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·5715
AIDS TO GENERAL CULTURE SERIES
ANCIENT
EUROPE
BENOY KUMAR SARKAR, M.A.
LECTURER IN HISTORY AND POLITICAL SCIENCE, BENGAL
NATIONAL COLLEGE, CALCUTTA, AUTHOR OF Science
of Education and Inductive Method of
Teaching Series IN BENGALI
AJ!
UTAR
Insta #909.
MAJU,
HOWRAH.
Calcutta
, S. K. LAHIRI & CO.,
54. COLLEGE STREET,
1911
Price As. 12

·Cotton
gress
PRINTED BY JYOTISII CHANDRA GNOSI
57, Harrison Road, Calcuttii.

·PREFACE TO TIJE AIDS TO GENERAL CULTURE SERIES. The Series consists of books on the following suhjects: 1. History of English Literature. 2. Ancient, Mediaval and Modern Europe. 3. Economics. 4. Constitutional History of Modern States. 5. Political Science and International Law. It has had, its origin in my practice, during the last three or four years, of leading my brothers and pupils at home through these subjects, irrespective of their school work. It seeks to present in a handy forin the more important and generally accepted ideas of recognised authorities on those branches of study without which no education may be called liberal. The object throughout has been in the first place, to create an interest in the subjects by giving a knowledge of the main topics that fall within their scope, and in the second place, to introduce the readers to a study of the original Text-books and „Manuals to which the series may be regarded as a ·[ ii ] guide and help. And it should hence be regarded. not as a substitute for, but as a supplement to, the study of the works of the master-minds which can never be replaced. Thus from its origin and scope it can have no pretence to originality except in the grouping and arrangement of the topics, and in the uniform presentation of thein in a tabular form ; the whole matter being thrown, not into the form of Questions and Answers, or of mere summaries of paragraphs,--methods generally adopted in cram-books in this country, but into the form of a systematic analysis of ideas and detection of the salient points in the treatises. Thus 1. The book on English Literature is an analysis of some of the more important topics contained in Hutton's Literary Essays, Green's Short History of the English People, Stopford Brooke's Primer, the article on American Literature in the Encyclopæiliu Britannica, Shaw's History of English Literature, Dr. Johnson's Lives of Poets, Dowden's Studies in Literature, several books in the English Men of Letters Series, Ward's Dramatic Literature, Chambers' The Medieval Stage, Raleigh's The English Novel, Marsh's English Language, Low's English Literature, and Chambers' Cyclopedia of English Literature. 2. The Outlines of Ancient, Medieval and Modern Europe is in three volumes and is based on Freeman's Historical Geography, General Sketch and English Constitution, Hallain's Middle Ages, Bury's Later, ·[iii] Roman Empire, Bryce's Holy Roman Empire, Frederic Harrison's The Meaning of History, Guizot's History of Civilisation in Europe, Oman's The Dark Ages, Emerton's Introduction to the Middle Ages, Thatcher and Schwill's Europe in the Middle Ages, Mahaffy's Greek Life and Thought, Hassall's Handbook of European History and Balance of Power, Lodge's Modern Europe, and Seeley's Expansion of England. 3. The book on Constitutions is based solely on Woodrow Wilson's The State, the “ best existing manual ” in English on the subject. 4. For the volume on Economics I have used portions of Bagehot's Economic Studies and Lombard Street, Keyne's Scope and Method of Political Economy, Marshall's Principles of Economics, Pierson's Principles of Economics, and Gide's Principles of Political Economy 5. The book on Political Science and International Law has been written with a view to familiarise the readers with the principal contents of Sidgwick's Development of European Polity and Elements of Politics, Mill's Representative Government, Bluntschli's Theory of the State, Woodrow Wilson's The State, Wheaton's International Law, Halleck's Elements of International 'Law, Smith's Primer on International Law, Lawrence's Hand-book of Public International Lazy, McKechnie's The State and the Individual, Burgess' Political Science and Constitutional Law.

·[iv] 6. Professor Seeley's Introduction tu Political Science has received an independent place in the Series because the study of his works generally is not only a specialisation, a training in Political Philosphy, but is, in a sense, itself a liberal education. The charming rigour, with which he has throughout applied the Inductive Method, is indeed a dialectic masterpiece ; and the conversational form, into which his discourses have been thrown, reaps all the advantages of the Socratic Method, with its penetrating directness and abiding freshness, which alone can powerfully stimulate the intellect, and start independent lines of thought and investigation. The Series is published in the hope that, having proved useful to pupils at home, it may be of use to general readers, who want to get ready-made in a short compass the principal ideas about European Civilisation in its manifold aspects, and to be a little up-to-date and modern in thought ; and even to candidates for exain. inations who want to catch thc proininent points, and get the clue to an intelligent memorising-a purpose which is very well served by an analytical presentation. The books, however, cannot but suffer from the disadvantage of not being exhaustive and thorough, because thcy are not backed, as they were in the case of those for whom they were originally intended, by further readings from the works of specialists. Finally, in introducing the series to the public I have the pleasure of acknowledging my indebtedness to ·[v] . iny friends Babu Radhakuinud Mookerji, M.A., Premchand Roychand Scholar, Mallik Professor of Indian History and Economics in the National Council of Education, Bengal, and Babu Radhakamal Mookerji, M.A.,' who have been my constant companions throughout in the preparation of the series. CALCUTTA. 1 October, 1910.) BENOY KUMAR SARKAR India Press. Calcutta.

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·CONTENTS. PRELIMINARY. Origin of Nations. BOOK I. ... 11 12 14 15 92 16 16 Hellebic Period (up to B.C. 338). Chapter 1. General Characteristics. II. The Early History of Greece. III. Persian Wars IV. The Hegemony of Athens and Peloponnesian War V. Spartan Supremacy VI. The Hegemony of Thebes VII. The Hegemony of Macedon VIII. Attempts 'at National Action on the part of the Greeks. IX. Hellenic Literature Section 1. General remarks 2. The Early Early literature (up to 475 B.C. i 3. The Age of Pericles 4. Attic Literature (475-300 B.C.) Chapter X. Hellenic constitutions. Section 1. The Constitution of Sparta 2. The Constitution of Athens... 18 18 18 ... 19 26 > 27 33 34 19 ·11 BOOK Il, Hellenistic Period . a :36 39 39 > 11 12 >> 14 15 (4th-2nd Cent. B.C.) Chapter I. Greece as. World-power- Alexander and the Diodachi ... II. The Golder Age of the Hellenistic Period (289-220 B.C.) Secttion 1. Characteristics 2. Egypt under the Ptolemies (305--221 B.C.) 3. Syria (281-22 B.C.) 4. Pergamum (263--197 B.C.)... 5. Rhodes (305--220 B.C.) 6. Macedonia under the Antignids (277-239 D.C.), 7. Macedonia and Greece (277 -220 B.C.) Chapter III. Decline of Hellenism (220) 146 B.C.) Section 1. The Crisis of Hellenism-- “The Cloud in the West ... 2. The Gradual Subjection of Hellenism to Rome (200 -146) Chapter IV. Hellenistic literature The Alexandrine Period. (300-146 1.c.) foj +7 .30) ... > 53 57 ·u BOOK III. 60) 61 >> .. 62 62 63 Roman Commonwealth (up to 1st Cent. B.C.) Chapter I. General Characteristics. II. The Making of Rome III. The Expansion of Rome Section 1. Constitution founded 2. Consolidation of Latium 3. Conqnest of Italy 4. Extra-Italian Conquests Ohapter IV. The Civil Wars. V. Causes of Failure of the Roman Republic. VI. Roman Literature Section 1. Pre-Literary Age 2. Republic 3. Literature of the Ciceronian Age 64 68 72 72 73 ... > 78 . . . ... BOOK IV. The Heathen Roman Empire (1st.–3rd. Cent. A.D.) Chapter I. General Characteristics. 82 II. Emperors. Section 1. Augustus 83 2. The Claudian Emperors 3. Flavian Emperors 84 4. The Good Emperors 5. The Praetorian Guards 85 83 ... > >> 85 ... >> ·V 87 . 88 91 .. Chapter III. Literature under the under the Early Roman Empire Section 1. Characteristics of the Augustan age 2. The Golden Age of Roman Literature 8. Characteristics of Post-Augustan Literature 4. The Silver Age of Roman Literature 5. Hellenistic Literature under the Roman Empire Chapter IV. Roman Constitution Section 1. Monarchy 2. Republic 3. Empire >>> > 95 98 98 : ; 100 ·PUBLIC LIBRARY 376 AJU Estd 1902. JIJ HCWRAH PRELIMINARY ORIGIN OF THE NATIONS A. Three grand divisions of mankind. 1. Parent Aryan: a. Language-parent of Sanskrit, Persian Greek, Latin and English. This linguistic kinship proved by i. cominon grammatical forms ii. common stock of the most necessary words. b. Social life-language proves that it was i, not-savage ii. ., highly cultivated one a. ploughing (Eng. ere, Lat. arare, Sans. arya) building, grinding (mill and mola), and other mechanical arts. B. Social institutions organised-family relations established. c. Government-language proves that i. it was regular and fully established - (rex, rice, Rajan) ii. the polity contained the monarchical, aristocratic and democratic elements in their germs.

·[ 2 ] d. Religion--language proves i. worship of the powers of Nature, (Sky- Zeus=Dyaus). ii. worship of heroes. 2. Semitic : 6. Subdivisions i. Hebrews ii. Phoenicians iii. Arabs b. Seats-mainly South Western Asia. 1. Religion-the unity of Godhead in i. Judaism ii. Christianity iii. Mahoinetanism d. Special characteristics—the Semites have kept up inore of the character of one family than the Aryans. i. kept much more in the same part of the world. ii. languages have parted off much less from one another than the Aryan. 3. Turanian (Cf. Persian Turen (= land of clarkness) opposed to Iran (=land of light.)] i.e., Non-Aryan and Non-Semitic a. European i. Fins ii. Laps, iii. Basques of the Pyrenees. .

·[ 3 ] b. Asiatic i. Chinese ii. Mongols iii. Turks. B. Parent Aryan. 1. Asia. a. Hindus. b. Persians. 2. Europe. i. Central Europe and Central Asia form one solid inass of unbroken land. ii. Northern Europe and Northern Asia form a system of islands and peninsulas. iii. Southern parts of each form likewise a system of islands and peninsulas and received the first waves of migration from the primitive settlements of the Parent Aryans. 11. Greece-a land of islands and peninsulas-in this respect an epitome of Europe. b. Italy. c. Spain. C. History of Europe. I. Settlement. 1, Greeks. i. the first Aryans to civilise Europe.

·[ 4 ] ii. but not necessarily the first Settlers iii. more allied to the Italians than to the Germans or Hindoos—hence parted off from them later than from the latter. . 2. Italians found Celtic people in the northern part of Italy and drove them westward. 3. Celts i. the first wave of Aryan migration in Central Europe. ii. Gaul - British Islands-parts of Spain, Italy and Germany. ii. dispossessed the non-Aryans of those regions and drove them into corners. The Basques are the arly survivals of those Turanians, iv. were in their turn driven into corners by fresh swarms of Aryans e. g. by Italians in Italy, and Teutons in France and Britain. v. their languages survive only in in Wales, Ireland and parts of France. 4. Teutons or Dutch i. forefathers of the Germans, English, Danes, Swedes and Norwegians. ii. Spread themselves from Germany.

·[ 5 ] ... iii. Came into contact with the Celts in France and England, and with Non-Aryans in Scandinavia. iv. Generally merged themselves in the Celts or accepted Roman language and civilisation. v. But retained their characteristics in England, Gerinany and Scandinavia. vi. Called themselves theouisc that is, the people, as opposed to the Welsh i.e. the foreigners. Cf. the following antitheses : Hindu Mlechcha. Arva Dasyu. Islam Kafer. Christian Pagan. Hellenes Barbarians. 5. Slaves and Lithuanians i. Russia, Poland, bohemia, Prussia, Lithuania. ii. Conquered and dispossessed by Non-Aryans in Hungary, by the Magyars and by Turks in Turkey. iii. Their language has undergone the least change from the Parent Aryan Language. II. Three Periods States that were in being before the Roman Dominion began, and out of whose union the Roman Dominion was formed. Of these • • • 1.

·[ 6 ] 2. Greece is the most important and the only one having a history. The Romans form the centre of European history, because Rome founded a Universal Empire, and by breaking up, gave birth to States which form modern Europe. The States that arose out of the breaking up of the Roman dominion—the Teutons. 3. D. History of Ancient Europe a. history of Turanians and Celts in and Celts in Northern, Western and Central Europe ---Primitive civilisation. 1. England-Celts, Goidels and Brythons. 2. France-Celts. The Celts played no great part except when they came under Romali' or, Teutonic influences 3. Scandinavia-- Turanian-Laps and Fins. 4. Spain-Basques. b. history of Greeks and Italians-Grako-Roman civilisation. E. Medieval and Modern History of Europe. a. history of the Teutons—"the barbarians.” 1. Italy-settlement of the East Goths. 2. Spain-West Goths.

·[7]
3. France-Franks mixed with the existing
Celts.
4. England-Teutons preponderant over the
Celts.
5. Germany-exclusively Teutons.
6. Scandinavia—Teutons preponderant over
Non-Aryans.
7.
Greece.
h. history of the Slavonians-always lagged
behind the other Aryans.
I.
Russia.
Prussia.
2.
c. history of the Non-Aryans
Hungary.
Turkey.
2.

·BOOK I. HELLENIC PERIOD. CHAPTER I. General Characteristics. sion; A. The importance of the Greeks : discoverers of the art of Politics and of governing men by discusnurse of statesmen, orators, generals and great historians; Freedomn, political and intellectual-science and literature of every kind ; beginners of all "modern' ideas. B. The land of the Greeks-Hellas comprising many little Hellases 1. Greece-the motherland of all, the Hellenes-a land of islands and peninsulas—«våshed by the seas and intersected by the mountains-hence the little city states, each with an autonomous government. 2. Colonial plantations--forming the Magna Græcia-politically independent but bound to the mainland by social, linguistic, religious and other ties. i. Ægean islands. ii. Coasts of Macedonia and Thrace. iii. Coasts of Asia Minor. iy, Ionian islands, to the west of Greece. -

·[ 9 ]
v. Southern Italy and Sicily.
vi. Illyria.
vii. African coast-Kyrene.
viii. Euxine and Pontic seas,
ix. Gaul-Massilia,
C. The people of Hellas-the Hellenes
1. not perhaps the first Aryan Settlers of Europe,
though the first civilisers ; allied more to the
Illyrians, Thracians, Macedonians etc. specially
to the Italians, than to the other branches of the
Aryan Fainily: Called those peoples Barbarians
whose languages they could not understand.
Hellas Proper contained no Barbarians (the
Ætolians, Acarnanians, and other tribes of the
border, though allied to the Hellenes, were more
or less Barbarians). The colonies also contained
no Barbarisus, for either the original inhabitants
were assimilated with them and the aliens (e. g.
Phænicians) or were driven out.
Their contact with the Phænicians
(c) as Traders
(b) as Colonisers
who taught them several things-above all, the
alphabet.
2. Forms of Government-little autonomous City
States--trying to get the Hegemony over
the others-or, as later, forming themselves
into Leagues.

·4 [ 10 ] (1. Earliest Aryan Polity (Heroic Ages) i. monarchical element the King called Basileus-leader both in peace and waralso the religious head-hereditary--divine; ii. aristocratic element--the Council of Elders, iii. democratic element-the Assembly of the whole people. b. Government by Few replaces One-manrule-aristocracy-certain privileged families fill all public offices. The age of the Tyrants-who under the abuses of aristocracies usurped the sole authority with the help of the people, to whom they offered hopes of a democratic form of government, e. g. Pisistratus. d. Democracies Governments by the Many which asserted themselves under the abuses of the weak tyrants...) 3. Religion--worship of the powers of nature- Zeus, the head of all. D. The States 1. Peloponnesus a. Mykenae or b. Argos 2. 3. c. Sparta Isthmus-Corinth. Northern Greece a. Orchomenus b. Megara c. Athens ·( 11 ) d. Thebes 4. Colonies a. Asia Minos--Miletus b. Southern Italy.-Sybaris c. Sicily-Syracuse CHAPTER II. The Early History of Greece. No accounts of contemporaries--but materials for history of those times supplied by traditions preserved by later writers and fragments of poems. 1. The legendary period -Monarchy (with a council and an assembly) The Trojan War (which is perhaps an allegory of the settlements and expansion of the Hellenes in the East). The Heroic Ages-mirrored in the poems of the Homeric Cycle. 2. The period of the making of the Greek States -the age of aristocracies and colonisation (a) Dorian settlements in the Peloponnesus- Argos, Sparta, Corinth ; Expansion of Sparta by wars with the Messenians (7th century)--the Spartan poet Tyrtæus ; Sparta organised under the aristocratic and military discipline of Lycurgus.

·[ 12 ] 1 (6) Ionian Settlements in Northern Grrec: i. Athens-Asia Minor colonised oth i tury) - beginning of her democracy-Solou's achievement (6th Century). ii. Megara-dispute between the nobles ind the people--reflected in the poems of "hengnis. 3. The age of tyrants (a) Sicyon. () Corinth, (c) Megara, (d) Athens-Pisistratus. (e) The Italian and Sicilian Colonies. 4. The age of Democracy-Athens-Expulsion of the Tyrants-establishment of demacracy by Cleisthenes in the face of Spartan oppo-ition. CHAPTER III. The Period of the Persian Wars (5th Century B.C.) Herodotus writes his history from the accounts of those who lived at the time. A. Causes : Persian aggrandisement under Cyrus (6th Century)-overthrow of Babylon, conquest of Lydia (Cresus)--consequent supremacy over the Greek Colonies of Asia ;

·[ 13 ] Athens helps the colonies in their revolt against oriental despotism-burns Sardis--and refuses to be guided by the command of Darius to take back Hippias the tyrant. B.' Wars (5th Century) 1. The first Persian War (490 B. C.)-Marathon -Miltiades the Athenian defeats Darius and Datis. 2. The second Persian War (480 B.C.)-Athens and Sparta combined Vs. Xerxes and Mardonius Battles of Thermopyla and Artemesium Death of Leonidas the Spartan The Greeks defeated and look to their tribal interests-general defection ; Flight of the Athenians from their city—the Persians burn Athens ; Greek victories-by sea at Salamis (480)-by land at Platiei (479)-and both by land and sea at Mvkalie (479). C. Effects. Growth of Athens as the power in Greece—Success in ilm- ensures the triumph of her democracy- Spirit is thrown into the background; The legemony of Athens-as the head of the Confulercy of Delos—the policy of aggrandisement and imperialism-the age of Pericles; Full blown deinocracy-Athens becomes the " School of Hellas" ; Consequent jealousy of Sparta-seeds of the Pe oponnesian War.

·[ 1+ ] CHAPTER IV. The Period of the Peloponnesian War or the hegemony of Athens_(5th century). History by contemporaries-Thucydides the Athenian commander, and Xenophon, who wrote an account of the later period. A. Prelude-the Supremacy of Athens under Pericles excites jealousy of Sparta ; Conflict of race between lonians and Dorians of principle between democracy and aristocracy. B. Wars (+31-405 B. C) 1. First Period (431-421)-indecisive--peace of Nicias. 2. Second Period (415-405)-Sicilian Expedition against Syracuse-Athenians altogether defeated-and their navy destroyed by the Spartans who helped the Syracusans in their scige-revolt of the Athenian allies and Per-ian help to Sparta ; Battle of Ægospotamos-Athenians defeated by the Spartan Lysander (405) Athens besieged. C. Effects Surrender of Athenians to the Spartans-Athens loses all her doininion and her naval power-becomes a member of the Spartan alliance ; Rise of Sparta as the power in Greece-overthrow of Athenian democracy ; Rule of the Thirty Tyrants in Athens set up by Sparta.

·15 CHAPTER V. The Period of Spartan supremacy (405-371) A. Condition of Athens-overthrow of the Thirty Tyrants-restoration of her democracy. Though she does not get back her political power she becoines emphatically the "school of Hellas ;' The Age of prose and criticism, discussion and oratory--sophists and philosophers-Socrates and Isocrates, B. Sparta without a rival-Thebes and Macedon had not yet risen ; Exercises sway over many cities--a sort of confederacy of aristocracies under the hegemony of Sparta (cf. the democratic Empire of Athens in 5th century). 1. War withºitrsia - Agesilaus, the Spartan king wins victories in Asia. 2. War with the confederacy formed by Athens, Argos, Corinth and Thebes-Agesilaus wins several victories with the help of the Persians (394-307 B. C.); The peace of Intalcidas-humiliates Greece to Persia and leaves Sparta inore powerful than ever. 3. War with the Olynthian confederacy on the coasts of Macedonia--the league put down. 4. Intervention in Theban affairs-Cadmea seized and garrisoned with Spartans.

·[ 16 ] Defeated at Leuktra (371) Driven out of Thebes (370). CHAPTER VI. The Period of the hegemony of Thebes (371-361). 1. Spartans driven out and a democracy set up (379) 2. Epaminondas defeats the Spartans at Leuktra (371) 3. Wars with the Spartans-Epaminondas invades Peloponnesus several times (a) restores the independence of the Messenianswith the help of the Athenians. (b) establishes the Arcadian League-- and founds Megalopolis near the Spartan frontier-without help of the Athenians, who espoused the Spartan cause. (c) is killed in the battle with, Spartans and Athenians at Mantina (361). CHAPTER VII. The period of the hegemony of Macedon : Greece as a world power (4th century B.C.) A. Greece on the eve of Macedonian invasions (about the middle of the 4th century B.C.) 1. Athens overthrown by Sparta, gradually acquires independence and shadow of her former power ;

·[ 17 ] during the conflict of Sparta with Thebes wins back a great deal of her maritime power and gets many of the islands and cities to become her allies; Hence Macedonia would have to try her strength agdinst Athens-[this was the age of her orators, statesmen, philosophers] 2. Spartan supremacy greatly reduced by the independence of Macedonia, the Arcadian League and the heroic efforts of Epaminondas-hence Sparta was not a formidable power for Macedon to cope with. 3. Thebes—its glory does not survive its leaderdwindles for want of a guide ; hence Thebes would fall an easy prey to the first overcharges of Macedon. B. Acknowledgment of Macedon as a Greek state and a member of the Amphictyonic Council under Philip i. Philip rescued the Delphian temple from the Phothe champion of its presiding deity Apollo. ii. overthrows the Olynthian confederacy and annexes Chalkidike to Macedon. iii. wars with Athens and Thebes-battle of Cheronæa (338)-overthrow of Grecian freedom. iv. Philip elected Captain-general of all Greece by the Congress at Corinth to avenge thie Persian invasions. cieans as 2 ·[ 18 ] CHAPTER VIII. Attempts at national action on the part of the Greeks 1. Political cohesion given by the compelling power of some dominating ruler or strong aggressive city-aristocracy a. Mycanæ and Tyrins b. Cretan power under Minos c. Argos. 2. The Delian confederacy 3. The Athenian Empire and Spartan Supremacy, its downfall due to Spartan jealousy, Revival of Athenian Empire, Theban upheaval. 4. Macedon under Philip and Alexander. The Macedonian Supremacy evoked as its opponents. a. the Achæan League b. the Ætolian League 5. Roman Supremacy. CHAPTER IX. Hellenic Literature. SECTION 1. General Remarks. The Literature of the Greeks i. was the original product of their own genius"- having its roots in their political and social life- ·[ 19 ] . the spontaneous expression of that life in its youth, maturity and decay. ii. had a striking completeness and the unity of a living organisin, because each branch of the Hellenic race bore a characteristic part in its development. Thus (6. Epics were composed in the dialect of Asiatic lonians which was specially suited to them ; b. Elegiac poetry found a fitting instrument in the harmonious Ionic dialect ; c. Lyrics of personal passion, love songs found a fitting voice in the fiery strength and tenderness of Æolic speech. d. The Choral lyric for festivals, and marching songs had an apt interpreter in the massive and sonorous Doric. e. The Dramtic poetry was suited to the genius and dialect of the lonians of Attica who also perfected the literary prose. SECTION 2. The Early Literature (up to 475 B.C.) A. Epic Poetry: the product of the monarchical age -kings and princes loved to hear of the:great deeds of their ancestors ; the product of an age too simple for the analysis of thoughts or emotions. Hence simple narrations of the heroic deeds-objective school of poetry-without much leaven of subjective feeling ; No personal opinions and senti- ·[ 20 ] ments—simple story-telling (up to 3. C, 700...-ic. roughly speaking, before the Aristocratic and Democratic Ages.) I. Pre-Homeric Poetry 1. Songs of the Seasons Direct worship of Nature-(there are only a few instances of the personification of the natura) agents—but the personal names are to be under.. stood as symbols). 2. Hymns Nature no longer worshipped directly- The Forces have been personified-Growth of Mythology- Apollo, Demeter, Cybele and Dionysus--are beings with definite attributes. a. The legendary bards i. Orpheus ii. Musæus iii. Eumolpus. 1. The Seats i. Thracia ii. Phrygia iii. Crete c. The Times before the Aryan Settlement in Hellas--but after departure from the common home; during the.period of their westward march. II. Homeric School: The Ionian poets gave definite shape to the warlike legends about the Achiran ancestors of the Æolian immigrants into Asia.

·[ 21 ] i. Collections. a (a) Lycurgus is the first Greek who brought a complete copy of the poems to the main land (B) Pisistratus charged learned men with the task of preparing a better authenticated edition. (V) Solon enacted that the poems should be recited from an authentic text-Hipparchus enacted that they should be recited in regular order. (8) The recitations of rhapsodists were one of the established competitions in the pan-athenaac festival during the 6th Cent. B. C. (9) Various Editions during the 5th Century-E.g. of Massilia, Chios, and Argos-Aristotle's edition for Alexander (4th Cent.) Aristarchus' edition (756 B. C.) is the present standard. ii. The Homeric Question. (a) The Ancient Greeks-Both the epics are works of the same author, Horner, who lived about 1044 B. C. according to Aristotle and Aristarchus, and about 850 B. C. acc. to Ilerodotus. (B) The Grammarians---Hellenicus and Xenon (170 B. C.)--assert that Homer is the author of the Iliad but not Olly'ssey. (V) Vico, a Neaopolitan (1688-174+)-suggests the composite authorship and oral tradition of the poems.

·[ 22 ] was (8) Wolf (1795) says the lliad pieced together from many small un-written poems by various hands and was first committed to writing in the time of Pisistratus. But the Odyssey has comparative unity and consistency. iii. The works of the Homeric Cycle 1. Iliad contains elements of various ages and origins 2. Odyssey has indications of a somewhat later time. of 10 3. Introductions or continuations of the two books, showing how prolific was the Epic School and how mature and well established was the style. («) Homeward Voyage-fills up the gap years between Iliail and Odyssey. (B) Lay of Telegonus continue. Wyssey to the death of the hero. (V) Cyprian Lays---introductory to the Iliad. III. Hesiodic School does not, like the Homeric, celebrate the great deeds—but busies itself with religious, love and ethical precepts-Bæotiantreats the old legends as relics of a sacred history. a. Hesiod (850-800 B. C.) 1. Works and Days--the first didaotic poem divides the Baotian farmer's year. 2. Theogony-describes the origin of order out of chaos and the origin of gods, based on old chronologic systems found in fragments.

·[ 23 ] . Whether the two works belong to the same author is a disputed point. 6 Later Religious (Ethical) Epics—The theory of this School is that the poet is the prophet whom the gods have authorised to impress doctrines and practical duties on men. 1. Shield of Hercules 2. Maxims of Cheiron IV. The Hymns or Preludes of Homer and the Homeridæ. (750-500 B. C.) Prefatory addresses to the gods with which the rhapsodist ushered in their recitations of Epics ; Hexameter Verse ; almost all in the Homeric or lonian Style, but a few in the Hesiodic or Theban Style ; 33 in number. B. Transition from Epic to Lyric Oligarchy or Democracy--favourable to the growth of reflection-widenirg of the mental horizon, thoughts and feelings of the persons expressed. No longer the mouthpiece of somebody, but the poet gives vent to his own sentiments. in a (a) Elegiac poems-express the poet's thoughts on war, love, politics, proverbial philosophy and the deceased to the sympathising society tone of conversation or narrative ; narrative ; so that they stop short of lyric passion and stand nearer to the Epos than the lambic (both of which are deviations from it). .

·[ 24 ] - i Callinus and Tyrtaeus rouse warlike spirit in sinking hearts. 2 Archilochus-warlike, lamentation 3 Mimnermus--plaintive farewell of an ease-loving lonian to the days of lonian freedom. 4 Solon-political and ethical. 5 Theogois-Union of politics with a proverbial philosophy-higher range 6 Xenophanes-gives a philosophic strain to it 7 Simonides of Ceos--reversion of the elegy to its earliest destination ; Eg. it becomes the vehicle of epitaphs on those who fell in the Persian wars (b). lambic verse-has nothing in common with Epic either in form or in spirit, at first expressed satire and licensed raillery ; later, any pointed thought, suitable to the fables ; expresses the personal feeling with greater intensity than the Elegiac ; stands nearer to lyric but has not the lyric flexibility, self-abandonment or glow. | Archilochus of Paros (670 B. C.) and Simonides of Amorgus-Satire against classes and not persons. 2 Solon -Controversial or polemical. 3 Hipponax of Ephesus--Satire. C. Lyric Poetry. Final forth of the effort at self-expression which in Elegiac and lambic verse is still incomplete; intimately united with music and dance ; Improvements of the lyre. By B. C. 500 Greek Music had ·[ 25 ] acquired all the powers of expression which the lyric poet could demand. Æolian School (Lesbos) personal feelings ; intended for a single voice, strife of oligarchy, life of contests and excitements. I Alceus-Fruegments, glimpses of war and love ; anxiety for the stori-tossed state ; cavalier spirit; the Greek Lovelace. 2 Sappho--the only great Greek female genius ; Intensity and melody of her Fragments ; interpreter of passion. 3 Anacreon of Teos--an Ionian, hymns to the gods, love poems, festive songs. 4 Pindar. (518-539 B.C.) born in Baotia, a Dorian-using the Aolian dialect; the boldest, the most fervid, the inost sublime ; his splendour of imagination, strong rapidity, soaring flight ; almost every branch of the lyric art ; occasiortal poems; 44 Epinicia, or Odes of victory for the 4 festivals. b. Dorian School-had more of a public than personal character and was choral choruses for the public worship of gods, odes for festivals. Alcman (660 B. C.) introduced the balanced movement of strophe and anti-strophe. 2 Stesichorus of Himera added the epode. 3 Arion (580 B. C.) gave finished form to the choral hymn (dithyramb) in honour of Dionysus, and organised the chorus I ·[ 26 ] 4. Simonides of Ceos-an Ionian-events of the Persian Wars-his celebrated epitaphs on those who fell at Thermopylee and Salamis ; his Pan-hellenic fame,-- most tender and exquisite of lyrists. SECTION 3. The Age of Pericles. coin mon 1. Feverish activity because of the welding together of all ranks owing to the democratic reforms of Cleisthenes, common calamities of foreign invasion and glories of victory; constitutional discussions-as to the limits &c of the aristocracy, the functions of magistrates &c. 2. Political Education-Diffusion of political sense through public debates--Average Athenians better politicians than average "Cosimons". 3. But social life not improved a Country life of the old Attic gentry decayed -rise of nobility of merit, work and money ; influence of female sex waning; Home life insignificant. b Slaves—from Thrace, Asia Minor, and also from among the conquered Hellenes c Pericles' efforts to emancipate women abortive 4. Intellectñal condition a Philosophers and metaphysicians secular in spirit -- Anaxagoras ; spirit of inquiry untrammelled by orthodoxy. a new ·[ 27 ] b Sophists popularise these theories of the philosophers as well as undertake the task of higher liberal education and general culture esp. the art of oratory, debating. Hence their study of the • formal side of knowledge, accuracy of expression and subtlety of reasoning. They are consequently the fathers of chaste prose style. c As a result of all such bold intellectual pursuits Scepticism creeps in into morals and religion ; Logical proofs displace moral convictions. Il Arts-Drama, Painting, Sculpture, Architecture, Music-hurry combined with solidity in these monuments. Education--Public Schools --The Epic cycles the Pindaric Odes, Elegies, the master pieces of Eschylus and Phrynichus taught. SECTION 4. Attic Literature (475-300 B. C.) A. Drama-arose from the the festivals of Dionysus, the god of wine, which were held at intervals •from the beginning of winter to the beginning of spring. Hymns were sung in honour of the victories or sufferings of the god in his progress over the earth. a Tragedy. During the early spring and winter the Dorians sang dithyrambs which 500 B. C. improved by Arion into the regular Choral song This choral song chanted the sorrows of Bacchus and was called tragedy because a goat was sacrificed. To give rest were in O ·[ 28 ] an to the singers, Thespis an Attican introduced actor who played several parts and spoke with the leader of the chorus. I Phrynichus-Athenian ; events of the Persian Wars; only one actor. 2 Æschylus (born 525 B. C.)-second actor - dialogue independent of the chorus. Choral song for the first time subordinate ; improvements in costume ; permanent theatre under the Acropolis ; trilogy and tetralogy ; His heroes are Homeric ; Pan-Hellenic patriotism Gods work out the law of righteousness. 3 Sophocles ( +95_-405 B. C. )-most perfect artist ; portraiture of character ; typical studies in the great primary emotions of human nature ; Third actor, Fourth actor ; the tragic prize against Eschylus (468 B. C.); favourite with the Athenians -- the typical literary man of the Periclean Age; Antigone B Ajux v Oeclipus 4 Euripdes (485 B. C.)--marks period of transition of tragic art. The myths and traditions longer credulously believed He has fallen on the age of sccpticism and criticism. Uses Prose; Cosmopolitan, stands to the modern world; familiar human interests. won a no nearer ·[ 29 ] When he produced his first play Aischylus was just dead, and Sophocles was in the zenith of his fame and the delight of all Athens. . b. 'Comedy-took its rise in connection with the festival of gathering of the vintage during autumn in the villages. After doing their god due honour in honour of his triumph they indulged in licentious revelry and satire against one another. This choral song, lit. the revellers' song, was perfected by the Megarensian Susarion (B, C. 500) who like Thespis added dialogue to it. i. The Old Comedy-characters are real persone introduced in their own names. I Cratinus. 2 Eupolis. 3 Aristophanes ( 427 B. C.) popular bold fancy, critical humour, lyric power ; licence of political satire-the most powerful engine of public criticism that has existed in any society. d unrestrained freedom of satire, unsparing personality (425-21 B. C.) Acarnanians, k’night, Clouds, Wasps, Peace. B Greater reserve (414-05 B. C.) Birds, Frogs » Personal satire almost wholly avoided (392-88 B. C.) Plutus. ii. The Middle Comedy (390-20 B. C.)- Transition from political satire to that of social or literary

·[ 30 ]
nature-real characters are introduced under
assumed names.
iii. The New Comedy (320-250 B. C.)--"Comedy of
manners"-resembling the modern comic Drama
-Characters are purely fictitious (but true to
reality and conformable to the rules of art.)
B. Literary Prose.--Herodotus the father of Prose
Literature. Its comparatively late origin is due to the
facts (i) that Epic Poetry, with its deviations, elegiac
and iambic, exercised a sovereign spell over the mind
-being the vehicle of history, philosophy, theology
and oratory ; and (ii) that Greece being divided into a
number of small states, there was no need for royal
records in prose as in the Eastern Monarchies.
I Early Prose Writers.
a Philosophy-Pherecydes of Syros. (B. C. 550)
Anaximenes, Anaximander of Ionia.
6 Mythology-Logographi (narrators in prose)
compiled the myths in genealogies or described
foreign countries, their features and traditions,
Hecatreus of Miletus (500 B. C).
c History-A systematic approach to it made by
Hellanicus of Mytilene (450).
II Standard Attic Prose Literature
a History
i Herodotus (born B. C. 434). History of the
collision between the Greek and the barbarian :
i. draws a line between the mythological
and historical ages

·Lood ( 31 ) 471). ii. yet holds that myths are to be reported. iii. like the logographi, describes the natural: and social features of countries. iv. has an Epic unity v. fails chiefly by lack of insight into political cause and effect, and by a general silence in regard to history of political institutions. N. B. Herodotus interweaves two threads of causation-human agency (represented by the good or bad qualities of men) and divine agency (represented by the vigilance of the gods on behalf of justice) 2 Thucydides (born B. C. History of the Peloponnesian War-the greatest movement affecting Hellas collectively ; contemporary ; i. first thinker-traces the exact course of the human agency ii. The speeches are his own essays in rhetoric --dramatic in nature iil. no moral comment iv. impartial 3 Xenophon-Hellenica (supplement to Thucydides, 411-362 B. C. Period). Anabasis; Retreat of the Ten Thousand (his best work); Recollection of Socrates (matter of fact): Cvropædia (romance of little historical worth) ; a .few Essays. i does not, like Herodotus, give a drama with epic unity ; thus not an Artist ii does not, like Thucydides, the philosophical: writer trace the causes ; thus not a Scientist .

·[ 32 ] . iii but an accomplished soldier who has seen much and done much, and simply tells his story without any central idea iv partial to Sparta, does not notice the achievements of Epaminondas and Pelopidas. Oratory-Every Athenian citizen had to be an orator in order to qualify himself for self-defence before a lawcourt, or for taking active part in politics. Hence the universal effort at polished expression. Rhetoric of the Syracusan Corax (466 B. C.) brought from Sicily to from Sicily to Athens. The Sophists direct attention to Grammar and Logic, and Gorgias of Leontini to brilliancy. I Antiphon-Grand, grave, dignified, frequent emphasis on verbal contra st. 2 Andocides-graphic power 3 Lysias—Plain style, breaks thro' the rigid mannerism of the Older Style, uses the language of daily life, writes speeches for others. 4 Isocrates-style intermediate between Antiphon's and Lysias'-wrote for readers rather than hearers ; ample periods, studied smoothness, temperate use of rhetorical ornament; Popular from the middle of the 4th cent. B. C. From Rhodes it passed to Cicero and through him has shaped modern literary Prose. 5 Issous--speechesin Will-cases, technical mastery in chetorical argument carried to perfection by Demosthenes. 6 Demosthenes—Power, variety, versatility, command over the resources of the language; a ·[ 33 ] great natural orator rather than an elaborate artist ; but in his days reproached by detractors with excessive study of effect. 7 Æschines--the most theatrical, vehement. .8 Hyperides-after Demosthenes, the most effec. tive ; Lysias' grace ; also original wit and fire. : Philosophy I Plato a as a thinker B as a literary man manysided genius ; Dialogues ; dramatic power, parody, faculty of satires, poetical colouring, never florid or sentimental but lofty and austere ; Laws, Timæus,- Critias 2 Aristotle--caine at the close of the creative epoch ; set in order what the preceding geniuses had done ; Rhetoric; founded the science of reasoning; bequeathed the instruments of analysis and criticism. 3 Theophrastus-his pupil and successor in the Lyceum-opens the new age of research and scientific classification with his extant works on Botany ; writer of sketches—his Characters. CHAPTER X. HELLENIC CONSTITUTIONS SECTION 1. The Constitution of Sparta. a The 8 classes I Helots-slaves 3 ·[ 34 ] 6 2 Perioki--middle class, but without share in political life 3 The free men. i. Lycurgean discipline ii Public mess iii Discouragement of individual enterprises iv Prevention of litigation b The constitution 1 Kings--without power 2 The Senate of elders-judiciary 3 The Assembly of the whole people 4 The Ephorate-the real centre of the system c Aristocratic type I Exclusion of the true classes 2 Practical exclusion of most freemen i The contribution to the common fund is a limitation ii Gradual diminution of the fandowming i.e. contributing class 3 The Ephorate represents the landowning class only SECTION 2. The Constitution of Athens. a The society I Slaves and freemen 2 Nobles and commons 3 Aliens b Constitutional history i First stage aristocratic

·[ 35 ]
i Eupatride
ii The archons
iii The Areopagus
2 Solon's system-Timocracy (wealth, not birth)
i The four classes according to property
ii Nobles predominant
iii Ecclesia of all citizens
iv The Four Hundred is the pre-considering
Senate, and regulates the Assembly
v The Areopagus curtailed
3 The Pisistratida-Tyranny
4 The Democracy begun by Cleisthenes, perfected
by Pericles
i The
Assembly-members
paid, the sole
Executive (The Achrons and the Areopagus
robbed of their function), restrained by certain
constitutional checks
ii The Fiye, Hundred-preconsidering Senate
reorganised, the principal administrative body
iii The Board of Ten-military and diplomatic
powers
iv The Judiciary
a The popular courts
@ The Areopagus tries homicide
C. Type-deinocracy perfect, but excludes slaves
and aliens

·BOOK II. Hellenistic Period (4TH-2ND CENTURY B. C.) CHAPTER I. Greece as a world Power. A. The period of aggrandisement and territorial Expansion, under Alexander Alexander the Great--the Greek Emperori. Strengthens his hold on Greece by subduing Thebans and Illyrians. ii. Subdues the Persian Empire (334-328)-battles of Granicus, Issus, Arbela. iii. Explores and canquers Northern India iv. Hellenises the Far East by I building cities and planting colonies. 2 introduction of Greek learning and civilisation. 3 making Greek the common language. 4 accustoming the Orientals to the Western habits of independent thinking and practice and to the use of institutions of liberty. 5 appointing all able men to chief offices of the State. 6 introduction of intermarriage.

·[ 37 ] B. Dismemberment of the Empire under bis successors i Egypte Ptolemies. ii Asia---several independent states more or less Greek. Seleucidae in Syria. B Pergamos and Lycia in Asia Minor. y Pontus and Bithynia-out of the ruins of the Persian Empire-ruled by native kings—almost no Greek element. 8 The wholly Greek States of Byzantium, Rhodes and Heracleia. iii Greece and Macedon-Great confusion d attempts of the Greeks to throw off the Macedonian yoke ; efforts of the Spartans, Athenians and Etolians--the Lamian War; victory of the Macedonian General Antipater Invasions of the Gauls Rise of Epirus. & Extinction of the old Macedonian family ; family of Antigonus, a general of Alexander, was set up, who held the crown till the Roman Conquest. C. Grecian history on the Eve of the Roman Conquest (3rd Century. B.C.) a. Macedonia and Epeiros are Greek states. 0. Athens and Thebes practically non-entities, t. Sparta's greatness by fits and starts.

·[ 38 ] . d. The Chief states 1. Macedonia. 2. Sparta 3. The Federal Leagues--the Federal Councils managing the universal concerns--allowed the several members to manage their own affairs through their own councils. i. The Achaean League of the ten cities on the south of the Corinthian Gulf; it was of long standing—but its later history begins from 280 B, C.-under Aratus Sikyon was admitted into it (251) which soon took in Corinth, Megalopolis, Argos, and all Peloponnesian cities. ii. The Ætolian League on the north side of the Corinthian Gulf--not so honourable as but rude, fierce, plunderers-and gradually extended itsetf by conquests. iii. The League in Phocis. iv. The League in Acarzania. v. The League of Epirus. e. History of these states : the Achaean League wanted to set free the cities under the Mace. donians--but soon craved Macedonian help ; i. to fight with Sparta (227-223 B.C.) which was now under a great king Cleomenes. ii. to fight with the Ætolian league.

·[ 39 ] CHAPTER II. Tho Golden age of the Hellenistic world (B. C. 289-220) SECTION 1. Characteristics. A Very complicated because of the widening of the Greek world and increase of the number of local centres. B Civilisation represented by the following cities 1 Alexandria—the greatest capital of the day. 2 Pergamus-a second-hand Alexandria. 3 Rhodes—important for commerce, rose on the ruins of the older cities. 4 Antioch C External Policy of the States i The several objects of each : 1 Imperial interests territorial aggrandisement and diplomatic treaties. 2 Commercial interests—which lead to wars. 3 Sentimental interests-as to dignity and culture. li The Balance of Power-maintained by marriage connexions, treaties, engagements and wars. D The several members of the Hellenistic world, i First class powers Macedonia-under the Antigonids. 2 Egypt under the Ptolemies. 3 Syria-under the Lagids.

·[ 40 ] ii Second class Powers I Greece i claimed as vassal by Macedonia. ii but always revolting against her through Egyptian interference. 2 Pergamum i founded on the ruins of Lysimachus. ii threatened by the Egyptian fleets from the sea side. iii molested by the Seleucids from the inland. 3 The Leagues of Free cities in Greece under the presidency of Rhodes-like the mediæval Hanseatic League. E Hellenistic Culture. i Greek the common language of the vast world, even of the Jews and Bactrians. ii The Unity of this culture maintained by opposition to the Celts and Galatians-by victories of the Ptolemies, Antigonids and Lagids and even of Attalus of Pergamus over the different sections of these Celts. iii Antagonism to Oriental and despotic Persia destroyed. iv Literature not the spontaneous product of the national achievements--but the creation of scholars, critics and pedants- living in closets far away from the people. v Art more spontaneous and national than Literature.

·[ 41 ] SECTION 2. Egypt under the Ptolemies. 1. Ptolemy I. (305 — 283 B. C. a' External policy--Defensive-consolidation of the Empire. i makes few wars. ii rules possessions-Cyprus and Cyrene—through Satraps. iii conciliates the Jews and Rhodians. 6 Internal policy. i development of commercial resources, makes Alexandria the first of the Hellenistic capitals. ii establishinent of benevolent despotism permission of local customs, codes of law according to nationality iii organisation of the finances. iv foundation of the Museum or University of Alexandria with its magnificent Library and Scientific appointments. State endowment- Head nominated by the state. v secures the tomb of Alexander for his capital. II. Ptolemy II. ( 283-47 B. C.) the most brilliant monarch in the world. a. External Policy--He plays off enemy against another or raises up diversions in the rear of an assailant-Diplomat : i Friendly neutrality and the Romans. one treaty with ·[ 42 ] + ii Peace with the Carthaginians. iii Founds cities in the South, e.g. Arabia. iv Diplomatic struggles with Macedonia and Syria - by befriending their enemies. b. Internal Policy-personally weaker than Ptolemy 1-not a man of action. i Fondness for pleasure, pomp and luxury. ïi Fondness for curious research with the Dons, iji New palace. iv Supposed to be the real founder of the Museum. v The populace walled out from the Royal Quarter of the city-and was thus separated from the literary men who lived there. III. Ptolemy III (247-21 B. C.) i conquests in Asia Minor (247) ii invasion of Syria (247). iii at war with Rhodes' (246 B. C). iv grants subsidy to the Achcean Leagile to work against Macedon. v calls Eratosthenes from Athens to the Library (240 B. C). SECTION 3. Syria--the Kingdom of the Seleucido 1. Antiochus'I (281-261 B. C.) a. Internal Policy. i. Foundation of a museum and a library.

·[ 43 ] a ii. Encouragement of letters and patronisation of literary men. iii. Many peoples with diverse characteristics ; hence diverse laws, privileges and governments. iv. Foundation of Antioch as a rival to Alexandria. Development of trade and commerce-carrying caravan trade of the East into Mediterranean, creation of a new line of traffic from China across the Hindu Kush to the Sea of Aral and the Caspian. v. Court framed after tha typical Alexandrine model-the peculiar home of Hellenism-more Greek thun Alexandria-because larger number of Macedonians settled here. b. External Policy 1. Wais and alliances. i. with Ptolemy. ii. with Antigonus. iii. with the Celts of Galatia. iv. with the several second-rate powers in the North of Asia Minor. 2. A vast and heterogeneous dominion, an ill. defined and ever-changing complex of nations ; reaching from the Aegean to the Indus or from the Cilician passes to the bounds of Mesopotamia. 2. Antiochus II (261—246 B. C.) i. Revolt of Bactria (251 B. C.) ii. Invasion of Syria by Ptolemy III (247 B. C.)

·[ 44 ] 3. Seleucus II. (246-226 B. C.) i. Peace with Egypt. ii. War in the East. 4. Seleucus III. (226-22 B. C.) SECTION 4. Pergamum. 1. Eumenes I (963241 B. C.). i. Defeats Antiochus I of Syria. ii. Not connected with any great wars--tho' his contemporary Gonatus, Ptolemy and Antiochus Il were constantly engaged in wars. 2. Attalus I. (241–199 B. C.)- exceptionally celebrated a. External Policy. i. Wars with Syria-has to stand the siege of Pergamnus by the Syrian general-but can savc his kingdom because of interna, dissensions in Syria. ii. Maintains his power and position in his own hands when all the other states of the Hellenistic world change hands. ii. In fact, succeeds to the Asiatic portion of the great Kingdom of Lysimachus. iv. Acquires Aegina gift from the Aetolians. (210 B.C.) b. Internal Policy i. Pergamum made the real capital of Asia minor. ii. Assumption of the crown by art offerings at home and at Athens. as a

·[45]
iii. Erection of noble buildings-collection of a
library-Patronisation of men of letters and
critics,
iv. Importation of art specimens from abroad.
v. Encouragement of Stoicism.
vi. His capital becomes the leader of
of Asiatic
Hellenism-because the Seleucid Empire is
distracted, the Egyptian king favours home
interests, and the famous Macedonian king
Antigonus is dead.
SECTION 5.
Rhodes (305-220 B.C)
A. External Policy.
i. resists successfully the siege by Demetrius of
Macedon 305 B. C.
ii. a neutral statc affording mediation in times of
war and clearing the sea of pirates.
ji. formation of a league among the leading
cities on the Asiatic seaboard as far as the
Bosporus-excluding Byzantium and Heracleia.
iv. acquisition of a large territory on the coast by
defeating Egypt 246 B. C. (Ptolemy).
A peculiar war with Byzantium (220 B.C.) on
behalf of Trade interests-and not with a view
to aggrandisement. The Rhodians do not
demand war indemnity, but only require that
the Byzantians should not injure Commerce by
levying tolls on those who pass the straits.

·[ 46 ] B. Internal Policy. i. Uniform Marine and Commercial law ii. Foundation of secure Banks for Deposits and Investment iii. Trade and Commerce highly developed because of the northern Caravan route from the Far East-Centre of Maritime Trade--Foreign merchants come to learn business. 0 SECTION 6. Macedonia under the Antigonids (277-239 B. C) 1. Antigonus Gonatus (277-239 B. C.) a. Internal Policy i. not a military genius-character stubborn and determined ii. friend and pupil of the philosophers-a Stoic m. advocate of monarchy iv. a politician and statesman v. patron of men of letters, philosophers, foreign politicians and soldiers. vi. student of the manners and ways of the courts of his time vii. But Macedonia- 1. a mere military outpost against barbarismmother of a nation of soldiers-does not produce a great man of letters 2. has no transit route of the ancient world through her boundaries-hence has expansive commerce-hence possesses no big and populous capital city. no ·( 47 ) b. External Policy i, defender and consolidator of his possessions. ii, obtains control over Athens by the Chremonidean war (262 B. C.) * iii. supporter of tyrants and monarchs in in the Grech cities according to his Stoic Political Philosophy iv. but sees tyrannies abolished and recognises the Achæan league. 2. Demetrius II. (239-29 B. C.) i, defeats the combined armies of Ætolian and Achæan Leagues. ii. invites Illyrians to come upon Greece (232 B.C.) iii. dies in a fight with Dardanians. 3. Antigonus III (229-20 B.C.) i. reconstructs his kingdom with great difficulty ii. gets thra' Aratus' treachery the city of Corinth and help of Achæan League. iii. goes to war with Cleomenes of Sparta on his behalf and defeats him at Sellasia. iv. becomes master of Greece but dies suddenly. SECTION 7. Macedonia and Greece (B. C. 277-80). A. The tyrannies supported by Antigonus. 1. Athens-controlled by Antigonus since the Chremonidean war (262 B.0.)-ruled by tyrants appointed by him. II. Megara--subject to Antigonus-ruled by tyrant.

·[ 48 ]
III. Corinth
i. subject to Antigonus-ruled by a tyrant
ii. revolts—but is again given a tyrant ruler by
him (246 B.C.)
IV. Sparta-Agis the tyrant
B. The Democracies and Leagues
I. Corinth declared free of Antigonus' tyrant by
Aratus the Federalist (243 B C.)
II. Several tyrants surrender their tyrannies, and
several states join the Achean League. (233 B. C.)
III. The Achæan League
i. recognised by Antigonus
ii. elects Ptolemy Generallissimo by land and
sea who grants a large subsidy to it in order to
use it against Macedonia.
iii. joins with the Aetolian League and attacks
Demetrius II the young Macedonian King.
iy, is defeated and driven out of Northern Greece.
v. is unable to cope with the Illyrians who are
invited by Demetrius II to raid upon Greece
(232 B.C.)
vi. out of gratitude to the Romans who destroy
the Illyrian power, grants to them the privilege
of Hellenism and access to Hellenic sanctuaries
and festivals. (227 B.C.)
vii. during the first years of difficulty of Antigonus
I who succeeds Demetrius II (229 B. C.)-
spreads over most of the Peloponnesus and grows
in public importance and respect (229 B.C.)

·[ 49 ] viii. but unable to cope with Cleomenes III who, establishes a democratic monarchy at Sparta, Betrays its country and paymaster Ptolemy by bringing about an alliance with Antigonus III (223B.C.) which puts Corinth into his hands and makes him undertake war against Cleomenes on its behalf (Battle of Sellosia 220 B.C.) and compels him to take refuge in Egypt. [Under the guidance of Aratus). C. The year 220 B, C.-The Crisis of Hellenism i. The flight of Cleomenes. ii. Aratus an able man, the servant of Macedonian Antigonus III. ii. The sEtolians powerless. iv. Athens-amere non-entity. v. The Romans--fully occupied-eve of the Punic War. vi. Macedon--practically master of Greece. But Antigonus III suddenly dies-his successor Philip V a mere lad. vii. Egypt-Ptolemy very young. viii. Syria -- Antiochus 11-a mere lad. 4 ·[50] CHAPTER III. Decline of Hellenism (220-146 B. C.)-Beginning of Polybius' History. SECTION 1. The Crisis of Hellenism-Rome a power in the Hellenistic World The cloud in the l'est. ” (220-200 B. C.) I Egypt-becomes more Egyptian, less Hellenistic. i Ptolemy I'V (220-205 B. C.) a young man of 24. i, persecution of Egyptians and their religion, and of the Jews. ii. the king wholly addicted to drinking, revelry and religions-minions and flute girls. iii. Sosibus the wily prime minister of the king tries to lord it over the whole kingdom. iv. monarchy-oriental despotism, v. war with Antiochus the Great' of Syria (218 B. C.) Diplomatic arguments-plots and counter plot-treachery, depravation in the habits of war. 2 Ptolemy V (205-181 B. C.) a child of 5 years of age. The proclamation of his accession in 196 B. C, as read in the celebrated Rosetta Stone, indicates how little of Hellenism in manners there is in Egypt. II Syria under Antiochus III, (B. C. 223-187) more and more national, less and less Hellenistic, like Egypt. i. the king-a young man of 19.

·[51] ii. called the Great because of the prowess and activity displayed in liis first years : i war with the Greek Satraps of Media and Persia whom he conquered. 2 war with Ptolemy IV which results in great reconquest of territories (220-218 B. C.) 3 treaty with Philip V to plunder Egypt (203). but leaving the charge of the war to Philip, occupies himself in obtaining possession of an empire. iii. Court intrigues for first power-Hermeles the all-powerful Visier like the Egyptian Sosibus. iv. Educated for the throne by Antigonus III not under philosophers but under politicians and diplomatists like Aratus, comes to the throne the darling,0% ali Greece, but gradually becomes a vicious man and destructive tyrant. 1. Foolishly hazards a war with Rome (192-90 B. C.) and sustains a severe defeat at Magnesia, which makes him surrender of his dominions in Asia Minor which are given by Rome to Eumenes I (189). III Macedon--under Philip V (220-179 B. C.) The court intrigues as in Egypt and Syria. « Internal condition. The all-powerful Vision Appelles, ambitious to take the first place and control the young prince- Aratus a better and more honest adviser. some ·[ 52 ] b. External Policy. i. Treaty with Hannibal the Carthaginian at the suggestion of the adventurer Demetrius of Pharos (215 B. C) makes Rome an enemy. ii. Death of Aratus (213). iii. War with Romans and Aetolians (210 B. C.), makes peace with the latter (205 B. C). iv. treaty with Antiochus III (203) to plunder Egypt now ruled by an infant. v. opposed by Rhodians and Attalus I of Pergamus who support Egypt inorderto keep up the balance of power (203). vi. makes enemies all through the Levant, and deserted by Antiochus III, has to carry on the war singlehanded. vii. crushed by the Roman Flaminius Oynoscephale (1197 B.C.) who was helped by the Aetolian League. IV, Characteristics of the Period (about 200 B. C.) i. Decay of Patriotism --Development of Diplomacy and Intrigues. Depravation of manners. ii. First real connexion between Eastern and IVesterr. Politics a. The which begin separately and without any common cause result in bringing east and west into relation. b. The cities in Greece and Macedon and the islanders and Asiatic Greeks no at wars ·[ 53 ] longer look to Antiochus or Ptolemy but to the Carthaginians and Romans. jii. The Powers, 1. Athens-insignificant 2. Sparta-confusion 3. Ptolemy-a prey to the other Hellenistic powers, accepts Roman help. 4. Philip V-decaying through foolishness. 5. Antiochus III. the Great of Syria--the great Eastern monarch who has to face Roman Commonwealth. SECTION 2. The Gradual Snbjection of Hellenism to Romo-Roman Conquest of the Hellenistic World (200-146 B. C.) I The Second Macedonian war (200-197 B. C.) The Ranai general Flaminius with the help of the AEtolians crushes Philip V at Cynoscephale (197 B. C.) 11 Macedonia and Greece (197-146 B. C.) 1 The Ætolian League (197-190 B. C.) '1. rises into importance with the defeat Philip V. ii. displays a far larger policy and wider interest than the Achæan League led by Philopæmon. iii. cultivated intimate relations with Egypt and Pergamum iv. greatly helped Flaminius against Philip now ·[ 54 ] v. but not adequately renunerated by the Romans, instigates Antiochus III against thein (199 B. C.) who is defeated at Magnesia vi. and gives them much trouble in their conquest of Greece 2 The Romans-as givers of Home Rule to Greece (197-72 B. C.) i. pose as liberators or Phil-Hollenes, benefactors and saviours of Greece ii. bring Greece and Macedonia and the whole Hellenistic world into the whrilpool of their domestic party politics iii. give the Greeks freedom-but cannot satisfy any party every one of which has its own interests--e.g. Etolians who want to carry on private wars and plunders, Achaeans who wanted to extend their dominions, Spartans and Alessenians whu again, have, both Achaan and anti-Achæan parties among them v. and are to iv. thus becoine the cause of internecine warfare, revolutions, murders and executions compelled substitute Direct Government 3 The Anti-Roman Movement of the National Party (172-68 B. C.) i. Perseus, King since 179 B. C. rises against Rome (172 B. C.) ii. The whole national party in Greece supports him ·[ 55 ] iii. The nationalist party is overthrown at Pydna (B. C. 168) iv. To prevent further troubles Romans make a clean sweep of the nationalist party in Macedonia, Epirus and Greece by deporting all men of light and leading 4 The Final Subjugation (168-146 B. C.) i. Athens sends a mission to Rome (166) ii. Macedonia 1. divided into separate Republics (167) b. insurrections of Pretenders who revolt against Rome (149, 117 B. C.) iii. The chicans appeal to Rome for the liberation of the hostages (167, 165, 155 B. C.) it. the exiles return from Italy (150) b. war with Spartans (149) who appeal to Rome for help c. meetist Corinth (146), declare war against Sparta and are finally overthrown by lummius iv Destruction of Carthage-deportation of Statues pictures, and treasure to Rome III Asia Minor (B. C. 190-168). | Defeat of Antiochus III at Wagnesia (190 B. C.) who was induced by the Etolians to pose as the liberator of Greece when after the Roman victory at Cynoscephale (197 B. C.) they were not adequately remunerated. 2 Embassies to Rome from the free towns and Dynasts of Asia Minor to congratulate the .

·[ 56 ]
as the
Senate on the victory over Antiochus III (189
B. C.)
3 Pergamum -under Eumenes II
a Very brilliant period (190—168 B. C.)
i. Rule of the king combined with that of an
assembly of citizens.
ii. Eumenes II helps the Romans against Antiochus
III with his fleet with great losses, and is hence
magnificer.tly rewarded (190).
iii. acquisition of parts of Asia Minor
result of his embassy to Rome (189).
iv. prosecution of successful wars against Bithynia,
Pontus and the Galatians,
v. decoration of capital city with the famous
monuments, stoas, temples
vi. the most important person in the East till the
day when the Romans no longer require his
assistance.
6 Eumenes humiliated by Roine without offence
(167).
4 Rhodes
i. very prosperous between 190 and 168 B.Q
ii. commercially ruined (167 B. C.)

·[57] CHAPTER IV. Hellenistic Literature The Alexandrino Period (300-146 B. C.) Alexandria the centre of intellectual activity from Alexander to Augustus. Its museum and its libraryattracted learned men from all cities. But it wasian age not of creation or original activity, but of criticism, research, arrangement and systematisation. A. Characteristic of Early Greek Society i. free political life ii. the city commonwealths iii. every man ----historian, artist, sculptor or poet was, above all, a citizen iv. hence predominance of public life--no academic seclusion---thus Sophocles, Eschylus, Euripides, Thucydides, Phidias, Ictinus, all were practical men of action. v. public criticism-judgment of all-popular verdict-no “ charmed circle”-110 "upper teni thousand." B. Characteristics of Later Greek Society i. extinction of the old political life---municipal life still exists—but no longer has the citizen any glory of participating in the affairs of an independent state. Hence the corporate life is no longer inspiring ii. expansion of Greece under Alexander, mingling of the Asiatic and Greek elements-produce ·[ 58 ] ] Hellenic form without Hellenic soul. All the externals of old Greek life were there--temples, statues, theatres, porticos, ceremonies,, festivals, language. But these announted to Hellenisme i.e. the adoption of Hellenic ways. The spirit of Greek commonwealths in the old days of political freedom could not be revived. C. The Literature. « Poetry-spontaneous motive replaced by erudite skill. 1. Calliinachus--hymns, epigrams, elegies. 2. Lycophron-enigmatic verses 3. Apollonius Rhodlius-highly finished pic .. Aratus and Nicander--nerical and astronomical verses. 5. Pastoral poetry-also affected by artificialism of this llellenistic age. i Theocritus-has naturalness : ii Bion of lona-charm and pathos iii Mosctus of Syrcuse h Erudition and Science--the true work of this age. i Scientific scholarship --Aristarchus, (156 B. C.) set the example of a more thorough method in revising and interpreting the ancient texts; his works became the basis the Science of Grammar. 2 Translations Septuagint version of the Old Testament (300- 250 B. C.) of ·[ 59 ] 3 Chronology i Eratosthenes---founder i Manetho-chronicles of Egypt iii Berosus-chronicles of Chaldoea. V. B. The dignity and value of the Greeks from that time forwards belong them as individual philosophers, preceptors, astronomers, critics. In all these capacities they still constituted the light of the Roman world, though as communities they had left their Olin orbit and become satellites of more powerful neighbours. General results-Patronage of the Ptolcinies. The preservation of the old literature was due to the unremitting care of the Scholars and Critics who preserves the text from the errors of copyist; and above all, it true literary tradition was kept up. History of Rome as an intellectual centre- Before the close of the and cent, B.C. --Sulla brought a Greek Library from :thens. 2 Cicero and Atticus-great readers and collectors of Greek books. 3 Library planned by Julius Cæsar-founded by Augustus ( Latin Department h Greek + Contributions of Tiberius, Vespasian, Domitian and Trajan to enlarge the collection.

·BOOK III.
Roman Commonwealth.
no
CHAPTER I.
General Characteristics.
A. The Land of the Romans-Italy,
i, the name Italy did not take in (a) Cisalpine
Gaul (Wilan, Bologna, Verona), (B) Venetia and
(1) the Ligurian settlements in Sardinia, Corsica
and the land between Gulf of Genoa and the Po.
ii. not many bays and indentations, small
valleys as in Greece
iii. Hence the people not so seafaring and adventurous
as the Greeks, the cities not sc 'numerous and
jealous of one another.
B. The People of Italy
1. Races
(a) Etruscans, Tyrrhenians-between the Arno
and the Tiber-perhaps Aryan-formed a
confederation of 12 cities ; great builders
skilful in the arts-augury and divination.
(B) Greeks-the colonies in the southern
parts-Magna Græcia.
(v) Italians-Aryan-more allied to the Greeks
than the Celts or Teutons

·[61]
i. Oscangin the N. E.
Sabines, Umbrians, Samnites and Lucanians
less akin to the Greeks-hence the scourge
of the Greek colonies in the South.
.
ii. Latins in the S. W.--more nearly allied to
the Greeks.
2. Language-the old language gradually gave
way to the Latin.
3. Religion-very much like that of the Greeks.
But mythology not so elaborate and rich.
4. Government
i. All the 3 elements common to the parent
Aryan Polity.
ii. The Leagues of the kindred districts-e.g.
the Latin and the Samnite.
CHAPTER II.
The Period of the Making of
Rome-Monarohy.
A. Legends and Traditions-foundation by Romulus
a descendant of Æneas the Trojan hero ;-the
Seven Kings-the last expelled because of his
tyranny and pride (510 B, C.)
B. Facts
i. Roine a border town of the Latins on the
frontiers of the Sabine and Etruscan territories

·[ 62 ]
ii. The settlements on the seven hills by the Tiber
joined into one city.
iii. The Sabines are allowed to have the Roman
rights-hence the strength of the confederation
iv. Kings-not hereditary-out chosen from the
two tribes in turn
v. The last kings--the Tarquins-were Etruscans,
adorned the city with works of their art, and
greatly extended its power
CHAPTER III.
The period of the expansion of
Rɔme-Commonwealth
SECTION I. .
Establishment of the Commonwealth.
A Government
i. The Assembly of the people.
ii. The Senate.
iii. Devolutioa of the kingly powers on the 2
annually chosen magistrates--called formerly
Praetors, later Consuls,
B. Constitutional contests and progres3.
i. Privileges of the Patricians the early settlers
and disabilities of the Plebeians in both social
and political spheres.

·. [ 63 ii. Longstanding disputes finally settled by the grant of all rights to the weaker classes reg. the right not only to vote but also to be eligible for the Consulship and other high dignities-366 3. SECTION 2. The Making of Italay. 1 Latium consolidated Wars with the Volscians city Veiz by B Capture of thro Etruscan Camillus (396 B. C.) The Gaulish invasion of Rome (390 B. C.) & Treaty of alliance with the Latin League --- fullowed by war with it (310 B. C.)-The League dissolved and the cities were merged in the Roman State one by one. || Italy conquered and consolidated & The Samnite wars i. 343-10 B.C. ii. 326-30R. C. ji. 2.18-290 B. C. The Sainnites, though helped by the Gauls and Etruscans were gradually subdued. B The Tarentine war !281-76). Pyrrhus of Epirus as champion of the Greek cities--defeated the Romans in two battles but was at last defeated at Beneventum-The Southern States subdued ·. [ 64 ] y the policy of Rome as mistres; of Italy: a dominion of a city over cities -Roman Government was always the government of a city-and the rights of the Roman citizenship were granted sparingly. Hence there were i. Roman franchise-voice in the general government, in the election of inagistrates, and in matters of peace and war. These rights could not be exercised by proxy. ii. Latin franchise-did not give full Roman citizenship. . iii. Italian franchise-gave independent constitutions in all internal matters—but not absolute autonoiny e.g. in peace and war. over SECTION 3. Extra-Italian conquests : Provinces I Carthage i. Phænician city holding doininion over other Phoenician and native cities ü. a naval power holding sway Sardinia, Corsica,, parts of Sicily iii. having mercenary troops, a The First Punic War (264-241 B. C.) Rome helps the Mammertines against Carthage The scene of war in and about Sicily. The Roman consuls Regulas and Catullus. The Carthaginians compelled to sue for peace and cede Sicily (241 B. C.)

·[ 65 ] The Second Punic or Hannibalian war (218- 202 3. C.) The Romans got possession of Sardinia and Corsica and opposed Carthagi. nian expansion in Spain-The Scene of war in Italy owing to Hannibal's invasion by land ; the four great battles by which Romans are defeated in Italy. But the Romans (Scipio) took the Spanish possessions of the Carthaginians and carried war into Carthage itself. Hannibal defeated at Zama (202 B. C.). The Carthaginians sue for peace and cede all their Extra-African possessions and bind themselves not to make war without the consent of the Romans. r The Third Punic War (149-46 B. C.); the Romans help Massinissa against Carthage, destroy the city, give part of her dominions to Massinissa and make the rest Roman province. N. B. By the First War Carthage loses territory but is independent. By the Second Carthage is a dependent ally but independent in internal matters. By the Third ('arthage is destroyed, loses independence and becomes a prowince. II. Macedonia and Greece : The Romans had already got possession of the Greek cities in Italy, Sicily and in Illyria (B. C. 229) a The First Macedonian War (213-05 B. C.) Philip in league with Hannibal, helped by the leagues of Achæa, Acarnania and Epirus ; Romans helped by the Ætolians. a ·( 66 ) son The Second Macedonian War (200-130) Romans help the Athenians who had been attacked by Philip, are joined by the Ætolians and ·Achæans and defeat him at Cynoscephale (147). Flaminius proclaims the liberty of Greece (196 B. C.) Philip a dependent ally of Roine. The Greeks, though nominally free, become practically dependent. Antiochus helps the Etolians against Rome (192 B. C.) but is defeated at Thermopylæ (191 B. C.); and Aetolia is conquered and becomes a Roman dependency (189 B.C.) r The Third Macedonian War (171-63 B. C.) Perseus the of Philip. The Achean League holds firm to Rome. The Greeks at last defeated at Pydna (168). The Macedonian kingdom cut up into 4 commonwealths, all dependencies of Rome. & The Fourth Macedonian War (149-8): Macedonia at last a Koman Province. { Final subjugation of Greece--war with the Achmans-destruction of their indipendence ; Polybius the Achaean prisoner at Rome evrites a history of the period (146 B. C.) III. Asia-Pergamus, Bithynia, and the Seleucid kingdom. i. Antiochus was pursued after his defeat at Thermopylæ (191 B. C.), and compelled to cede the western dominions to the Romaŋs, retaining only Syria to himself.

·[ 67 ] were as ii. Rome granted these to Pergamus. iii. Attalus its last king died leaving his kingdom to the Romans (133). Thus Asia was made a Roman province. IV. Western Europe—the nations yet barbarous. of Cis Alpine Gaul—The Gauls were dangerous to Rome, having once burnt it, and helped the Samnites against ii. But before the First Punic war the lands S. of the Po were won ; Lefore the Second Punic war, colonies were planted beyond the Po., after the Second Punic war it was fully conquered (191 B. C.) Liguria and Venetia soon became provinces. 8 Spain (211-133 B.C.) i. Mass of people not Aryans. ii. Iberians; Celts in the centre, Phoenician and Greek Colonies. iii. Between the first and Second Punic wars Carthaginian power was greatly extended as far as the Ebro. iv. During the Second l'unic war all these territories over by Rome (211-06 B. C.) v. After suppressing native revolt, the younger Scipio took Numantia (133 B.C.) r Trans Alpine Gaul. (218-105 B. C.) i. different races- Iberians, Celts, Teutons, Greek Colonies. were IVO!

·( 68 ) ii. At the beginning of the Second Punic war (218 B.C.) the Greek cities became the allies of Rome. iii. Roman Province founded in Provence (125 B.C.), Roman colony at Aix. iv. Extension of dominion in 105 B.C. checked by opposition of the of the Teutons and Cimbri-barbarians, who are, however, defeated by the consuls Marius and Catulus (102 B.C.) CHAPTER IV. The Period of the Political and Social Decay of Rome after her territorial expansion. The last days of the Commonwealth The Civil Wars, SECTION 1. The Prelude A. Causes of Discontent. i. The Roman People was the Sovereign, the Provincts and Allies had no voice. ii. No distinction between Patricians and Plc. beians, but aristocracy of rank, office, and wealth replaces the old aristocracy of birth.

·[69] Hence the contest between the rich and the poor. iii. Rome draws people from all all quarters, and the Assembly gradually becomes a mob. iv. The Italian allies wanted to be Roinan Citizens." B. Efforts to redress these grievances of the allies and the poor. 1. Tiberius Gracchus-champion of the poor, killed by the oligarchs (133 B.C) 2. Caius Gracchus-champion of the poor and allies-similarly killed (128 B.C.) 3. Caius Marius-champion of the Italians and the poor—distinguished himself in the Jugurthine war and wars with the Teutons. 4. The Social War (90-89 B. C.)-rising of the socii or allies--checked by Marius and Sulla by granting' Roman Rights to all except the Samnites and Lucanians. SECTION 2. The Conflicts. A. Rivalry between the two leaders—The First Civil war between Sulla and Marius—Sulla after the Mithridatic war (83 B. C.) saved Rome and crushed the Marian party and Samnites, became Perpetual Dictator and passed a series of laws to confirm the aristocracy. B. External condition-Provincial difficulties Asiatic wars ·[ 70 ] army in 1 The First Mithridatic war (88--87 B.C.) Mithridates king of Pontus becomes master of all Asia, massacres the Romans and Greeks of Asia and lands an Greece. Sulla defeats him in great battles but is compelled to hasten the conclusion of the war at the news of Marius' successes at home. Temporary secession of Asia. 2 The Second Mithridatic war (74-6.1 B.C.) Mithridates had to give up all his conquests, but he began the wars anew, was defeated by Lucullus and Pompey the Great -the Pontic kingdom was destroyed-Roman power in Asia was re-established. This led to extension of her power in Armenia, Syria, Jerusalem and Palestine, and brought her face to face with the hardy Parthians. (54 B.C.) C. Internal condition_Rivalry between the leading men-Cæsar, Pompey, Cicero and Crassus. 1. The Ascendancy of Cæsar-Cæsar consul (59 B.C.)-Governor of Provence--conquers the whole of Gaul (58–51 B.C.) and strikes terror into the hearts of the Germans and the British (55-54 B.C.) 2. The Second Civil War (19-45 B, C.) Cæsar the aggressor. Pompey the champion of the, Senate and Commonwealth. Cæsar gets the people to make him Dictator and then Consul ·. ( 71 ) (48 B.C.); then subdues Pompey at Pharsalus, and soon subjugates the remaining Provinces. .On his return to Rome he becomes Dictator for life, gets the title of Imperator, and in reality becomes the sole monarch of the Roman Empire. His ambition to get himself formally elected is the cause of his murder (B. C. 44) by Brutus and Cassius. 3. The Third Civil War (44-31 B. C.) Anto. nius, Octavius and Lepidus represent Cæsarism and defeat Brutus and Cassius at Philippi (42 B. C.), but soon fall out between theinselves. The result was Octavius drew the Empire to himself by overthrowing his rivals in battle, 4. The Ascendency of Octavius. The Senate grants him all the powers of the several officers of the Commonwealth. He recovers to himself all the rights and functions; and is contented without the title of rex; the title , Augustus' is voted to him (27 B. C.) N, B. Just as the powers of the kings were transferred to the consuls etc, so at present the powers of the officers were transferred to one man.

·[ 72 ) CHAPTER V. Causes of Failure of the Roman Republic 1. It was impossible to provide masters for the magistrates who had gone out nominally as servants of the city without giving the provincials a share in the government. 2. It was impossible to give the provincials part in a system which knew nothing of Representative Assemblies and consequently nothing of citizenship save in the shape of privileges which could be exercised only in Rome itself. The only remedy possible was to overthrow the city constitution and bring Rome to the same level with the Provinces by giving her and them a common master who could unify administra. tion and oversee it with an equal interest in the prosperity of all parts of a consolidated doinain. CHAPTER VI. Roman Literature. SECTION 1. Before Greek Influence : Pre-Literary Age - (B. C. 240). Germs of an indigenous literature, no definite literary forms, mere approaches to literature. 1. Art of writing for the preservation of sacred, hymns, books of ritual, treaties with other states, the Laws of the XII Tables &c.

·[73] 2. Annales Maximi.-The Pontifex Maximus used to draw up the dry records of the prodigies and events of the year-commemorative and patriotic instinct satisfied-germs of future epics and histories. 3. Oratory-Appius Claudius Cæcus-beginning of the third cent. B. C. 4. Poetry-native metre-the Saturnian used. a ritual hymns of priests. Ó by bards or soothsayers--"vates." c Fescennine verses-embodying the coarse satiric instincts-germs of satires. d commcinorative poems sung at funeral banquets in celebration of the exploits and virtues of distinguished men ; germs of history, epics, “laudationes" and Horatian odes. e Saturæ-nedleys – unconnected dramatic dialogues which enliven the holidays of the people;. no regular plot, contests of wit and satire ; invectives; comment on current events, music; germs of the regular comedy, as well as of the satires of Lucilius, Horace, Persius, and Juvenal. SECTION 2. Republic ---Period of conquests—from the First Punic War to the Social War (240-80 B.C.) Greek Influence-Amount of extant literature very small; humour, vivacity, urbanity of comedy ; practical, ethical, commemorative and satirical tendencies of the serious literature ; higher poetical ·[ 74 ] imagination is an exception, love of nature and pleasures and sorrows of private life unknown, the metrical form discovered but as yet rude and in harmonious. Language of imagination and poetical feeling not yet developed. Preponderance of prosaic over poetic element. The “Italians'' are not as yet in sympathy with Rome (cf. the Social War and do not contribute their share to the national literature. A. The Golden Age of the Republic-Rome as a conqueror (240-130 B. C.) 1. Livius Andronicus -a Greek slave captured in the Tarantine war (272 B. C. )-tutor to his master's ſarily-the Livian gens ; teaches Greek ; i. after the conclusion of the First Punic War (240 B. C.) takes the bold step of substituting at one of the public festivals a regular drama (translated or adapted from the Greek). for the Saturu -no literary but educative value ii. Translation of the Odyssey. iii. Religious hymn--composed in the latter part of the Second Punic War-no literary pretension. 2. Novius-not a Greek--but a Roman or a Latinserved in the First Punic War--imprisoned and banished for his satire i. Drama (235 B. C. )-adapted tragedies and comedies from Greek-comic genius-Satiric and censorious criticism rather than a humorous sense of the comedy of human life and character ·[ 75 ] ji Satires iii Poetry 2. celebrating the victory of Marcellus over the Gauls (225 B. C.) B. long Saturnian poem on the First Punic War -recounts contemporary events well as the traditional account of Æneas's founding of Rome. as 3. Plautus (d. 184)--the greatest comic and dramatic genius of Rome-not in sympathy with the serious literature--humour and vivacity. V. B. Thus far Roman Literature seemed likely to become a mere vehicle of amusement adapted to all classes of people in their holiday mood. But henceforth it became the expression of the idea, sentiment and culture of the aristocratic governing class. 4. Ennius (239-159 B. C.)—born in Calabria, well cultured, served in the Roman armics, gained the friendship of the greatest Romans-endowed with the gift of poetical imagination and enthusiasom, gave a new direction to Literature and elicited deeper springs of emotion from the native genius. i. gave a fresh impulse to tragedy, turned his eyes from the commonplace social humours to the Heroic Ages of Greece but did not denationalise the Roman drama,--for he animated the early heroes of Greece with Roman characteristics : breathed the spirit of elevation and mora. authority.

·( 76 ) ji. Saturæ-in trochaic tetrameter-on matters of the day-in the language of common life ii. Annales-the epic poem--his greatest work iv. as a grammarian fixed the prosody. 5 Cato (234-139 B. C.), represented the pure native . elements, the mind and character of Latium-no poetic imagination-opposed the imaginative literature created by Ennius - made literature ancillary to politics and to objects of practical utility--hence started Prose Literature-gave great impulse to oratory, history, and systematic didactic writing not or Ous Origines--in old age-regards, like Livy, Virgil, Tacitus and Ennius, actions and events in relation to their causes their general human interest but as incidents in the continuand progressive life 'of ke state. He investigated researches into the “ Italian commụnities. V. B. Nævius, Plautus, Ennius and Cato not only represent, but may be said actually to have been, the contending forces which strove for ascendancy ist determining what was to be the character of the new literature. They may be spoken of as contemporaries. Cato the youngest, was a man of mature years, actively engaged in the service of the state, when Navius was still in the vigour of his powers, and before Plautus had reached the most productive period of his career.

·[ 77 ] B. Split in the Republic-The Parties-Oper. ation of the causes of the Civil Wars (130-80). As mistress she imbibes foreign practices, and forgets her native characteristics. This period is not distinguished by original force 1 Accius-tragedian followers of Ennius 2 Pacuvius-tragedian 3 Statius—comedian-follower of Plautus. 4 Various annalistic poems to serve as continuations of the great poem of Ennius. 5 Works of criticism in trochaic tetrameter, rude precursors of the didactic epistles that Horace devoted to literary criticism. 6 Terence-has nothing Italian or Roman except his pure and.idiomatic Latinity. His Athenian elegance -Hellenised owing to the influence of the Scipionic circle ; his comedy humanised and refined the Roman inanners, but 'was at the same time the solvent of the discipline and the ideals of the old Republic. 7 Lucilius (166-102 B. C.) represents the revolutionary spirit of the new party—the Gracchi. His satires are the literary embodiments of the age of conflict-exercised both' against the popular and senatorial parties ; for about 30 years criticises the politics, society, morals and letters of the time.

·[ 78 ] 8 Ad Herennium Prose treatise on Rhetoric indicative of the attention paid to prose style and rhetorical studies precursor of Cicero's and Quintilian's works. was 9 Oratory-begun by Cato in the last generation continued by his successor, and was developed with the aid of rhetorical studies--out come of imperial interests, legal conflicts of these times of agitation i Scipio ii Lælius jii Gracchů iy Crassus v Antonius--all these prepared the art which in Cicero's hands was to receive the finishing touch. 10 History-no original work--chronicles----the sources of future historians. 6 SECTION 3. Republic -The Last Days-Civil Wars--the Golden Age of the Roman Literature (80-12 D.C.) The Ciceronian Age. The period of excellence in prose, of a new birth of poetry-charact:rised by original force and artistic promise rather than by perfect accomplishment. Literature not as yet a profession ; but a reading public exists and oratory is intended as much for readers as for audience.

·[79] A. Prose i Cicero (106-43 B. C.) i Speeches-belong to the domain of literature as to the forensic or political oratory-irrelevant to the issue-because more literary and artistic than adapted to the temporary occasions. Largeness of his sympathies, his patriotic and imperial feelings best fitted him for the creation of this new type of oratory. Thus his characteristics area Connection with great political or imperial issues. s Ethical aspirations--moral motives. r Vivid imagination of the dramatist which creates great types of character. s Copious stream of language-creator of style -calls forth the amplest and most passionate powers of the language. ii Philosophical criticisms, and appreciations of oratory iii Letters -- 110 mannerisms, reserves, academic elaborateness, after-thought, sincere and immediate expression of the thought and feeling of the moment-his humour and kindliness. 2 Cæsar (100-44 B. C.) rival of Cicero-simplicity of his style, directness of his narrative, entire absence of any didactic tendency Commentaries-created the admirable style of prose narrative-no colouring of personal or moral feeling—10 oratorical passion, no pictorial no no 110 • ·[80] illustration --Persuasive but frec from the Roman fashion of self-laudation or disparagement of an adversary. 3 Sallust (87-34 B. C.)- just opposite to Cæsarthe first of the purely artistic historians-like the Greek historians took particular actions expressions sententious, and archaic-effort at effectiveness; cared more for the manner than for mattertakes the popular side. i Jugurthan Iar ii Catilinarian Conspiracy iii Historice -of 12 years following the death of Sulla—now lost. B Poetry Since the appearance of the Annals of Ennius in whoin the poetry of national life had originated, no work of great original genius has appeared. The powerful poetic force which for half century continued to be the strongest force in Literature first revealed itself in the latter part of the Ciceronian age. а 0 1. Lucretius (99-55 B.C.)-Eintire seclusion from public life-absorption in ideal pleasures of contemplation. The form of his poetry, as well its matter-Greek; study of Homer and Euri. pides ; De Rurum Natura-penetrated into the secret of Nature and the deeper truths of human life ; compared with Virgil's work, crude and jnartistic in execution and design. But his defects ·• [81] made up for by his enthusiasın, glow of poetic feeling, rich imagination and fervent emotion. Catullus (84-54 B. C.) represents the artistic side of Roman Poetry--Alexandrine models-Provincial by birth-Sensuous passion and warm affection were united in his nature. He was a victim to the fascinations of Clodia-whom he has celebrated in some of the most powerful and charming love poetry.

·BOOK IV.
The Heathen Roman Empire.
CHAPTER I.
General Characteristics.
A. Extent --bounded by the Atlantic, the Rhine,
Danube, Euphrates and the African deserts :
1. Latin Provinces - Western from the
Ocean
to the Hadriatic-Gaul, Spain, Africa, and
Italy-Roman language, civilisation, inanners.
2. Greek Provinces --Middle-froin the Hadriatic
to the Mt. Taurus --Grecte proper, the Greek
colonies, the Macedonian Provinces ; politically
Roman—but socially and intellectually Greek..--
Greek Language.
3. Oriental Provinces ---beyond Taurus; Syria,
Egypt ; only superficially Greek --Helenised
but not Hellenic : native languages and habits
of thought.
B, Nature
i. no formal revolution
ii. 10 changes in the relations between the ruliity
city and the provinces or allies

·[83]
ii. but subsequently, all free inhabitants of the
Empire got the Roman franchise ;
is, and Rome instead of being the ruling city
became only the seat of Govt. :
1. and finally. Rome ceases to be even the seat of
Govt.
CHAPTER II.
Emperors
SECTION 1.
Augustus (1. C. 27-14 1. D.
1. Did not abolish the old constitutional forms, but
established, in fact, a inilitary monarchy.
2. Wars in Spain, and beyond the Alps and with
the Gerinans, who under Arminius defeated, and
checked the progress of, his general (9 A: D.)
Augustan Age-Virgil, Horace, Ovid, Livy the
historian.
SECTION 2.
The Claudian Emperors
They were successively the adopted sons of the
reigning Emperors
1 Tiberius (14-37 A. D.)-prosperous Einpire but
he himself was cruel.

·[ 84 ] 2 Caius Caligula (37-41) mad, did the wildest things, killed by his officers. 3 Claudius (41-54) chosen by the Army and confirmed by the Senate. Britain was being con- quered : poisoned by his wife. 4 Nero (59-68) reigned well for a time but most cruel ; deposed by the Senate. N. B. The Empire passes from the Caesarian family. The following kings do not pretend to this family even by adoption but still call themselves Ciesar and Augustus. ivas SECTION 3. The Flavian Emperors . The Army's Emperors, Gall. Othu and Vitellus are killed successively (68-70). The Flavians did not, like the Julians and Claudians spring from any of the great and ancient families of Rome. 1. Flavius Vespasianus (70-79)-prace and traiquillity in the Empire-suppression the risings of the Jews and the Batavians. 2. Titus--the son of Flavius (79-81) had suppressed the Jews and destroyed Jerusalem. 3. Domitian, brother of Titus careful and severe asserter of the Lawy--became tyrannical like the Claudii. Britain completely conquered by Agricola. He was killed (96). of, ·( 85 ) SECTION 4. The Good Emperors. They were, like the Claudians, the adopted sons of the reigning Emperors and formed an artificial family. Better management of the Provinces Regular and Systematic Government-codification of the Civil Laws-Fainous Greek and Latin writers flourished Tacitus tlie historian. 1. Nerva (36-98). 2. Trajan (98-117)-a Spaniard--the Empire reached its greatest extent. From this time the wars are not for conquests, but for defence. Won several provinces from the Parthians, won Dacia. Persecuted the Christians as dangerous to the state 3. Hadrian (117-38) had to give up the Parthian territories t. Antonius Pius (138-61) 5. Marcus Aurelius (161-82)-had to wage wars with the Gerinans along the Danube ; was a philosopher ; Moral writing's ; persecuted the Christians as dangerous to the state. 6. Commodus--bis son-but very unlike his father, vicious and cruel-murdered (192 A.D.) SECTION 5. Emperors chosen by the Army. The soldiers set up and slew Emperors as they chose, and the Senate was obliged to make the ·( S6 ] usual votes in favour of those who were thus set up. 1. Septimus Severus (193-211) 2. Caracalla (211-217)-wicked son--gave Roman citizenship to all free inhabitants of the Empire The old distinction between Ro.nans, Latins, Italians and Provincials wiped out. 3. Elagabalus 4. Alexander Severus 5. Valerian (253-60)—war with the l'ersians ; takon prisoner and died in captivity- persecuted Christians 6. Gallienus (200.68! -his son ; the Empire split to pieces among various Pretenders--called Tyrants. E... Odenathus was acknowledged Emperor in Palmyra in Syria ; and after him, his wife Zenobia reigned as Queen of the East. 7. Illyrian Emperors a Claudius (268-70;-won a great victory over the Goths B Aurelian (271-84) - put down Zenobia of Palmyra, gave up Dacia to the Goths. v Diocletian (284-303) divided the Empire into parts under Augusti and Cæsars, was the greatest persecutor of the Christians, abdicated. • N. B. Changes in the Empire : 1. Notion of cominonwealth completely disappeared.

·[ 87 ] The forins kept up by its earlier Emperors had by this time vanished. 2. The Empire--more and more a military structureresting on the help of the Standing Army. 3. All the inhabitants were now Romans. 4. Rome no longer the sole seat of the Empire Political raised other provinces to the saine importance as Italy and Rome. reasons CHAPTER III. Literature under the Early Roman Empire. SECTION I, Characteristics of the Augustan Age. . 1. Entirely new,spirit--the old literary influences ; but an allered world--Imperial Institutions--Restoration of peace, order, national glory--hopes and aspirations--Augustus almost heroified 2. All independence of thought and feeling suppreved. Hence the two great forins of Prose Literature which drew their nourishment from the struggles of political life--Oratory and Contemporary History, were arrested in their developinent. 3. The Poetry became the organ of the new empire and the new ideals,--the organ of the pleasures of private life ·( 88 ) 4. Satiro debarred from that comment on political action which had been open to Lucilius, Catullus and Calvus under the Republic, turned to social and individual life and combined with ethical analysis. 5. No age afforded material and social advantages for the peaceful cultivation of letters -Patronage of Mæcenas. more SECTION 2. THE GOLDEN (AUGUSTAN) AGE OF ROMAN LITERATURE A. Poetry 1. Virgil (70-19 B. C.)-idealising poetdeeply imbued with the learning, thought and poetry of Greece a. Pastoral poems Imitation of Theocritus,. Latin Hexameter- Latin Language:enriched with its sweetest and most inusical variations-Italian scenery, passion of love. h. Georgics--originality. and self-dependence, homeliest details of the farmer's work. c. Æneid idealising poet of national glory, 2. Horace (B. C. 65–8)-realistic in his Satire, idealistic in his lyrics, (a) First period (40--29 B. C.) i. Epodes--imitation of Archilochus, personality is the essence of these ; pointed and epigrammatic, ·[ 89 ] ii. Satires-realistic pictures of social life. Personality is used merely as illustrative of general tendencies. During this period he had republican feelings. But after the battle of Actium he becomes definitely a supporter of the Monarchy, and in the odes he places his powers at its disposal. N. B. Satires-- The only branch of Roman Literature which was not framed on a Greek model !. Lucilius (148-103 B. C.)-inventor-attacks individuals with the unsparing freedoin of Greek Comedy. 2. Horace -- free froin vehemene--keeps entirely clear of politics-the follies of inankind are the occasion not for anger but for laughter ; cynical-makes vice appear ridiculous. 3. Juvenal (100 A. D).-Satire reaches its perfection-fire of fierce indignation. N.B. All Latin poetry is copied from Greek inodels - not Terence copies Menander. Propertius Callimachus. Lucretius Empedocles. Virgil Homer and Hesiod. Horace Aracreon, Simonides, Sappho and alcaus. (6) Second Period-meridian of his genius, time of his greatest lyrical inspiration-friendship with Maecenas-Odes-3 books-great technica.

·[ 90 ] skill, but no imagination--no new ideas, happy epigrammatic phrases. (c) Third Period-casts aside for a tiine the office of "Vates" and resumes that of critical spectator of human life, but in the spirit of a moralist rather than a satirist- Epistles (d) Fourth Period-resumed for a time, under pressure of imperial command, his Lyrical function 3. Elegiac Poetry i. Tibullus (4 19 B. C.)-gives utterance ) pensive melalicholy as port of love-sympathy with the country people-idyllic spirit of Virgil fastidious refinement shrinking from the rough contact of life-Cf. Gray. ii. Propertius, 50–153. (...)-- Roman Calliinachus, youth more stormy than Tibullus and spent amid all the licence of the capital, passion for Cynthia is the theme of his most finished poctry ; less accompli-hed artist than Tibullus or Ovid. jii. Ovid (+3 B. C.-17 .. D.) -- most facile and brilliant --but least serious in tone ; amatory poet---poct of pleasure rather than of tender sentiinept; created a literature of romantic passion 11. Metainorphoges-continuous narrative, rapidly moving hexameters ·(91] 1. Fasti-vivid conception and narration of stories of Poetical calendar strong human interest. of the Roman c. Tristia year. d. Ex ponti. B. Prose The Augustan Age was one of those great eras in the world in which what seems a new spring of national and individual life calls out an idealising retrospect of the past. As the present seems full of new life, the past seems rich in glory and the future in hope. The past of Rome had always a prculiar fascination for Roman writers. Virgil in a supreme degree, and Horace, Propertius and Ovid in a.less, had expressed in their poetry the romance of the past. Livy (B. C. .59—97 d. D.)-the great historical work --10 critical investigation no weighing of historical evidence but intense sympathy with the national ideal-vivid imagination with which he gives life to the events, personages, the ind political contests--110 accurate conception of the constitution of the state. wars SECTION 3. Characteristics of Post-Augustan Literature. Literature continues to flow in the old channels Jittle novelty, abundance of industry.

·192] A. Literary forms 1. Epics-historic and Alexandrian types 2. Tragedies-Seneca 3. Didactic poems-Siline of Statius 4. Satires and satiric epigram--the strong point of the age. B. Subject matters 1. The ideal of Roine no longer inspiring 2. Immoral age 3. History is mere personal anecdotes or invectives--not an organ of patriots. 4. Sensuous gratification-villa. 5. Human life shallow, C. Organised Despotism literary decline--decay of the infuences of the Republican and Augustan eras-New literary influences : a. The extreme immorality affords materials to the satirist and deepens the consciousness of inoral evils. b. Diffusion of culture in the Latinised districts of Spain--cosmopolitan element introduced into Roman Literature, D. In the two preceding periods the diffusion of literary culture following the Social War and the First Civil War awakened into new life the elements of original genius in Italy and Cisalpine Gaul. And as fresh bloud to the nearly exhausted literary genius of Italy from Spain in the first century of the Empire, so in the later . caine ·193 ] came centuries it troin Africa Whatever of literary force appears in the Pagan or Christian literature in the Latin Language between the 2nd and the 6th century is due to the Romance Settlements in Africa. SECTION 4. The Silver (Post-Augustan) Age of Roman Literature. A. Period from Tiberius to Nero (B. C. 17. 68 A. D.) 1. Phadrus Fables 2. Paterculus-prose 3. Grammarians and Rhetoricians in the reign of Claudius. 4. Germanicus-literary culture-His daughter Agrippina was the patron of Seneca. 5. The Neronian age (59-68 A'D). i. Seneca a Spaniard exhibits the power of Stoic Philosophy as a moral, political and religious force (d. 65 A. D.)--horalist and pathological observer of man's inner life. ii. Lucan, a spaniard Stoic-Pharsalia with Cato as its hero. dii. Persius-Stoic-Satires--the purest product of Stoicism---- with Thrasea a contemporary as hero ; his style most unnatural, least charming. iv. Petronius-prose novel. B. Period from Flavius to Domitian (68-96 A. D.) A greater sobriety of tone was introduced into life and literature with Vespasian's accession, ·[ 9+ ] 1. Pliny the Elder---prose. 2. Flaccus, the writer of poetry: 3. Age of Domitian i. Quintilian (35–95 A. D.) thoroughly successful man of letters--not belo:iging to the higher classes-- just criticism. -"Institutes' - sober judgment. ii. Silus (25 - 101 A. 1).)-poem "Punic war"--industry and good sense. iii. Statius (45 -06 .l. D.) Epic poet, technical skill u Thebaid B Silve is. Martial (41-102. 1). --Epigrams-a true image of the average sensual life of Rome. seen through a medium of wit-undistorted by exaggeration. Hencr representative of his age like Horace he did not withdraw into a world of lit:rary interest, but lived and wrote in the central whirl of city life. C. Period from Nerva to Hadrian (96-130 A. D.) 1. Tacitus (54-119 4. D.) i. Innals. ii. Histories iii. Life of Igricvia iv. Manners of the Commons 2. Juvenal (47 130 A. 1). Satires-exaggeration.

·7 19.5 3. Pliny the younger (61--115 A. D).) Letters-modify the tragic and sombre character of the representation of the times by Juvenal and Tacitus, but do not contradict them. SECTION 5. Hellenistic Literature under the Roman Empire. Græco-Roman Period (140 B. C.-529 1. D.) Roman subjugation of Greece-But "captive Greece captured Rome" The 3 principal seats of learning-(1) Alexandria, (2) Athens-not however, as before, the intellectual centre the workel, (3) Rome gradually becoining the rival of Tlexandria. of I. From 146 B. C. to the close of the Repablic (30•B. C.) 11. Polybius-History of thi Roman Conquest from 20.7-176 B, C i. last Greek writer who retains the spirit of the old citizen lite, having the practical knowledge and insight of a !raveller, soldier and states- 11an, ii. llence like Thucydides and Herodotus ; not a mere dull laborious compiler who chooses subjects that give scope to learning or literary sliill. iin. hut, like them, felt the practical importance of thic conquests, ·[ 9 ] iv. Style-plain, straightforward, without the florid rhetoric of his time. b. Diodorus Siculus- Universitl History "ist century B. C.) i. like Polybius, recognises Rome as the point on which all earlier series of events converged ii. but unlike him-has no practical knowledge. II. Greek Literature of the Roman Empire from Augustus to Justinian (30 B. C. 529 A. D.) The area over which the Greek language was diffused was coextensive with the Empire itself. abundance of literary production--no originality in form or matter-collection of materials critics, coinmentators, compilers, annotators A. Prose Literature of History, Biography, Geography I Dionysus of Halicarnassus, Josephus, Arrian, Appian, Herodian--Historians, 2 Plutarch, Diogenes Lertius Philostratus --Biographers 3 Strabo and Pausanius-Geographers. B. Erudition and Science. 1 Julius Pollux-Lexicon. 2 Galen--Commentaries Plato aric Hippocrates r. Rhetoric and Belles Lettres. on ·[ 97 ] 1. Rhetoric. Hermagenes. Cassius Longinus-On Sublimity. Sophists. 2. Dialogues, letters, essays. Lucian-exhibits classical style and spirit, satirist like Swift. His Attic Prose the best of his time. Julian, Emperor--orations, satires. 3. Novel-Xenophon of Ephesus, Longus. Heliodorus. 4. Letters-Alciphron S Philosophy 1. Epictetus Stoics. 2. Marcus Aurelian 3. Neo-Platonists Plotinus. •Porphyry. Jamblichus. 4. Proclus, B. Verse 1. Babrius versified the Aesopic Fables. 2. Oppias wrote didactic poems on fishing and hunting 3. Sibylline Orycles (170 B. C. 700 A. D.) partly the expression of the Jewish longings for the restoration of Isræl, partly predictions of the triumph of Christianity. Greek Anthology-short poems (6th cent. B. C.-6th cent A. D.) 7 4.

·[ 98 ]
CHAPTER IV.
Roman Constitution.
SECTION 1.
Monarchic City State up to 500 B. C.
1. King elective
2. Senate advisory
3. Assemblies
i. Curiata--exclusivly patrician
ii. Centuriata-created lately as the result of
the struggle, in which Plebs also have voice.
SECTION 2.
Republic
(500 B. 6.--1st Century B. C.;
Internal politics.
a. Period of conflict between the two
orders (500-300 B. (.)
i. Various officers in the place of one king.
1. Consuls--two annually clected officers
2. Practors-judges
3. Censors
4. Dictator occasional
i. The Centuriata elects to these magistracies.
ii. Patriciaus alone eligible to these offices
iv. Plebeian activities
1.' Exclusively Plebcian organisation - Concilium
2. The Tribune, advocatc of Plebeians to criticise
Patrician administration

·[991 ] an, 3. Ultimately acquisition of civil and political quality h. After amalgamation of the two orders- (B. C. 300-1st cent B.C.) The Assemblies 1. Tributa developed from the Concilium 2. Centuriata elects consuls-ultimate court, and settles foreign politics 3. Curiata insignificant-religious business, ii. The Senate not exclusively patrician but consisting of the experienced officers hence official aristocracy; in theory, advisory only; but controls state finances, forcign politics, international relations, and treatment of allies and subjects. . B. External politics a. Period of conflict - self-defence b. Imalgamation-career of conquests 1. Italian Conquest o Constitutional relation i. Illies--complete autonomy ii. Coloni's--among subject peoples iïi, Single officials called prefects - as rulers of subject peoples B Position of the subjects-compulsory iniiitary service and graélual improvement i. Jus Latii-qualified citizenship ii. Ultimately fulb Roman citizenship granted to all Italy (60 B, C.)

·[ 100 ) .. 2. Extra-Italian expansion-provincial administration : The Pro-Consuli. like dictator or Mark-graf-supreme authority ii. Impeachable after service a SECTION 3. . Empire A. Informal and transitional (up to 300 A.D.) 1. Gradual concentration of authority in one man, the imperator 2. The Senate i. remains important in legislation ii. officered mainly at the Emperor's will ii. elects Oificers 3. The Assemblies insignificant B. Formal a. Pre-Christian 1. Authority not from people 2. Imperial person and authority divine. b. Christian 1. Authority (not person) divine 2. Authority descends from the emperor to officers 3. Graduai extension of Roman citizenship to provinces 4. A world-state-ubmission of a vast empire to the same wili. JU PUB.10.4167 Estd. 1902. .

·OPINIONS ON INTRODUCTION TO THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. The Bengalce, September, 1910. A MONUMENTAL WORK. We have received a copy of “Shiksha Bijnaner Bhumica" or Introduction to the Science of Education by Professor Benoy Kumar Sarkar 11. A., of the Bengal National College, Calcutta. It contains an appreciative perface by Babu Hirendranath Datta, who states that the author has been for she last three or four years engag. ed in the preparation of a Science of Education, which is to be a comprehensive work treating of all the aspects of education, historical, theoretical and practical. This has been written as a foreword to the whole which is to be complete in twenty parts, of which some have been sent to the press. There are three great divisions in the subject matter of the work. In the first volume the author proposes to discuss in a historical inanner, the different ideals and methods of cdutation adopted by the -different nations of the civilised world in the different ages of history and amidst different circumstances.

·(ii) The second volume will be a philosophical discussion of the theory and science of education, the nature and ideal of education, the means and instruments of education with a view to set forth the best and achievable ideals of education suitable to the requirements of Modern India. an The third volume is to deal in exhaustive manner with the best mode of teaching the different subjects such as Language, History, Psychology, Murpl Philosophy, Economics, Politics and Sociology. The author will indicate how real and genuine interest in the Natural Sciences can be created in the minds of the learners, He will also show the simple and easy, the best and the inost effective mode of teaching Mathc natics, Physics, Chemistry; Geology, Botany, Zoology and Physiology. The mode of teaching useful industries and other valuable suggestions about them will be offered. Ile will throughout make use of the Inductive Method of Teaching. From this very brief contents of the book the reader will be able to imagine the comprehensiveness of the work. We are very glad to recommend this excellent foreword and the series to the public for carcful perusal and especially to those of our countrymen who are engager? in teaching and controlling education. It is highly desirable that the New Method of Traching inaugurated in his work should find its trial in our Public Schools and Colleges. "'The author himself," observes Babu Hirendranath Datta, " has achieved cxccllent results ·(iii) by applying his new methods of teaching among his pupils and he hopes that the cause of education in this country will be greatly accelerated if they are adopted by the public." Weapnot think of more important service to be done in the interest of our nation than promoting the growth and spread of education. Government is also alive to the cause of primary education which has become a question of urgent necessity in this country. It is evident that we are in need of a number of cdotated men, like the present author, who can devote their lives to lift and leaven the general mass of the community. Slur is often ſung at our graduates that they are not fit for any original work. We invite the public to take note of this comprehepeve and original work on the Science of Education and to see if they can adopt its ideals and inethods of education. The author deserves the most hearty thanks from the public for the long and steady efforts that are being inace to the canse of educational reform. L. understand - that this Introduction to the Science of Educatwn has already won golden opinions from the leading journals of Bengal, as it should, being an original and important eontribution to the Bengali literature.

·( iv ) ২। প্রবাসী-ভাদ্র ১৩১৭। যুক্ত হীরেন্দ্র নাথ দত্ত মহাশয় ভূমিকায় এই গ্রন্থের পরিচয় দিয়াছেন—শিক্ষাবিজ্ঞান সম্বন্ধে গ্রন্থকার এক প্রকাণ্ড পুস্তক কয়েক খণ্ডে প্রকাশিত করিবেন, তাহাতে শিক্ষাপদ্ধতির ঐতিহাসিক ও বৈজ্ঞানিক প্রণালীর আলােচনা থাকিবে। সমস্ত প্রাচীন ও আধুনিক সভ্য দেশের শিক্ষাপ্রণালীর তুলনামূলক আলােচনা করিয়া শ্রেষ্ঠ আদর্শ স্থির করিবার চেষ্টা হইবে। শিক্ষার অন্তর্গত জগতের যাবতীয় বিষয় আলোচিত হইবে। সেই প্রতিপাদ্য বিষয়ের সাৰ মৰ্ম্ম প্রকাশ করা এই পুস্তকের উদ্দেশ্য। গ্রন্থকার বিদ্বান্ ও শিক্ষা কর্মে ব্যাপৃত। তাহার জ্ঞান ও অভিজ্ঞতা প্রকাশিত হইলে দেশের প্রভূত মঙ্গল সাধিত হইবে আশা করা যায়। পুস্তিকার শেষে গ্রন্থকার যাহা লিখিয়াছেন তাহা সকল দেহিতেচ্ছুর চিন্তা ও অনুকরণের যােগ্য বলিয়া এস্থলে উদ্ধত করিয়া দিলাম—“শীঘ্রই বিদ্যাদান এবং শিক্ষা বিস্তারই স্বদেশসেবা ও সমাজহিতের প্রধান অঙ্গ ও লক্ষণ হইয়া দেশের মধ্যে বর্তমান সর্ববিধ আন্দোলনসমূহকে নিয়ন্ত্রিত ও পরিচালিত করিবে। শিক্ষা আন্দোলনই সকল আন্দোলনকে গ্রাস করিয়া ক্রমশ গভীরতর ও বিস্তৃততর হইতে থাকিবে। কর্গিগণ প্রকৃত মনুষ্যত্ব বিকাশের সহায়ক জ্ঞান-মন্দির সমূহের প্রতিষ্ঠাকেই জীবনের ধর্ম মনে করিবেন এবং এই কৰ্ম্মেই সম্পূর্ণ শক্তি ও সময় দান করিয়া জীবনের সার্থকতা উপলব্ধি করিবেন। শিক্ষাক্ষেত্রে অবতীর্ণ হইবার জন্য দেশ- বাসীদের আন্তরিক আকাক্ষা জন্মিবে। শিক্ষা প্রচারই সমীপবর্তী ভবিষ্যতের নৃতন সন্ন্যাস হইবে। শিক্ষকই নূতন সন্ন্যাসী হইবেন।” এরূপ সন্ন্যাসী দেশে দেখা দিয়াছেন। = ·( v ) ৩। বসুমতী-ভাদ্র ১৩১৭। গ্রন্থকার “শিক্ষাবিজ্ঞান” নামক বিশ খণ্ডে সমাপ্ত যে বিরাট গ্রন্থের রচনায় প্রবৃত্ত হইয়াছেন, এই ভূমিকা তাহারই পরিচয় ও নির্ঘণ্ট রূপ লিখিত হইয়াছে। শিক্ষা-বিজ্ঞান বিষয়ক গ্রন্থ বঙ্গ ভাষায় নাই বলিলে অত্যুক্তি হয় না। গ্রন্থকার মাতৃভাষায় এই অভাব দূর করিবার জন্য তিন চারি বৎসর কঠোর পরিশ্রম স্বীকার করিয়া শিক্ষাবিজ্ঞানের রচনা করিয়াছেন। সেজন্য তিনি সাধারণের ধন্যবাদাই। সংস্কৃত, ইংরাজী, উদ্ভিদবিজ্ঞান প্রভৃতি শিক্ষা বিজ্ঞানের অন্তর্গত চারি পাঁচ খানি পুস্তক ইতি মধ্যেই যন্ত্রস্থ হইয়াছে। এই রাজনীতিক আন্দেলনের দি শিক্ষা বিজ্ঞানের অনুশীলনে প্রবৃত্ত হইয়া নবীন গ্রন্থকার শিক্ষার প্রতি অনুরাগ ও একাগ্রতার পরিচয় দিয়াছেন। হীরেন্দ্র বাবুর সহিত আমরাও বসুধী মণ্ডলী এই নূতন গ্রন্থের উপযুক্ত সমাদর করিবেন, এবং শিক্ষাবিষয়ে নিজ নিজ চেষ্টা ও চিন্তার প্রয়ােগ করিয়া শিক্ষা সম্বন্ধে প্রকৃত “বিজ্ঞানের প্রতিষ্ঠা করিবেন। ৪। শ্ৰীযুক্ত রবীন্দ্র নাথ ঠাকুর। এ গ্রন্থ বিশেষ অবধানের সহিত আলােচনার যোগ্য হইয়াছে সন্দেহ নাই। যাহারা শিক্ষা ব্যবসায়ী তাহারা এই বই যত্ন করিয়া পড়িবেন ও ঔপকার লাভ করিবেন এইরূপ আশা করি। বিনয় বাবু যে ব্ৰত গ্রহণ করিয়াছেন তাহা বিপুল বিস্তৃত ও দুঃসাধ্য, ইহা সম্পন্ন করিয়া তিনি দেশের মহৎ উপকার সাধন করুন এই আমি অন্তরের সহিত কামনা করি।

·( vi ) 5. The Modern Review-6th October, 1910. The author is engaged in the preparation of a “ Science of Education series " which will be completed in twenty parts. The book under review is introduction to the whole series. The author reserves our best thanks for the services he is doing to the ause of Educational Reforin in our country, and we recommend this introduction to our trachers for perusal. ail ৬। হিতবাদী–১৩ই আশ্বিন ১৩১৭ সাল। এ পুস্তকের আলােচনা পদ্ধতি আমাদের ভাল লাগিয়াছে। অধ্যাপক ও বিদ্যার্থিবর্গের মধ্যে ইহার অদর হইবে। ৭। গৌড়দুত। শ্ৰীযুক্ত বিনয় কুমার সরকার এম এ মহাশয় এক বিশাল কাৰ্য্যে হস্তক্ষেপ করিয়াছেন। বাঙ্গালা ভাষায় শিক্ষাবিজ্ঞান সম্বন্ধে বিশেষ কোন গ্রন্থ নাই বলিলে চলে। এদেশে জাতীয় ভাবে শিক্ষা প্রচার জন্য বিদ্যালয় ও পরিষং স্থাপিত হওয়ায় তাহার আবশ্যকতা দিন দিন অনুভূত হইতেছে। বিনয় বাবু স্বয়ং এই শিক্ষা প্রচারে ব্রতী, সুতরাং তিনি এই বিশাল কার্যে ব্রতী হইবার সম্পূর্ণ বােগ্য। সম্প্রতি এই বিরাট গ্রন্থের ভূমিকা মাত্র প্রকাশিত হইয়াছে। হইয়াছে। এই গ্রন্থের বিশালতা দেখিয়া একা বিনয় বাবুর দ্বারা এই কাৰ্য্য সংসাধিত হওয়া অনেকে অসাধ্য মনে করিতে পারেন; কিন্তু তিনি ছাত্রাবস্থা হইতে এই কার্যের জন্য প্রস্তুত হইয়াছেন, এবং কোন স্বয়ং প্রস্তুত নহে, অপর সহচর ও সাহায্যকারী ব্যক্তিও প্রস্তুত করিয়াছেন। সুতরাং এই বিশাল গ্রন্থের সম্পূর্ণতা সম্বন্ধে আমাদিগের কোন সন্দেহ নাই।

·(vii) O. KAI SARAT CHANDRA DAS BAHADUR, C.I.E. PROFESSOR Benoy Kumar Sarkar's Shiksha Vijnan Bhumika is an excellent introduction to the Science of Education. The scheme of his works as out-lined in this book is as follows: The first volume contains a Historical Survey of the systems of education representing the types of civilisation evolved in the history of the world. The second is to give the Philosophical Theories on edicotion held by the master-minds of the different ages and countries, supplemented by the author's own theory clecluced from the historical study as well as froin the critical survey of the theories. The rt of teaching accorling to his Theory of Educatioy will be dealt with in the Thiril volume which will necessarily consist of as many parts as there are branches of learning. The Book will thus be self-contained--dealing with the history', theory and practice of education in a compuchensive manner on scientific basis. C!! H.

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