty on the part of men and the call for justice on that of women will do a little good, nevertheless, it will not carry them far and vo shall have to take the aid of legislature in this diroction. The lines in this respect will have to be followed mostly as suggested by Dr. A. S. Altekar in his recent invaluable work entitled the Position of Women in Hindu Civilisation. Legal rights making them lawful ownors of immovable property will have to be conferred on women. By now what they have had is tho right of maintenance in the paternal family until they are marriod and restricted ownership in the husband's landed property. Thoir right in their father's property will have to be recognized. But the nature of the woman's right in hor ancestral property requires a careful discussion. It is generally held by some of the enthusiasts working in the cause of women that daughters should have equal right with the brothers in the ancostral property. This is not to be as it will prove inequitous and unjust with regard to tho sons in the family. The daughter in the long run does not normally bolong to the family as she enters another aftor her marriage. If the rights of the wife in the movable and immovablo property of her husband are proporly recognized by the law of the land the hardship in caso of the daughter in hor father's family will become greatly mitigated and tho soeming wrongs mostly redressed. And since, according to this schomo, she inherits property in her own right in her hus. band's family she will thus be placed on a moro advantageous footing than her brothers, who will receive their apportioned shares only in the father's family. Thus while she inherits ·SUMMARY 225 8 $nnor in two families her brothers inherit in only one This will indeed be unjust Thoroforo here we must act on principle The daughter should bo gren as much care in her father's family as lior brothor gots, and tho same amount of monos sliould be spent on hor as on her brothor, of courso according to the exigencies of the naturo of her education Sho should get her maintenance until she marrios But if she chooses to roman unmarrou all her life she inny get outhor an allowance or a haro in the ancestral property oqual to that of the brother Special consideration to some extent for the son of tho family will have to be made as he is oxpocted to marry and havo chuldren Tho daughtor, as usual, will receive n dowry at the time of mirringo proportionnte to the means of her father s property There remains yet another point to be discussod in this rogard The maternnl grand father's property is inherited by the daughter's son and not by the daughter's daughter in the former's presence This must change Horo, since proporty is devolving on thom from & differont outside source, an equal share should be given to 630 Thore is no chance of any further aduan tago to vither over the other as botlı hare their right of Inheritanco, bosidos this elson here in the son in his fnther's family and the daughter in her husband a family when she marries Thero may be some religious difficulty is the in horitance of the maternal grandfather property daughter's son is not meant onls il # means of dorola won of property but also seeks to find on to the grand father who would offer oblntions to him after his death and to his manes This latter function the daughter s doughter cannot perform But this will have to be brished eside, for, nfter all, there is no remedy when a father d184 with out leaving a son and when the family becomes extinct In case of the family becoming outinct the only ider that romains is one of the devolution of property And property never remain uno ned Therefore in the present cise also the family of the matemal grandfather may be taken 29 by the con ·226 WOMEN IN RGVEDA to have become extinct and the daughter's daughter be given an equal share with the daughter's son. The franchise having been widened, our women have entered the field of active public life and have come to shoulder the responsibilities of administration. With the working of the adult suffrage they are expected to gain further ground. Still there remain several disabilities which debar them from taking to public service and to govern" ment offices. These bars, it is time, were lifted. This can bo effected by statute law. Child marriages must now be stopped with & strong hand. The Sarda Act should have gone a long way in this regard but it has not gained much ground due to the apathy of the poople and due to the fact that the child marriago being a non-cognizable offence the police cannot take stops in the matter. And the Act has becomo utterly, ineffective. Hundreds of such marriages, it is supposed, aro contracted in the land despite the existence and operation of this Act. The Act can become effective only when the Government makes child marriago a cognizable offence. In like manner polygamy will have to be altogether suppressed by law. It should be allowed only in certain very clear cases where the living wife has been declared medically unfit for the act of procreation or has absolutely become disabled by disease. Divorce also las got to be introduced but tho application of law pertaining to it will have to be very stringently and carefully made otherwise we shall be constrained to run the nefarious divorce courts the existence of which they doplore in America. Divorce is verily an evil, although a necessary ono. We must remember, as it has been already pointed out, that the West has entered our soul and that it has come to stay with us in our life, in our thought, and in our institutions. But the wave is strong; it may drom us. Wo ·SUMMARY 227 US must riso and stom its tide Yet we cannot afford to neg. lect it for it has proved in soveral points very fruitful to We must then cut small channols to reconto the amount of nater we requre We can not possibly stop the wave It is bound to come What is desirable is to become wiser by the wydom and folly of the West. We liave to seo that Tre do not repeat those blunders which the West has com. mitted and which it declares as such Only the achievements of the West should be ours We Respoct for women is a necossary trait of a rising nation We are learning it no doubt, but we are learning it slowly We must lealize that the mother is the generator of mon and she deserves to be greatly honourod. It has been aptly hold that unless our nation learns to respoct and trent properly the mothers of the future, all tall about motherland is cant and self ulusion' The futuro lies in the hand of onr women, our mothers, but we must not hinder their progress and act as impediments in their 123 by our short sighted perversoness They must be given all the freedom thoy noed. As a matter of fact, we have no right to heop thom in fetters Wo have been their goulers by now must now throw away the heys, shatter the irons on their feet and demolish the prison, and then alone can we hope to rise Our women are our hope It will not be out of place to quote liere the noble es. hortation of that gront trorher in the cause of India and her women, Margarot E Cousins "Ignorance males slaves ;" says sho, Slave mothers produco cruen children The ignorance and enslaved conditions of later Roman motherhood brought about the fall of the great Roman Empire There is a western say ung, Educate that you may be free'. Foremost, then, among the race regenerators and nation builders will be thoso large munded porons who trork for the education of ." "Let peither ser arrogate to itself that dirine right of restriction," she continues, "but let freedom and equal Women ·226 WOMEN IN RGVEDA to have become extinct and the daughter's daughter be given an oqual share with the daughter's son. The franchise having been widened, our women have entered the field of active public life and have come to shoulder the responsibilities of administration. With the working of the adult suffrage they. are expected to gain further ground. Still there romain several disabilities which debar them from taking to public service and to govern. ment offices. These bars, it is time, were lifted. This can be effected by statute law. Child marriages must now be stopped with a strong hand. The Sarda Act should have gone a long way in this regard but it has not gained much ground due to the apa. thy of the people and due to the fact that the child marriage being a non-cognizable offence the police cannot take steps in the matter. And the Act has become utterly ineffective. Hundreds of such marriages, it is supposed, aro contracted in the land despite the existence and operation of this Act. The Act can become offective only when the Government makes child marriago a cognizable offence. In like manner polygamy will have to be altogether suppressed by law. It should be allowed only in certain very clear cases where the living wife has been declarod médically unfit for the act of procreation or has absolutely become disabled by disease. Divorce also lias got to be introduced but tho application of law portaining to it will have to be very stringently and carefully made otherwise we shall be constrain. ed to run the nefarious divorce courts the existence of which they deplore in Amorica. Divorce is vorily an evil, although a necessary one. We must remember, as it has been already pointed out, that the Vest has entered our soul and that it has cono to stay with us in our life, in our thought; and in our ing. titutions. But the wave is strong; it may drown us. We ·SUMUARY 227 us must rlso and stom its tido Yet ve cannot afford to nog lect it for it has proved in several points very fruitful to Te must then cut small channols to receive the amount of water vo requre we can not possibly stop the wave It is bound to come What is desirable is to become wiser by the wisdom and folly of the West We have to seo that me do not repeat those blunders which the West has com mitted and which it declares as such Only the achievements of the West should be ours We Respoct for women is a necessary trait of a rising nation We are learning it no doubt, but we are learning it slowly we must realize that the mother is the genertor of min and she deserves to be greatly honoured It has beon aptly held that unless our nation ‘learns to rospect and trent properly the mothers of the future, all talk about motherland is cant and self illusion' The future lies in the band of our women, our mothers, but we must not hinder their progress and act as impediments in their war by our short sighted perversene They must be given all the freedom they need As a matter of fact, we have no right to heep them in fetters We have been their goalers by now must now throw away the keys, shatter the irons on their feet and demolish the prison, and then alone can we hope to rise Our women are our hope It will not be out of place to quote here the noble ex hortation of that great worker in the cause of India and her nomon, Margaret E Cousins "Ignorance males slaves,' says she, Slave mothers produce craven children The ignorance and enslaved conditions of later Roman motherhood brought about the fall of the great Roman Empire There is & Western saying, 'Educate that you may be free' Foremost, then, among the race regenerators and nation builders will be those large minded persons who torh for the education of .''Let neither sex arrogate to itself that divine right of restriction, she continues, ' but let freedom and equal vomon ·228 WOMEN IN RGVEDA opportunity, mutual encouragement, respect and recognition form the foundations of a new era of comradeship of men and women in the land sacred with the memory of heroes and heroines. Then only will India realise the value of the gifts her women can bring to her altar, and the impoverishment of national life that is now taking place owing to the false conditions under which they have to live-conditions so bad that instinctively no man wants to be reborn & woman; and woman herself deprecates or is ignorant of her own value acquiesces in wrong ideas of herself as 'temptress,' 'unclean' and secondary,' instead of realising the liouour and responsibility that are given to her by the Creator." (The Revolt of Asian Womanhood ) Let the Indian woman rise and declare to the mankind in the words of Chitrā, the great creation of Dr. Rabindranatlı Tagore : "I am Chitra. No goddess to be worshipped nor yot the object of common pity to bo brushed aside liko a moth with indifference. If you doign to keep me by your sido in the path of danger and daring, if you allow me to share the great duties of your life, then you will know iny truo self."

·BIBLIOGRAPHY Vedio TEXTS 1. Rgreda (Ajmer Edition) 2. Yajurveda 3. Atharra Veda 4. Vajasaneyi Sanihita 5 Tarttıriya Samhita 6. Artareya Brahmana 7. Salapatha Bräkmana 8. Tarttıriya Brühmana 9. Kapopanısad 10 Brhaddevala Leios 11. Rāmāyana 12. Mahabhāratu SUTRAS AXD SMRTI8 18 Actalāyana Srauta Sutras 14. Kalyayana Srauta Sutras 15. Visstha Dharma Sütros 16 Päraskara G;hya Sülras 17. Kausitahi Sūtras 18. Välsyāyana Kama Sutras 19. Manusmitt BUDDHIST LITERATURE 20. Vinayapıfaha 21. Dhammapada 22. Dighanakaya 23. Jalalas POLITY 21. Kautiliya Arthaśästra ARCHITECTURE 25. Länasura PURANAS 26. V&yu Purina 27. Jatsya Purina 29. Brühma Purang 29. Brahmanda Puring 80. Karma Purana ·290 BIBLIOGRAPHY 87. 31. Linga Purāna 32. Hariramsa KÄYYAS 33. KĀLIDĀJA : Abhijñāna sakuntala 94. Vikramortasi 95. Raghuvainsa 86. Meghaduta Kumāra sambhara (Indian Texts) TRANSLATIONS 38. T. H. GRIFFITH: The Hymns of the Rigreda 39. H. H. Wilson: Rig Veda, Volumes I-VI 40. Max MÜLLER: Rgveda Samhita 41. Vedic Hymns, SBE., 92 42. COWELL: Jātakas 43. R. SULAMA SASTRY : Arthasástra TRANSLATIONS (Foreign Texts) 44, The Aresta 45. MUHAMMAD ALI: The Quoran 46. Iliad 47. Odyssey 19. The Bible 49. The Republic of Plato 50. CARTER. Moral Discourses by Epictalus 51. Livy : History of Rome MODERN WORKS 62. Sir S. RADLAKRISINAN: Indian Philosophy, Vol. I 59. A. A. MacDOVELL: l'edic Mythology 51. A History of Sanskrit Literature 55. A. A. MACDONELL & A. B. KEITR: Vedic Inder, Vol. I & II 30. XIax-XÜLLER: india, What I can teach ust 57. Lectures on the Science of Language 69. History of Ancient Sanskni Literature 59. MUIR: 0. S. Terts, Vol. V 60. OLDEXBERG: Die Religion des l'eda 61. PISCREL: l'edische Studien, Vol. 2 62. HARDY: Vedische-Brahmanische Periode 63. Kunx: Cnturchlungstufen 64. Kuzor: The Rigveda 65. WALLIS: Cosmology of the Rigceda 66. MONIER WILLIANR: Religious Life and Thought in India ·BIBLIOGRAPHY 231 - > 67. TV'INTERNITZ: History of Indian Litterature, Vol. I 68. Rogoziv: Vedic India 69. A. C. Das: Rigredic Culture 70. B. K. VOORENJI: Aloha 71. Nationalis In Ilindu Culture 72. CLARIGT BADER: Pomen in Ancien! Indre 73. S. C. SIRKAT: Some Aspects of the Carliest Sncial Plastory of India 74. BI CHAR LAN: Women in Buddhist Lalerature 75. A. S. ALTEKM: The Position of Women 11 Hardt Cicilisation 76. P. K. ACITANYA: d Dictionary of Hindi Architecture 77. J. LAVODOX-DAVIES A Short History of Ilomon 78. SYED ASEFR Aut: Laje and Teachings of Mohammed 79. MARGARET L. Cousing: The Reroll of Asian Iomanhood 80. C. GASQUIONE Parturi: l'omen, Children, Love and Marmage 81. Sir JAIES FRIZER: Totemism and Progamy 82. JANCS V. Horsen: The Jcice 83. J.P. MAILAFFX : Social Infe in Greece from Honier to Nenander 81. J. W. MACKAIL: Select Epigrams from the Greek Anthology 85. Hocler: History of the Christian Church (Trany by A Rutherford) 86. A. BUTLET: Inces of the Fathers, Martyrs and other Principal Saints 87. V.8. AGRAWALA: Mathura Terracotlas 88. TEYNYSOY: Tothonis 89. RADINDRANATH TAGORE. Chalra 90. OSCAR WILDE. An Ideal Hushand 91. G. B. SHAW: Getting Married 92. B. S. UPADHYA I'omen in Rgreda, Tirst Edition 93. Transactions of the-Ninth Onental Conference JOURNALS 94. Journal of the Royal Astalic Society, Vol XVIII 1852 95. Journal of the American Onendi Sorrely 96 Journal of the Benares Hindu University, Vol 1 Part 2 97. Illustrated JVeekly of Indu, July-Noveniber, 1935 $ ·INDEX Aranyani 27, 169 Arrstophanus 100 Aah Hotep! 215 Ari-totlo 191 Abhyñano Sakuntala 70, 71, 159 arnils to 167 Abhiras 218 Arjikaja Acchoda 123 Arjuns 71 Acharya 171n Arundhati 89, 134 acton 204 Arying 1, 2, 4, 8, 9, 15, 16, 18, 27, 29, adhuit 94 161, 162 31, 32, 33, 34, 98, 66, 63, 64, 68, 78, adhivkirtanam 87 89, 92 98 Aditi 9, # 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 31, 145, 154 Aryan Architecture 179 207 —iamly 186 Adityas 9 4, 3, 8, 1941-ychologists 198 Adultery 217 Aryamın 9, 81, 82, 81, 102, 151 Aeschylus 190 | Asia Agrawala, VS 25n nezinom 87 Agastya 27, 176 Asia 98 219 Agha 76 Asikni 28 Agni 5, 6, 13, 17, 18, 23, 24, 26, 31, Aſoha 160 203, 201 82, 51, 77, 78, 81, 82, 83, 86, 103, Acqາໂນນ 24 114, 129, 199, 134 136, 185 Asumit 26 Agnyant 28 Asyalās in Srautasutras 64 Arşik 124 śramos 150, 211 Attarcya Brühmana 10, 33 deurns 66 Ajātastru 125 Asura (Varna,20) Alad 42 Aksins 17 18 20 19, 54, 61 70, 74, Aksavasın 129 76 77 91 95, 100 112 113 114 Alcabides 160 143, 169 176 182 193, 198, 199 Alornnder 191 117 arra l'eda 49, 39 39, 49, 62 68, Algonquins 23 86, 93 96 97 98,117 162 163, 161, Altekar, A S Dr 148, 149, 161, 167, 170 172, 175 221 Ath us 175 Amayasu Aula 123 Athenian 41, 216 217 Ambhi 21, 178 Itha 102 Imerici 200 Augustus 911 Anga 129 Aufrecht 169 Ingır? 62 Anéis 63 78 109, 110, 149 Angurusas 128 Aresta 27 Ingin Kutea 196 Ankhesneferabr 146 B anudest 69 amſts 11 Bandhu 177 Anklets 167, 215 | bingle 167 Anukramuni 114 176 Benares Hindi University 125n Inuloma 56 62 bhidra 187 Anumiti 06 | Bhaga 17, 81, 81, 102, 151 Apali 176, 216 Bharatis 29 24 30 Apri B3ta 123 99,23 91, 80, 32 Aps 1799 80 86 154 169, 150, 200 Bharti 34 197, 919 Bharthari 93 be 26 27 Bhojaport 173 Aramati 80 1 ·294 INDEX 214 42 Dhātſ Bhráty 86, 46 Damayanti 212 Bihar 179 dāna 67 Bimbisára 125 dancer 14, 184, 208 Bimala Charn Lat 125 dancing 180, 181, 204, 205 Bloomfield 24 Danů 81, 156, 205, 206 Brahma 87,177 Darbha 48,56, 58, 59 Brahmavădinis 179, 183 Dasaratha 126 Brāhma Dasaratlın-Jalaka 124 Brāhmaṇas 55, 56, 81, 85, 98 Dasa 1, 63, 92, 183 Brahmin Priests 80 | Dasyus 1,92 Brahmins 37, 59, 159, 215 daughter 4,83,123 Brahmānda Purana 124 Davies, J. L. 206 Brahmăvarta 24 Dawn 6, 12, 15, 24 Bſhaddiva 25 Delbruck 85, 86 Britain 22 Demeter 29a British 103 Demosthenes 191 brother-in-law 101 Deştri 83, 181 Bhāvya 54, 60, 62, 149, 176 devara 101 Bhāvayavya 62, 63 devi 123 Buddhistic Jalakas 119 devěkāmā 100, 101, 115 burial 93 Devayant 62, 123 Dhammapada 204 с Dhammapada Commentary 203 Dhatar 131 Chalcolithic civilization 89 Chalcolithic Age 160 Dhisaņā 26, 82 chastity 228 Dictionary of Hindu Architecture 171 chattel 213, 214 Digha Nilaya 209 Child Marriage Dirghatamas 41 Christ 1,41,43 Diti 8 Christian Religion 191 Divodães 29 Chitra 228 Divorce 210, 226 civilization Clarisse Bader On, 21n, 58n, 144 classical literature 180 co-education 223, 226 Drama 179 Colnet 7 Drapatic literature 176 Combyses 14h Dramatic performance 160 Conjugal 199 Drāpi 161, 162, 163, 165 Contractual 65 | Draupadi 116 Contractual marriage 65 Dress 156 Consummation of marriage 84 Baterial of cloth 157 Cosmology of the Rgreda 7 skin 157 Council Chambers of Madras and the - wool 159 United Provinces 220 -cotton 160,215 Courtesan 18, 181, 186, 200, 205 Articles 161 Comell, Jatakas 124 Brocades 164 co-wife 105, 107 | Stitched clothes 165 Cyavāna 56,109 ! Drgadvali 26, 80, 128 Cybole 9 Druids 22 Drupada 124 D dubita 81 Dugrazta dakšiņā 60 Dutch 103 dampati 26, 27 Dvija 190 219 1 T ·INDEX 235 dvijih 101 Gaupāyanas 177, 216 Djaks 230 Gloşå 49, 51, 60, 69, 115, 176, 198, Drivā 5,9 199, 216 Dyavā bhumi 10 Glaghra 165 Djāsä Kęāmā 10 Gürhapatyāya 102 Djavu Prthus 10 Goldon age 190 Draus 6, 17, 31 Gointi 28 Goyutlukam 116 L gšliapati 198 8phapitni 198 car ring 107,216 Gihyasülras 218 East India Company 103 Gshya Sutra(Pāraskara) 11 Earth 7,8,11 Greece 23, 185 Egypt 42, 126, 191 Groeks 9 Egyptians 31 Grecian civilization 2 Egyptian Dynasty 2 Groek civilization 217 Woman 146 --literature 217 Elnn 42-mythology 198 Flopainonts 200 Grogory Thaumaturgus 206 Eos 12 198 Grillith 76, 78 107, 163, 164, 179 epics 20,219 Gungu 215 epio ing thology 204 othnic principles 218 H eugenics 217 Euripidos 190 Hachasakab 214 l'uropo 99,210 Hali 99 Exposuro of legitimate children 205 Haimavati 129 Exogamous 118 | Hair coiffuro 168 Harappa 42 F Hardy 7 Haritamsa Purana 124 Facturn Valot 71 Harmya 171 Feinalo-slaves 78, 149, 150 Hartley O 47, 212 Festal gathering and Assorbly 185 Hebrows 127, 191 Iino arts 174 175, 179, 201, 208 Hebrew Religion 191 l'ootwor 165 Hobrow writings 2 Tranchiso 226 Hellonio Ideal 217 Froodom 39,43 HIerodotus 98, 201 I'ronch 103 Hindu 17, 89, 196, 171 Furniture 170 -Community 67, 197 Funeral 91 - husband T'uneral lemn 92 -sculpturo 167 Fanoral rites 91 Hindukusli 90, 184 222 Ilippocrone 164 0 Hiranja drūpi Tiranjahasta 54, 100, 199 123 Hirany apesag 104 Gambler's hymn 190 48, 110 Homer 190 Gandhiras 61, 159 160, 176 Homeric Athens 9 Gandharsa 30 61, 69, 70, 71, 82, 85, -hymns 89 86 114 180, 211 Honey moon 204 Gandhi MI K 223 Hopkin 28 Gaiga Hotrā 24,82 39 Githt Hung 103, 318 217 Gauls House-vite 4 137 ·296 INDEX I K 51, 197 Ili 22, 24, 25 Kaegi 46, 97, 191 Jllegitimate children 217 Kaikeyi 181 Iliad 190 Kaksiran 59, 54, 66, 60, 61, 62, 63, Illustrated Weekly of India 125 08, 73, 109, 149, 176 Incest 90, 112, 118, 122, 123, 214 Kakşivan-Pajriya 148 Incestuous marriage 116, 126 Kálidása si, 35, 47, GG, 71, 79, 108, Indian Adam and Eve 117 186, 147, 169, 171 -Culture 47 Kamadyu 53, 70, 71, 100 Eos 12 Kāmāyani 177 -social matrix 918 Kanya 189 Indian Philosophy hana 51 Women 99, 207, 208 kanya Indo-Aryan 1, 44, 98, 103, 175, 180, knaya-dana 67 183, 194, 201, kanyanā 51 209, 212, 216, kanina ka 31 216 Kashmir 160 -.comrnunity 47 Kast 125, 189 ociety 199, 200, 205 Kaſyapa 129 mwoinen 170, 191 Kausalya 194 Indu-European 1 Kautilya 204 Indo-European age 97 Kava 69, 78, 109, 110, 149 Indo-Germanic race 98 Kayans 23n Indo-Iraniin period 27 Khela 143, 381, 182, 216 Indrs 3, 20, 31, 32, 79, 89, 91, 102, Kpatriya 69, 93, 125, 175 101, 105, 106, 113, 130. 182, 181, Klyrun 2311 139, 113, 115, 150, 153, 177, 182, Kildare 2311 187, 190, 193, 194, 195, 197, 205, Kinuha 77 207 hos 170 Indra's Mother 177 kora 171 Indrant 20. 81, 105, 106, 130, 132. Kosala 125 143, 144, 177, 190, Kosaladusi 123 202. 216, 219 Kriņa 71, 91, 124 Indu 197 Kriņa.Dupāyana Vyclus 124 Indas Valley 4.2 Kriéra 123 Indus-Vallay cirilization 160 Krumu 28 Inter marriage 69, 61, 215 1 gomillas 109 Israelities 219 kabla 28 Ireland 23 | Kalin: Entureilungslufen 16 kurnarila 127 kasa 101 janasaḥ 104 janitra 10 Langdon-David 217 jära 195, 196 I.anguage 170 járini 196 lan uninn 191 Jalala 124 Lecture on th Science of language Jealoue Wife's Spell 105. 177 V. Volley 117 Jere 213, 214 Inpirata 203, 213 Journal of the Benares Ilirdu Life and Tendong of Mohammad by University 196 Amar Ali 210,214 Journal of the Royal Ariotic Literature 176 Society 2 Lorámadra 27, 176,216 Jabū 177 LOTE ·INDEX 287 mitrain 197 modoru Indian ladies 161 Niat 8 Hindu brido 172 Vacdonell, A A 9, 10, 12, 16, 21, 26, Mohen Jo-Daro 42, 100 27, 81, 85, 90, 133 Moghuls 103 Vādni 199 Vohammad 34,219 Vagha 76 mohuts 166 Vaghavan 129 moon 17. 78 Jahübharata 41, 49, 71, 123, 121, 182, Nomer Williams 208 204 Monogamy 90, 101, 111 Vabākosal. 123 Blonogamous murrage 218 Mahirastru 125 Noohorji, R K, Dr. 9, 209 Mahi Morality, normal 193 Vainats 177,216 mother 4, 144 Vanasára 171, 189 Mudgala 182 Jlāndhāts 123 Mudgalini 182, 183, 216, 219 Vanu 23, 123, 111, 147 VASS 162, 182 Manusmrit 65 mudra 27 Cousing, Margarot I 209, 210, 219 Mutr 169 227 Music 176, 181, 204 Marriago 17, 41, 42, 48, 49, 55, 56, 57, mythology 174, 179 61, 65, 66, 67, 69, 71, 76, 78, 79, 81, 87, 89, 90, 91, 97, 109, 111, 115, 125, N 126, 148, 149, 167, 174, 175, 189, 187, 188, 205, 209, 210, 211, 212, Magaraka 169 214, 216, 224, 226 Nahuşa-Aila 123 Marriago Ceremony 79 Naidu Mrs Sarojini 220 Jarriage hymn 50 Naktosāsa 17 Varital rites B3 Nala 212 Vrudvşdha 28 Narmada 129 Marut C, 97, 112, 113, 111, 199, 168, Nārāśamsi 77 161, 166 Nāsatya, 199 Vax Müller 6, 79, 117, 127 Nature 2,17 maryasri 195 Naqil maryo 195, 196 Nausicao 190 mits nechlaco 210 inätarı Nefertarı (Egyptian) 215 inātā pitarah 144 Neştar 82 mátari pitara 141 Night 17 Mätarıvan 83, 131 Nilo 42 Vatriarchal stato 191 rusku Vitula-kanya 125 i nivi 162 Vahişi 108 Niyoga 99, 100 115, 205, 219 Medes 917 609e•ring 205 Jeghaduta 69 Nirſti 26 Mehta, V X 90,167 nrtu 161, 165, 180, 181, 200 Venander 216 nuptial rites 96, 109, 209 metaphysics 135, 179 N. W Province 165 Vatronymic 115 Military scienco 171, 175 0 Training 182 Odyssey 190 Vinert a 2,28 ohn 169 Vitalşará I AT 39 opnamonts 165, 209, 215 Mitra 88 3, 119 Oscar Wilde Mitra-Varuņa 23 Oldenberg 7 167 16G ·298 INDEX 199 167 212 Pūşan 36 ryramid P Prşņi 27 Pithivi 5, 7, 9, 25, 91 Pāņdavas 116 Prostitution (Babylonian type) 201 Pindu 116,199 punarbhū 95 pānigrahaņa 87 Punjab 160, 165, 184, 205 paramour 195 Purandhi 25, 81, 100, 102, 151 Pärendi 26 Purāa 26, 125, 126, 127, 178 Paramātman 22 Puranic literature 8, 118 Parsu 144 tradition 116, 129, 124, 126, 128 Parental Incost 120 purdah 185, 189, 216 pariņaya Puri Parivetta 54 Purukutza 100, 123 Paruvşktı 108 Purumilha 50, 57, 58, 61, 71 Paruşml 28, 159 Purumitra 100, 120 Passnudi 125 Pururavă 31, 13, 62, 72, 89, 109, Pastyā 154, 178, 200, 201 Pathans 103 -Aila 78 Parvati 8,127 palerfamilias 42 patriarchal society porfumes 169 R Pericles 190 Persephone 28 Rabindranath Tagore, Dr. 228 Porsia 219 Radhakrishnan, Sir 8. 2.22 Pesag 161, 161, 165 Raghu 35, 47, CG Posamsı 165, 160 Raghurainfa 85 Peswaz 163 Raibhi philosophy 185 Rājagtha 201 Pischel 7. 186 Rajanya 65, 66, 57, 69, 60, 61, 70, 210 Pitara 10 Rajputana 167 puty-Lanya 123, 124 Raha 25 l'ivari 124 Räkşasa 65, 71 Plato 190 Ruins 124,218 Pootry 176, 179 | Rumeyana 11,181 Paligali 109 Pathavili 48, 56, 69, 143 Political conferenc 219 Red Indian19 23 -Inarriago 109' Benarriaga 92, 95, 96 Polygamy 20, 101, 103, 103, 107, 103, \ 1kligion 11 111, 149, 199, 203, 213 Nerull of Asian romanhood 228 Polsandry 30. 112, 114, 115, 116, 199, greda 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 21, 22, 205, 219 21, 26, 29, 80, 81, 82,-31, 96, 99, Portugeso 103 10, 43, 46, 49, 51, 53-60, 61, 62, 61, Post-I{omneric d 11 216 65, 70, 71, 73, 74, 70, 30, 92, 95, 9C time 166 97, 100, 101, 102, 101, 109, 103, 110 post-Muslix pro 167 111, 112, 116, 117, 118, 122, 123, Prajšpati 26, 62,197 ! 126, 127, 150, 187, 189, 139, 140, Prajapatya CU, G6, 67, 65, 214 141, 117, 149, 150, 150, 167, 160, Pron Xath, Dr. 125, 126, 127 162, 10%, 161, 165, 166, 167, 109, Pratiloa3 36.62 170, 171, 173, 174, 175, 176, 178, Pre-Jaurgın els arti- 173, 160, 161, 162, 163, 184, 185, -lerracotta 166 186, 167, 164, 110, 191, 199. 200, Pre-ngredie society 176) 201, 205, 206, 207, 209, 210, 214 Praxitele 191 Porodica 149, 207, 210 priusten 22-cisilizatın? 160 proge 170 coinmunity 154 ·INDEX 289 . 124 -custom 89 161 Sarası at 22, 23, 25, 28, 81, 164, 208 ---family 40 Sari 161 marriage 89, 137 Sashar, S C, Prof. 85, 26, 55, 62, 69, --period 218 98, 107, 111, 114, 122, 162, 164, 165, -poets 1,25 170,202 -Samhuta 2, 50, 55, 79, 135, 175, 178, Sarpırājai 177,216 195 $nsivasi 50, 57, 58, 59, 61, 146 -fociety 8, 46, 68, 88, 90, 181, 185, $stati 62, 159 199, 206, 223 Satapatha Briühnung 30, 31, 163 Wafo 152 Satrajit 124 rings 167 Satavat river goddess 28 Satinti 124 Rjraśva 195 | Siti 90, 219 Rodasi 113, 114, 168 Santa 70, 75, 101, 112, 176 Romasa 59, 60, 61, 62, 176 Savitſ 5, 77, 79, 81 102, 142, 151 Roman Empire 227 S stri, A Maladev 209 lodies 218 Sarıyū 91 -motherhood 227 Satyavāna 212 Roth, Prof. 116 saabhigga 131 Rs. 3, 4, 5, 11, 17, 27, 36, 37, 56 Süvitri 212 Ilta Semitic races 126 Rudras 3, 21, 141 Seclusion of woman 169, 189 Rukmıņi 71 Shaw, GB 211 shawl 116, 161, 215 S Sic 161, 162 Sister marriage 127 Sabha 186, 189, 201 Sindhu 28, 184 Sabdabrahma 22 | Shikai 123 Saci-Paulomi 20, 106, 177 singing 201, 205 Sadharani 113 Sinival! 25, 168 Sngar 123 | Suphi 109 sahadlırmıņi 152 Sui Sait a fostrval 201 sister Sakne 109, 125,218 Sitā 11 124 129, 212 ankli 207 Siva 22 205, 212 Sakti 22 Shuvo girls 107 109 111, 148, 149, 214 Saktaisin 22 Smpti 61.65 67,218 Salmal Sobhari hanya 111 Sama Veda 180 Sony 11 18 51 67 75 82 85, 86, Sumnje 203 102 112, 113 114, 189, 143, 145, Simii? 180, 204 176 somājis 203 Sumna (beverago) 199 Samuins 39, 40, 45, 46, 51, 51, 179, juico 180, 188 180, 185, 186, 189, 202, 201, 205, --plant 166, 209 216 Socul conference 219 Saman 203 Socrates 190 Sanhla 30, 33, 55, 56, 62, 64, 65, 90, Srijaya 124 116, 122, 190, 195, 137, 141, 160 Sțiisi 121 163, 169, 173, 17", 180 Soplocise 190 Samhatāśva 123 Sparta 11, 215, 217 Sumaharas 210 Spartans 214, 215 Samulon 86, 161 spirita 13 Surd Act 996 Sraddha 26, 177 Sarinya 105 91 Srårans Sarastin 29, 102 Srutabandhu 163 ·240 INDEX Supiti. stridhana 87, 69, 146, 209 Ugā 5, 6, 12, 13, 16, 17, 24, 31, 127, Subandhu 177 198, 161, 179, 180, 184, 198, 200, subhadra 71, 182 208 subhaga 29 Uşasonaktă 17 Sūdrā 64 | Urņi-śámulya 159 Sukrūcārya 62 uttariya 162 Qughnyt 61 utea ya 201 Suka 124 Sumangali 80 V Sunaḥšepa Sungá Period 161 Vác 21, 22, 30, 31 123 Vadhryāśva 29 Sunſtā 25 vadhūs 69, 79, 110, 111, 149, 187 Şuşoma 28 vadhumanto 148 Sutudri 28 vadhúya 20 Sürya 5, 16, 17, 24, 127, 128 valıya 170, 171 Sürya 19, 20, 21, 50, 55, 67, 69, 70, Vaišiputra 62 75, 76, 77, 78, 81, 87, Vaiſyas 55 112, 114, 119, 121, Viaávānara 105 176, 208, 216 Vâjasaneyi Sarithitā 4,90 Svanaya 60, 62, 63, 148, 176 Vajirā 125 Svayamvara 65, 67, 70, 74, 75, 168 vāk 178, 179, 208. 219 Svetaketu 41 Vālmiki 159 Syāvasva 56, 67, 48, 50, 58, 59, 60, Vāmadeva 157 61, 73, 187 Vara Syed Ameer All 213 Varnas 62, 63 Swinging 181 Varutri 24, 82 Varuņa 3, 5, 17, 28, 51, 79, 102, 119, 1 123, 109 Varuņāni 28 Tälpya 170, 171 Võsa 161, 162 Tärpya 169 Vasistha 80 Tennyson 15 Vasus 4 Tertullinn 206 Vagukara's Wife 177, 216 Toutons 218 Vatsa 69, 79, 110, 149 Thomis 3 Vätsyiyana 116, 169 Themistocks 191 Vanui Purana 124 Thucidydog 191, 216 Våvāta 108 Tiber 218 Vedānta philosophy 179 Ttthonus 15 Vedas 8, 9, 47, 117, 174, 221 Trngadasyu 111, 122, 126, 150 Vodic &50 148 Trita Aptya 13 | --authority 98 Turks 103 Vedic Indet 95, 162, 186 Tursum Baya 220 Vedic Mythology 8, 86, 96 Tvaşta 14, 119 Vedic period 179 -portrs U --Bociety 55 texts 6 Udayana 71 Vent 123 Udayabhadru 125 Vidatha 183, 186, 189, 201 United Provincia 172,920 Vilára 204 Upisena 201 Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit, Mrs. 220 Ullysses 190 Fikramgrafiya 91, 73, 108 Urraái 23, 80, 72, 73, 87, 108, 178, Vimads 50. 53, 60, 70, 71, 73, 100, 179, 160, 200, 201 187, 199, 200 ·INDEX 241 Vinaya 204 Wilson 2, 86, 148 Vipasa 28 Woman 72 Viprabandhu 177 Yomon sages 159 Vipracıttı 123-oldiers 205 Virajā 128 | Women's right in ancestral pro- Višah 101 perty 224 Visas 55, 213 Vasasanam 87 X VSpala 143, 181, 182, 216 Vivāvasu 51, 52, 68, 78, 85, 86 Xenophon 191 Viſvavärä 176 Vašvāmitra 129, 178 Y Vivasvān 24, 118, 123, 180 Vrasvat 117 yajamāna 3, 101 Vi vedevās 114 yajñas 110 Vitastā 28 Yajur l'eda 2, 25, 64, 174 Vrsālap 192, 190 Yama 24, 117, 118, 119, 121, 126, 179, Vitra 31, 150, 205 201 Yami 24, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 178, W 179, 201, 218 Wober 96 | Yamuna 28 Wallis 7 yātra 204 Wedding dress 86 Yayatı 62, 122, 123, 126 West 219, 220, 227 Yašodā 123 Wife, her dignity 129 yojana 16 her duties 133 yrşā 51 her religious duties 51 hor temporal duties 137 yosanā 51 other dutros 51 legal status 146 Yadhisthira 149 social status 158 yus ati 51 other side of the picture 159 her dross 156 Z Widows 91, 92, 94, 95, 96, 97, 99, 218, 219 Zimmer 86 194 yogan 143 yoşit ·ERRATA Read considered for considred 3 of riotous ofriotous 57 9) but dut 9 9 1 on p. 43, line 31. » p. 45, 22. p. 75, 10. p. 168, sub-heading. p. 182, line 22. 15. Hair-coiffure Hair-cuiffure 3) heels heals their there » p. 188, » p. 207, W88 were 9 23, 29. them then p. 218, , Change the verse printed under footnote No. 4 on p. 150 into the following: स्त्रियो हिदास आयुधानि चक्रे किं मा करमबला अस्य सेनाः। ibid., V. 30, 9.