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·HOW TO WRITE CLEARLY.
LA
Rules and Exercises
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·ALMOST every English boy can be taught to write clearly, so far at least as clcarness deperds upon the arrangeinent of words. Force, elegance, and variety of style are more difficult to tcach, and far more difficult to learn; but clear writing can be reduced to rulcs. T8 teach the art of Wfting clearlv is the main object of these Rules and xürcises. Ambiguity may arise, not only from bad arrangement, but also from other causes-from the misuse of single words, and from confused thought. These causes are not removable by definite rules, and therefore, though not neglected, are not prominently considered in this book. My objcct rather is to point out some few continually recurring causes of ambiguity, and to suggest definite remedies in cach casc. Specches in Parliament, newspaper narratives and articles, and, above all, resolutions at public mectings, furnish abundant instances of obscurity arising from the monotonous neglect of some dozen simple rules. The art of writing forcibly is, of course, a valuable acquisition--almost as valuable as the art of writing clearly. But forcible cxpression is not, like clear expression, a mere question of mechanism and of the manipulation of words ; it is a much higher power, and implies much more.

·6 Preface. Writing clearly does pot imply thinking clearly. A man may fhink and rea on as obsqurely as Dogberry himself, but he may, (though it is not probable that he will) be able to write clearly for all that. Writing clearly-so far as arrangement of worrls is concerned -is a mere matter of adverbs, conjunctions, prepositions, and auxiliary verbs, placed and repeated according to definite rules, Even obscure or illogical thought can be clearly expressed ; indeed, the transparent mediuṁ of clear writing is not least beneficial when it reveals the illogical nature of the meaning beneath it. On the other hand, if a man is to write forcibly, he must (to use a we!l-known illustration) describe Jerusalem as "sown with salt," not as "captured," and the Jews not as being “subdued” but as "almost exterminated” by Tikus. But what does this imply? It implies knowledge, and very often a great deal of knowledge, and it implies also a vivid imagination. The writer must have eyes to see the vivid side of everything, as well as words to describe what he sees. Hence forcible writing, and of course tasteful writing also, is far less a matter of rules than is clear writing; and hence, though forcible writing is exemplified in the exercises, clear writing occupies most of the space deyoted to the rules. Boys who are studying Latin and Greek stand in especial need of help to enable them to write a long English sentence clearly. The periods of Thucydides and Cicero are not easily rendered into our idiom without some knowledge of the links that connect an English sentence. There is scarcely any better training, rhetorical as well as logical, than the task of construing Thucydides into * Punctuation is fully discussed in most English Grammars, and is thorefore referred to in this book only so far as is necessary to point out the slovenly fault of trusting too much to punctuation, and too little to arrange. ment.

·Preface. 7 genuine English ; but the flat, vague, long-winded Greek- English and Latin-English imposture that is often tôlerated in our examinations and' is allowed to pass current for genuine English, diminishes instead of increasing the power that our pupils should possess over their native language. By getting marks at school and college for construing good Greek and Latin into bad English, our pupils systematically unlearn what they may have been allowed to pick up from Milton and from Shakespeare. I must acknowledge very large obligations to Professor Bain's treatise on "English Composition and Rhetoric," and also to his English Grammar. I have not always been able to agree with Professor Bain as to matters of taste; but I find it difficult to express my admiration for the systematic thoroughness and suggestiveness of his book on Composition. In particular, Professor Bain's rule on the use of "that” and “which” (sce Rule 8) deserves to be better known. The ambiguity produced by the confusion between these two forms of the Relative is not a inere fiction of pedants; it is practically serious. Take, for instance, the following sentence, which appeared lately in one of our ablest weckly periodicals: “There are a good many Radical members in the House who cannot forgive the Prime Minister for 5cing a Christian.” T.venty ycars hence, who is to say whether the meaning is "and they, i.e. all the Radical inembers in the House," “tlicre are a good many Radical members of the House that cannot &c.”? Professor Bain, apparently admitting no exceptions to his useful rule, amends many sentences in a manner that seems to me intolerably harsh. Thcrcfore, while laying due stress on the utility of the rule, I have endeavoured 'to point out and explain the exceptions. Before ineeting with Professor Bain's rule, I had shown that the difference between the Relatives is generally observed by Shakespeare. See Shakespearian Grammar," paragraph 259. or 66 ·8 Preface. The rules are stated as briefly as possible, and arc intended not so much fºr use by themselves as för reference whlle the pupil' is working at the exercises. Consequently, there is no altempt to prove the rules by accumulations of examples. The few cramples that are given, are given not to prove, but to illustrate the rules. The exercises are intended to be written out and revised, as exercises usually are ; but they may also be used for viva voce instruction. The books being shut, the pupils, with their written exercises before thein, may be ques. tioned as to the reasons for the several alterations they have made. Experienced teachers will not require any explanation of the arrangericnt or rather non-arrangement of the exercises. They have been purposely mixed together unclassified to prevent the pupil from relying upon anything but his own common sense and industry, to show him what is the fault in cach case, and how it is to bc amended. Besides references to the rules, notes are attached to cach sentence, so that the exercises ought not to present any difficulty to a painstaking boy of twelve or thirtcen, provided he has first bccn fairly trained in English grammar. The “Continuous Extracts" present father more difficulty, and are intended for boys somewhat older than those for whom the Exercises are intended. The attempt to modernize, and clarify, so to spcak, the style of Burnet, Clarendon, and Bishop Butler," may appear ambitious, and perhaps requires some explanation. My object has, of course, not been to improve upon the style of these authors, but to show how their meaning might be cxpressed more clearly in modern English. The charm of the style is necessarily lost, but if the loss is recognized both by teacher and pupil, there is nothing, in my opinion, to * Sir Archibald Alison stands on a very different footing. The extracts from this author are intended to exhibit the dangers of vcrbosity and exaggeration.

·Preface. 9 counterbalance the obvious utility of such exercises. Professos Bain speaks to the same effect:2 " For an English exercise, the matter should in some way or other be supplied, and the pupil disciplined in giving it expression. I know of no better method than to prescribe passages containing good matter, but in some respects imperfectly worded, to be amended according to the laws and the proprieties of style. Our older writers might be extensively, though not exclusively, drawn upon for this purpose." To some of the friends whose help has been already acknowledged in "English Lessons for English People," I am indebted for further help in revising these pages. I desire to express cspccial obligations to the Rev. J. H. Lupton, late Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge, and Second Master of St. Paul's School, for copious and valuable suggestions; also to several of my colleagues at the City of London School, among whom I must mention in particular the Rev. A. R. Vardy, Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Before clectrotyping the Fourth and Revised Edition, I wish to say one word as to the manner in which this book has been used by my highest class, as a collection of Rules for reference in their construing lessons. In construing, from Thucydides especially, I have found Rules 5, 30, 34, 36, 37, and 400, of great use. The rules about Mctaphor and Climax have also been useful in correcting faults of taste in their Latin and Greek compositions. I have hopes that, used in this way, this little book may be of service to the highest as well as to the middle classes of our schools. English Composition and Rhetoric," p. vü.

·CONTENTS PAGC INDEX or RULES 11-13 . . RULES . . . . 1 . 14-40 . SHORT EXERCISES 0 . . 41–63 64–70 CONTINUOUS EXERCISES-CLARENDON , . . BURNET 70-73 . . . . BUTLER . . 74-75 . SIR ARCHIBALDY ALISON 76—78 32 ·INDEX 0, RULES. I. CLEARNESS AND FORCE. WORDS. » « that." so not ... or, 1. USE words in their proper sense. L. Avoid exaggerations. 3. Avoid useless circumlocution and "fine writing.' 4. Be careful in the use of “not. and," "any," "but," only, 48. Be careful in the use of ambiguous words, e.g. "certain." 5. Be careful in the use of "he,"it," "they," " these," &c. 6. Report a speech in the First Person, where necessary to avoid ambiguity. 6 a. Use the Third Person where the exact words of the speaker are not intended to be given. 66. Omission of "that," in a speech in the Third Person. 7. When you use a Participle implying "when," "while," "though," or "that,” show clearly by the context what is implied, 8. When using the Relative Pronoun, use "who" or "which," if the meaning is " and he" or " and it, " "for he" or "for it." In other cases use "that," if euphony allows. Exceptions. 9. Do not use “and which" for “which.' 10. Equivalents for the Relative : (a) Participle or Adjective; (6) Infinitive; (c) Whereby," "whereto," &c.; (d) “If a man;" (e) " And he,' sand this,'i '&c. ; (f)"what;" () omission of Relative. 10 a. Repeat the Antecedent before the Relative, where the non-repetition causes any ambiguity. See 38. 11. Use particular for general terms. Avoid abstract Nouns. II a. Avoid Verbal Nouns where Verbs can be used. 12. Use particular persons instead of a class. 13. Use metaphor instcad of literal statement. 14. Do not confusc, metaphor. 14 a. Do not mix metaphor with literal statement. 14 6. Do not usc poetic metaphor to illustrate a prosaic subject. ORDER OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE, 15. Emphatic words must stand in emphatic positions ; i.e., for the most part, at the beginning or the end of the sentence. 15 a: Unemphatic words must, as a rule, be kept from the cnd. Exceptions. ; 3 ·I 2 Index of Rules. 156: An interrogation sometimes gives emphasis. 16. The Subject, if unusually emphatic, should often berransferred from the beginning of tke sentence. 17. The Object is sdmetimes placed before the Verb 'for emphasis. 18. Where several words are emphatic, inak, i clear which is the most emphatic. Emphasis can sometimes be given by adding an epithet, or an intensifying word. 19. Words should be as near as possible to the words with which they are grammatically connected. 20. Adverbs should be placed next to the words they üre intended to qualify. 21. "Only"; the strict rule is that "only" should be placed before the word it affects. 22. When "not only” precedes “but also," see that each is followed by the same part of speech, 23. "At least, 'always," and other adverbial adjuncts, sometimes procluce ambiguity. 24. Nouns should be placed near the Nouns that they define. 25. Pronouns should follow the Nouns to which they refer, without the interventios, of any other Nou. 26. Clauses that are grammatically connected should be kept as close together as possible. Avoid parentheses. But see 55 27. In conditional sentences, the anteccdent or il-clauses' must be kept distinct from the consequent clauses. 28. Dependent clauses preceded by “that” should be kept distinct from those that are independent. 29. Where there are several infinitives, those that are dependent on the same word must be kept distinct from those that are not. 30. The principle of Suspense. 30 a. It is a violation of the principle of suspense to introduce unexpectedly at the end of a long sentence, some short and unemphatic clause beginning with (1) not,” (0) “which. 31. Suspense must not be excessive. 32. In a sentence with "if," "wlien,” “ though," &c., put the "if-clause," antecedent, or protasis, first. 33. Suspense is gained by placing a Participle cr Adjective, that qualifies the Subject, before the Subject. 34. Suspensive Conjunctions, e.g. “either," "not only," "on the one hand,” &c., add clearness. 35. Repeat the Subject, where its omission would cause obscurity or ambiguity. 36. Repeat a I'reposition after an intervening Conjunction, especially if a Verb and an Object also intervene. 37. Repeat Conjunctions, Auxiliary Verbs, and Pronominal Adjectives. 37 a. Repcat Verbs after the Conjunctions "than," "as," &c. 17 ·Index of Rules. 13 38. Repeat the Subject, or some other emphatic woll, or a summary of what has been said, if the sentence is so long that it is difficult to keep the thread of meaning unbroken. 39. Clearness is increased, when the beginning of the sentence prepares the way for the middle, and the middle for the end, the whole forming a kind of ascent. This ascent is called “climax." 40. When the thought is expected to ascend, but descends, feebleness, and sometimes confusion, is the result. The descent is called “ “bathos.' 40 a. A new construction should not be introduced unexpectedly. 41. Antithesis adds force and often clearness. 42. Epigram. 43. Let each sentence have one, and only one, principal subject of thought. Avoid heterogeneous sentences. 44. The connection between diTerent sentences must be kept up by Adverbs used as Conjunctions, or by means of some other connecting words at the beginning of the sentence. 45. The connection between two long sentences or paragraphs sometimes requires a short intervening, sentence showing the transition of thought. II. BREVITY. 46. Metaphor is briefer than literal statement. 47. General terms are briefer, though less forcible, than par. ticular terms. 47 a. A phrase may sometimes be expressed by a word. 48. Participles may often be used as brief (though sometimes ambiguous) equivalents of phrases containing Conjunctions and Verbs. 49. Participles, Adjectives, Participial Adjectives, and Nouns may be used as equivalents for phrases containing the Relative. 50. A statement may sometimes be briefly implied instead of being expressed at length. 51. Conjunctions may be omitted. Adverbs, e.g. "very, "so." Exaggerated epithets, e.g. incalculable," "unprecedented." 51 a. The imperative may be used for “if &c." 52. Apposition may be used, so as to convert two sentences 53. Condensation may be effected by not repeating (1) the common Subject of several Verbs ; (2) the common Object of several Verbs or Prepositions. 54. Tautology. Repeating what may be implied. 55. Barenthesis may be used with advantage to brevity. See 26. 56. Brevity often clashes with clearness. Let clearness be the first consideration. 17 into one.

·CLEARNESS AND FORCE. Numbers in brackets refer to the Rules. WORDS. 66 "aware, “occur, 1. Use words in their proper sense. Write, not "His apparend guilt justified his friends in disowning him," but "his evident guilt." Conscious and unnatural" and "supernatural," ," "transpire" and circumstance "and." event, " " reverse" and "con. verse, " " eliminate" and "elicit," are often confused together. This rule forbids the use of the same word in different senses. "It is in my power to refuse your request, and since I have power to do this, I may lawfully do it.” Here the second power" is used for "authority.' This rule also forbids the slovenly use of "nice," "awfully," "delicious," "glorious,” &c. See (2). 2. Avoid exaggerations. “The boundless plains in the heart of the empire furnished inexhaustible supplies of corn, that would have almost sufficed for twice the population." Here "inexhaustible" is inconsistent with what follows. The words "unprecedented," "incalculable," "very," and "slupendous" are often used in the same loose way. 3. Avoid useless circumlocution and "fine writing." "Her Majesty here partook of lunch." Write "lunched." “Partook of” implies sharing, and is incorrect as well as lengthy. So, do not use "apex” for "top," "species " for "kind, "' individual " for "man," "assist for "help," &c. 4. Be careful how you use the following words: "not • and," "any," "only,” “not ... or," " that." 1 For, at the beginning of a sentence, sometimes causes temporary doubt, while the reader is finding out whether it is used as a conjunction or preposition.

·Words. 15 or 66 you alone.' nor. And. See below, “ Or." Any."I am not bound to receive any messenger that you send." Does this mean every; or a single? Use * every a sihgle. Not.-(1) “I do not intend to help you, because you are my enemy &c." ought to mean (2), "I intend not to help you, and my reason for not helping you is, because you are my enemy." But it is often wrongly used to mean (3), “I intend to help you, not because you are my enemy (but because you are poor, blind, &c.).” In the latter case, not ought to be separated from intend. By distinctly marking the limits to which the influence of not ex. tends, the ambiguity may be removed. Only is often used ambiguously for alone. “The rest help me to revenge myself ; you only advise me to wait.” This ought to mean, you only advise, instead of helping ;" but in similar sentences you only” is often used for But see 21. Or.-When “or” is preceded by a negative, as "I do not want butter or honey,"..."or" ought not, strictly speaking, to be used like "and," nor like“ The strict use of “not ... or" would be as follows :- “You say you don't want both butter and honey-you want butter or honey; I, on the contrary, do not want butter or honey I want them both." Practically, however, this meaning is so rare, that "I don't want butter or honey ” is regularly used for "I want neither butter nor honey." But where there is the slightest danger of ambiguity, it is desirable to use nor. The same ambiguity attends "not and.' "I do not see Thomas and John" is commonly used for “I see neither Thomas nor John;" but it might mean, “I do not see them both—I see only one of them.' That.-The different uses of "that" produce much ambiguity, 6.8. “I am so much surprised by this statement that I am desirous of resigning, that I scarcely know what reply to make." Here it is impossible to tell, till one has read past" resigning, whether the first “that” depends upon or “ statement.' Write: “The statement that I am desirous of resigning surprises me so much that I scarcely know &c." 4 2. Be careful in the use of ambiguous words, e.g. "certain." * "Certain" is often used for "some," as in "Independently of his earnings, he has a certain property," where the meaning might be “unfailing.' Under this head may be mentioned the double use of words, such as "left" in the same form and sound, but different in meaning. Even where there is SO ·16 Clearness and Force. ..ng slovenly s. is that, with the aid of practice, we fnay sometime arrive at the point where we think eloquence in its most praiseworthy forın to lie." “To lie" has been supposed to mean to deceive. 5. Be careful how you use "he,"" "it," "they," “these," &c. (For “which" see 8.) The ambiguity arising from the use of he applying to different persons is well known. “ He told his friend that if he did not feel better in half an hour he thought he had better return." See (6) for remedy, Much ambiguity is also caused by excessive use of such phíases as in this way, of this sort, &c. “God, foreseeing the disorders of human nature, has given us certain passions and affections which arise from, or whose objects are, these disorders. Of this sort are fear, resentment, compassion.' Repeat the noun : "Among these passions and affections are fear &c." Two distinct uses of it may be noted. It, when referring to something that precedes, may be called "retrospective; but when to something that follows, "prospective. In "Avoid indiscriminate charity: it is a crimc," " it is retrospective. In “ It is a crime to give indiscriminately," "it" is prospective. The prospective" it," if productive of ambiguity, can often be omitted by using the infinitive as a subject : "To give indiscriminately is a crime." 6. Report a speech in the First, not the Third Person, where necessary to avoid ambiguitys Speeches in the third person afford a particular, though very common case, of the general ambiguity mentioned in (5). Instead of “He told his friend that if he did not feel better &c.," write “He said to his friend, 'If I (or you) don't feel better &c.'' 6 a. Sometimes, where the writer cannot know the exact words, or 'where the exact words are unimportant, or lengthy and uninteresting, the Third Person is preferable. Thus, where Essex is asking Sir Robert Cecil that Francis Bacon may be appointed Attorney-General, the dialogue is (as it almost always is in Lord Macaulay's writings) in the First Person, except where it becomes tedious and ininteresting so as to require condensation and then it drops into the Third Person: "Sir Robert had nothing to say but that he thought his own abilities equal to the place which he hoped to obtain, and that his father's long services deserved such a mark of gratitude from the Queen." * It should refer (1) either to the Noun immediately preceding, or (2) to some Noun superior to all intervening Nouns in emphasis. See (25).

·Words. 17 6 b. Omission of “ that” in & speech reported in the Third Person. Even when a speech is reported in the third person, “that" teed not always be inserted before the dependent verb. Thus, instead of “He said that he took it ill that his promises were not believed," we may write, He took it ill,' he said, 'that &c.'” This give a little more life, and sometimes more clearness also. 7. When you use a Participle, as "walking,” implying when," "while," "though," " that," make it clear by the context what is implied. “Republics, in the first instance, are never desked for their own sakes, I do not think they will finally be desired at all, unaccompanied hy courtly graces and good breeding." Here there is a little doubt whether the meaning is "since they arc, or, if they are, unaccompanied." That or when.-"Men walking (that walk, or when they walk) on ice sometimes fall." It is better to use men walking to mean “men when they walk." If the relative is meant, use men that walk," instead of the participle. (1) “While he was he fell." (2) “Because he was (2) the ice, When the participle precedes the subject, it generally implies Seeing this, he retired.” Otherwise it generally has its proper participial meaning, e.g. “He retired, keeping his face towards us." If there is any ambiguity, write "on seeing, the same time, or while, keeping. (1)“Though he was (1) he nevertheless stood his ground.” (2) “Since he was Struck with terror, (3) “If he is (2) he rapidly retreated.' (3) he will soon retreat." 8. When using the Relative Pronoun, use "who" and “which " where the meaning is "and he, it, &c.," "for he, it, &c." In other cases use "that," if euphony allows. “I heard this from the inspector, who (and he) heard it from the guard that travelled with the train." Fetch me (all) the books that lie on the table, and also the pamphlets, which (and these) you will find on the floor." An adherence to this rule would remove much ambiguity.. Thus: “There was a public-house next door, which was a great and this (i.e. the fact of its being next door) was a gre&t nuisance ;" whereas that would have meant “Next door was a public-house that (i.e. the public-house) was a great B à cause : "at > nuisance," means ·18 Cleatness and Force. that" nuisance.” “Who, " " which" &c. introduce a new fact about the antecedent, whereas "that” introduces something without which the antecedent is incomplete or undefined. Thus, in the first. example above, "inspector" is complete in itself, and "who"ointroduces a new fact about him; guard” is incomplete, and requires “that travelled with the train” to complete the meaning. It is not, and cannot be, maintained that this rule, though observed in Elizabethan English, is observed by our best modern authors. (Probably a gencral impression that "that" cannot be used to refer to persons has assisted "who" in supplanting as a relative.) But the convenience of the rule is so great that beginners in composition may with advantage adhere to the rule. The following are some of the cases where who and which are mostly used, contrary to the rule, instead of that. Exceptions : (a) When the antecedent is det ned, c.g. by a possessive case, modern English uses who instead of that. It is rare, though it would be useful, to say " His English friends that had not scen him" for "the English friends, or those of his English friends, that had not seen him." (6) That sounds ill when separated from its verb and from its antecedents, and emphasized by isolation : "There are many persons that, thougli unscrupulous, arc Gommonly good-temperk, and that,f not strongly incited by sclf-interest, are ready for the most part to think of the interest of their neighbours." Shakespeare frequently uses who after that when the relative is repeated. See " Shakespearian Grammar," par, 260. (c) If the antecedent is qualified by that, the relative must not be that. Besides other considerations, the repetition is disagreeable. Addison ridicules such language as " That reinark that I made yesterday is not that that I said that I regretted that I had made." (d) That cannot be preceded by a preposition, and hence throws the preposition to the end. "This is the rule that I adhere to." This is perfectly good English, though sometimes unnecessarily avoided. But, with some prepositions, the construction is harsh and objectionable, e.g. "This is the mark that I jumped beyond," "Such were the prejndices that he rose above." The reason is that song of these disyllabic prepositions are used as adverbs, and, when separated from their nouns, give one the impression that they are used as adverbs. (e) After pronominal adjectives used for personal pronouns, modern English prefers who. " There are many, others, several, those, who can testify &c." After that used as a conjunction there is sometimes a dislike to use that as a relative. See (c). 9. Do not use redundant "and" before “which." 1 gave him a very interesting book for a present, and which cost me five shillings. In short sentences the absurdityis evident, but in long sentences it is less evident, and very common. “A petition was presented for rescinding that portion of the bye-laws which permits application of public money to support So useful that, on mature consideration, I am disposed to adapt "that here and in several of the following exceptional cases. 2 Of course and which" may be used where "which“ precedes. 12 > << ·Woras. 19 > or 7) you can write . ") sectaris a schools over which ratepayers have no control, this being violation of the principle of civil and religious liberty, and which the memorialists believe would provoke a determined and conscientious resistance." Ilere which_ought grammatically to refer to "portion " schools.' But it seems intended to refer to violation. Omit " and," or repeat a violation" before “ which," or turn the sentence otherwise. 10. Equivalents for Relative. (a) Participle.-"Men thirsting (for " men that thirst') for Fevenge are not indifferent to plunder.” The objection to the participle is that here, as often, it creates a little ambiguity. The above sentence may mean, men, when they thirst,” or " though they thirst,” as well as men that thirst.” Often however there is no ambiguity : "I have documents proving this conclusively. (0) Infinitive. Instead of " He was the first that entered to enter; ” for “ He is not a man who will act dishonestly," "to act.” This equivalent cannot often be used, (c) Whereby, wherein, &c., can sometimes be used for "hy which, in which, so as to avoid a harsh repetition of "which.” “The means whereby this may be effected.” But this use is somewhat antiquated. (d) If.--"The man that does not care for music is to be pitied": can be written (though not so forcibly), “If a man docs not care for music, he is to be pitied.” It is in long sentences that this equivalent will be found most useful. (c) And this.-"He did his best, which was all that could be expected,” can be written, “and this was all that, &c. c) What.--"Let me repeat that which you ought to know, that that which is worth doing is worth doing well.” "Let me repeat, what you ought to know, that what is worth doing is worth doing well." (8) Omission of Relative.-It is sometimes thought ungrammatical to omit the relative, as in “The man (that) you speak of." On the contrary, that when an object (not when a subject) may be omitted, wherever the antecedent and the subject of the relative sentence are brought into juxtaposition by the omission. 10 a'. Repeat the Antecedent in some new form, where there is any ambiguity. This is particularly useful ? " That which," where that is an object, c.8. " then (set forth) that which is worse," St. John ii. 10, is rare in modern English 2 ·20 Clearness and Force. . me." after a negative : “He said that he would not even hear me, which I confess I had expected.”. Here the meaning gay be, “I had expected that he would,” or “that he would not, hear Write, "a reftisal, ors, a favour, that I confess t had expected." See (38). 11. Use particular for general terms.-This is a most important rule. Instead of "I have neither the necessaries of life nor the means of procuring them," write (if you can with truth), “I have not a crust of bread, nor a penny to buy one. CAUTION.--There is a danger in this use. The meaning is vividly expressed but sometimes may be exaggerated or imperfect. Crust of bread may be an exaggeration; on the other hand, if the speaker is destitute not only of bread, but also of shelter and clothing, then crust of brend is an imperfect expression of the meaning, In philosophy and science, where the language ought very often to be inclusive and brief, general and not particular terms must be used. 11 a. Avoid Verbal Nouns where Verbs can be used instead. The disdiivantage of the use of Verlal Nouns is this, that, unless they are immediately preceded by prepositions, they are sometimes liable to be confounded with participles. The following is an instance of an excessive use of Verbal Nouns : “The pretended confession of the secreiary was only collusion to lay the jealousies of the king's favouring popery, which still hung upon him, notwithstanding his writing on the Revelation, and affecting to enter on all occasions into controversy, asserting in particular that the Pope was Antichrist.” Write "notwithstanding that he wrote and affected &c." 12. Use a particular Person instead of a class. What is the splendour of the greatest monarch compared with the beauty of a flower ?” “What is the splendour of Solomon compared with the beauty of a daisy?" Under this head may come the forcible use of Noun for Adjective: " This fortress is weakness itself." Án excess of this use is lengthy and pedantically bombastic, e.fr, the following paraphrase for "in every British colony:"- "under Indian palm-groves, amjd Australian gum-trees, in the shadow of African mimosas, and beneath Canadian pines." 13. Use Metaphor instead of literal statement. “The ship ploughs the sea " is clearer than " the ship cleuves the sea," and shorter than "the ship cleaves the sea as a plough cleaves the land."

·Words. 21 >> Of course there are some subjects for which Metaphor Should not be used. See (14 a) and (146). 14. Do not confuse Metaphor. “In a moment the thunderbolt was upon them, deluging their country with invaders." The following is attributed to Sir Boyle Roche : “Mr. Speaker, I smell a rat, I see hin brewing in the air; but, mark me, I shall yet nip him in the bud." Some words, once metaphorical, have ceased to be so regarded. Hence many good writers say “ under these circumstances" instead of “ in these circumstances. An excessive regard for disused mctaphor savours of pedantry: disregard is inelegant. Write, not," unparallelet complications," but "unprecedented complications;" and "he threw light on obscurities," instead of "he unravelled obscurities." 14 a. Do not introduce literal statement immediately after Metaphor. "He was the father of Chemistry, and brother to the Earl of Cork." “He was å very thunderbolt of war, And was licutenant to the Earl of Mar." 14 b. Do not use poetic metaphor to illustrate a prosaic subject. Thus, we may say a poet soars, or even, though rarely, a nation soars to greatness,” but you could not say “ Consols soared to 946." Even conmonplace subjects may be illustrated by metaphor: for it is a metaphor, and quite unobjectivnable, to say “ Consols mounted, or jumped to 944." But commonplace subjects must be illustrated by mctaphor that is commonplace. ORDER OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE. 15. Emphatic words must stand in emphatic posi: tions; i.e. for the most part, at the beginning or at the end of the sentence. This rule occasionally supersedes the common rules about position. Thus, the place for an adverb, as a rule, should be between the subject and verb: “Ile quickly left the room ;” but if quickly is to be emphatic, it must come at the beginning or end, as in “I told him to leave the room slowly, but he left quickly." Adjectives, in clauses beginning with "if" and "though," often come at the beginning for emphasis : “ Insolent though he was, he was silenced at last."

·22 Clearness and Force. 15 å. Unemphatic words must, as a rule, be kept from the end of the sentence. It is a common Pult to break this rule by placing af short and unemphatic predicate at the end of a long sentence. “ To know some Latin, even if it be nothing but a few Latin roots, is useful.” Write, “It is useful, &c.” So "the evidence proves how kind to his inferiors he is." Often, where an adjective or auxiliary verb comes at the end, the addition of an emphatic adverb justifies the position, e.ge above, "is very useful, of " he has invariably been." A short "chippy", cnding, even though cmphatic, is to be avoided. It is abrupt and unrhythmical, e.g. “The soldier, transfixed with the spear, writhed." We want a longer ending, "fell writhing to the 'ground, or. "writhed in the agonies of death." A"chippy" ending is common in bad construing from Virgil. Exceptions.- Prepositiohs and pronouns attached to emphatic words need not be moved from the end ; e.g. “He does no harm that I hear of." “Bear witness how I loved him." N.B. In all styles, especially in letter-writing, a final emphasis must nodbe so frequent as to become obtrusive and monotonous. “No one 15 b. An interrogation sometimes gives emphasis. can doubt that the prisoner, had he been really guilty, would have shown some signs of remorse," is not so empliatic as Who can doubt, Is it possible to doubt, &c. ?" Contrast 'No one ever names Wentworth without thinking of &c.” with “But Wentworth,—who ever names him without thinking of those harsh dark features, ennobled by their expression into more than the majesty of an 'antique Jupiter ?" 16. The subject, if unusually emphatic, should often be removed from the beginning of the sentence. The beginning of the sentence is an emphatic position, though mostly not so emphatic as the end. Therefore the principal subject of a sentence, being emphatic, and being wanted carly in the sentence to tell us what the sentence is about, comes as a rule, at or near the beginning : " Thomas built this house. Hence, since the beginning is the usual place for the subject, il we want to emphasize "Thomas" unusually, we must remove "Thomas” from the beginning: “This house was built by Thomas, or “It was Thomas that built this house." Thus, the einphasis on conqueror " is not quite so strong in “A mere conqueror ought not to obtain from us the reverence that is due to the great benefactors of mankind," as in “We ought ·Order of Words in a Sentence. 23 not to bestow the reverence that is due to the great benefactors of maskind, upon a mere conqueror.” Considerable, but less emphasis and greater smoothness (19) will be obtained by writing the sentence thus : “We ought hot to bestow upon a mere conqueror &c." Where the same subject stands first in several consecutive sentences, it rises in emphasis, and need not be removed from the beginning, even though unusual emphasis be required : “The captain was the life and soul of the expedition. He first pointed out the possibility of advancing; he warned them of the approaching scarcity of provisions ; he showed how they might replenish their exhausted stock &c." 17. The object is sometimes placed before the verb for emphasis. This is most common in antithesis. Jesus I know, and Paul I know ; but who are ye ?" "Some he imprisoned, others he put to dcath.' Even where there is no antithesis the inversion is not uncommon: Military courage, the boast of the sottish German, of the ,frivolous and prating Frenchman, of the romantic and arrogant Spaniard, He neither possesses nor values." This inversion somctimes creates ambiguity in poetry, e.g. "The son the father slew," and must be sparingly used in prose. Sometinies the position of a word may be considered appropriate by some, and inappropriate by others, according to different interpretations of the sentence. Take as an example, "Early in the morning the nobles and gentlemen who attended on the king assembled in the great hall of the castle ; and here they began to talk of what a dreadful storm it had been the night before. But Macbeth could scarcely understand what they said, for he was thinking of something worse.' The last sentence has been amended by Professor Bain into "What they said, Macbeth could scarcely understand." But there appears to be an antithesis between the guiltless nobles who can think about the weather, and the guilty Macbeth who cannot. Hence," what they said " ought not, and "Macbeth" ought, to be emphasized : and there. fore Macbeth" ought to be retained at the beginning of the sentence. The same author alters, "The praise of judgment Virgil has justly con. tested with him, but his invention remains yet unrivalled, " into “Virgil has justly contesteri with him the praise of judgment, but no one has yet rivalled his invention"-an alteration which does not seem to cmphasize sufficiently the antithesis between what had been contested,' on the one hand, and what remained as yet 'unrivalled' on the other. More judiciously Professor Bain alters, "He that tells a lie is not sensible how great a task he undertakes; for he must be forced to invent twenty more to maintain one," into "for, to maintain one, he must invent twenty inore," putting the emphatic words in their emphatic place, at the end. 18. Where several words are emphatic, make it clear which is the most emphatic. Thus, in "The state was made, under the pretence of serving it, in reality the prize of their contention to each of these opposite parties," it is un. pleasantly doubtſul whether the writer means (1) state or (2) Parties to be emphatic.

·2 24 Clearness and Force. If '(I), “As for the state, these two parties, under the pretence of serving it, converted it into a prize for their conteftion. If (2), write, Though served in profession, the state was in reality converted into a prize for their contention by these two pulties.' In (1) parties is subordinated, in (2) state. Sometimes the addition of some intensifying word serves to emphasize. Thus, instead of "To effect this they used all devices," we can write “To effect this they used every coxceivable device." So, if w want to asize fidelity in “The business will task your skill and fidelity," we can write “Nou only your skill but also your fidelity. This, however, sometimes leads to exaggerations. See (2). Sometimes antithesis gives emphasis, as in "You do not know this, but you shall know it." Where antithesis cannot be used, the emphasis must be expressed by turning the sentence, as “I will make you know it," or hy some addition, as “You shall hereafter know it." 19. Words should be aş near as possible to the words with which they are grammatically connected. See Paragraphs 20 to 29. For exceptions see 30. "1 20. Adverbs should be placed next to the words they are intended to affect. When unemphatic, adverbs como between the subject and the verb, or, if the tense is compound, between the parts of the compound tense : *He quickly left the room;" "He has quickly left the room ;" but, when emphatic, after the verb : "lle left, or has left, the room quickly.' When such a sentence as the latter is followed by a present participle, there arises ambiguity. "I told him to go slowly, but he left the room quickly, dropping the purse on the floor.' Does quickly, here modify left or dropping ? The remedy is, to give the adverh its unernphatic place, "He quickly left the room, dropping &c., or else to avoid the participle, thus: “He quickly dropped the purse and left the room,' “He dropped the purse and quickly left the room. or 21. “Only" requires careful use. The strict rule is, that "only should be placed before the word affected by it. Sometimes the emphatic Adverh comes at the beginning, and causes the transposition of an Auxiliary Verb, "Gladly do I consent. . Of course punctuation will remove the ambiguity; but it iſ better to express oneself clearly, as far as possible, independently of punctuation.

·4 97 Order of Words in a Sentence. 25 The following is ambiguous : 'Idae heavens are not open to the faithful only at intervals." The best rule is to avoid placing only" between two emphatic words, and to avoid using “oniy” where“ alone can be used insteatl. In strictness perhaps the threc following sentences : (1) He only beat three, (2) He beat only threc, (3) He beat three only, ought to be explained, severally, thus : (1) He did no more than beat, did not kill, three. (2) He beat no more than threc. 3) Hc beat three, and that was all he did. (Here only modifies the whole of the sentence and depreciates the action.) But the best authors sometimes transpose the word. “He only lived " ought to mean " he did not die or make any great sacrifice ;" but "He only lived but till he was a man" (Alacbeth, v. 8. 40) means “He lived only till he was a man" be compare also, a Who only hath immortality; Only at the beginning of a statement E but. "I don't like to importune you, only I know you'll forgive me.' Before an imperative it diminishes the favour asked: Only listen to me. This use of only is mostly confined to letters. Very often, only at the beginning of a sentence is used for alone : "Only ten camc, Only Casar approved." Alone is less ambiguous. The ambiguity of only is illustrated by such a sentence as, “Don't hesitate to bring a few friends of yours to shoot on my estate at any time. Only five (tifteen) came yesterday," which might mean, “I don't mind a few, only don't bring so many as fifteen ; or else “Don't hesitate to bring a few more; no more than five came yesterday." In conversation, ambiguity is prevented by cmphasis ; but in a letter, only, thus used might cause un. fortunate mistakes. Writc “Yesterday only five came," if you mean more than five." 22. When "not only" precedes "but also," see that each is followed by the same part of speech. "He not only gave me advice but also lielp," is wrong. Write “He gave me, not only advice, but also help.” On the other hand, "He not only gave me a grammar, but also lent me a dictionary," is right. Take an instance. “He spoke not only forcibly but also tastefully (adverbs), and this loo, not only before a small audience, Int also in (prepositions) a large public meeting, and his speeches were wt only successful, buit alsu (adjective) worthy of success. 23. "At least," "always," and other adverbial adjuncts, sometimes produce ambiguity. “I think you will find my Latin exercise, at all cz'ents, as good as my cousin's." Does this mcan (1) "my Latin exercise, though not perhaps my other exercises ; or (2), “ Though not very good, yet, at all events, as good as my cousin's "? Write for (1), My Latin exercise, at all events, you will find &c." and for (?), I think you will find my Latin exercise as good as my cousin's, at all events. no ·6 ") 26 Clearness anit Force. Tie remedy is to avoid placing at all events between two emphatic words. As an example of the misplating of an adverbial adjunct, take “From abroad he received most favourable reports, but in the City he heard that a panic had broken out on the Exchange, and that the funds were fast falling. This ought to mean that the hearing," and not (as is intended) that the “breaking out of the panic," took place in the City. In practice, an adverb is often used to qualify a remote word, where the latter is more emphatic than any nearer word. This is very common when the Adverbial Adjunct is placed in an emphatic position at the beginning of the sentence : "On this very spot our guide declared that Claverhouse, had fallen." 24. Nouns should be placed near the nouns that. they define. In the very common sentence "The death is announced of Mr. John Smith, an author whose works &c.,' the transposition is probably made from a feeling that, if we write “ The death of Mr. John Smith is announced,” we shall be obliged to begin a new sentence, “ He was an author whose works &c." But the difficulty can be removed by writing "We regret to announce, es, we are informed of, the death of Mr.' John Smith, an author. &c." 25. Pronouns should follow the nouns to which they refer without the intervention of another noun. Avoid, "John Smith, the son of Thomas Smith, who gave me this book, unless Thomas Smith is the antecellent of who. Avoid also “ John supplied Thomas with money : he (Jolin) was very well off.” When, however, one of two preceding nouns is decidedly superior to the other in emphasis, the more emphatic may be presumed to be the noun referred to by the pronoun, even though the noun of hifcrior cmphasis intervenes. Thus: “At this moment the colonel came up, and took the place of the wounded general. lle gave orders to halt." Here he would naturally refer to colonel, though general intervencs. A conjunction will often show that a pronoun refers to the subject of the preceding sentence, and not to another intervening noun. "The sentinel at once took aim at the approaching soldier, and fired. He then retreated to give the alarm." It is better to achcre, in most cases, to Rule 25, which may be called (Bain) the Rule of Proximity. The Rule of Emphasis, of which an instance was given in the last paragraph, is sometimes irisleading. A distinction might be drawn by punctuating thus : "David the father of Solomon, who slew Goliath." "David, the father of Solomon who built the Temple.". But the propriety of omitting a comma in each case is questionable, and it is bettet to write so as not to be at the mercy or commas. 26. Clauses that are grammatically connected should be kept as close together as possible. (But sec 55.) The introduction of parentheses violating this rule often produceil serious ambiguity. Thus, in the following: " The result of these observations appears to be in opposition to thic view now gencrally 3) ·) Order of Words in a Sentence. 27 received in this country, that in muscular effort the substance of the muscle itself undergoes disintegration." Here it is difficult to tell whether the theory of disintegration" is (I) "the result," or, as the absence of a comma after “be" would indicate, (2) " in opposition to the result of these observations." If (1) is intended, add "and to prove after “country ;” if (2), insert " which is” after "country. There is an excessive complication in the following : “It cannot, at all events, if the consideration demanded by a subject of such importance from any one professing to be a philosopher, be given, be denied that &c.” Where a speaker feels that his hearers have forgotten the connection of the beginning of the sentence, he should repeat „what he has said ; c.8. after the long parenthesis in the last sentence he should recommence, “it cannot, I say, be denied.” In writing, however, this licence must be sparingly used. A short parenthesis, or modifying clause, will not interfere with clearness, especially if antithesis be used, so as to show the connection between the different parts of the sentence, e.g. “A modern newspaper statement, though probably true, would be laughed at if quoted in a book as testimony ; but the letter of a court gossip is thought good historical evidence if written somc centuries ago. Here, to plare" though po bably true at the beginning of the sentence would not add clearness and would impair the emphasis of the contrast between "a modern newspaper statement" and the letter of a court gossip." 27. In conditional sentences, the antecedent clauses must be kept distinct from the consequent clauses.- There is ambiguity in " The lesson intended to be taught by these manquvres will be lost, if the plan of operations is laid down too definitely beforehand, and the affair degenerates into a mere review, Begin, in any case, with the antecedent, “If the plan," &c. Next write, according to the meaning: (I)" If the plan is laid down, and the affair degenerates &c., then the lesson will be lost ;" or (2) ".. then the lesson will be lost, and the affair degenerates into a mere review." 28. Dependent clauses preceded by "that” should be kept distinct from those that are independent. Take as an example : (1) “He replied that he wished to help them, and intended to make preparations accordingly. This ought not to be used (though it sometimes is, for shortness) to mean : (2) "He replied. and he intended." . In (1), "intended," having no subject, must be supposed to be connected with the nearest preceding verb, in the same mood and tense, that has a subject, i... "wished." It follows that (1) is a condensation of:

·28 Clearness and Force. (3! "He replied that he wished and that he intended." (2), though theoretically free from ambiguity, is pragʻically ambiguous, owing to a loose habit of repeating the subject unnecessarily. It would be better to insert a conjunctional word or a full stop between the two statements. Thus : (4) He replied that he wished to help them, and indeed he intended, " &c., or “He replied, &c. He intended, &c.” Where there is any danger of ambiguity, use (3) or (4) in preference to (I) or (2). 29. When there are several infinitives, those that are dependent on the same word must be kept aistinct from those that are not. "He said that he wished to take his friend with him to visit the capital and to study medicine.” Here it is doubtful whether the meaning is “He said that he wished to take his friend with him, (1) and also to visit the capital and study medicine," or (2) "that his friend might visit the capital and might also study medicine," or (3) on a visit to the capital, and that he also wished to study medicine." From the three different versions it will be perceived that this ambiguity must be met (a) by using “that” for “to," which allows us to repeat an auxiliary verb [2.g. "might "in (2)], and (6) by inserting conjunctions. As to insertions of conjunctions, see (37). “In order to," and "for the purpose of," can be used to distinguish (wherever there is any ambiguity) between an infinitive that expresses a purpose, and an infinitive that does not, e.g. “He told his servant to call upon his friend, to (in order to) give him information about the trains, and not to leave him till he started." 30. The principle of suspense. Write your sentence in such a way that, until he has come to the full stop, the reader may feel the sentence to be incomplete. In other words, keep your reader in suspense. Suspense is caused (1) by placing the "if-clause" first. an:l not last, in a conditional sentence ; (2) by placing participles before the words they qualify; (3) by using suspensive conjunctions, e.g. not only, either, partly, on the one hand, in the first place, &c. The following is an example of an unsuspended sentence. The sense druggles, and it is difficult to keep up one's attention. “Mr. Pym was looked upon as the man of greatest experience in parliaments, / where he had served very long, and was always a man of business, | being an officer in the Exchequer, I and of a ·Order of Words in a Sentence. 29 good reputation generally, I though known to be inclined to the Puritan party; yet not of those furious resolutions (Mod. Eng. so furiously resolved) against the Church as the other leadmg men were, and wholly devote to the Earl of Bedford, who had nothing of that spirit.' The foregoing sentence might have ended at any one of the eight points marked above. When suspended it becomes :- "Mr. Pym, owing to his long service in Parliament in the Exchequer, was esteemed above all others for his Parliamentary experience and for his knowledge of business. He had also a good reputation generally; for, though openly favouring the Puritan party, he was closely devoted to the Earl of Bedford, and, like the Earl, had none of the fanatical spirit manifested against the Church by the other leading men. 9 30 a. It is a violation of the principle of Suspense to introduce unexpectedly, at the end of a long sentence, some short and unemphatic clause beginning with (8) not” or (b) which." (a) “This reform has already been highly beneficial to all classes of our countrymen, and will, I am persuaded, encourage among us industry, self-dependence, and frugality, and not, as some say, wastefulness. Write "not, as some say, wastefulness, but industry, self- (lependence, and frugality. (0) "After a long and tedious journey, the last part of which was a little dangerous owing to the state of the roads, we arrived safely at York, which is a fine old town.” Exception. When the short final clause is intended to be unexpectedly unemphatic, it comes in appropriately, with something of the sting of an epigram. See (42). Thus : "The old miser said that he should have been delighted to give the poor fellow a shilling, but most unfortunately he had left his parse at home-a habit of his." Suspense naturally throws increased emphasis on the words for which we are waiting, i.e. on the end of the sentence. It has been pointed out above that a monotony of final emphasis is objectionable, especially in letter writing and conversation. 31. Suspense must not be excessive. E.ccess of suspense is a common fault in boys translating from Latin. “Themistocles, having secured she safety of Greece, the Persian fleet being now destroyed, when he had unsuccessfully attempted to persuade the Greeks to break down the bridge across the Hellespont, hearing that Xerxes was in full flight, and thinking that it might be profitable to secure the friendship of the king, wrote as ·30 Clearness and Force. follows to him.” The more English ij'iom is: "When Themistocles had secured the safety of Greece by the destruction of the Persian fiet, he made an unsuccessful attempt to persuade the Greeks to break dgwn the bridge across the Hellespont. Soon afterwards, hearing &c." A long suspense that would be intoarable in prose is tolerable in the introduction to a poem. See the long interval at the beginning of Paradise Lost between “of man's first disobedience" and " Sing, heavenly Muse." " Compare also the beginning of Paradise Lost, Book II. : * High on a throne of royal state, which for Outshone the wealth of Ormuz and or ind, Or where the gorgeous Einst with richest hand Showers on Vier king's barbari pearl and gold- Satan exalted sat. with the opening of Keats' Hyperion : “Deep in the shady sadness of a vale, Far sunken front the healthy breath of morn, Far from the fiery noun and eve's one star Sat grey-haired Saturn, quiet as a stone.' > 32. In a long conditional sentence put the "ifclause," antecedent, or protasis, first. Every one will see the flatness of "Revenge thy father's most unnatural murder, if thou didst ever love him," as compared with the suspense that forces an expression of agony from Hamlet in- “Ghost. If thou didst ever thy dear father love Hamlet. 0, God ! Ghost. Revenge his foul and most unnatural murder." The effect is sometimes almost ludicrous when the consequent is long and complicated, and when it precedes thc antecedent or "ifclause. I should be delighted to introduce you to my friends, and to show you the objects of interest in our city, and the beautiful scenery in the neighbourhood, if you were here." Where the “if-clause comes last, it ought to be very emphatic : "if you were only here." The introduction of a clause with "if" or though” in the middle of a sentence may often cause ambiguity, especially when a great part of the sentence depends on "that: " His enemies answered that, for the sake of preserving the public peace, they would keep quiet for the present, though he declared that cowardice was the motive of the delay, and that for this reason they would put off the trial to a more convenient season. See (27). 66 17 . 33. Suspense is gained by placing a Participle or Adjective that qualifies the Subject, before the $ubject. 1 Sec (30).

·Order of Words in a Sentence. 31 " Deserted by his friends, he was forced to have recgurse to those that had been his enenlies. Here, if we write, "He, deserted by his friends, was forced &c.," he is unduly emphasized; and if we write, “He was forcedyto have recourse to his enemies, having been deserted by his friends,” the effect is very flat. or course we might sometimes write “He was deserted and forced &c." but this cannot be done where the “desertion" is to be not stated but implicd. Often, when a participle qualifying the suliject is introduced late in the sentence, it causes positive ambiguity : “ With this small force the general determined to attack the foe, flushed with recent victory and rendered negligent by success. An excessive use of the suspensive participle is French and objectionable : e.g. "Careless by nature, and too much cngugou with business to think of the morrow, spoiled by a long-established liberty and a fabulous prosperity, having for many generations forgotten the scourge of war, we allow ourselves to drift on without taking heed of the signs of the times." The remedy is to convert the participle into a verb depending on a conjunction : “Because we are ly naturc careless, &c.; or to convert the participle into a verb co-ordinate with the principal verb, c.8. “We are by nature careless, &c., and therefore we allow ourselves, &c." 91 34. Suspensive Conjunctions, e.g. as, e.g. "either," "not only," "on the one hand," add clearness. Take the following sentence :-"You must take this extremely perilous course, in which success is uncertain, and failure disgraceful, as well as ruinous, or else the liberty of your country is endangered." Here, the meaning is lialle to be misunderstood, till the reader has gone half through the sentence. Write “ Either you must," &c., and the reader is, from the first, prepared for an alternative. Other, suspensive conjunctions or phrases are partly, for our part; in the first place; it is true ; doubtless; of course; though; on the one hand. 35. Repeat the Subject when the omission would cause ambiguity or obscurity.---The omission is particularly likely to cause obscurity after a Relative standing as Subject :- "He professes to be helping the nation, which in renlity is suffering from his flattery, and (he? or it?) will not permit anyone else to give it advice.' The Relative should be repeated when it is the Subject of several Verbs. “All the pleasing illusions which made power gentle and obedience liberal, which harmonized the different shades of life, and which, by a bland assimilation, incorporated into politics the sentiments that beautify and soften private society, are to be dissolved by this new conquering empire of light and reason."

·32 Clearness and Fiorit. 36.c Repeat & Prepositiqn after an intervening Conjunction, especially if a verb and an Object also intervene. “He forgets the gratitude that he owes to those that helped all his companions when he was poor and uninfluential, and (to) John Smith in particular." Here, omit to, and the meaning may be " that helped all his companions, and John Smith in particular." The intervention of the verb and object, “helped " and "companions," causes this ambiguity. 37. When there are several Verbs at some distance from a Conjunction on which they depend, repeat the Conjunction. “ When we look back upon the havoc that two hundred years have made in the ranks of our national authors--and, above all, (zuhen) we refer their rapid disappearance to the quick succession of new competitors--we cannot help being dismayel at the prospect that lies before the writers of the present day." Here omit “when," and we at once substitute a parenthetical statement for what is really a subordinate clause. In reporting a speech or opinion, "that" must be continually repeated, to avoid the danger of confusing what the writer says with what others say. “We might say that the Cæsars did not persecute the Christians; (that) they only punished men who were charged, rightly or wrongly, with burning Rome, and committing the foulest abominations in secret assemblies; and (that) the refusal to throw frankincense on the altar of Jupiter was not the crime, but only evidence of the crime." But see (6,6). 37 a. Repeat Verbs after the conjunctions "than," &c. I think he likes me better than you ;” i.e. either “than you like me," or "he likes you.' “Cardinal Richelieu hated Buckingham as sincerely as did the Spaniard Olivares.” Omit "did," and you cause ambiguity. 38. If the sentence is so long that it is difficult to keep the thread of meaning unbroken, repeat the subject, or some other emphatic word, or a summary of what has been said. “Gold and cotton, banks and railways, crowdel ports, and populous cities--these are not the elements that constitute a great nation, The repetition of Auxiliary Verbs and Pronominal Adjectives is also conducive to clcarness. 90 as," 13 ·Order of Words in a Sentence. 33 This repetition (though usefyl and, when used in modemtion, not unpleasant) is more com hon with speakers than with writers, and with slovenly speakers than with good speakers. “The country is in such a condition, that if we delay longer some fair measure of reform, sufficient at least to satisfy the more moderate, and much more, if we refuse all reform whatsoever- I say, if we adopt so unwise a policy, the country is in such a condition that we may precipitate a revolution.". Where the relative is either implied (in a participle) or repeated, the antecedent must often be repeated also. In the following sentence we have the Subject iepeated not only in the final summary, but also as the antecedent :- “But if there were, in any part of the world, a national church regarded as heretical by four-fifths of the nation com. mitted to its care; a church established and maintained by the sword; a church producing twice as many riots as conversions; a church which, though possessing great wealth and power, and though long backed by persecuting laws, had, in the course of many generations, been found unable to propagate its doctrines, and barely able to maintain its ground; a church so odious that fraud and violence, when used against its clear rights of property, were generally regarded as fair play; a church whose ministers were preaching to desolate walls, and with difficulty obtaining their lawful subsistence by the help of bayonets, such a church, on our principles, could not, we must own, be defended." 39. It is a help to clearness, when the first part of the sentence prepares the way for the middle and the middle for the end, in a kind of ascent. This ascent is called “climax." . In the following there are two climaxes, each of which has three terms: “To gossip (a) is a fault (b); to libel (a'), a crime(b'); to slander (a"), a sin(b")." In the following, there are several climaxes, and note how they contribute to the clearness of a long sentence : Man, working, has contrived (a) the Atlantic Cable, but I declare that it astonishes (b) me far more to think that for his mere amusement(c), that to entertaiv a mere idle hour (c'), he has created (a') 'Othello' and 'Lear,' and I am more than astonished, I am awe-struck (b'), at that inexplicable elasticity of his nature which enables him, instead of turning away(d) from calamity and grief(e), or instead of merely defying(d') them, actually to make then the material of his amusement (d"), and to draw from the wildest agonies of the human spirit(e) a pleasure which is C ·34 Clearness and Force. not Uhly not cruel(f), but is it: the highest degree pure and ennobling (f')." The neglect of climax pre duces a abruptness that interferes with the even flow of thought. Thus, if Pope, in his ironical address to mankind, had written "Go, wondrous creature, mount where science guides ; Go, measure earth, weigh air, and state the tides; Go, teach Eternal Wisdom how to rule"- the ascent would have been too rapid. The transition from earth to heaven, and from investigating to governing, is prepared by the intervening climax- “ Instruct the planets in what orbs to run; Correct old Time, and regulate the Sun; Go, soar with Plato to th' empyreal sphere, To the first good, first perfect, and first fair." - What pen 40. When the thought is expected to ascend and yet descends, feebleness and sometimes confusion is the result. The descent is called "bathos." can describe the tears, the lamentations, the agonies, the animated remonstrances of the unfortunate prisoners?" “ She was a woman of many accomplishments and virtues, graceful in her movements, winning in her address, a kind friend, a faithful and loving wife, a most affectionate mother, and she played beautifully on the pianoforte." INTENTIONAL BATHOS has a humorous incongruity and abruptness that is sometimes forcible. For example, after the climax ending with the line- “Go, teach Eternal Wisdom how to rule," Pope adds- Then drop into thyself, and be a fool." ) 66 40 a. A new construction should not be introduced without cause.-A sudden and apparently unnecessary change of construction causes awkwardness and roughness at least, and sometimes breaks the flow of the sentence so seriously as to cause perplexity. Thus, write “virtuous and accomplished,” or “of many virtues and accomplishments," not "of many virtues and accomplished ;” “riding or walking" or on foot or horseback," not on foot or riding." In the same way, do not put adjectives and participles, active and passive forms of verbs, in too close juxtaposition. Avoid such sentences as the following: "He had good reason to beliece that the delay was not an accident (accidental) but premeditated, and for supposing (to suppose, or else, for believing, above) that the fort, though strong both by art and naturally (nature), would be forced by the treachery of the governor and the indolent (indolence of the) general to capitulate within a week."

·Order of Words in a Sentence. 35 Tity accused him of beint bribed (receiving bribes from) by the lang and unwilling (neglecting) to take the city.” har 41. Antithesis adds force, and often clearness.-The meaning of liberal in the following sentence is ascertained by the antithesis :- "All the pleasing illusions which made power (a) gentle(b) and obedience(a') liberal(b). are now to be destroyed.” There is a kind of proportion. As gentleness is to power, so liberality (in the sense here used) is to obedience. Now gentleness is the check on the excess of power; therefore liberal here applies to that which checks the excess of obedience, i.e. checks servility. Hence liberal here means "free." The contrast also adds force. 56 They aimed at the rule(a), not at the destruction (a'), of their country. They were men of great civil(b) and great military(b') talents, and, if the terror(c), the ornament (c') of their age. Excessive antithesis is unnatural and wearisome : “Who can persuade where treason(a) is above reason(a'), and might(b) ruleti right(b'), and it is had for lawful (c) whatsoever is lustful(c'), and commotioners(d) are better than commissioners (d'), and common woe(e) is named common wealth (e')?" 42. Epigram.--It has been seen that the neglect of climax fesults in tameness. Sometimes the suddenness of the descent produces amusement : and when the descent is intentional and very sudden, the effect is striking as well as amusing. Thus:-- (1) "You are not only not vicious, you are virtuous," is a climax. (2) “You are not wicious, you are vice," is not climax, nor is it bathos : it is epigran.' Epigram may be defined as a “short sentence expressing truth under an amusing appearance of incongruity." It is often antithetical. “The Russian grandees came to { and diamonds," climax. court dropping pearls and verinin," epigram. and the bitter remembrance - These two nations were divided of recent losses," Climax. by mutual fear and mountains," epigrani. There is a sort of implied antithesis in : “He is full of information-(but flat also) like yesterday's “Verbosity is cured (not by a small, but) by a large vocabulary. Professor Bain says: "In the epigram the mind is roused by a conflict or contradiction between the form of the language and the meaning really conveyed." 1 Times." 1 ·36 Clearness and Forie. The name of epigram may sometines be given to a mere antitesis ; c.8. "An educated man should know sorl ething of everything, and everything of something." 43. Let each sentence have one, and only one, principa: subject of thought. “This great and good man died on the 17th of September, 1683, leaving behind him the memory of many noble actions, and a numerous family, of whom three were sons ; one of them, George, the eldest, heir to his father's virtues, as well as to his principal estates in Cumberland, where most of his father's property was situate, and shortly afterwards elected member for the county, which had for several generations returned this family to serve in Parliament.”. Here we have (1) the "grcat and good man," (2) "George,” (3) the county," disputing which is to be considered the principal subject. Two, if not three sentences should have been made, instead of one. Carefully avoid a long sentence like this, treating of many different subjects on one level. It is called heterogeneous. 44. The connection between different sentences must be kept up by Adverbs used as Conjunctions, or by means of some other connecting words at the beginning of each sentence. Leave out the conjunctions and other connecting words, and it will be seen that the following sentences lose much of their meaning :- “Pitt was in the army for a few months in time of peace. His biographer (accordingly) insists on our confessing, that, if the young cornet had remained in the service, he would have been one of the ablest commanders that ever lived. (But) this is not all. Pitt (, it seems,) was not merely a great poet in esse and a great general in posse, but a finished example of moral excellence. (The truth is, that) there scarcely ever lived a person who had so little claim to this sort of praise as Pitt. He was (undoubtedly) a great man. (But) his was not a complete and wellproportioned greatness. The public life of Hampden or of Somers resembles a regular drama which can be criticised as a whole, and every scene of which is to be viewed in connection with the main action. The public life of Pitt (, on the other hand,) The following are some of the most common connecting adverbs, or connecting phrases : (1) expressing consequence, similarity, repetition, or resumption of a subject-accordingly, therefore, then, naturally, so that, thus, in this way, again, once more, to resume, to continue, to sum up, in fact, upon this ; (2) expressing opposition-nevertheless, in spite of this, yet, still, however, hut, on the contrary, on the other hand; (3) expressing suspensionis,' &c. 1 ·Order of Words in a Sentence. 37 OM undoubtedly but ; indeed ... yet ; on the one hand. the other partly . . . partly; ome others. Avoid a style like that of Bishop Burnet, which strings tozether a number of sentences with "and" or "so," or with no conjunction at all : “ Blake with the fleet happened to be at Malaga, before he made war upon Spain; and some of his seamen went ashore, and met the Host carried about ; and not only paid no respect to but laughed at those who did." Write“ iVhen Blake &c." 45. The connection between two long sentences sometimes requires a short intervening sentence, showing the transition of thought. “Without force or opposition, it (chivalry) subdued the fierceness of pride and power; it obligedl movereigns to submit to the soft collar of social esteem, compelled stern authority to submit to clegance, and gave a doninating vanquisher of laws to be subdued by manners. But now (all is to be changed:) all the pleasing illusions which made power gentle and obedience liberal, which harmonized the different shades of liſe, anri which, by a bland assimilation, incorporated into politics the sentimients that beautify and soſten private society, are to be dissolved by this new conquering empire of light and reason." If the words italicized were omitted, the transition would be too abrupt : the conjunction but alone would be insufficient. BREVITY. 46. Metaphor is briefer than literal statement. See (13). “The cares and responsibilities of a sovereign often disturb his sleep," is not so brief as Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown," where the effect of care on the mind is assimilatcd to the effect of a heavy crown pressing on the head. 47. General terms are briefer, though less forsible, than particular terms. Thus: "He devours literature, no matter of what kind,” is shorter than, "Novels or sermons, poems or histories, no matter what, he devours them all.' $ This meaphor is not recommended for imitation.

·38 Brevity. 47d. A phrase may be expressed by a word. “These impressions can never be forgotten, i.e. are iClelible." “The style of this book is of such a nature that it casinot be understood, i.e. unintelligible. The words “of such a nature that " are often unnecessarily inserted. See the extract from Sir Archibald Alison. 48. Participles can often be used as brief (though sometimes ambiguous) equivalents of phrases containing Conjunctions and Verbs. “Hearing (when he heard) this, he advanced." See (7) for more instances. So "phrases containing conjunctions" means "phrases that contain conjunctions.' "This done, (for, when this was done) he retired.' Sometimes the participle “being" is omitted. “ France at our doors, he sees no danger nigh,” for “France being" or "though France is." 49. Participles and participial adjectives may be used like Adjectives, as equivalents for phrases containing the Relative. "The never-ceasing wind," "the clamouring ocean," "the drenching rain," are instances. The licence of inventing participial adjectives by adding -ing to a noun, is almost restricted to poetry. You could not write the crannying wind" in prose. 50. A statement may sometimes be briefly implied instead of being expressed at length. Thus, instead of “The spirit of Christianity was humanizing, and therefore &c.," or "Christianity, since it was (or being) of a humanizing spirit, discouraged &c.," we can write more briefly and effectively, “Gladiatorial shows were first discouraged, and finally put down, by the humanizing spirit of Christianity.” So instead of "The nature of youth is thoughtless and sanguine, and therefore &c.," we can write, "The danger of the voyage was depreciated and the beauty of the island exaggerated by the thoughtless nature of youth." Sometimes a mere name or epithet implies a statement. “It was in vain that he offered the Swiss terms : war was deliberately preferred by the harly mountaineers," i.e. "by the Swiss, because they were mountaineers and hardy." "The deed was applaudeil by all honest men, but the Government affected to treat it as ·Brevity. 39 murders, and set a price upon the head of (him whom they dalled the assassin." The conqueror Austerlitz might be expected to hold different language from the prisoner of St. Helena," i.e." Napoleor when elated by the victory of Austerlitz," and "Napoleon when depressed by his imprisonment at St. Helena." CAUTION.-Different names must not be used for the same person unless each of them derives an appropriateness from its context. Thus, if we are writing about Charles II., it would be in very bad taste to avoid repeating "he" by using such periphrases as the following: The third of the Stewarts hated business, the Merry Monarch died in the fifty fourth year of his age," &c. 51. Conjunctions may be omitted. The omission gives a certain forcible abruptness, e.g. “You say this : I (on the other hand) deny it." When sentences are short, as in Macaulay's writings, conjunctions may be advantageously omitted, Where in contrast is intended, the conjunction but usually prepares the way for the second of the two contrasted terins: “He is good but dull.”. Where and is used instead of but, the incongruity savours of epigram: "He always talks truthfully and prosily." "He is always amusing and false." 51 a. The Imperative Mood may be used for "if.” Strip (for, if you strip) Virtue of the awſul authority she derives from the general reverence of mankind, and you rob her of half her majesty." 52. Apposition may be used so as to convert two sentences into one. “We called at the house of a person to whom we had letters of introduction, a musician, and, what is more, a good friend to all young students of music." This is as clear as, and briefer than, "He was a musician, &c." 53. Condensation may be effected by not repeating (1) the common subject of several verbs, (2) the common object of several verbs or prepositions, (1) “He resided here for many years, and, after he had won the estcem of all the citizens, (he) died," &c. So, (2) "He came to, and was induced to reside in, this city," is shorter than 'He came to this city, and was induced to reside in it." Such condensation often causes obscurity, and, even where there is no obscurity, there is a certain harshness in pausing on light, unemphatic words, such as tv, in, &c., as in the first example. 54. Tqutology.--The fault of repeating the same word several times unnecessarily is called tautology, e.g.: “This is a painful circumstance; it is a circumstance that I ·40 Brevity. mych regret, and he also will much regret the circumstance." But the fault is not to be avoided by using different words to mean the same thing, as, This is a painful event, it is a circumstance that I nuch regret, and he also will greatly lament the occurrence." The true remedy is to arrange the words in such a manner that there may be no unnecessary repetition, thus : “This is a painful circumstance, a circumstance that causes me, and will cause him, deep regret.' The repetition of the same meaning in slightly different words is a worse fault than the repetition of the same word. See, for examples, the extract from Sir Archibald Alison, at the end of the book. Thus “ A burning thirst for conquests is a characteristic of this nation. It is an ardent passivri that &c." Other instances are _"The universal opinion of all men ; judgment is so infallible that it is never deceived," &c. “ His 55. Parenthesis may be used with advantage to brevity. “We are all (and who would not be ?) offended at the treatinent we have received," is shorter and more forcible than the sentence would have been if the parenthesis had been appended in a separate sentence : “ Who, indeed, would not be offended ?" Extreme care must, however, be taken that a parenthesis may not obscure the meaning of a long sentence. 56. Caution: let clearness be the first consideration. It is best, at all events for beginners, not to aim so much at being brief, or forcible, as at being perfectly clear. Horace says, “ While I take pains to be brief, I fall into obscurity," and it may easily be seen that several of the rules for brevity interfere with the rules for clcarness. Forcible style springs from (1) vividness and (2) exactness of thought, and from a corresponding (1) vividness and (2) exact. ness in the use of words. (1) When you are describing anything, endeavour to see it and describe it as you see it. If you are writing about a man who was killed, see the man before you, and ask, was he exccuteid, cut down, run through the body, butchered, shot, or hanged? If you are writing about the capture of a city, was the city stormed, surprised, surrendered, starved outyor demolished before surrender ? Was an army repelle, defeated, routeri, crushed, or annihilated ? (2) Exactness in the use of words requires an exact knowledge of their meanings and differences. This is a study by itself, and . cannot be discussed here. 1 1 Sce English Lessons for English People, pp. 7-53.

·EXERCISES For an explanation of the manner in which these Exer. cises are intended to be used, see the Preface. A number in brackets by itself, or followed by a letter, e.g. (43), (40 a), refers to the Rules. Letters by themselves in brackets, e.g. (6), refer to the cxplanations or hints appended to each sentence. N.B.--(10 a) refers to the first section of Rule (10) ; (10 a') to the Rule following Rule (10). 1. "Pleasure and excitement had more attractions for him than (a) (36) (37 a) his friend, and the two companions became estranged (15 a) gradually.' (a) Write (1) "than for his friend," or (2) " than had his friend," "had mon attractions than his friend. 2. "(a) He soon grew tired of solitude even in that beautiful scenery, (36) the pleasures of the retirement (8) which he had once pined for, and (36) leisure which he could use to no good purpose, (a) (30) being (15) restless by nature." (a) This sentence naturally stops at "purpose." Also“ being restless seems (wrongly) to give the reason why "leisure" could not be employed. Begin "Restless by nature ...' 3. "The opponents of the Government are naturally, and not (a) (40 a) without justification, elated at the failure of the bold attempt to return two supporters of the Government at the recent election, (6) (10 a') which is certainly to be regretted. (a)" unjustifiably." () Write, for which," either (1) "an attempt that &c.," or (2) "a failure that &c." 4. "Carelessness in the Admiralty departments has co-operated with Nature to weaken the moral power of a Government that particularly needs to be thought eficient in (a) (5) this ·42 Exercises. respect, () (29) to counterbalance general distrust of its excessive desire (c) (47 a) to pler.se everybody in Foreign Affairs," (a) Write "the Navy) Instead of "to" write in order to," so as to distinguish the different infinitives. (c) "obsequiousness." 5. “(a) He was sometimes supported by Austria, who, oddly enough, appears under Count Beust to have been more friendly to Italy than (37 a) France, (30) in this line of action.' (a) Begin with "In this line of action." Why? (0) Write "than war France" “than France was. or 6. “There was something so startling in (a) (5) this assertion, (a) (4) that the discoveries of previous investigators were to be (6) (47 a) treated as though they had never been made, and (4) that one who had not yet (47 a) attained the age of manhood hal superseded the grey-headed philosophers (8) who had for centuries patiert!y sought after the truth, (4) that (a) (5) it naturally provoked derision." (a) “This,'. " that," and "it," cause a little perplexityWrite "The startling assertion that the discoveries. . () "ignored.' a merc youts," 'a mere stripling." 7. "One of the recommendations (on which very (a) (26) (47, a) much depended) of the Commission was that a council in each province should establish smaller councils, each to have the oversight of a small district, and (0) (37) report to a central council on the state of Education in (c) (5) it." (1) Write “cardinal recommendations." Derive cardinal." (0) Write, either (1) "and should report," or (2) "anci"to report." Write “ in its province," or “ district." 8. "At this (a) (1) period an (6) (11) event (c) (1) transpired that destroyed the last hopes of peace. The king fell from his horse and died two hours after the fall (d) (30), which was occasioned by his horse's stumbling on a mole-hill, while he was on his return from reviewing his soldiers.' (a) What is a "period"? (6) Express the particular kind of event("accident") (). What is the meaning of "transpired"? id) Transpose thus: “ While the king was on his return his horse. ; the king fell and &c." The cause should precede the effect. 9. “He determined (c) on selling all his estates, and, as soon as this was done (40 a), to (c) quit the country, (a) (33) believing that his honour demanded this sacrifice and (40) (40 a) in (6) the hope of satisfying his creditors." · (a) Begin with "Believing that &c." (6) "hoping thereby to satisfy &c." (c)" to sell" or "on quitting."

·Exercises. 43 1. “He read patiently on, Leading Articles, Foreign Correspondence, Money Article ad all; (a) (43) during which his father fell asleep, and he (6) Went in search of his sister.” Point out the absurdity of“ during which" applied to the last part of the sentence. (a) “Meanwhile." (6) Insert then." LI. “The general was quite (a) (1) conscious (40 a) how treacherous were the intentions of those who were (6) (49) entertaining him, and (40 a) of the dangers from which he had escaped (15) lately." (a) Distinguish between “conscious" and " aware." (6) "entertainers." 12. "If certain (a) (11) books had been published a hundred years ago, there can be no doubt that certain recent (6) (11) historians would have made great use of them. But it would (155) not, on that account, be judicious in a writer of our own times to publish an edition of the works of one of these (6) (11) historians, in which large extracts from these books should be incorporated with the original text." (a) "Mrs. Hutchinson's Memoirs.” (6). "Mr. Hume." () Add at the end of the sentence, “Surely not." 13. He made no attempt to get up a petition, (32) though he did not like the new representative quite so well as (a) (37 a) his colleagues.' (a) “as did his colleagues ” or as he liked his colleagues.” 14. “Though he was (a) (15) obstinate and (15) unprincipled, yet he could not face an angered father (15 a) in spite of his offrontery." (a) Begin with "Obstinate." 15. "He was known to his country neighbours (a) (15) during more than forty years as a gentleman of cultivated mind, (40 a) whose principles were high, (40 a) with polished address, happy in his family, and () (40 a) actirely discharging local duties; and (40 a) among political men, as an honest, industrious, and sensible member of Parliament, (40) without (c) eagerness to display his talents, (40 a) who (108) was stanch to his party, and attentive to the interests of those whose (d) (47 a) representative he was. (a) “During more &c.," is emphatic, and affects the latter as well as the former half of the sentence: hence it should stand first. (6)“ in the discharge of." (c) "not cager." (2) Condense into one word.

·44 Exercises. 16. "The poor think themselves no more disgraced by taking bribes at elections than (a) (37 a) the rich by offering them, (a) Write (1) "Than the riči think themselves disgraced," or (2) " J'han they think the rich disgraced." 17. “We are told that the Sultan Mahmoud, by his perpetual wars, (a) (41) and his tyranny, (a) (41) had filled his dominions with (6) (1) misfortune and (c) (11) calamity, and greatly (d) (11) Jiminished the population of the Persian Empire. This great Sultan had (e) (50) a Vizier. We are not (M) (55) (15) informed whether he was a humorist or an enthusiast, ($) but he pretended (1) that he had learned from (2) (11) some one how to understand the language of birds, so that he (j) (5) knew what was said by any bird that opened its mouth. (k) (44) One evening he was with the Sultan, returning from hunting. They saw a couple of owls which (108) were sitting upon a tree (2) (8) which grew near an old wi'l out of a heap of rubbish. The Sultan said (6) he should like to know what the two owls were saying to one another, and (isked the (m) Vizier to listen to their discourse and give him an account of it. The Vizier, (n) {31) pretending to be very attentive to the owls, approflhed the tree. Ile lo) returned to the Sultan and said that (6) he had heard part of their conversation, but did not wish to tell him what it was. (%) (5) Ti, not (?) (31) being satisfied with this answer, forced him to repeat everything the owls had said (20) <xuctly. (r) (44) (5) (6) Ile told (5) him that the owls were arranging a treaty of marriage between their children, and that one of them, aſter agreeing to settle five hundred villages upon the female owl, had prayed (6) that God would grant a long life to Sultan Mahmoud, because as longgias he reigned over them they would never want ruined villages. The story says (s) that () (5) he was touched with the fable, (30) and (s) that he (a) (39) from that time forward consulled (15) the good of his people, and that he rebuilt the towns and villages (~) which had been destroyed." (a) "abroad at home." (6) "ruin." (c) "desolation." (cl,"half un. peopled.". (e) "The Vizier of &c.” “We are not informed” is cinphatic, and therefore should be invered, "whether he was, &c., we are not informed." (g)" but he" will be omitted when "the Vizier" is made the subject of protended." () “Prctendeu" claimed," "professel." Write "professed.' (1) " a certain dervish." (j) Introduce a new subject that you inay substitute "Vizier" for" he, thus :"sothat nota bird could open its mouth, but the Vizier knew &c." (*)" As he was, one cvening, &c.' (1). Note that the tree is represented as growing out of ruins. This is in accordance with the story of the mischief Mahmoud had done. (m) Omit this. (n) "Suspense" is out of place in a simple narrative like this: the sentence therefore ends with "owls.' “Upon his return." (p) "The Sultan" () “ would not be satisfied." (r). “You must know then, &c." (s) Omit. (t)“ touched ... that." (x) end with "people." (v) Addison here uses once meant SO ·Exercises. 45 "which," probably because of the preceding, " that.'We have to choose between sound and clearness. "Which " imples that all the villages in theſ, puntry had been destroyed, whereas the country had been onl (see above) "half unpeopled.” 18. “Though this great king never permitted any pastime to interfere with the duties of state, which he considered to be superior to (54) all other claims and of paramount importance, and (a) (37) kept himself so far under control that he allowed no one pursuit or amusement to run to any excess, yet he took (54) great pleasure in the chase, of which he was (6) (2) excessively (54) fond, and for the purposes of which he created several large parks of considerable (54) magnitude." (a) Either repeat "though," or else strike out the first "though" and begin a new sentence after “excess." (6) Point out the contradiction between\"excessively and what precedes. 19. “To inundate (a) (11) their land, to man their Ships, to leave their country, with all its miracles of art and industry, its cities, its villas, and its (6) (11) pastures buried under the waves () (11); to bear to a distant climate their (d) (11) faith and their old (c) (11) liberties; to establish, with auspices that (10 a) might perhaps be happier, the new (F) (11) constitution of their commonwealth, in a (?) (11) foreign and strange (k) (11) land, in the Spice Islands of the Eastern Seas, (38) were the plans which they had the spirit to form.' () Introduce "dykes." (6) Introduce something peculiar to the Dutch, e.g. canals," tulip gardens." (c) of the German Ocean," 1) The Dutch were Calvinists. (e) The country was in old times" Batavia," so that "Batavian" would be a fit epithet to denote what the Dutch had inherited from their forefathers. " Stadthaus," the German for “town-hall." (g) "other stars." strange vegetation." х During twenty years of unexampled prosperity, during (a) which the wealth of the nation had shot (14 a) up and extended its branches on every side, and the funds had (142) soared to a higher point than had been ever attained before, (6) (15) speculation had become general." (h) + 20. (2) Omit. (6) Begin a new sentence: "This, or Prosperity, had increased the taste for speculation." 21. At that time (a) (16) a mere narrow-minded pedant (for he deserves no better name) had been set up by the literary world as a great author, and as the supreme (6) critic, alone qualified to deliver decisions which could never be (6) reversed upon (15 a) the literary productions of the day."

·46 Exercises. the supreme. A (a) Elid with " one who was for he deserves no better rime -a mere narrow-minded pedant." (6) "Which could never be reversed” can be expressed in olie word; or else reversed". may be fondensed into a personification : a very Minos of contemporary criticism." 22. “With the intention of fulfilling his promise, and (40 a) intending also to clear himself from the suspicion that attached to him, he determined to ascertain how (40 a) far this testimony was corroborated, and (a) (40 a) the motives of the prosecutor, (6) (43) who had begun the suit last Christmas.” (a) "what were.". (6) Begin a new sentence, "The latter &c.," or “The suit had been begun &c." 23. "The Jewish nation, relying on the teaching of their prophets, looked forward to a time when its descendants should be as numerous as the heavenly (11) bodies, and when the products (a)(11) of these?rth should be so increased as to create an abundant (54) plen'y, when each man should rest beneath the shade of his own (a) (11) trees, and when the instruments (11) of war should be converted to the (11) iuses of peace." (a) Mention some "products," "trees of Palestine. 24. “He replied (32), when he was asked the reason for his sudden unpopularity, that he owed it to his refusal to annul the commercial treaty, (a) (8) which (10 a') gave great displeasure to the poorer classes." (a) Point out the ambiguity, and remove it by (8) or (10 a'). 25. "I saw my old schoolfellow again by mere accident when I was in London at the time of the first Exhibition, (19) walking down Regent Street and looking in at the shops." Point out and remove the ambiguity. * 26. “He remained in the House while his speech was taken into consideration, which (52) was a common practice with him, because the debates amused his sated mind, and indeed he usel to say (a) (66) that they were sometimes as good as a comedy. His Majesty had certainly never seen a more (17) sudden turn in any comedy of intrigue, either at his own play-house or the Duke's, than that which this memorable debate produced.” (a)" and were sometimes, he used to say, as good &c." 27. “The Commons would not approve the war (20) expressly; neither did they as yet condemn it (20) expressly; and (a) (18) the ·Exercises. 47 king might even have obtained a supply for continuing hostilities (19) from them, on condition of (6) redressing grievances connected with Me (c) administration of affairs at home, among which the Dectaration of Indulgence was a very®important (d) (15 a) one." (a) Write "they were even ready to grant the king &c."..(6). Use the verb with a subject. (c) Condense all this into one adjective, meaning "that which takes place at home." (d) End with a noun, importance," or "foremost place." 28. “Next to thinking clearly, (a) (5) it is useful to speak clearly, and whatever your position in life may hereafter be it cainot be such (54) as not to be improved by this, (6) so that it is worth while making almost any effort to acquire (c) it, if it is not a natural gift: (d) it being an undoubted (d) fact that the effort to acquire it must be successful, to some extent at least, if (d) it be moderately persevered in. (a) “Next in utility. comes speaking clearly-a power that must be of assistance to you &c." (6)“ If, therefore, you cannot speak clearly by nature, you &c." (c) “this power. ." (d) Omit" fact ;' "for undoubtedly, with moderate per verance &c." 29. “ It (a) (38) appears to me (15) a greater victory than Agincourt, a grander triumph of wisdom and faith and courage than c'en the English constitution or (6) liturgy, to have beaten back, or even fought against and stemmed in ever so small a degree, those basenesses that (c) (10 a) beset human nature, which are now held so invincible that the influences of them are assumed as the fundamental axioms of economic science." (a) Begin with "To have beaten &c.," and end with a liturgy." (6) Repeat for clearness and cmphasis, "the English." (c) “The besetting basenesses of &c." 30. “The (a) (2) unprecedented impudence of our youthful representative reminds us forcibly of the unblushing and (54) (40) remarkable effrontery (c) (which (26) he almost succeeds in equalling) of the Member for St. Alban's, whom our (6) (1) neophyte (3) (I) alluded to, in the last speech with which he favoured those whom (47 a) he repr:sents, (19) as his pattern and example. (a) Show that "unprecedented" is inconsistent with what follows. (6) What is the meaning of "neophyte," "alluded to "9. (cBegin a new sentence, “Our young adventurer &c.," and end with he almost succeeds in equalling his master.' and • 31. "Thc (a) (1) veracity of this story is questionable, and there is the more reason for doubting the (a) (1) truth of the narrator, because in his remarks on the (1) observation of the Sabbath he ·48 Exercises. distinctly (a) (1) alludes to a custom that can be shown never to have existed." (a) Distinguish between veracity and "truth," “observatioi" and “observance." Show the inconsistency between "allude, and “ distincely." 32. “It (a) (5) is a most just distribution, (10 a) which the late Mr. Tucker has dwelt upon so (6) largely in his works, between pleasures in which we are passive, and pleasures in which we are active. And I believe every attentive observer of human life will assent to (c) this position, that however (d) grateful the sensations may occasionally be in which we are passive, it is not these, bu! the latter class of our pleasures, (8) which constitutes satisfaction, (e) (38) which supply that regular stream of moderate and miscel. laneous enjoyments in (10 c) which happiness, as distinguished from voluptuousness, consists." “There is great justice in &c." () Omit "so.". (C)" admit." (al Not often now used in this sense. (e) Repeat the antecedent, mean those (pleasures) &c.” 33. "The prince seemed to have before him a limitless (54), prospect of unbounded prosperity, carefully (33) trained for the (1) tasks of the throne, and stimulated by the (a) pattern of his father, (5) who (43) breathed his (3) last suddenly at the age of sixtytwo, just after the conclusion of the war. (a) Find more appropriate words. (b) Begin a new sentence. 34. “On his way, he visited a son of an old friend (a) (25) who had asked him to call upon him on his journey northward. He (0) (5) was overjoyed to scc him, and (c) he sent for one of his most intelligent workmen and told (d) him to consider himself at (e) his service, (30) as he himself could not take () him as he (8) wished about the city." (a) If you mean that the " had "asked him," write An old friend's son who ;" if you mean that the “friend" had "asked him," write He had been asked by an old friend to call, on his journey northward, upon his son. . Accordingly he visited him on his way." () Use, instead of he, some name meaning," one who entertains others." (c) Use participle. (d) “The man. (e) "the stranger's.", "his guest." (3) Write "could have wished” the host." son means 35. “Tillotson died in this year. He was exceedingly beloved both by King William and by Queen Mary (43), who nominated Dr. Tennison, Bishop of Lincoln, to succeed him.” 36. "(a) The entertainment was arranged with a magnificence that was (6) perfectly stupendous and (c) most unprecedented, and ·Exercises. 49 which quite kept up his Lordship's unrivalled reputation for unparalleled hospitality, and, thanks to the unequalled energy of Mr. Saith, who is rapidly bycoming one of the most effective toast-masters in the kingdom, the toasts were given with a spirit quite unexampled on occasions of this nature; and indeed we were forcibly reminded in this respect pf the inimitable entertainment of three years ago (2).” (a) Omit most of the epithets, or soften them down. Point out the contradictions in the sentence as it stands. (6) Write" a remarkable magnificence that quite &c.," thus dispensing with the following and." (c) Show that “most” is superfluous. 37. “If we compare Shakespeare with the other dramatic authors of the Elizabethan era, his wonderful superiority to them in the (15) knowledge of human nature is what (15 a) principally strikes us." 38. "The prince found himself at once in sore perplexity 18w to provide himself with the commonest comforts or even necessaries of life, when he landed on this desolate coast, being (33) accustomed to luxury." 39. "This make-shift policy recommended itself to the succeeding ministers (a) (50), both because they were timid and because they were prejudiced, and they were delighted to excuse (6) (13) themselves by quoting the example of one who (c) (34) had controlled the Liberals and humoured the Conservatives, (37) commended himself to the country at large by his unfailing good-humour, and (d) (44) (37) done nothing worthy of the name of statesman.” (a) " to the timidity and prejudices of &c." (0) " shelter themselves behind." (c) " while he had at once.' (d)" had yet done." 3) 40. “William Shakespeare was the sun among the lesser lights of English poetry, and a native of Stratford-on-Avon (14 a). 41. “(156) I think, gentlemen, you must confess that any one of you would have done the same (32), if you had been tempted as 'I was then, placed starving, and ragged among wasteful luxury and comfort, deliberately instigated to acts of dishonesty by those whom I had been taught from infancy to love, (a) praised when I stole, mockesl or punished when I failed to 115 a) do (3) so. (a) Insert another infinitive beside "love." "Love", produces "oledience (6) Repcat che verb instead of "do so. 42. “So far from being the first (54) aggressor, he not (22) only refused to prosecute his old friend when a favourable oppor- D ·50 Exercises. tunity presented itself for revenging himself thus upon him, but also his friend's adviser, John Smith. Smith (a) at all (23) events suspected, if he did not know of the coming dan“er, and had given no information of it." (a) If " at all events" qualifies " Smith," the sentence must be altered. Yet, however innocent his friend may have been, at all events Smith suspected ... If the words qualify "suspected," place them after "suspected." 43. “It is quite true that he paid 55. per day to English navvies, and even 6s., (19) in preference to 2s. 6d. to French navvies." 44. "Having climbed to the apex of the Righi to enjoy the spectacle of the sun-rise, I found myself so incommoded by a number of illiterate individuals who had emerged from the hotel for a (a)(1) similar purpose, that I determined to quit them at the earliest practicable period; and therefore, without stopping to partake of breakfast, I wended my way back with all possible celerity." (3) (a) " the same." 45. “You admit that miracles are not natural. Now whatever is unnatural is wrong, and since, by your own admission, mira. cles are unnatural, it follows that miracles are wrong." (1) 46. "Who is the man that has dared to call into civilized alliance the (a) (41) inhabitant of the woods, to delegate to the (a) Indian the defence of our disputed rights? (a) Insert some antithetical or other epithets. 47. “A (a) very (11) small proportion indeed of those who have attempted to solve this problem (6) (19) have succeeded in obtaining even a plausible solution.” (a) State what proportion succeeded, or, if you like, what failed: "not one in a hundred." (0) Begin, "Of all those that &c.". 48. “ To be suddenly (a) (47 a) brought into contact with a system (8) which forces one to submit to wholesale imposture, and to being (40 a) barbarously ill-treated, naturally repels (a) (15 a) one. (a) Write, either (I)“ Collision causes a natural repulsion," or (2) When brought into cd.tact : one is naturally repelled," or (if “ill-treatment" is emphatic), (3) “One is naturally repelled by collision with &c." 49. We annex a letter recently addressed by Mr. 's die rection to the Editor of the in contradiction of statements equally untrue, which appeared in that periodical, and (a) (91 which the cditor has undertaken to insert in the next number. .

·SO . Exercises. 51 I am sure that all must regret that statements so (6) (51) utterly erroneous should have 6) (23) first appeared in a publication of such high character." (ad What the writer intended to express was that the editor had undertaken to insert, not the " statcnients," but the “contradiction." (0) Omit either or "utterly." (c) “appeared first," or, " for the first time." 50. “ This is a book which (10 a) zs short and amusing, which (102) can be easily (a) understvod, which (10 a) is admirably aclapted for the purpose for which it (6) was (54) written ; and (10 e) which ought to be more popular than the last work which (10 a) was published by the same author.” (2) Express " which can be understood" in one adjective. (6) “ Its purpose." 51. When thousands are left (19) without (40) pity and wishout (40) attention (19) on a field of battle, amid (40) the insists of an enraged foc and (40) the trampling of horses, while the blood from their wounds, freezing as it flows, binds them to the earth, and! (40) they are exposed to the piercing air, it (15 a) must be indeed a painful scene." The whole sentence must be remedied by (40). 52. “(a) The youth was naturally thoughtful, and disposeil (19) besides by his early training-(31) which had been conducted with great care, the object of his parents being to pave (14) his way as far as possible over the stormy (14) sea of temptation and to lead him into the hgrbour of virtue--to a sincere (6) (1) remorse (19) for the (O) (1) crimes that he had committed in the sight of heaven, and also for his recent (6) (1) sin in breaking the laws of his country.” (a) First state the reasons for his being “disposed.". "The youth was naturally thoughtful; moreover, his early training had been conducted with great care by his parents, whose &c. therefore disposed &c." (0) What is the difference between "rerepentance," between “sin " and "crime"?. . He was morsc " and 53. "(a) One day (54) early in the morning, the general was approached by a messenger, (30) in the midst of the entanglements and perplexities which had unexpectedly surprised him, when the perilous hour of (54) danger was at hand, and (37), in spite of their promises, even the tribes that were well disposer (54) and friendly, were threatening to desert him, and (54) leave him to face the enemy (6) (23) alone." Condense the sentence by omitting some of the italicized words, e:8. (n) Early one morning." (6) Though there is no real ambiguity (unless a wrong emphasis is placed on enemy"), yet, in strici. "alone" ought to qualify "enemy. Write therefore, " alone in the face of the enemy. D 2 <d ness, ·52 Exercises. a man 54. “ A man (a) (10 d) who neglected the ordinary duties of life, and, immersed in study, devoted himself to grand plans for the benefit of mankind, " (6) (44) and fefused to provide for the wants of those dependent on him, and suffered his aged relatives to become paupers because he would not help them, (c) would"in my opinion, (34) be a bad man, and not altogether (d) (40 a) without hypocrisy.' (a) "If a man.' (5)“ if he refused," or “ while he refused." (« such or " he.” (d" to some extent a hypocrite." 55. “I cannot believe in the guilt of (a) one (6) (10 () who, whatever may have been said to the contrary, can be shown, and has been shown by competent testimony proceeding froin those who are said to have carefully examined the facts, in spile (23) of many obstacles, to have resasted all attempts to (29) induce him to love his situation, (c) (29) to consult his own interests and to (29) estálish a business of his own. (a) "his guilt ;" (6)(1) "for, whatever &c. it can be shown by &c. that, in spite of &c., he resisted." Or (2) insert "in spite ... obstacles" between 'have" and “ carefully." (c) (1) " for the purpose of consulting and establishing Or (2) writo "and to consult his own interests by establishing &c." 56. We must seek for the origin of our freedom, (a) (37) prosperity, and (c) (37) glory, in that and only (1) thall portion of our annals, (30) though it (c) is sterile and obscure. The great English people was (d) then formed; the national(e) disposition began (d) then to exhibit those peculiarities which it has ever since (c) possessed ; and our fathers () then became amphatically islanders, (f) in their politics, (a) feelings, and (a) manners, and (30 a) not merely in their geographical position. (a) Repeat the Pronominal Adjective. (6) Express the emphatic only that" by beginning the sentence thus : " It is in that portion of our annals &c." (c) Omit. (m"]t was then that &c" () Use words implying somcthing more markeıl ihan "disposition," and more forcible than "possessed ;" in the latter case, retained." V) Repeat “islanders." 57. "(a) He was the universal (54) favourite of (54) all (8) who knew him, and cemented many friendships at this period, (a) (33) (moving in the highest circle of society, and, as he (6) (50) had a (4.a) certain property, being independent of the profits of literature), and soon completely extinguished the breath of slander which at the outset of his career had threatened to sap the foundations of his reputation." (a) Begin "Moving in &c." (6) "rendered independent of.... by Show that Rule (14) is violated by the metaphors. 1 That which treats of the thirtcenth century, ·Exercises. 53 58.9 “The outward and material form of that city which, dwing the brief period which (10 a) is comprised in our present book, reached the highest pitch of military, artistic, and literary glory, was of this (a) (15) nature. The progress of the (6) (5) first has been ulrcady traced.” (a) Begin the sentence with “Such was." (6) By“ the first" is meant military glory." 59. “The detachment not only failed to take the fort, (30) spite of their numbers and the weakness of the garrison, but also to capture the small force that was encamped outside the town, and was after some sharp fighting, driven back with inconsiderable loss." Point out the ambiguity. Remedy it by inserting either "which,' or “the assailants. 60. "(a) (6) Believing that these reforms can only (c) (21) she effected as public opinion is prepared for them, and that (5) thi'will be more or less advanced in different localities, the Bill of the Association, (a) (31) which has been for 2 (3) considerable period in draft, and will be introduced in the next Session of Parliament, provides for placing («l) (3) the control in regard to the points abovementioned in the (3) hands of the ratepayers of each locality; the power to be exercised through representative Licensing Boards to be periodically elected by them." (a) Place the parenthesis first, as an independent sentence : “The Bill of the Association has been Parliament" () What noun is qualificd by" believing?" Write " In the beliel." (c) "effected only so far as they are in accordance with public opinion, which &c." (12) "it, or, the Bill provides that the ratepayers shall receive control, and shall exercise this control.' • • • 61. "I think they are very (1) nice persons, for they kept me amused for a long (a) (11) time together yesterday by their (1) nice stories all about what thiy (6) hace experienced in Japan, where they had been for (a) ever so long, and (c) (43) where they said that the natives ripped up their (d) (5) stomachs. (a) Mention some time. (?)" experiences" or "adventures." "among other things, they told us &c." (6) "their own. 62. “To contend for advantageous monopolies, which are regarded with a dislike and a suspicion (a) which daily (10 a) increases, (30) however natural it may be to be annoyed at the loss of that which onc has once possessed, (15 a) is useless." (1) A compound adjective can be used, including "daily." 63. “Upon entering the rustic place of entertainment to partake of some refreshment, iny nerves were horrified by lighting on a ·54 Exercises. number of boisterous individuals who were singing some species of harvest song, and simultaneously imbibing that cup which, if it cheers, also inebriates; and whe, banished from their skiety by the fumes of the fragrant wced, I wended my way to the apartment which adjoined the one in which I had hoped to rost my weary limbs, I found an interesting assortment of the fairer sex, who were holding a separate confabulation apart from the revels of their rougher spouses. Write "village inn,". "next room," &c., for these absurd circumlo. cutions. See (3). 64. “When Burgoyne was born, in 1782, Napoleon and Wel. lington were both boys (11)." Napolcon studied at Brienne, Wellington at Eton. Mention this, and, in order to imply the boyhood, call Wellington “ Arthur Wel. lesley." 6 "An honourable friend of mine, who is now, I believe, near me-(38) to whom I never can on any occasion reſer without feelings of respect, and, on, this subject, (36) feelings of the inost grateful homage; (38) whose abilities upon this occasion, as upon some former ones, are not entrusted merely to the perishablc eloquence of the (Q) day, but will live to be the admiration of that (a) hour when all of us are mute and most of us forgotten : (h) (38) has told you that prudence is (52) the first of virtues, and (52) can never be used in the cause of vice.' (a) Though "of the day" is a recognized expression for "ephemeral or "transitory," yet to use "Jav" for a short time, and "hour for a longer, is objectionable. Write moulent for day. Else write future for hour. (6) "--this gentlemani has told &c." 9 66. “To see the British artisan and his wife on the Sabbath, neat and clean and cheerful, with their children by their sides, (2) (19) disporting themselves under the open canopy of heaven, is (15) pleasant. (a) There is no reasonable ground for mistaking the sense here, as the context makes it clear: but since Lord Shaftesbury was questionel whether he meant disporting to qualify."artisan and his wife" children," write and, by their sides, their children disporting &c." or 67. “Even if (a) it were attended with extenuating circumstances, such conduct would deserve severe reprobation, (b) and it is the more called for because it would seem that (c) it was the intention of the author of the crime, in perpetrating (e) it, to inflict all the misery that was possible, upon his victim." See (5). (a) Omit "it were." (6) " which." (c)" to have been."" () Express "author of the crime" in one word. (») Use the noun.

·. Exercises. 55 68. “The (Q) (1) observance of the heavenly bodies ntust have been attended with great difficulties, (6) (30) before the telescope was (CM (1) discovered, and it is not to be wondered at if the investi. gations of astronomers were often unsatisfactory, and failed to produce complete (a) (1) persuasion, (30) (15, a) under these disadvantages." (a) What is the difference between observance" and "observation," " discover" and "invent,' 'persuasion" and "conviction"? *(6) Begin "Before &c." 69. "He plunged into the sea once more, (30) not content with hiş previous exertions. After a long and dangerous struggle, he succeeded in reaching a poor woman that was crying piteously for help, and (a) (35) was at last hauled safely to shore." (a) Point out and remedy the ambiguity by inserting "he" or by writing.“ who, according to the meaning. 70. “Sir John Burgoyne himself, face to face with Tojieben, vecame (a) (1) conscious of the difference between the fortifications of San Sebastian and of Sebastopol, (6) which (10 e) was (c) (12) 'very weak compared with Metz or Paris." (a) What is the exact meaning of conscious? (6) Avoid the relative, by repeating the name, with a conjunction. (c) " weakness itself.” 71. “Upon Richard's leaving the (c) stage, the Commonwealth was again set up ; and the Parliament which Cromwell had (a) broken was brought together; but the army and they fell into new disputes : so they were again (a) broken by the army : and upon that the nation was like to fall into (6) (11) great convulsions." (2) Modern Eng., "broken up." () "violently convulsed.". (c) It is a question whether this metaphor is in good taste. The meaning is that Richard "retired from public life." It might be asserted that Richard, the Commonwealth, the Parliament are regarded as so many puppets on a stage." But this is extremely doubtful. Make Parliament the principal subject : When Richard retired ... and when the Commonwealth &c. the Parliament was. but, falling into a dispute with &c., it See (18) and (43). . . was. 72. “What a revolution in the military profession! He began with (a) (11) unnecessary formality, and (6) (11) inefficient weapons, and ended with (c) () (1) greatly improved fire-arnis." (a) "pig-tail and pipe-clay." (6) "Six-pounders and flint-locks" are now inefficient compared with "twenty-four-pounders and breechloaders." (c) Something is wanted antithetical to (a), perhaps "loose drill or open order." 73. "Children fear to go in the dark. Men fear death in the same way. The fear of children is increased by tales. So is the fear ·56 Exercises. of kath. The contemplation of death, as the 'wages of sin, and passage to another world, is holy and religious. The fear of it, as a tribute Jue unto mature, it weak. In religious ineditations on death there is sometimes mixture of vanity and of superstition.' Insert connecting adverbs or conjunctions. See (44). 74. "I have often heard him reiterate (54) repeatedly that he would never again, if a safe (54) and secure path was open to him, prefer the perilous (54) road of danger, however alluring (54) and attractive the latter might be." 75. “I thought in my dream that when my friend asked me whether I did not observe anything curious in the conduct of the pigeons, I (a) (4 a) remarked that if any one of the birds was so bold as to take an atom from a heap of grain in the midst of them (31) (which (6) a detachment guarded, and which, being continually increased and never eaten, seemed useless), all the rest turned against him and pecked him to death for the (c) (50) action." (a) Point out the ambiguity: () This should come carlier in the sentence, and not as a parenthesis. "I noticed a heap of grain in the midst of them, guarded by Being continually ... , to all appearance, useless : yet. (c)"theft." 76. " If this low view of the royal office becomes generally adopted, then sovereigns who (8) have always hitherto commanded the respect of Englishmen will by degrees fall into disrespect." Point oul the ambiguity. Show how it might be removed (a) by punctuation, (6) by altering "who." 77. “I struck the man in self-defence. I explained this to the magistrate. He would not believe me. Witnesses were called to support my statements. He committed me to prison. He had the right to do this. It is a right that is rarely exercised in such circumstances. I remonstrated." See (44). Insert conjunctions or connecting adverbs. 78. "He attained a very distintguished position by mere (15) perseverance and common sense, which (52) (10 a) qualities are perhaps mostly underrated, (30) though he was deficient in tact and not remarkable for general ability." 79. "Vindictiveness, which (a) (50)*is a fault, (6) and which may be defined as anger (10 a) which is caused not by sin nor by crime but by personal injury, ought to be carefully distinguished ·19 Exercises. 57 from resentment, which (a) (50) is a virtue, (b) and which is anger (49) which is natural and (c) right caused by an act (d) which is unjust, because it is unjust, (308) not because it is inconvenient.” () "The fault of vindictiveness ;" "the virtue of resentment. Omit. (c) "Right" cannot be used as an adjective, but "righteous" can. () "an act of injusticer'' 80. “(a) He told his friend that (a) his brother was surprised that (a) he had given so small a contribution, for (a) he was (6) (12) a very rich inan, in spite of (a) his recent losses and the bad state of trade, (19) (30) compared with himself.” fa) Usc (6). (6) What Asian king was proverbial for wealth ? 81. "(a) (155) It must be indeed wrong to (a) crucify a Roman citizen if to ) (32) slay one is almost parricide, to.(6) scourge him is a monstrous crime, and to (6) bind him is an outrage." (a) “What must it be ...?" (6) See (40). 82. “The universal (54) opinion of all the citizens was that the citadel had been (15) betrayel, (30) having been captured in broad daylight by a very small number of the enemy, and those unprovided with scaling ladders, and admitted by a postern gate, (15 a) and much wearied by a long march.” In any case "betrayed " must come at the end of a sentence. The sentence inay be converted into two schtences : "The citadel had bcen captured ...' Naturally therefore ;" or, “The opinion for it had been captured Elsc, if one sentence be used, write “ As the citadel had been captured &c." 83. “This author surpassed all those who were living (a) at the same time with him in the forcible (6) manner in which he could adress (c) an appeal to the popular sympathy, and in the ease with which he could draw towards (a) himself the hearts of his rcaders," (a) Express in one word. (6) "force with." (c) Omit. 84. “This great statesnian was indeed a pillar of commerce, and a star in the financial world. Ile guided or impelled the people from the quicksands of Protection and false political economy to the safe harbour of Free Trade ; and (a) (14 a) saved the country several millions." (a) It would be well to literalize the preceding metaphors. Else the literal statement must be changed into a metaphor. 85. “The ministers were most unwilling to meet the Houses, (e) (43) (51) Acause even the boldest of them (though their counsels were lawless (15) and desperate) had too much value for his ·58 Exercises. (6) at personal safety to think of resorting to the (c) (12) unlawful modes of extortion that had been familiar to the preceding age.” (2) Begin a new sentence with "Lawless and desperate though their counsels had been &c." (6) "neck." (c) Insert some of these unlawful modes, "benevolences, ship-money, and the other &c." 86. “We will not (a) (15) pretend to guess what our grandchildren may think of the character of Lord Byron, as exhibited in (152) his poetry.” No writer ever had the whole eloquence of scorn, misanthropy, and (a) (15) despair (15 a) so completely at his conmand. That fountain (O) (12) of bitterness was never dry." (a) “We will not pretend to guess" and "despair" are intended by the author to be emphatic.(6) "Marah." 87. “The captain asked to be allowed fifty men, a supply of food, and one hundred and fifty breech-loaders. (44) The general replied coldly that he could not let his subordinate have (a) (4) anything that he wanted. (44) The captain was forced to set out (34) with an insufficient force, spite of the superabundance of soldiers doing nothing in the camp (34), and witlr every obstacle put in nis way by a general who from the first had resolved not even to give him ordinary assistance, (6) (10 a') which the captain had for some time anticipated.” (a) Point out and remove the ambiguity. (6) Write, according to the meaning, Assistance that" or ....a resolution that." 88. “I am a practical man, and disbelieve in everything (8) which is not practical ; theories (a) which amuse philosophers and pedants have no attractions for me, (30) for this reason. (a) What difference in the meaning, would be caused by the use of “that" for the second " which"? 89.1"Yet, when that discovery drew no other severity but the (11 a) turning (a) him out of office, and the (11 a) passing a sentence (6) condemning him to die for it (31) (which was presently pardoned, and he was after a short confinement restored to his liberty), all men believed that the king knew of the letter, (c) (43) and that (66) the pretended confession of the secretary was only collusion to lay the jealousies of the king's (d) (11 a) favouring popery, (e) (43) which still hung upon him, (30) notwithstanding his (e) writing on the Revelation, and his (e) affecting to enter on all occasions into controversy, (e) asserting in particular that the Pope was Antichrist." (a) "expulsion from." (6) "a pretended sentence to death-a pretence was soon manifested by his pardon and liberation.". (6) Begin a new sentence : "The secretary's pretende confession, it was said, 'was &c."" (d) “ the suspicion that the king that ·Exercises. 59 . favoured Popery." (). The juxtaposition of the twee verbal nouns, writing." and "affecting," with the participle alerting," is harsh. Write, "For, notwithstanding that he affected controversy, and attacked the Pope as Antichrist in his treatise on the Book of Revelation, the king was still suspected." 90. “The opinion that the sun is fixed was once too (a) (1) universal to be easily shaken, and a similar prejudice has often (6) rendered the progress of new inventions (15 a) very slow, (19) arising from the numbers of the believers, and not (36) the reasonableness of the belief." 6) Write "general." Show the absurdity of appending "too universal." () What single word can be substituted for rendered slow"? to or else 91. “The rest of the generals were willing to surrender unconditionally, (30) depressed by this unforeseen calamity; (4) only the young colourl, who retained his presence of mind, represented to them that they were increasing the difficulties of a position in itself very difficult (19) (15, a) by their conduct." 92. “To(a) (31) an author who is, in his expression of any sentiment, wavering between the (6) demands of perspicuity and energy (of which the (c) (40 a) former of course requires the first care, lest (40 a) he should fail of both), and (37) doubting whether the (nl) phrase which (8) has (e) the most force and brevity will be ( ) reaclily taken (3) in, it may (h) (3) be recommended to use both (a) expressions ; first, (n) to expound the sense sufficiently to be clearly understood, and then (i) to contract it into the most compendious and striking form.” (a) Write "When an author &c.” (O) Can be omitted. (c) Assimilate the constructions: Of which the former must, of course, be aimed at first, lest both be missed." (1) Use." expression phrase "in both places. (e) Assimilate the construction to what follows; write that is most forcible and brief." () Insert (8) "understood." (1) "let him use. ; first let him expound." (i) Omit. 93. « When I say a great man,' I not (22) only mean a man intellectually great but also morally, (38) who (8) has no preſerence for cliplomacy (a) (23) at all events which (10a) is-mean, petty, and underhanded to secure ends which (8) can be secured by an honest policy cqually (20) well, (38) who (8) does not resemble Polonius, (0) who prefers to get at truth by untruthful tricks, and (1) who considers truth a carp which (10 g) is to be caught by the bait falsehood. We cannot call a petty intriguer great (c), (30) though we may be forced to call an unscrupulous man by that (15 a) name." (2) "at all events no preference." (6) Why is who right here? It Jou like, you can write," does not, like Polonius, prefer . . and consider," (c) End with “ we cannot give the name to a petty intriguer." “ also.”

·60 Exercises. 94. "I regret that I have some () (3) intelligence which (1ďa) is of a most (3) painful nature, and which I must tell you at once, though (8) I should like to defer itron () (40 a) account di your ill-health, and because (c) (40 a) you have already had many troubles, and (40 a) owing to the natural dislike which (8) a friend must always feel to say that (10) which is unpleasant. Many old friends in this district have turned against you: I scarcely like to write the words : only (21) I remain faithful to you, and I am sure you will believe that I am doing that (10 f) which is best for your interests. (a) "news." (5) In a letter these words should remain as they are ; but if a perind is desired, they must (30) come last, after pleasant." (1) Write "because of your ill-health , and the troubles. and because of 3) un- 95. “The general at once sent back word that the enemy had suddenly appeared on the other side of the river, and ((35) or (37)] then (r) retreated. () It was thought that (6) it would have shown more (c) (1) fortitude on his (3) purt if he had attacked the fortifications, (il) which were not tenable for more than a week at all events. Such was the (54) universal opinion, at (23) least, of (54) all the soldiers. (2) Point out the ambiguity. (61"'It was thought he would have shown &c." (c) Distinguish between “fortitude" and "bravery." (d) What would be the meaning if "that" were substituted for which"! It wilisive perhaps better to substitute for " which," “ since they." 96. "A notion has sprung up that the Premier, though he can legislate, cannot govern, and has attained an intluence which renders it imperative, if this Ministry is to go on, that («) it should be dispersed.” (a) Who or what "has attained" ? Write "and this notion has become so powerful that, unless it is dispersed.. ...' 63 97. “Those who are habitually silent (a) (3) by disposition and morose are less liable to the fault of exaggerating than those who are habitually (a) (3) fond of talking, and (40 a) of (a) (3) a pleasant disposition. (1) Each of these periphrases niust be condensed into a single adjective. 98. "This author, (a) (31) though he is not (6) altogether (c) guillless of (6) occasional (c) faults of exaggeration, which are to be found as plentifully in his latest works as in those which he (2) published when he was beginning his career as an afthor, yet, notwithstanding these (c) defects, surpassed all those who were living ·Exercises. 61 3 at the (f) same time with him in the clear (8) manner R2 Which he could, as it were, see into the feelings of the people at large, and if the power a power thet indeed could not be () resisted with which he drew () toward himself the syinpathy of those whd) perused his works." See (54). (a) Convert the parenthesis into a separate sentence. (1) One of these words is unnecessary: (c) One of these is unnecessary. (14) Condense: “his earliest." (e) Omit these words as unnecessary. ) Express all this in one word. (8) "clearness with." 99. Among the North (a) (23) American Indians I had indeed heard of the perpetration of similar atrocities; but it seemed intolerable that such things should occur in a civilized land : and I rushcd froin the room at once, leaving the wretch where he stvod, with his tale half told, (3 horror-stricken at his crime.' (a) Make it evident whether the speaker once lived among the North American Indians, or not, and show who is "horret-stricken.", 100, “His (1) bravery under this painful operation and the (1) fortitude he had shown in heading the last charge in the recent Action, (30) though he was wounded at the time and had been unable to use his right arm, and was the only officer leſt in his regiment, out of twenty who were alive the day before, (19) inspired every one with admiration." Begin, “Out of twenty officers &c. Though wounded &c. he had headed.' "The bravery fe had then shown and IOI. “Moral as well as (41) other considerations must have weight when we are selecting an officer (a) that (100) will be placed in a position that will task his intelligence (6) (18) and his fidelity." (a) The repetition of that" is objectionable. Use "to fill." (6) "and" can be replaced by some other conjunction to suit what prccedes. 102. “It happened that at this time there were a few Radicals in the House who (8) could not forgive the Prime Minister for being a Christian." Point out the difference of meaning, according as we read "who" or "that." 103. “It cannot be doubtedt (156) that the minds of a vast number of men would be left poor shrunken things, full of melancholy and indisposition, and unpleasing to themselves, if (32) there were taken out of men's minds vain opinions, false valuations, inaginations as one (a) would, and the (15 a) like." (a) The meaning (which cannot casily be more tersely expressed than in the original) is "castles in the air," "pleasant fancies."

·62 Exercises. 197.*"God never wrought a miracle to refute atheism, because His ordinary works refute it. (a) A little philosophy inclines man's mind to atheism : depth in philosophy brings men's minus back to religion. (44) While the mind of man looks upon second causes scattered, it may sometimes rest in them; (44) when it belolds the chain of them confederate and linked together, it must needs acknowledge a Providence. (44) That school which is most accused of atheism most clearly demonstrates the truth of religion.” (a) Insert a suspensive conjunction. See (34). 105. “The spirit of Liberty and the spirit of Nationality WLIC once for all dead ; (r) (5) it might be for a time a pious duty, but it could not continue always rpedient or (i) (15) (18). profitable to (%) (13) mourn (-) (150, or their loss. Yet this is the (6) (13) feeling of the age of Trajan." (6) “To sit weeping by their grave;' "attitude." (:) Notice that "expedient or profitable" are emphatic, as is shown by "yet" in the next sentence. Make it evident therefore, by their position, that these words are more emphatic than "co mourn &c." (a) Omit. : 106. " '(a) If we ask (15 6) what was the nature of the force by which this change was effected, (a) we find it to have been (6) the force that had seemed almost dead for many generations -(38) of theology." (n) Omit these words. (b) Begin a new sentence: It was a force &c.” 107. “I remember Longinus highly recommends a description of a storm by Homer, because (a) (5) (c) he has not amused himself with little fancies upon the occasion, as authors of an inſerior genius, whom he mentions, () (15 a) have done, (30) but (v) because he has gathered together those (d) (1) events which are the most apt to terrify the imagination, and (35) really happen in the raging of a tempest." (a) “The poet." (5) Omit “ have done and write “like some authors." (c) Suspend the sentence by writing "the poet instead of has." (a) What is the word for that which happens around one, or in connection with some central object !" 108. “To have passed (a) (3) in a self-satisfied manner through twenty years of office, letting things take their own course ; to have (6) sailed with consummate sagacity, never against the tide of popular (c) judgment; to have left on record as the sole title tu distinction among English ministers a peculiar art of (d) sporting with the heavy, the awful responsibility of a nation's destiny with the jaunty grace of a juggler (11)(c) playing with is golden ball; to have joked and intrigued, and bribed and (f) deceived, ·Exercises. 63 . with the result of having done nothing (8), () either for the poor, (h) or for religion (for (i) which indeed he did worse than nothing). (h) or for art and science, (h) or for the honour or concord or even the financial prosperity of the nation, (38) is surely a miserable basis on which the reputation of a great (15) statesman can be (k) (15 a) founded." (a) "complacently." ,(6)Sail". implies will and effort: use a word peculiar to a helpless ship, so as to contrast paradoxically sagacity:" () Use a word implying less thought and deliberation. (d) With is too often repeated : write"bearing so as to introduce the illustration abruptly. (e) tossing." Use a word implying a particular kind of " deceit," not Tying," but the next thing to "lying." (8) Insert the word with a preceding and intensifying adverb, absolutely nothing." ( Instead of "either," "or," repeat "nothing.' (i) The parenthesis breaks the rh. hm. Write nothing, or worse than nothing." (k) "to found.'' with it 109. "A glance at the clock will make you (I) conscious tlfat it is nearly three in the morning, and I therefore askøy you, gentlemen, instead of wasting more time, to pat this question to yourselves, 'Are we, or are we not, here, for the purpose of (1) eliminating the truth?"" I10. “The speech of the Right Honourable member, so far from unravelling (14) the obscurities of this knotty question, is eminently calculated to mislead his supporters (a) (8 a) who have not made a special study of it. It may be (6) (23) almost asserted of every statement (8) which he has made that the very (1) converse is the fact." (a) The meaning appears to be, not "all his supporters, but " those of his supporters who:" the convenience of writing "his supporters that" - great that I should be disposed to use that." (0) "Every," not "asserted," requires the juxtaposition of almost. . : .) III. "The provisions of the treaty which (8) require the consent of the Parliament of Canada await its assembling." Point out the meaning conveyed by which, and by that. 112. “Mrs. Smith demonstrated (26), in opposition to the general dictum of the press, that (a) there has been a reaction against woman's suffrage, that there had really been a gain of one vote in the House of Commons." (a) Substitute "instead of," and erase the second "that." 113. "The practice of smoking hangs like a gigantic (14 a) cloud of ery over the country."

·CONTINUOUS EXERCISES: CLEARNESS. THE following exercises consist of extracts from Burnet, Butler, and Clarendon, modernized and altered with a view to remove obscurity and ambiguity. The modernized version will necessarily be inferior to the original in unity of style, and in some other respects. The darm of the author's individuality, and the pleasant ring of the old-fashioned English, are lost. It is highly necessary that the student should recognize this, and should bear in mind that the sole object is to show how the meaning in each case might have been more clearly expressed. Occasionally expressions have been altered, not as being in themselves obscure or objectionable, but as indicating a habit of which beginners should beware. For example, in the cxtract from Burnet, he is often altered, not because, in the particular context, the pronoun presents any obscurity, but because Burnet'y habit of repeating he is faulty. These exercises cand se used in two ways. The pupil may either have his book open and be questioned on the reasons for each alteration, or, after studying the two versions, he may have the original version dictated to him, and then he may reproduce the parallel version, or something like it, on paper. LORD CLARENDON. The principal faults in this style are, long heterogeneous sen. tences (43), use of phrases for words (47 a), ambiguous use of pronouns (5), excessive separation of words grammatically conilected together (19) ORIGINAL VERSION. PARALLEL Version. (44) It will not be imper And now, in order to extinent nor unnatural to this plain, as far as possible, how so (50) present discourse, to set prodigious an alteration could down in this place the present take place in so short a time, temper and constitution of both and how thel royal power * The original metaphor uses the crown as a prop, which seems a confi sion. Though the metaphor is so common as scarcely to be regarded as a metaphor, it is better to avoid the appearance of confusion.

·Clcarness. 65 Houses of Parliament, and (34) of the court itself, (30) that (5) it may be the less wondered at, that s8 prodigious an alteration shoull be made in so short a time, and (37) the crown fallen so low, that it could neither support itself nor its own majesty, nor those who would (47 a) appear faithful to it. could fall so low as to be un. able to support itself, its dig. nity: or its faithful servants, it will be of use to set down liere, where it comes most naturally, tome account of thel present temper and composition, not only of both Houses of Parliament, but also of the court itself. (IIere follows a description of the House of Lords.) In the House of Commons In the House of Commons were many persons of wisdom there were many men of wisand gravity, who (7) being pos dom and judgment whose ligh sessel of great and plentiful position and great wealth disfortunes, though they were un posed them, in spite of ther indevoted enough to the court, difference to the court, to feel (19) had all iinaginable duty for s most loyal respect for the the king, and affection to the king, and a great aſſection for government established (472) the ancient constitutional goby law or ancient custom ; (43) vernment of the country. Inand without doubt, the major deed, it cannot be doubted that part of that (54) body consisted the majority had no intention to of men who had no mind to break he peace of the kingdom break the peace of the king or to make any considerable clon, or to make any consider alteration in Church or State. able alteration in the govern Consequently, from the very ment of Church or State: (43) outset, it was necessary to reand therefore (18) all inven sort to every conceivable device tions were set on loot from the for the purpose of perverting (15) beginning to work upon this honest majority into re- (5) them, and (11) corrupt (5) bellion. then, (43) (45) by suggestions the appeal was “of the dangers (8) which addressed to their patriotism. threatened all that was preci They were warned “of the ous to the subject (19) in their slangers that threatened (all liberty and their property, by that was precious in) the liberty overthrowing (470) or vvurmas and property of the subject, tering the law, and (47 a) sub20 if the laws were to lie made jecting it to an arbitrary (47 a) subservient to despotism, and power, and by countenancing if Popery was to be encouraged Popery to the subversion of the to the subversion of the Pro- Protestant religion," and then, testant religion." * We sometimes say, briefly but not perhaps idiomatically, “the then sovereign," " " the then temper," &c. E With some, ·66 Continuous Exercises. hy inftsing terrible apprehen The fears of others were sions into some, and so work appealed to. " There was ing upon their fears, (60) "of danger," sol it was said, "that (11 a) being called in question they might be called to atcount for somewhat they had done,' for something they had done, by which (5) they would stand and they would then stand in in need of (5) their protection ; need of the help of those who and (43) (45) raising the hopes were now giving them this of others, “that, by concur timely warning: In others, ring (47 a) with (5) then (5) hopes were excited, and offịces, they should be sure to obtain honours, and preferments were offices and honours and any held out as the reward of adkind of preferinent. Though hesion, there were too many corrupted Too many were led away by and inisled by these several one or other of these temptatemptations, and (19) others tions, and indeed some needed (40 a) who needed no other no other temptation than their temptations than from the innate fierceness and barbarity fierceness and barbarity of their and the malice they had con- (47 a) own natures, and the tracted against the Church and malice they had contractel the court. But the leaders of against the Church ann against the conspiracy were not many. the court; (43) yet the num The fock was large and subber was not great of those in missive, but the shepherds whom the government of the were very few, rest (47 a) was rested, not were there many who had the abso. lute authority (13) to lead, though there were a multitude (13) that was disposed to follow. (44) (30) Mr. Pym was looked Of these, Mr. Pym was upon as the man of greatest ex thought superior to all the perience in parliaments, where rest in parliamentary expehe had (50) servel very long, rience. To this advantage and was always (50) a man of he added habits of business business, (7) being an officer in acquired from his continuous the Exchequer, (43) and of a service in the Exchequer. He good reputation generally, (30) had also a good reputation though known to be inclined generally ; for, though known to the Puritan party; yet not To be inclined to the Puritan of those furious resolutions party, yet he was not so fanatiagainst the Church as the other cally set against the Church as leading men were, anil (44) the other leaders. In this rewholly devoted to the Earl of spect he resembled the Earl of * The personality of the tempters and organizers of the conspiracy is pur. confpiracy posely kept in the background.

·Clearness, 67 was Bedford, who had nothing of Bedford, to whom hc that spirit. thoroughly devoted. (Here follow descriptions of llampden and Saint John.) It was generally believed These three persons, with that these three persons, with the three peers mentioned the other three lords mentioned before, were united in the before, were of the most in closest confidence, and formed timate and entire trust with the maiuspring of the party, each other, and maile the Such at least was the general engine which (47 a) mood all belief. But it was clear that therest; (30) yet it was visible, they also admitted to their that (15) Nathaniel Fiennes, the unreserved conficlence two second son of the Lord Say, and others, (45) whom I will now Sir Harry Vane, eldest son to describe, - Nathaniel Fiennes, the Secretary, and Treasurer of second son of Lorel Say, and the Ilouse, were reccived by Sir Harry Vane, cldest an of them with full confidence and the Secretary, and Treasurer without reserve. of the House. • The former, being a man of Nathaniel Fiennes, a man of good parts of learning, and good Arts, was educated at after some years spent in New New College, Oxford, where i College in Oxford, (43) of his family claimed and enjoyed which his father had been some privileges in virtue of formerly fellow, (43) that family their kindred to the founder, piretending and enjoying many and where his father had privileges there, as of kin to the formerly becn a fellow. Ile founder, (43) (19) hail spent afterwards spent some time in his time abroad in Geneva and Geneva and in the cantons amongst the cantons of Switzer of Switzerland, where he inland, (30) where the improved creased that natural antipathy his disinclination to the Church, to the Church which he had with which milk he had been imbibed almost with his nursed. From his travels he mother's milk.* By a singular returned through Scotland (52) coincidence, he came home (which 3 ſew travellers took in through Scotland (not. a very their way home) at the time common route for returning when (5) That rebellion was in travellers) just when the Scotch bud: (30) (43) (44) an. I was very rebellion was in bud. l'or little known, except amongst some time he was scarcely (5) that people, which convursed known beyond the narrow and (47 a) wholly amongst them exclusive circle of his sect, selves, until he was now (15) until at last he appeared in 1 The relative is retained in the first two cases, because it conveys the reason why yiennes was educated at New College; and in the third case, because the increased " antipathy" is regarded as the natural consequence of the residence in Calvinistic Geneva. Claiming. 3 Au insinuation of sedition scenis intended. 22 ·68 Continuous Exercises. forind in Parliament, (30) (43) Parliament. Then, indeed, it (44) when it was quickly dis was quickly discovered that covered that, as he was tharlar. she was likely to fulf even ling of his father, so (5) he the fond hopes of his father was like to make good what. and the high promise of soever he had for many years many years. promised. (5) The other, Sir H. Vane, Fiennes' coadjutor, Sir II. was a man of great natural Vane, was a man' of great parts 1 (45) and of very pro naturalability.1 Quick in unlerfound dissimulation, of a quick standing and impenetrable in conception, and of very ready, dissembling, he could also sprak sharp, and weightyexpres with promptness, point, and sion. He had an (50) unusual weight. This singular appear. aspect, which, though it might ance, though it might naturally naturally proceed from his proceed from his parents, who father and mother, neither of were not noted for their beauty, which were beautiful persons, yet impressed men with the yet (19) made men think there belief that hchait in him somewas somewhat in him of ex. thing extraordinary, an imprestraordinary: and (52) bis whole sion that was confirined by the life maile good that imagina whole of his life. lIis behaviour tion. Within a very short time at Oxford, where he studied at after he returned from his Magdalen College, was not studies in Magdalen College characterized, in spite of the in Oxforil, where, (43) Ahough supervision of a very worthy he was under the care of a very tutor, by a severe morality. worthy tutor, he lived not with Soon after leaving Oxford he great exactress, (43) he spent spent some little time in France, some little time in France, and and more in Geneva. After more in Geneva ; and, (43) returning to England, he conafter his return into England, ceiveil an tiitense hatred not (38) contracted a full prejudice only against the government of and bitterness against the the Church, which was disliked Church, both against the forn by many, but also against the of the government and the Li Liturgy, which was held in great turgy, (43) which was generally and general reverence. in great reverence, (15 a) even Incurring or seeming to inwith many of those who were cur, by his gieldiness, the not friends to (5) the other. In displeasure of his father, who his giddiness, which then much r at that time, besiile strictly condispleased, or seemed to dis forming to the Church himsell, please, (30) (43) his father, who was very bitter against Nonstill appeared highly conſoim conformists, the young Vane able; and exceedingly sharp left his home for New England. against those who were not, This colony had been planted . This sentence is a preliminary sumimary of what follow's.

·Clearness. 69 1 (5) he transported himself into a few years before by nuen of New England, (43) a colony all sorts of religions, and withiiffew years before plantes their differences' disposed them by a mixture of all religions, to dislike the government of the which dispused the professors Church. Now, it happened to dislike the government of that their privilege (accorded the Church; who (30) (43) by the king's charter) of (44) were qualified by the king's choosing their own governcharter to choose their own ment and governors was sul)- government and governors, ject to this obligation, that under the obligation, “that every man should take the every man should take the vaths of allegiance and supreoaths of allegiance and su macy.” These oaths had been premacy ;” (30) (43) (5) which taken, not only by all the origiall the first planters did, when nal planters, on receiving their they received their charter, charter, before leaving Eng. before they transporter them land, but also for many years selves from hence, nor was afterwards, without exciting the there in inany years after the sliglatest scruple. Indeed, least scruple aniongst them of scruples against lawful oaths complying with those obliga were unknown in the infancy tions : so far men were, in of the English schism. But the infancy (15) of their schism, with the arrival of Vane all from refusing to take lawful this was changed. No sooner oaths. (45) Ile was no sooner had, he landed than his ability, landed there, but his parts ancl lerhaps to some extent his marle him quickly taken notice position, 'as eldest son of a of, (26) and very probably his Privy-councillor, recommended quality, being the oldest son of him to notice: and at the next a Privy-councillor, might give election he was chosen Gohim some advantage ; insomuch (51) thal, when the next In his new post, his restless season came for the election and unquict imagination found of their magistrates, he was opportunity for creating and chosen their governor : (39) (45) diffusing a thousand conscien- (43) in which place he had so ill tious scruples that liad not been fortune (26) (his working and brought over, or ever uinquiet fancy raising and in heard of, by the colonists. fusing a thousand scruples of His government proved a conscience, which (5) they had failure: and, mutually disnot brought over with thent, satisfied, (45) governed and nor heard of before) (19) that he governor parted. Vane re- : vernor. ever If " which" is used here according to Rule(8), the meaning is, (a)" and thejr differences ;" if it is used for “that," the meaning will be, (6) all religions that were of a nature to dispose &c." I believe (a) is the meaning; but I have bund difference of opinion on the question. 2 The following words appear to be emphatic, bringing out the difference between the infancy and the development of schismu.

·70 Continuous Exercises. unsatisfied with them and they turned to England, but not with him, he retransported till he had accomplished his himself into England; (30)/43) mischievous task, not will he (44) having sowed such seed had sown the seeds of those of dissension there, as grew up miserable dissensions which too prosperously, and miser.. afterwards grew only too prosably divider the poor colony perously, till they split the into several factions, and divi. wretched colony into distinct, sions and persecutions of each hostile, and mutually perse- (15 c) other, (30) (43) which cuting factions. His hanlistill continue to the great (54) work still remains, and it is prejudice of that plantation : owing to (15) him that some insomuch as some of (5) them, of the colonists, on the pretext upon the ground of their first of liberty of conscience, the cxpedition, liberty of cop original cause of their emigrascience, have withdrawn them tion, have withdrawn themselves from (5) their jurisdlic selves from the old colonial tion, and obtained other char. jurisdiction and have obtained ters from the king, by which, fresh charters from the king. (30) (43) in other forms of. These men haveestablished new government, they have enlarged forms of government, unduly their plantations, with a new enlarged their boundaries, anıt limits adjacent to (5) (15 a). set up rival settlements on the the other, borders of the original colony. BURNET. The principal faults in Barnet's style are (or) the use of hetero geneous sentences (see 43); (b) the want of suspense (see 30); (c) the ambiguous use of pronouns (see 5) ; (c) the omission of connecting adverbs and conjunctions, and an excessive use of and (see 44); and (e) an abruptness in passing from one topic to another (see 45). The correction of these faults necessarily lengthens the altered version. PARALLEL VERSION. ORIGINAL VERSION. And his maintaining the honour of the nation in all foreign countries gratified the (1) vanity which is very natural (50) to Englishmen; (30) (43) of which he was so (15) (17 a) careful that, though he was not 2 crowned heall, yet his (40 a) ambassadors had all the respects paid them which our (15) kings' ambassadors ever had : he said (66) the dignity of the crown He also gratified the English feeling of self-respect by maintaining the honour of the nation in all foreign countries. So jealous was he on this point that, though he was not a crowned head, he yet secured for his ambassadors all the respect that had been paid, to the ambassadors of The king, he said, received rcspect simply as the nation's qur kings.

·: Clearness. 71 was upon the account of the representative head, arl, since nation, of which the king was the nation was the same, the (50) ordy the representative head: so, the nation being the same, same respect should be paid to the nation's ministers. he would have the same re. gards paid to (41) his ministers, Another instance of (5) this The following instance of pleased him much. Blake jealousy for the national honour with the fleet happened (50) to be pleased him much. When at Malaga before he made war Blake was at Malaga with his upon Spain : (44) and some of fleet, before his war with Spain, his scamen went ashore, and it happened that some of his met the Hostcarried about; (44) sailors going ashore and meetand not only paid no respect ing the procession of the Host, to it, but laughed at those who nyt only paid no respect to it, did; (43) (30) (51) so one of but even laughed at those who the priests put the people upon did. Incited by one of the resenting this indignity; and priests to resent the inclignity, they fell upon (5) them and 'ihe people fell on the scoffers beat them severely, When and beat them severely. On 'they retu to their ship (5) their return to the ship the they complainerl. of (5) this seamet complained of this ill. usage; and upon that Blake usage, whereupon Blake sent sent a trumpet to the viceroy a messenger to the viceroy to to demand the priest who was demand the priest who was the chief (1) instrument in that the instigator of the outrage. ill-usage. The viceroy an- The viceroy answered that he swered he had no authority could not touch him, as he had over the (15) priests, and so no authority over the priests. could not disposeof him. Blake To this Blake replied, that he upon that sent him word did not intend to inquire to that he would not inquire who whom the authority belonged, had the (1) power to send but, if the priest were not sent the priest to him, but if he within three hours, he would were not sent within three burn the town. The townshours, he would burn their people being in no condition town ; (43) and (5) they, being to resist, the priest was.at once in no condition to resist him, sent. On his arrival, he desent the priest to him, (43) fended himself, alleging the (44) who justified himself upon insolence of the sailors. But the petulant behaviour of the the English (50) Admiral replied that a complaint should (44) Blake answered that, have been forwarded to him, if (5) he had sent a complaint and then he would have to 5) him of (5) it, (5) he would punished them severely, for * The meaning is "his, and therefore the nation's, ministers." There is a kind of anjóthesis between the nation" and "the nation's ministers." 9 No instance has yet been mentioned. seamen.

·72 Continuous Exercises. have.phnished them severely, none of his sailors should be since (5) he would not suffer allowed to affront the estab. his men to affront the estab Jished religion of any place lished religion of any place where they touched. "But, at which (5) he touched; but he added, “I take it ill, that (5) (6) he took it ill, that he you should sct on your counset on the Spaniards to do (5) trymen to do my work; for I it : for he would have all the will have all the world know world to know that an English that an Englishman" is only to man was only to be punished by be punished by an Englishan Englishman; (43) (44) and man." Then, satisfied with so he treated the priest civilly, having had the (50) offender and sent him back (30), being at his mercy, Blake entertained satisfied that he had him at his him civilly and sent him back. mercy. Cromwell was much de Cromwell was much delighted lighted with (5) this, (43) anıl with Blake's conduct. Readread the letters in council with ing the letters in council with great satisfaction; and said he great satisfaction, he said, “I (6) hoped he shoulil make the hope I shall make the name of name of an Englishman as great an Englishman as much reas ever that of a Romani (15 a) spected as ever was the name had been. (44) The States of of Roman. Holland were in such dread of Among other countries the (5) him that they took care to States of Ilolland were in such give him no sort of umbrage ; dread of Cromwell that they 143) (44) and when at any time took care to give himn no sort of the king or his brothers came umbrage. Accordingly, whento see their sister the Princess ever the king or his brothers Royal, (23) within a day or two came to see the Princess Royal after, (5) they userl to send a their sister, they were always deputation to let them know warneck in a day or two by a that Cromwell had required of deputation that Cromwell had the States that (5) they should required of the States to give give them no harbour. them no harlourage. s! Cromwell's favourite alliance was Sweclen.' (44) Carolus Gus. tavus and he livell in great conjunction of counsels. (44) Even Algernon Sydney, (10 a) who was not inclined to think or speak well of kings, commended him (5) to me; and The free kingdom of Sweden was Croinwell's favourite ally; not only under Charles Gustavus, with whom he was on most confidential terms, but also under Christina. Both these sovereigns had just notions of public liberty; at least, The thought that is implied, and should be expressed, by the words, is chis: Croinwell's favourite ally was z. f:ee country."

·Clearness. 73 saiche (5) had just notions of Algernon Sydney, a nan cer. public liberty ; (44) (43) and tainly not prejudiced in favour added that Queen Christina of royalty, assured me this was seemed to have them likewisc. true of Gustavus. He also hell But144) she was much changed the same opinion of Queen from that, when I waited on her • Christina ; but, if so, slie was at Rome; for she complained of much changel when I waited us as a factious nation, that did on her at Rome; for she then not remony comply with the complained of the factious copmunds (47a) of our princes. and unruly spirit of our na. (44) All Italy troubled at the tion. ngme of Cromwell, and scemail All Italy, no less than Hol. under a (1) panic as long as lic land,' trembled at the name of lived ; (43) his flect scoured the Cromwell, and dreailed him Mediterranean; and the Turks till he dicu. Nor durst the durst not offend him ; but de Thirks offend the great (50) livered up Ilyıle, who kept up Protector whose fleet scoured the character of an ambassador the Mediterranean; and they from the king there (23) (43), leven gave up Ilyde, who, fur and was brought over and kceping up in Turkey the 'executed for (5) it. character of ambassador from the lung, was brought to England and executed. (44) (11 2) The putting the In another instance of scbrotherofthe king of Portugal's verity towards foreigners--the ambassador to death for imur execution of the brother of der, was (il a) currying jus the Ptuguese ambassador for tice very far; (43) since, though murder--Cromwell carried jusin the strictness of the law of tice very far. For, though in nations, it is only the ambas strictness the law of nations sador's own person that is exempts from foreign jurisdicexempted from(4) any auth tion the ambassador alone, yet rity (47 a) but his master's that in practice the exemption has sends him, yet the practice has extended to the whole of the gone.in favour of all that the ambassador's suite. ambassador ownedd (470) to be Successfulabroad, Cromwell long to him. (41) (14) Cromwell was no less successful at home showed his gooil (11) unir. in selecting able and worthy standing in nothing more than men for public duties, especiin seeking? out capable ancl ally for the courts of law. In worthy men for all employ- nothing did he show more ments, but most particularly clearly his great natural insight, I The remarks about Christina are a digression, and Burnet is now return. ing to the respect in which Cromwell was held by foreign nations. 3 He 110only sought, but sought successfully. That "find" is not necessarily implied by "seek out seems proved by the use of the word in the Authorized Version, a Tim. ii. 17: “He svugkit nie out very diligently, and found me. 2 ·74 Continuous Exercises. persons for the courts of law, (43) (301) and nothing contributed more (10 a) which gave a general to his popularity. satisfaction. BISHOP BUTLER. The principal faults in this siyle are (a) a vague use of pronouns (5), and sometimes (6) the use of a phrase, where a word would be enough (47 a). ORIGINAL VERSION. PARALLEL VERSION. Some persons, (15) upon Some avowelly pretence of the sufficiency of reject all rovelation as essen. the light of Nature, avowedly tially incredible and necesreject all revelation as, in its sarily fictitious, on the ground (47 a) very nlion, incredible, that the light of Nature is in anit what (47 a) must be ficti. itself sufficient. And assuredly, tious. And indeel (32) it is had the light of Nature hecn certain that no revelation would sufficient in such a sense as to have Men given, (32) had the render revelation needless or light of Nature been sufficient useless, no revelation would in such sense as to render • ever have been given. But let. (5) one not wanting, or useless, any man consider the spiritual But no (156) man in serious darkness that once (41) preness and simplicity can possibly vailed in the heathen world think it (5) so, who considers before revelation, and that the state of religion in the (41) still prevails in those heathen world before revela regions that have not yet retion, and its (5) present state ceived the light of revealed in those (11) Places (8) which truth; above all, let him mark have. borrowed no light from not merely the natural inat. (5) it; particularly (19) the tention and ignorance of the doubtfulness of some of the masses, but also the doubtful (12) greatest men concerning language held even by a Socrates things of the utmost (11) impor- So vital a subject tance, as well as the (15 a) as the immortality of the natural inattention and igno soul; and then can he in seri. ranie of mankind in general. ousness and sincerity maine It is (34) impossible to say (12) tain that the light of Nature is who would have been able to sufficient ? have reasonell out that whole It is of course impossible to system which we call natural deny that some second 4 Aris. religion, (30) in its genuine totle might have reasoned out, simplicity, clear of supersti in its genuine simplicity and i "To pretend" once meant put forward," " "maintain." ? It has been suggested, huwever, that by "in its very notion incredible," is meant "inconceivable." Wanting" is used for modern "wanted." This use of the particular for the general would be out of place in Butler's ötyle, but it adds clearness. on even to 3 “ ·Cleurness. 75 tion; but there is certainly no without a touch of superstition, ground to affirm that the the whole of that system which generality could. (44) If they, we call natural religion. But could; there is no sort of pro. there is certainly no ground for bability that they would. (44) affirming that this complicated Admitting there were, they process would have been poswould highly want a standing sible for ordinary men. Even admonition to remind them of if they had had the power, (5) it, and inculcate it upon there is no probability that them. And further still, were they would have had the in- (5) they as much disposed (47 a) clination; and, even if we to , attend to religion as the admit the probable inclination, better sort of men (15 a) are; they would still need some yet, even upon this supposition, standing admonition, whereby there would be various occa natural religion might be sugsions for supernatural instruc gested and inculcated. Still tion and assistance, and the further, even if we suppose greatest advantages (50) might these ordinary men to be as be afforded (15 a) by (5) them. bitentive to religion as men of So that, to say revelation is a a better sort, yet even then thing superfluous, what there there would be various occa (47 a) was no need of, and sions avhen supernatural in. what can be of (47 a) no struction and assistance might service, is, I think, to talk be most beneficially bestowed. wildly and at random. Nor Therefore, to call revelation would it be more extrava superfluous, needless, and usegant to affirm that (40 a) less, ipin, my opinion, to talk mankind is so entirely (40 a) wildly and at random. A man at ease in the present state, and might as reasonably assert that (40 a) life so completely (40 a) we are so entirely at ease and happy, that (5) it is a contra so completely happy in this cliction to suppose (40. a) our present life that our condition capable of being in dition cannot without contraany respect (47 a) better. -- diction be supposed capable of (Analogy of Religion, part ii. being in any way improved. chap. I.) con- BREVITY. SIR ARCHIBALD ALISON. The following extract exhibits examples of tautology and lengthiness. The "implied statement” (50) can often be used as a remedy, but, more often, the best remedy is omission. ORIGINAL VERSION, The Russian empire is (50) a state of (58) such vast strength PARALLEL VERSION. Russia, with her vast strength and boundless resources, is ob- ·76 Continuous Exercises. 2 * * and howdless resources, that it viowy destined to exercise on is obviously destined to make pie course of history a great a great and lasting impression and lasting influence the on human affairs. Its (50) pro slowness of her progress only gress bas been slow, but (5) it1 renders her durability 'more is only on that account the probable. The Russian Empire more likely to be durable. (5) has not, like the empires of It has not suddenly risen to Alexander tite Great and Nagreatness, like the empire of poleon, been raised to sudden Alexander in ancient (19) (31), greatness by the genius of inor that of Napoleon in modern, dividuals or the accidents of times, froin the force of indi fortune, but has been slowly vidual genius, or the accidents enlarged and firmly consoliof (54) casual ſortunc, but has dated by well-guided ambislowly advanced, and (409) tion and persevering energy, been firmly consolidated (is) during a long succession of dowing a succession of agris, ages. from the combined influence of ambition skilfully directed and energy (150) perseveringly applied. The extent and fertility of The extent and fertility of the Russian territory are such her territory furnish unparal- (54) as to furnish facilities (in leled facilities for the increase crease and elements of strength of her population and power. which no nation (47 in the European Russia, that is, euorli enjoys. European Russia Russia to the west of the - that is, Russia to the west Ural Mountains, contains one ward of the Ural Mountains- million two hundred thousand contains a hundrel and fifty square geographical miles, or thousand four hundrerl square ten times thee face of Great marine leagues, or about one Britain and Ireland. million two hundred thousand square geographical miles, being ten times the face of the British Islands, which contain, including Ireland, one hundred and twentytwo thousand. Great part, no Tliis vast territory is interdoubt, of this immcirse (54, see şected by no mountain ranges, - below) lerritory is covered with no arid deserts; and though forests, or (40 a) lies so far to much of it is rendered almost the north as to be almost un unproductive of food either by productive of food ; but no the denseness of forests, or by ranges of mountains or arid the severity of the northern . Apparently "it means, not "progress," but the "Russian empire." 2 Not "energy," but a long succession of ages," needs to be emphasized. sur·of man. Brev'ity. 77 deserts intersect the 2 winter, yet aimost all, axcept sce above) extent, and almo! that part which touches the the whole, excepting that which Arotic snows, is capable of touches the Arctic snows, is yielding something for the use capable of yielding something for the use of man. The (3) (54) The steppes of the south boundless steppes of the south present an incxhaustible paspresent til jurnaustible fields turage to those nomad tribes of pasturage, and give birth to whose numerous and incomthese numad tribes, in whose parable horsemen form the numerous and incomparable chief defence of the empire. horsemen the chief defence of the empire, as of all Oriental states, (15 a) is to be found. The rich arable lands in the The rich arable lands in the heart of the (54) empire produce interior produce griw enough an (2) incalculable quantity to support four times thepreselit of grain, capable not only of population of the empire, and maintaining four times (5) its et leave a vast surplus to be present inhabitants, but affordasported by the Dnieper, the ing a vast surplus for exporta; and their tributaries, tion by the Dnieper, into luxine or other scas. and their tributary streanis, (30) which form so many (54) natural outlets into the Euxinc orotherseas; (44) while the cold Lastly, the cold bleak plains and shivering plains which stretch gotowards Archangel stretch towards Archangel and and towards the shores of the the shores of the Whitc Sea White Sea, and covered with are (4) covered with immensc iminense forests of oak and Gir, forests oNr and oak, furnish furnish materials for shipbuilding at oncc 5470 inexhaustible ing and supplies of fuel that materials for shipbuilding and will for many generations supplies of fuel. (54) These superscde the necessity of ample storis for many generascarching for coal tions will supersede the necessity of searching in the (144) buwels of the earth for the pur. poses of (54) warmth or manne facture. Formidable as the power of Much as we may dread Russia is from the vast extent Russia for the vastness of her of its territory, and the great territory and of her rapidly There is nothing in the context that requires the words, "as of all Oriental states." ? If they were really "inexhaustible," the "necessity of searching in the bowels of the earth" would be “superseded," not for "many," but for all generations.

·DIJU, OW RAL 78 Continuous Exercises. and wpidly increasing number incoeasing numbers, there is of its (54) subjects, (5) it is still gicater cause for fear in the niore (5) so from the milig... y military spirit and the timidity spirit and docile disposition loy of her people which they are (54)' distin. guished. The prevailing (54) puission of the nation is the (54) A burnizor thirst for conline of compuest, and this (54) quest is as presidentin massion cardent (54) desire, which (54) in Russia as democratic ambiburns as 154) fiercely in them tion in the free states out as democratic ambition does Western Europe. This passion in the free states of Western is the unseen spring which, Europe, is the unseen spring while it retains the Russians which both retains them sub in the strictest discipline, unmissiin (5+) under the standard ceasingly impyels their unite of their clief and impels their forces against all alljoining iceunulated forces in ceaseless states. violende over all the adjoinin The mational energy, which states. The cnergies of the is as great as the national terpeople, great as 3 the territor! ritory, rarely wastes itself in they inhabit, are rarely verile disputes about domestic grievin internal «lisputes. De estic a....all internal evil.s, grievances, how great so 'er, how great snever, the Kus. are (54) overlooked in the first sians hope to find a compensafor foreign aggrandlizemenin 5) tion, and more than a compen- In the conquest of the worid the sation, in the conquest of the people hope locodempen world. sation, and more than a compensation, (15 a) for all the ez'ils of their interior «dministration. sentence. : The words can be implied, and besides they are expressed in the following The metaphor is questionalile : for a "spring," que "spring,” does not retain at all; and tesièles, " a passion" ought not to burn" in one lin., and spring" in the next. 3 'The meaning appears not to be, great as" (is), i.e. “though the territory is great." be a PUBLIC LIBRARY TAJU Ls!d. 1902 !

·EXERCISES EXEMPLIFYING THE RULES. RULES. 10, IIT. VIII. I. 8, 11, 17, 37, 31, 44, 45, 52, 61, 68, 70, 90, 95, IOG, 107, 109, 1o. IT. 18, 30, 36. III. 33, 44, 60, 63, 92, 94, 95, 97, 108. IV. 6, 87, 91, and those for XXI, IVa. 57, 75. V. 4, 6, 7, 17, 28, 32, 34, 58, 60, 61, 67, 105, 107. VI. 17, 80. VIa. V. 26, 89. VII. No exercises.. VIII. 2, 6, 17 48, 575, 88, 92, 93, 94, 102, IIO, IX. 49. 19, 29, 32, 50, 58, 623, 79, 93, 94, 101. X.(6) IOI. X. (c) 32. Mi) 51. X. (2) 50, 55, 70. X.(/) 94. X.(g) 15N 93 Xa'3, 24, 87. See also those for XXVIII. XI. 8, 12, 17, 19, 23, 47, 61, 64, 71, 72, 85, 108, Xla. 89. . 70, 80, 85, 86. XI, 99, 105. XIV. 52, 57, 10. XIVa. 20, 42, S4, 113. XIV6.84. XV. 2, 11, 14, 15, 17, 20, 29, 37, 58, 66, 78, 82, 85, 86, 105, jud. XVa. I, 14, 21, 27, 37, 41, 48, 51, 62, 68, 82, 86, 90, 91, 93, 103, 105, 107, 108. XV6, 12, 41, 81, 103, 106. XVI. 21. XVII. 26. XVIII. 27, 71, 101, 105. XIX, 25, 27, 39, 43047, 51, 52, 66, 80, 90, 91, 100. XX. 17, 27, 93. XXI. 60, 94. X41. 42, 93. XXII. 42, 49, 53, 55, 93, 95, 99, 110, XX. No exercises. XXV. No exercises.

·EXERCISES EXEM''LIFYING THE RUS RULES. 7, 30, 112. XXVI. XXVII. No exercises. XXVIII. No exercises. XXIX. 4, 55. XXX. 2, 5, 8, 17, 34, 53, 56, 59, 62, 69, 78, 80,*02, 88, 89, 91, 93, 99, 100, 107. ké. 6, 79. XXX. 17, 52, 60, 75, 89, 92, 98. XXXII. 13, 24, 41, 81, 103. XXXIII. 9, 33, 38, 57. XXXIV. 39, 54, 87, 104. XXXV. 69, 95, 107. XXXVI. 1, 2, 65, 9). XXXVII. 7, 18, 39, 53, 56, 92, 95. XXXVIIa. 1, 5, 13, 16. XXXVIII. 19, 29, 32, 65, 93, 106, 108. XXXIX. 17, and those fr XI.. XL 9, 30, 51, 81. (XLA. 3, 9, II, 15, 22, 43, 54 92, Idrizinalin XLI. 17, 46, si!. XLII. No exercise, XLIII. 10, 22, 33,5+15, 61, 71. 85, 89. XLIV. 17, 39, 545) 3, 77, S7, 104. XLV. No exercises XI.VI. those, fin XIII. XIV. XIVa. XLVII. tiariror XI. XLVIla, 4, 6, 7, 15, 30, 48, 83, 97. XLVIII. Sec illustrations of VII., p. 17. XLIX. II, 79. L. 17, 39, 57, 75, 79. II. 49, 85. Llu. LII. 26, 65, 78. LIII. No exercises. LIV. 18, 23, 28, 30, 33, 42, 50, 53, 57, 74, 82, 95' 98. LV. 17. LVI. No exercises. TI LONDON: RICHARD CLAY di sos8, FRIN

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