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·THE UNIQUE FUNCTION
of EDUCATION
in
AMERICAN DEMOCRACY
FOREWORD
This volume - i condensation of a report made in
1837 by the Educational Policles Completon uod mu
art repriated to this form to 1840 by the National Edda
top Apociation of the United Stata
Tabs reprint by the United States Information Ser
vlee mu bodertaken in response to the many questions
which eduaton in Lodla bere uked concerning cdocu
tion function in Amerlan democny

·THE EDUCATIONAL POLICIES COMMISSION Appointed by the Naponal Education Association of United States and the American Association of School Administrators Appointed Members Aleunder J Stoddard Chairman Cornelia S. Ada Edwin A. Lec Franco L Bacon John K. Norton Lotus D Coffman Paul T Rankan James Bryant Conant Agnes Samuelson George S. Coung John A. Sexxon Prudence Cutright Payton Smith Edmund E. Day Maycre Souchall J B Edmonton George D Stoddard A. C Flora George D Strayer Frederick M. Hunter Mabel Studebaker E V Jacobsen Will A Sutton Charles H Judd Emuy A. Tarbell Pearl A. Wanamaker Ex Officto Members Mary D Barnes Carroll R. Reed Myrtle Hooper Dahl FL Schlagle Donald Du Shane S. D Shankland Willard E. Givens Albert M. Shaw Charles H. Lake Reuben T Shaw Orville C. Pratt A. L Threlkeld Beulah K Walker Advisers J W Studebaker George F Zook

·Table of Contents
THE UNIQUE FUNCTION OF EDUCATION IN ADJERICAN
DEWOCHACY
I Grcumstances Call upon Educational Leader
ship to Reconnder It Pontion and Oblı
gations in Society
3
II The Founders of the Republic Exalted Edu
cation as a National Interest
6
Provided
the
II. Democracy and Lodividualism
Content for Public Eduation
24
IV Educational Philosopby Was Adapted to the
Spint of the Age
34
V New Interests and Ideas Demand Educational
Readjustments
40
VL The Nature of Educabon and it Obligations
VII. Conditions Requisite for the Ducharge of
Educational Obligations
79

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·L CIRCUMSTANCES CALL UPON EDUCA- TIONAL LEADERSHIP TO RECONSIDER ITS PostTION AND OBLIGATIONS N SOCIETY TH HR manner blown out of bu course by adresse winds and miling long under clouded heavens among danger ous reefs przes the fint opportumty to get hus bearings tod chart bos way by fixed marks of sky or land. Likewe in the management of human affura, although the analogy Doc ciach, it is often necemmary for leader of route, the profemons, and calling med great disturbances, to take their reckon ingh to recur to first principles. This applies to education u well us to other brancha of national interest and activity None is independent of the other. None occupies a posbon of impregnable secunty which permit it to escape the strung in domestic or foreign affurt. This Adjustment Mau Be Made to the Terms of Public Interest The awer of education to the common cannot be made merdy in the techmal language of the profession, although the imperiare of the profession must be respected. It cannot be given amply in amor, in secret committee. It murt be made in fall public view and in the terms of the society which educa ton sive, well as in it own termos. Not for the thoughtless ind beedles to be sure to the statement to be formulated but for that large uod influential body of atacos who can dotiogoich between the cadunag values of life and the destempers of immediate difficulties, policical and economic Yet no anze of the Republic an be left out of the reckomng for the wel fure of all o involved in both the program of education and its application.

·The Center of Obstruallon Is la Society Not Merely in the Educational Profession It o not enough, therefore, to fix attendon on profesional conceptions of education alone Observations must also be taken from the center of society for educadon, government, econ ordy and culture are parts of the Ame thing Hence a parador. If educators are to make wide and real the reach of thar theory and practice, they must step over the boundara drawn by their profession and consider the unity of things By concentrating affections on their spbere of special interest, they will separate education from the living body of society Important a are the methods and procedura of education, they are means, not ends and the ends themselves are linked with the genno, spint, and purposes of the society in which education functions by which it u sustained, vicalzed, and protected. Yet in stepping over the boundaries of their profession to find their bearings, educator are at the same time compelled, by the nature of their obliga hons to hold fast to those value of education which endure amid the changes and ergencias of society Five Guiding Prindples Control Oar Exploration With the challenge of affairs, public and private, so urgent, what are the bearings by which to do.cover our position and chart oor course? To phuc principles must we refer in decover 10g the cok of educaton in Amencan democracy? Five rema operative 1 Public edacaoon u sochored in the history of Amenan arilation and st 107 giren moment operates within the ac cumulaced heritage of that amlization. 2. Every system of thought uod practice in education : formulated with forme reference to the ideus and interests dotni nant or widely chensbed in society at the time of its formula ·3 Once created and systematzed, any program of educa tional thought iod practice take on profesoonal and lastitu tonal stereotypes, and tends to outlast even profound changa in the society in which it uumed 10 ongioal shape. 4 Any restatement of educational objectives and respons bilities which s rooted in reality tako into account the nature of professional obligations and makes adjustment to cope with the major changes wrought in society since the last general reckoning in education. 5 Any statement of educational objectives and respons bilines that s pot merely theoretaal involves a quest for the Institutional forms and operating practices through which edu catron can best atrun it ends.

·II. THE FOUNDERS OF THE RE- PUBLIC EXALTED EDUCATION AS A NATIONAL INTEREST IT. u out of the historical development of American society that have come the ideas aspirations, knowledgs, aod work ing roles which prevail today and at the task of education. There have been borrowings, of course. Beyond the founding of the Republic les a vost background embracing the culcare of antiquity the Middle Ages, the Renatuance, and modern Europe. From thu plenitude of resources Amenaan avilization has been ennched But all that has been drawn from other times and places bas been worked mto the Amencan heritage. Addiconal drafu may be made upon other nations in days to come. Research will bring Dew knowledge. Experimcat may confirm new method. Novel seas may bad for favor The spunt of inquiry and invention may be active. The spirations of the lnog will be stirred by the eternal range of the human heart. Even so, the past, distant and deur has given us our society lacloding all the maternal, intellectual and model manifestation with which education must work. The Republic Wo Founded in a Age of High Tendon The independence of Amenda wus establubed by revolution and wir accompanied by inevitable concentration, storm, and stress. America had broken with the past 10 muy respects and had founded government on a new baxtoral purpose u distingunbed from the pretenptive rights of clie. It wu an infant republic in a world of warnng monarchies. It leader were sarclung for Fry and mains of courag the perpetuity of government o conceived, developing natural resources, apply ing the technical arts, and realizing a better life for the free member of foocty [] ·Founders of tbe Republic Lald Stree on tbe Pabile Interest The founders of the Amenan Republic were concorded with more than the material aspects of life--with more than the aplaadion of natural resources, the parrut of private mter ests, and the enrichmeat of individual. They were public per pomaga imbued with a deep xnse of socul responsibility They had staked their live in their fortunes on independence and the security of the Republic. They had devoted time, coergien and talents to che public interest, wiping war against a foreign foe and against greed and pasions in their own madot. With jurace does a biograpber of Washington ay "Excluding hos boyhood, there were but seven years of his life in which he wu pot engaged in the public service." The early leaders did not subscribe to the economic theory that the puront of private gain would automatically bring about the establishment of independence, the creation of a con lotution or the scunty and prosperity of the American 02000 In fact, during the Revolaton they had seen gambling in goods and secunde almort wreck their caus. After victory had been won they uw emphaos on personal and sectional interests threaten the Union with dowolution. They knep from bitter aperience that devotion to the public good and welf-denial in private mitters were accesary to the achievement of great pocial ends. Having ruled thar all in the creation of a naton, the blest among them gave unremitting attention to the study of public affairs and the methods calculated to preserve and una prove the independent socvety which ther labon had brought forth. Tbe Iden of Government by . Flued Specid Interest Was Rejected It is true that many attempts relied heavily upon the ancient weapon of statecraft--force--for the surance of socal order and looked upon government us an instrument of private id (7) ·courte of vantage. They would bare entrenched great wealth in polita by the establatment of high property qualifications on yoting und office-bolding They would have given life terms to pred dent and senators, and restricted popular partiapation in pub- Liç affu to the mallest porable Intoite. They would have permaneady established a clos government fovernment by "the rich and wellbotn," and were largely indifferent to popular culture and education. But the faction, though influentual, was challenged by event. The verdict of the majonty finally ran aguest it. The verdict of history condemned it. In the yeurs che government establoshed by the founders of the Republic came to rest on a wide popular base; and with thic parung of cume that base wu broadened by constitutions cnactment and political practice. Tbc Democratic Idea Was Accepted In fact there was in the United States no aristocracy but tressed by specul privileges in public law to provide rapport for a monarchy or an aligarchy In the long run the fate of government and society had to be entrusted to the wisdom and knowledge of a widening mass of people. Some Amen cuns accepted that fate with a wry face, but made the best of 16. Others greeted it u a fulfilment of the principles proclaimed in the Declaration of Independence, and u marking a humant departure from the despotoms of Europe Tho docu mene had exerted that all men are created equal, and endowed by the Creator with certain inalienable ngho including life, Liberty and the purrut of happines; that governments derive tbar rust powers from the consent of the governed, and that the people have the nght to alter or aboluh any form of gov cranpent which becomes destructive of these code Lifted up gunst the background of European societies founded 0B force cod preseripave privileges, these were revolutionary doc tripes. The future was to deade whether say governancat po concerned and wo dedicated could long endore.

·Cultural Responsibilities were Imposed od Government Concerning the responsibilities of government in mitten of economy and culture, laders of the Republic had equally pontive convictions. They did not concere government u founded on beer force and confided to the punturnent of criminals. If doubts anse respecting this matter they can be resolved by reading Preudent Washingtons fint inaugural address and his fint metrage to Congress. In asuming hu daties he declared that the preeminence of free government must be exemplified by all the attributes which an win the affections of 10 atzens and commund the respect of the world. While recognizing the place of force in dabonal defcare and the maintenance of government, he commended to Congress "the advancement of agriculture, commerce and manufacture by all proper meang" ind the promotion of science, literature, and education. In aking this broad new of statesmoship Washington wu profoundly moved by the challenge of the occmon, for he tad "The preservation of the scred fire of liberty and the destiny of the republican model of government are rustly comidered perhaps, as dreply u findly stated on the aperment entrusted to the hands of the American people." The Vild Rdation of Education to ibe Social Order Wo Recognized Having committed themselves to government by popular Yerdich, to a government with hugh social responsibilities, many founders of the American Republic turned to education us 1 guarantee that a government of this type would codurenot merely to political eduation narrowly adapted to the genus of Amerian institutions, bot to education in the art, SCIECH, and letters, tsuring a deeper foundation in aviliza tion itsell. If contemporary Samuel Blodget, us to be believed the idea of aublishing a pational institution of learning was uken up with General Wubington in 1775 while Revolu ·boary soldiers were quartered in buildings on the campus of Harvard College, and Vastungton then und there approved the idea' Amurricon Leaders Turned to Edacaliond Plagang However that may be it u certain that shortly after 10 dependence was gained many of the best minds in Amena began to draft comprehensve plans for systems of parver! education, crowned by a national unterury Among them ww Dr Benrmin Rush, phytaun, surgeon general duning the Revolutionary Wur meraber of the Continental Congren, agner of the Declaration of Independence, and member of the Pennsylvania convention that ratified the Comatution. In 1786 be published in educational project, with the arrest 105 nile "Thought Upon the Mode of Education Proper in · Republic" A few year later the American Philosophical Society offered a prize for the best system of liberal educn non and Lterary wtruction, adapted to the genius of the Government of the United States; compreheading 210 a plan for instituting and conducting public schools in thus country on pracples of the most eatenute nalicy" The prize wu derided between Samod Knox and Samuel H. Stouch, Other chinkers of the ags including Noah Webster presented to the public large project for the education of youth in a manner appropriate to American society and government Early Educationd Plous Wome Wide and Deep in Compos Thos os no place to describe these plans or to smooch away che inconsistences, but i rummary of them thon that Amer 1cao sdeas on education are the treasures of high tatesman shup not merely the theories of scbool administrators and Verbry Edu B. Proposed: tbr Ushtrilty of ihr Un Sistn line apołu Voirety of Alasciou Press, 1914. IR (101 ·techer Tiking numerow plans of the early Republic col lectively we may ay that they were amazingly broad sod comprehensive. They projected institutions of learning a tending from the primary schools to a national opireraty in charge of research, general instruction, and traming for the public tryke. They dealt with education in its widert terms as adapted to the nature of American society and government, und werving the progressive development of individuals tod society-not the one or the other aclusivelyn-bot both u in separable. These schemes were not confined to the practical arts and subjects of utility in the conduce of government. They did emphwoze, it is true, the practcal and poliacal arts but they went beyond any narrow atilitananism. They 10 cluded pure science, letters, and all the art deemed necessary for a nch, secure, and enlightened avilization and they rec ognized the truth that both government and economy rest upon wisdom, knowledge, and aspirations wider and deeper than the enterest of immediate marketability The Role of Women in Crization Va Recognized In seeking to cnnch the moral and intellectual resources of society some of the early educatxonal planners gave atten tion to the role of women us makers and bearers of culture. They knew from impressive personal experience the part that women had taken in the war for independence for instance, in keeping cconomy running in furnishing war supplies, in nuotaining and feeding the spirit of sodependence in sws papers, pamphlets, and plays and in porate councils, Laders from General Washington dorn the line had recognized their xrvice and pand open tribute to their part in the great drama. It was no accident, then, that Noah Webster perhaps the most indefatigable among the educational leaders, gare special conaderton to the education of women He believed that Hoxen, Athen Q. Uit on Arka [dur foon to the Elaborald Celery New York Alcmillan Com 1926 117 111)

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·com is the plague of wote doen ind the idol of fools!" be a clumed. In the spirit, educational planners for the nanon proposed to throw off denominadonal coacrol of education, and amphtazed pabampered scientific research, while cherish 108 a deep sense of social responsibility Education Was Dermed Indispensable to Popular Government The men who had set up the new government after the Revolution were, us a matter of course, especially concerned with political educabon, with the preparation of the people for self government. The processes of decrocracy to wluch they were committed, platly or impliaty embraced fire cenaal element the night of abizens to propose menures add policies, the night to ducus freely all proposed policies and measures, the nght to deade runs at the polls, the obliga aon to accept declaons daly made without resort to force, and the night to appruire, croaze, and amend decanons to made. The preservation of these processes of democracy v3 umured in part, the founders believed, by laws and imututons guaranteeing freedom of the press, discusion, and decotton but they know that paper guarantea were not enough. Knowl edge and a moral xense were reqmred to rustain domocraac processes and to make them constructive, rather than destruc ave. "La proportion is the structure of government gives force to public opiaron, wrote Washington in his Farewell Address "it 8 esential that public opinion should be enlight enedHow? "Prontote, then, in object of primary import ance Institutions for the general diffuson of knowledge" Education Wa Considered to tbe Constituibond Comixntion of 1767 In the convention that framed the Constitution, Jana Madison proposed that Congress be empowered to establish 1 unitemty" and Charles Pinckney urged broader progi ( 13 ) ·pron "to establish Kamarres for the promotion of literature and the urts and science." At a later time in the convention Madison and Pinckney moined a moring for the creation of 1 unnverty Upon their project Gouverneur Morris remarked "It is not accesary The achatryc poner at the seat of govern ment will reach the object." The motion wu lost. No opred promom were made in the Constitution for the promoton of education brat lenders kunong the men who framed that document certainly believed that the power to perform thu national service was posarely implied. Even Jefferson, speak ing later as a strict constructionist, declared that Congress could make appropriatons of public lands for that purpose. George Wabington Advocated Naltoval Aids to Education That Washington regarded the fosteriag of educaton u an obligation of the federal government wu made evident 10 hu first annual address to Congress "Nor am I lets per suaded that you will agree wsth me in opinion that there is nothung which can better deserve your patronage than the promotion of science and literature. Knowledge is sa every country the surest basis of puble happiness. In one in which the meatures of government receive their impressions to im medrately from the sense of the community w in oun it is proportionably essential. To the secunty of a free constitu ton it contributes in various ways Whether thus desir able object will be best promoted by affording arde to xmoine of learning already established by the institution of a national university or by any other expedients all be well worthy of a place in the deliberations of the Legislature. To other colleagues Wasungton also revealed soliatude for cdocation. Webington Took . Broed Viex of Education And it was a broad interest. Although Washington, on like Jefferson bad not enjoyed the povileges of a college ( 14 ) ·education, and wu i man of limited 'book knowledge, * be had a general and realot. Tip of education Speaking of the propored national universty he mad "I bare gready wished to see a plea adopted by which the arts, science, and bellas lettra could be taught in the fullest atent, thereby embrie ing dl the advantages of European tuition with the means of acqunng the liberal kaowledge, which necemary to quality our adizes for the cagencies of poblic us well as private hfc; and (which with me u a consideration of great mugaitude) by adembling the youth from the different parts of this rising republic, contributing from thar intercourse and interchange of information to the removal of prejudices, which mught perhaps sometimes ange from local circumstances." So deeply impresed wo be by the utility of toch in imtitudon that he left a part of his estate by will for the endowment of a anu veraty in the District of Columbia — provnon never acted upon by Congren Tbomas Jefferson Blade Education . Primery Interest Although at odds with Washington on many points of pol icy and committed, while in the opposution, to 1 narrow con struction of the Consttution, Thomu Jefferson wus even more deeply and actively concerned with public educaton than the first President. As a biographer bas traly and "Jefferson was the first conspicuous advocate, in the country of centralization in education, being a thorough believe in rate ald to higher inatubons of learning and fret education in the common schools supported by local axation. To hum the schoolhouse was the fountain-head of happiness prosperity and good government, and education wa a boly aux. college graduate, a student of the clasics, a lesder lo public uffars, interested in every brunch of art, samce, and lettera ager to make broad and deep the cultural foundatom of democracy Jefferson dedicated years of hu life to the con (15) ·nderation and promoton of educagon in all its phases, from clementary instruction to adplaced research in universitie. He 72, in many ways, the most highly culavated man of hu ame, and, among the great director of Qational affairs, be gave the most thought and personal attention to education His was no mere lip service. He sought to encompass educa tron, to discover its posibilues to give it an exalted and permanent position in public policy and to make it ennich and serve the new society rising in Amen. It was charac teristic of bus concern that he omitted from the inscripoon which he prepared for his own tomb all menoon of the high political offices he had held and socluded the fact that he was the founder of the Univerty of Virginia. Jefferson's Plan Included Wide Clementary Educalion Jefferson : plan of education for the state of Virginia cm briced a scheme for clementary schools in every county to placed that every householder would be within three miles of a school On the base were to be erected døtnct institutions of bigher learning so distributed that each student would be within a days ride of a college Crowsing the structure tvu 1 university of the highest type dedicated to the freedom of the mind and unlimited rerarch for truth. That sons of the poor raight not be denied the privileges of education Jefferson proposed that the best genius of each clementary school, if unable to pay ho way should be sent to the secondary school at public apente, and that the ablest in cach secondary in stitution be muntained at the univernty free of cost. Thus the elements of learning were to be made available to all and for the ablest boys, even those without finanna) Popred the pathway to the university was to be opened Although the plan wa nerer enacted into law Jefferson kaw dlarly that the nation needed talent in public and private affairs, and education #rs to enable talent to lover (16) ·Jefferson s Educational Objectives for Lokri Schools Wert Individud and Social In no nogle place did Jeffern summanze his philosophy of education, but the following passage from bus writings in diates the nature of his thought respectng the ends to be Attuned *(1) To give to every atizen the information be needs for the trinuction of her own bompes "(2) To enable hum to calculate for burnxelf and to ex pros and preserve hos deus, hu contracts, and accounts, in WI0ng "(3) To improve, by reading ho morals and faculties; "(4) To understand bus duties to ho neighbors and coun try and to discharge with competence the functions confided to hit by ather (5) To know his ngbu to exercite with order and justice those he recains; to choose with discretion the fiduaary of those he delegates and to dotice their conduct with dil, gence, with andor and judgment (6) And, a general, to observe with intelligence and faithfulae all the social relations under which he shall be placed." For His University Jefferson Proclamed Ustrummeled Liberty of Inquiry As the motto for hus Universty of Virginia, Jefferson chox che ancient paying And ye shall know the truth, and the truth shall make you free. In that spint he sopulated com plete freedom of inquiry and a position for the professor, self governmeor for the faculty and an honor system for the student. "I have sworn upon the altar of God" he exclaimed, "eternal hostility against every form of tyranny orer the mind of man." (17) ·In Hb Unlversity Curriculum Jeferson Empbastzed Ibe Sorld and Neurd Sciences Lo laying out i program of uovernty work, Jefferson placed emphaps on the socul and natural sciences in a man ner to comprehenage that hus project may be still studied with advantage, uod employed us a guide for educagonal thoughc. It great purposes may be rummarized in the Language of 1 specul student of Jeffersonian policiest *(1) To form the statemmen legislators, and judges, on whom public prosperity and individual happiness depend; (2) To a pound the prinaples and structure of govern ment, the law which regulate the intercourse of nations, those formed municipally for our own government, and a tound Spirit of legulation *(3) To harmonize and promote the interests of agricul turs, manufactures, and commerce, and by well informed views of political economy to give a free scope to the public industry *(4) To develop the reasoning facultia of our youth en large ther mids, cultivate thar morals, and instill in them the precepu of virtue and order ind *(s) To enlighten them with mathemaucal and phynical recoces, which advance the art, and administer to the health, the subsetence, and comfort of human life." To Jefferson nothing human wu alien perther the thought of Virgil, nor the mreason of a thrching machine. To proserve, adriace, and disteminste knowledge in the improvement of individual well-being and soal relations wu, for Jefferson, 1 pakoon that cadared to his last day Jefferson Regarded Education a . Combined Nettond and Side Interest Despite his immediate concern with educabon in Virgiou, Jefferson wu uso engroped in education us national interest (11) ·In hu manage of December 2, 1806 be suggested the appropriation of public fuoda "to the great purposes of the public educidon, roads, nyers, canals, and such other object of publc mprovement u it may be thought proper to add to the constitutional enumeration of Federal powers." He wu pre pared to amend the Coostitation, if necesary to promote education and economic welfare, but he recognized the fact that Congress already had some authonty over these matterh including the power to dedicate public lands to "a national establishment of eduarton." Agun, in 1808 in bu last me- #ge, Jefferson called upon Congree to conader the same there. Thus cren amd the turmoil of the Napoleonic wars, which volently disturbed the politics and economy of the United States, the Preadent continued to orge upon Congres and the country interest that lay close to hus heart. Jobm Quincy Adams Enxlated tbe Exemple of Wabingłox With the adminutnbon of John Quincy Adams, the heroic period of the Revolution" dreor to a close. In a strict EDX Adams did not belong to it, but 3. boy be had gone to Europe aod tumed the duties of secretary to hus father on a mustion for the Republic chen battling for custence He wu brought up in the Wartungton tradition and derived conceptrons of policy from that source. Having started life Fed cralst and having transferred hus alleguace to the Jeffersonun party Adams found it parable to combios, en hus thought, clemenu from the two systems of statesmanshup Valike James Monroe, his immediate predeceror Adams had no douba about the constitutonality of the brood Tiwi entertaned by Wash ington. With the aception of Jefferson, no Preudent had been more decply interested in natural science and its beneficent applications than John Quincy Adams. If he could have had his way the natoa s great codowment in natural resources would bave been conserved and dedicated to internal improve menes, the advancemeat of science, and the promotion of ·educabon. It was with atreme bitterness that be spoke of the "rapaarge with which politicu fly at the public lands." engage in "pillage, Rod est us Dorrous speculators and land jobber." Adams Urged Congress To Promote Science Edmonitor and tbe Arts Seckung to rest the pressure for the dissipation of the na tronal resources, Adams urged upon Congress a broader social polky The great object of the instrution of aril govern menc," he said in hu fint annual messags, is the improvement of the condition of those who are parties to the social compact, and no government, in whatever form constituted can accom plish the lawful ends of its institucon but 10 proportion 23 st improve the conditon of those over whom it u establushed Roads and canals, by multiplying and facilitaang the com munications and intercourse between dataat regions and mul acudes of men, are among the most important means of wprovement Bur moral polincal, intellectual improvement ve duties pugned by the Author of Our Expeace to social no less than to individual man. For the fulfilment of chon dunes governments are invested with power and to the atrala ment of the end the progresure mprovemcat of the condi tion of che governed the exercite of delegated power sa duty as acred and indapeunable us the usurpation of powers for grtared criminal and odiow. Among the first, perhaps the very first wstrument for the mprovement of the conditon of menu knowledgs, and to the acquation of much of the knowledge adapted to the wants, the comforts and enjoyments of homas hfe public institutions and seminaries of learning ire costatul After laying down the controlling proaple, Adams then urged the promotion of ackenafic research ad inqury in geographical and stronomical science," the sploration of national tentorid ind waters, the crection of an astronomical observatory "connected with the establishment of no uatenty ( 20 ) ·or reparate from it," the patronage of studies in the science of weigho and measures, and the revision of the patent laws. Som marizing the powers of Congress, Adams indicated that they could be brought into action "by lams promoting the improve ment of agriculture, commerce, and manufactures, the colava tion and encouragement of the mechanic and of the elegant uts, the advancement of literature, and the progress of the sciences, oraimental and profound." If the language of these reflections and recommendations is bonaewhat stilted there is no doubt respecting 10 thought and mport. Adams had in mind a conceptson of the nation o. avilization and the age of its matenal, intellectual, and moral reponrces, under public auspices, in the progressive mprovement of the condition of the governed.” The powers of the federal government he deemed ample for this purpose and refurl to use them, be thought, "would be treachery to the most acred of trusts." "The spirit of improvement," he e claimed "is abroad upon the earth. Should the federal govern ment fall behind state governments in holding up the torch of human improvement to cyes that seek the light?" But tbe Times Wae Not Faorable for ibe Promotion of plans for Education Admirable and promising as were many of these plans for education, the time were not propitious for bringing them to fruition The great social and economic force which were to call them into being some forty or fifty years after the adoptron of the Constitution had not yet appeared. The population of Arderica consisted of between three and four million persons, thinly scattered over a wide area Runl crvilization predomi. Dated. Aslate u 1820 less than 5 percent of the total populauon ured in the thirteen ates of aght thousand or over Slow crude means of transportation and communication resulted in Bolagon for most of the people. Collective action was a tremely difficult Moreover the war for independence had ex bausted the resources of the government and had left a var [ 21 ] ·debt which threatened to keep them depleced over a period of your. The people were engrossed with political matters As a consequence of these adverse conditboms, education declined to lo lowest point ance schools were founded by the colonust. The close of the period found local authority strongly entrenched in the adminutrauon of edocation. There was as yet so agn of that integration of mall local schools into state school systems which came within the best fifty years. Al chough during the early nabodal perod the federal government began the policy of making land grants which forecast univer al education, such grants are more accurately interpreted u 1 stimulus to the colouzation of new territory than or a national policy whose primary purpose was to promote education. In general the national government followed the policy of leaving the provision and administration of education to the states and local communities. Educational as well as patronal consciowness was yet to awaken, and it was not until some years after the second war with England that plans for popular educakoa begin to recare scrious conuderation then, itate plans, not national plans were adopted us the schools proxed from an ad minstrapon predominantly local to an administration and con trol onginating with the state. Tboxgb Temporarily Rejected the Educational Ideds of tbe Founders Remode Bade for Contemporary Tboxgbt It so happened, then, that the founder of the Republic did not live to see their ideals realized in the establishment of public institutions for education For the outcome lack of popular interest, the opposicion of private schools, and poverty of financial resources were partly rasponsible. Doubtless even more influenual was the popular revolt against the broad conceptions of federal policy which they cherished. With the tnumph of Andrew Jackson in 1828 the prinaples of the Federalist party with which Washington was associated in spins, and the pro- ( 22 ) ·apla of the Republican party which Jefferson lod, were repodated in a surge of democracy that was suspicious of all government and soon fell under the domnance of the particu Larom known u suter' nights. Events thus provided a new setting of de ind interesu for the period in which in tatu cons of popular education were actually created and for edu cational thought itrelf In other words, the age of concentration that marked the foundabon of the Republic was followed by un age of diffusion, in which the xcunty and perpetuty of the nation were largely taken for granted despite the shadows of civil destension. Yet, while the work of establishing institutions of public educaton fell principally to the states and commum ties, the Union organized by the founders wus continued and furnished the institutional frame in which economy was being nationalized even while particularism seemed trnumphant. ( 23 ) ·III DEMOCRACY AND INDIVIDUALISM PROVIDED THE CONTEXT POR PUBLIC EDUCATION To a whole she age which opened with the advent of Jackson was characterized by an intense reaction against the cultural outlook of Washington, Madison, Jefferson and John Quincy Adamo. Thu reaction culminated in a conception that Amenca wu not a nation at all, but in aggregation of Doveragn states, any one of which could legally withdraw from the Union at its plessure. Asocuted with it, as a matter of cours, was the repudution of the idea that the gorerament of the United Sute should be employed in promoting agriculture manufacture, commerce, and internal improvement the ad vancement of science, hterature, and the arts; and the develop ment of education. As a corollary, stress was laid on individual liberty va economy individual equality is democracy and individual rights against society This reaction, by its very na ture ment a desperson of energies, not a concentration ruch us had carried through the Revolution against Great Britain the establshment of the constatation, and the formulaton of economic and social policies on a national scale. It wu on this ade in American stars that were floated the philosophy and practice of public education which were to become dominant A later years. The Industrid Rezolution Mode Rooid Headwry la matters of economy the second penod of American hostory u marked by tendences that differentiated it from the age of the founder. These may be swiftly summarized: the rapid rise of machine industries, onning handicraft iod anall shops to the wall the growth of corporations in sodustry commaerce, and finance bringing ner forms of property own erabip the spread of steam transportation in commerces the [ 24 ] ·mift opiwing of commercial and industrual cities, rusing the problem of urban aggregations that had long vered the Old World; periodical cries in economy such u occurred in 1837 1846 1857 und 1173 making acute the uncertaines and mareconges of life; the opening ide of national gates to pov erty tncken Immigrant from the Old Wodds the development of a huge body of industrnal workers with labor argumza tons, conflicts, and strikes doturbing to social parce the transformaton of slavery from the domestic system of the old days into the capitalutic cotton plaading system and finally its destruction in a civil war the opening of the Near and Far West by farm settlements, with their forms and agranian democracy the date of cottoo planting into the Southwest and the extenson of the national domain to the Paafic Coast the alematon of the nations immense codowment in lend und other natural resources into private property to be exploited by prvite 1010ative for private profit without control by the nagonal government. Thus the relaurdy compact naton of the seaboard wu apended from ocean to occan, and its econ omy-industrul and agncultural evolutiomzed by creat. practices of Tbrer New Forces Made for Integration he American Education While the dominant political cendency of this period was towurd the correoder of tothonty to the states, social and cconomic forces for more powerful and permanent in Americo life were running against the centrifugal movement. La many of the most important phases of local, state, und natronul uffer, coordinating and integrating influences were rapidly consolidating the people rod were talaag for Darty habits, and laterest which were in strong contrast to the highly lodindorleed life of the past. The growth of ate, improve ment in thosportation and communication, the development of corporate action by both industry and labor and may other endence of the strong tendency tovind group life eaded [ 251 la citol, ·forever the long period of wolation and made pomble effective group action. The collecove influence of these mighty forces created roldanty in American life not to be nullified by any contradictory philosophy by whatever powerful funds wielded The schools were among those institutions and agence which Prere affecced by the unufying forces of the period Withn relatively short time, scattered dutnct schools were being welded into state school systems ander the leadershup of such men * Carter Mann, and Barnard In the aba, schools founded by chanty and philanthropy were replaced by schools sup ported and adminwered by the anl unit and with the nigma of properum lfted from those who attended them. Even the frontit djecting u it did powerful diantegroung influences Into datonal political life demanded state school systems to provide equality of educational opportunity for its people. At the beginning of the Jackson in period education for the masses of the people was liccle more than a hazy ideal of theoruts and reformiert be the middle of the century is became in Actuality for millions of the people Equestarian Democtery Blade Swift Games In the sphere of government the immediate section against the armocraac feature of the early Republic oas intense. The docertae of equality had been proclaimed by the Declara aon of lodependence 50% it was applied by the arension of che tuffrage to white sales michouc distinctions of property unlar Appealing to the logic of the theory women held their fiac national auftrage convention La 1848 and Lunched a cama paign for an rental suffrage Observing the trend everywhere yp Westem civilization Thomas Carlyle exclaimed "Universal democracy whatever ve sosy think of is has declared itself an loctitable fact of the days in which the live and he who has 12 chance to Lastruct, or lesd in bus day must begin by admitting that." (24 ·With the a tension of the suffrage came popular election of presidential electors, the more of the party nominating conven toms, and the wrating of government from the old aristoc ncy of wealth and talents." For a more or less permanent pub- Lic service were substituted rotation in office, short terms, and the spoils system. "The duties of any public office," declared Andrew Jackson, "are so simple or admit of being made so simple that any man an in a short time become master of them Henceforward for many years, men who had dwelt in log cabins or humble homes were to occupy the White House so long possessed by gentlemen in powdered wigs and knee breeches The Fæxcilors of ibe Federal Goverament Were Curtated Raspecting federal economic policies, the upheaval during the opening year of the second period was likewise thorough going. The national bank was destroyed for it were rubsti tuted state banks, with the "wildcat tendencies. Internal improvements were found to be unconstitutional and the phase of federal activity was slowed down. Natonal ads to com merce and shipping were ather curtailed or abandoned In its platform of 1844 the Democratic party set forth the poliacal science of the membership It declared that all grants of power in the Constitution ought to be strictly construed and it incxpedient and dangerous to exercise doubtful constru tonal power." It proclaimed "an equality of rights and pnn leges" The federal government should not "foster one branch of industry to the detriment of another Thu gorernment has no power to charter a United States bank such an insu tution is "dangerous to our republican institutions and the lib erties of the people " To crorn the system of federal retrench ment, the Democratic party added a resolution in 1856 that the people of the United States should declare themseres in favor of progresure free trade throughout the world." [ 27 ] ·Tbe Triumpb of tbe Republican Party is 1865 Continued Ibe Culture Tradition of Jacksonlar Democracy Although the trumph of the second Republican party and the prexertioon of the Union in the avl conflict brought 1 reveral of these police in many respects, they did not effect a return to the system of the early Republic. That party took for its name the atle of Jefferson : party nod ia fint great leader Abraham Lincoln, denred ideas and 10tpiraton from the teachings of Jefferson. But America did not recover 1789 in the victory of 1865 Popular miffrage remuned and was widened; the political practices of democracy including the spoils system were contoued; the ideal of universal equality wu trengthened by the abolition of chattel derery While renewing the patronage of industry commerce, and agriculture by federal action, national leadership continued the policy of transforming national resources into private propcrty-web swiftness and prodigality It deplored all federal interventon with economy Hye that designed to promote active interest. At the same time, the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution, u laterpreted by the Supreme Court, rc uncted social legislation in the states by curtailing their police power It, us sometimes contended leadership to the second half of the nineteenth century combined the Federalion of Washington with the Democracy of Jefferson, it certunly did Doc display the whole cultural outlook of these national stato meas sor did it accord to education the role in civilization accepeed by Washington, Jefferson, and John Quincy Adams No Nallond Statesman Amsmed Leadership in Education After the close of John Quincy Adams adminstratop do great leader in abonal affunt looked all around educabon, plumbed in depths, considered 10 relawon to the nation, and nke Washington, Jefferson, and John Quincy Adıms, staked (21) ·his reputation upon orging 10 promopon in every departoncat from clementary instruction to the bighest inquiry and re- Hearch. General tributa were pud to education by national statemen, aspect of it were touched upon, and money was voted for its support. But a plorabon of it relation to govern ment, economy and civilization wus neglected by the director of fadenl affann after that time. Nor did leaders of great private affairs dediate high talent and powers of mind to this subject. They too offered prose to education and generously poured out millions for private endowment. Occadonally they lauded, If pleased and protested if displeased bot where in thar naog, addresses, and testament did they duplay 10ything like Washington 1 or Jefferson i en comparing and penetrating grup of the thought, Actinous, and expoacons which they en dowed? In keeping with the ascendant conceptions of the 186 lader ship la educational advocacy surrendered by prendent cod patronual statemen, was arred forward by private etizens, local statemen, and especially professional educators. The brak with the past was not absolute, of course but the em fhin wu different and other conceptions of society govern ment, and public policy prevailed generally The age was also marked for a time by preoccupation with the avil conflict, and then with the exploluason of the continental doman, un der different auspices and yet under Jackson in theories of pub- Iwc policy especully with respect to the deposition of natural resources, the obligations of government, and the nature of los social responsibilities It o true that Congres potsed in 1162 the Morrill Act, grunt Ing land for the establishment of colleges by the states, and Later subsidized agricultural experimeat stations that the Department of Educadon, moon reduced to the status of a Bureau, was set up in 1867 and that President Ulysses S. Grant renewed the old recommendation of a national univerpty in hos merage of 1873 Still thex CTCOD, botter important la themselves, were incidents, sot primary concerns, la aitons] (21) ·polida Education continued to be entrusted to local inspira tron, ladership and control. Tbeider of Political and Economic Individuais to Accepted as an Automatic Gharentee of Progress and Order In rusting from the features of economy and politics to the general dess uppermost in this period we encounter complex fies more difficult to rumminze. Yet in the long perspective we can discern certain dominant deas and the tumult and conflict. Perhaps first among them must be placed the idea of complete equality for all individuals in government, econ omy and cultural opportunity with a growing intstence the idea rang through the thought of the age. Coupled with it was a conception of social policy deemed ersentral to the realiza tron of equality in opportunity That conception called for siting everybody a chance to acquire fame and fortune for the transformation of the national domain into prvate propcrty and for empb1875 on individual initiative and liberty in the use of property-fith government or collective action reduced to the minimum. It embraced what John R. Commons calls the "mechanical principles of individualam selfishnets, division of labor exchange of commodities, equality fluidity liberty and that divine providence which led individuals to benefit ach other without intending to do so " That the new social policy as a drying influence in the extraordinary development of the material resources of the nation can scarcely be contro rerted that it appeared to be then the final word in ftatecraft is not corpnnng to students of intellectual history The ruling conception of the ume ascribed with some dus regard for truth to Thomas Jefferson W35 tuccinctly and ap propriately stated in 1860 by James Parton, the brographer of Andrew Jackson. According to the new creed "the office of government is solely to maintain ruce berween man and man, and between the nation and other nation. It should have noth ing to do with carrying letters, supporting schoole, digging ( 30 ) ·canals, constructing railroads, or establishing scientific institu trons. Its buonca simply to rappre villans, foragn and domestic. The people are to be left absolutely free to work out their welfare in their own Fiy Paternal government stablishes and supports schools Jeffersonnan government or deins (or should) that ao ignoramu shall vote, and see to it (or should) that no parent, guardan, or master defronds a child, ward or apprentice of the means of acquiring knowl cdge. The theory of government, incompletely rec forth in the writings of Mr Jefferson, has been recently elaborated with angular lucidoes and power by an English author Mr Herbert Spencer whose work on Social States Mc Jeffer ton ought to have lived long enough to read, such keen delight would he bare had in secing has cherobed opinion stated with the clearness of light, and demonstrated es Euclid demonstrates propositions in geometry " Thu the system bich Carlyle charactenzed s anarchy plas the police constable. That it was often violated in practice by Jacksonian democracy and later by other national measures, sevident in the records of history but it was long a prominent characteristic of American thought and life. Darwinism Forlified ibe Ides of Indhidud Struggle for Edstence Powerfully affecung the thought of the age wu the xdes of natural science theoretical and applied It was, in bref the idea that the materual world, and, to some extent at least, hu man affairs, are governed by iramutable laws which can be revealed by research and employed to effect human purposes. Among the many finding reported in the mame of xience in thu penod was one which fortified the prevailing concepton of social policy namely the theory of the struggle for exist ence, asociated with Darwinism. Although one-sided in jo emphaws and oblivious to other fa tons m the evolution of the species, such > mutual and it was added to the formolos of poliad and economics and seemed to lead the sanction of all (31) ·nature to a tooth and clar struggle of indryiduals for wealth and position In the hands of Herbert Spencer and as popu lanzed in the United States by John Fuke, it lent intellectual, if not moral, support to domuint conceptions of economy government, and social policy in general Yet the Eulls of Porrrly Sbadow ibe durch of Progress Nevertheless, it could not be said that contentment with the course of affun in the l'auted Sata during these long years wu uniperul. Far from it. Coupled all along with praise for the acts of the times were disfactions and aspirations com ing under the broad head of social reform and manifesting themselves in third parties and nifts in the major parties. Even before the adecor of Jacksonun democracy and certainly after the financual crash of 1837 observers of Amencan fociety alled attengon, with increanog rateration not only to slavery in the South but to poverty and degradation in the industrial regions of the North. It 3 not merely in the writings of agi tators deemed radical, ruch as Josiah Warren Frances Wright, and Wendell Phillips, that this concern with distress and poverty appeared. Great leaders of American thought for cumple, Emerson, Horace Greeley Charles A. Dana, and James Russell Lowellere deeply moved by the buman deg radation that accompanied "the march of progress." As remedies for the evils discovered, numerous panaceas were offered to the public. In the early days of the Jacksonin epoch the project of utopran socialmm or cooperauve colonie, was powerfuly sponsored by leading personalities, among them Horace Greeley When repeated fajlures damped their ardor and bopes, the reformen offered two other methods of coping mith poverty and degradation, us ways of escape and as promises of secunts and liberty One of them wu the plan of the agrar Jans for giving away the public doman as free homesteads to kettlen. Thus it was argued would enable the distressed to find liberty and a living on the land and permit those who remained [ 32 ] ·behind to use their wiges by threat of wholesale emigriton to the Vest. Into the movement for laod reform, utoprao to aulst iod labor laders finally threw great coergies and woo from Congreo the Homestead Act of 1862 The other gruod project for eliminating the poverty and wretchedoes that haunted American society wu public educaton.

·I EDUCATIONAL PHOSOPHY WAS ADAPTED TO THE SPIRIT OF THE AGE SUCHE UCH were relevant circumstanca in which public educa cron, largely a hope in the early days of the Republic, took on its philosophy and practice, and flowered into a state system arith regional connectiom and outlook Such was the general context of deas and interest in which Horace Mann, Henry Barnard Mary Lyon, Emma Willard Calvin Wiley J L M. Curry William T Harns, and a venuable host of American acizena formulaced the theory and built up the institutions of publc education in the states, with achievements to their credit little short of the seven wonders of the world. It ws not in a shadowy cealm of abstractions that they wrought. As the hand u subdued to the dye in which it works, to the minds and aspirations were conditioned by the essential concerns of the age in which these lot was cast. That the dominant ideas and interou of the time entered into che formalition of the conceptions and objectsses of education as shown by Curts. Among these conceptions and obxectivo a few stand out impresurely an analysis and clasifi cation of them are necessary to a comprehenson of the educa tonal system which the early leaders created and bequeached to posteriry-the system in which our stocratian hu worked Professor Curu does aot ay that a ningke palcera of thought Busted in Identical form in the munds of all leaders who fook part in founding and developing public schools. Some leaders emphasized one spect others laid their main stress elowhere But when their patterns of thought are lard on top of one Corzi, sale. The Social Ilen of Arka soort New York Cheries Scribner & Sons, 1935 (34) 413 P ·another certain centers of interat correspond despite dif ferences and abundings اكلار Education Wo Conceived a a Add In Sustaining Democratic Government Without making a bazardous attempt to arrange them in order of hestonal importance, we may begin with the em phars on public education us a promue for the fulfillment of the democratic ideal, u an instrument for makiog democrauc government adequate to the tuigence of society and u a correcave for the "evils of the wider democracy brought about by the extension of the suffrage in Jackpnian days. At last the decvon on momentous questions that had long vered mankind was entrusted to misses of the people, and Horace Mann offered public education as the supreme hope for wise and decatrons. "The rack, the faggot, and the dungeon be sand had failed to decide them the blood of all the mar tyr" had failed "the power of kings aided by the wealth of datons" had failed. If these issues were ever to be correctly settled Mann thought, "It must be by each party s laying aside 105 aclusivenes, its pride, its infallibility 163 contempt, and by the union of all in pomc noble plan to give to another gen cration fitter attainments, greater capacities, and that without which all other means are worthles minds free from preju dice and yearning after truth. Yet there were daogen in the popular experiment, Mosses of propertyles white men were given the vote and the night to hold office. This was a break with history with the conceptrons and practices of the men who founded the American Re public. In a xnse it is as contended by the opponents at the time revolutionary in nature and import In opposing a system of complete political equality Daniel Webster • a derober of the Alassachusetts consututional convention of 1820 wamed ho auditors that political equality and economic inequality were incompatible that political equality would bring anaulo ·on private property or compel "the holders of estates" to limit the night of suffrage. It was with some such warning in mind that Horace Mann ruccettor of John Quincy Adams no the House of Representava, "turned to universal education 2 the best cosurance against mobocracy confiscatory legulation, threats to judicial supremacy and the spouls system which Jack bonum held so dear" Public education, it wu repeatedly ar gued would develop good attens calm popular distempers, and make the ricces of democracy possible. The Assimilation of Aliens Was Made . Function of Education A second function sogned to public education by the leaders wa che axomilation of the aliens who poured into the country as growing industries and the development of agriculture opened the way for them. The thin stream of early repablican days became a flood at the middle of the nineteenth century und torrent at the close. Men, women, and children of many races, usually poverty stricken, uneducated, speaking babel of tongues, ambued with other traditions, streamed into the Umuted States by the millions. Owners of mine, factona, and industries welcomed them land speculators greeted them with effusion. Many of the immigrant croprded into urban areas ethnic groups formed aties of their own within cuie, ind preserved a separatism on which politicians and demagogs played in their struggle for power As husronians Fert fond of pornting out, the invasions which disrupted the Roman Empire were relatively trivial in point of numbers. To public edo cation was assigned the Herculan task of teaching immigrant the English language, prepanog them for crafts and calling in the United States, and instructing them in respect of the spint and practice of American inatupons. The fact that pome European authonties were deliberately emptying ther poorbouso on our xbores give to this argument for educa ton a point which could searcely be missed ·Education Was Regarded as an Add in Assuring Equdity of Preparation for Economic Opportunity Within the policy eet for government and economy the public schools were also to prepare boys and girls for making the most of their opportunities, for ring in the world to po tons of wealth and influence. American democracy bad pro clauded equality bad werted the nght of every individual to advance u fer u hos talent could arry him, and had thrown open the public domain to smft and unrestncted a plataton. An apparently obvious corollary of this policy was the equaliza too of opportunities for all to acquire the knowledge and training required for the race in which victory went to talents, u dogoguished from the privileges of barth. On this aspect of public education, orgamzed labor lad heavy emphons, early and late. It demanded public support for education, to remove the rigma of properom which marked many of the charity choob. It opposed mere manual training us designed to fix class lines, and ingsted upon a system of docuon that would provide "laddery to the highest cod most loctiore places in the country If America was to be regarded as "the lead of opportunity " if opportunities were to be "equal," then educa ton must provide the equal start." The Undeveloped Resources of tbe Nallon Sermed To Ofey Endless Economic Opportunity The logic of the plan cemed overwhelming Circumstances seemed propitious for its application. American industries were young and no one could set limits to their expanuon. Amencun agriculture had a continental domain to conquer Debaten in Congres pounted opt u late # 1852 that, in the preceding arty year, only 100 000 000 acres of the public laod bad been sold, od that 1 400 000 000 remained in the hands of the patronal government. From such figures the contron w down that it would take from four hundred to one hundred years, at the sustang rate of Mle, to reach the cod. With mach • pleasing (37) ·economic prospect spread out before them, the sponson of public education could with good reason proclaim opportunity committed to the pnnaple of equality for all, they could plead for equal eduational facilities. Education Set to Work within the Freme of Noble Dream By inculcating loyalty to the democratic order by the train ing of atrzens, by the eximilacon of aliens, and by the equal ization of educatonal opportunities, founders of the public schoob hoped to realize in Ameria a noble social dream with liberty justice, and welfare for all. In the society areers were to be open to everybody talents were to be efficreatly applied 10 the exploitation of the national endowment and the prodaction of wealth, and the blessings of civilization were to be shared by all. If the initiative of individuals could be given liberty of they could be eqmpped with knowledge of the practical arts, then there would be prosperity and security for American society in the years to come. So thought Honce Mann. Oppressed by the economic mbery which he my about him, Mann wu in spired to passionate labor in behalf of education as a hope for an escape from poverty Henry Barnard and Catherine Beecher were no les haunted by the spectre and they likewise looked to public education as the means of laying it forever Public Education Forged Abead Driven by the dynamics of these powerful consderations, public education made headpay against popular indifference and privileged hostility from small beginning to magnificence of resources and putness of plant. Heurs and followers of thu tradition accepted its assumptions, worked within its bound anes, devused new methods for achieving the original purposes and appeared to expect an endless apanoon. There were doubters, to be sure. Horace Greeley the invet erate reformer bluntly asked: "To the child daily sent out from ·a nckety hore or miserable garret to wrestle with Poverty and Misery for much knowledge as the teacher cun impart, what true idea or purpose of Education s posible?" But even Greeley carde to regard free homesteads us the cape from poverty and in the end conceded the point of the educators. By this combinaon America could be made the land of opportunity through equal education the children of landlere farmen, por erty-stricken immigrants, and aty slum dwellers might find their way outwurd, if not upward into acunty perhaps affluence. r11 ·New INTERESTS AND IDEAS DE LLAND EDUCATIOVAL READJUSTALENTS THE MHUS for the popular wtitutions of government founded in the eighteenth century and widened into the democ racy of Jackson and Lincoln, hare survived Indeed they have been extended by the emancipaton of slaves, the partsal en franchisemeat of Negron, and the addigon of woman suffrage. Moreover other institutions of democracy such u inusuye referendum recall, and direct primary have beess grafted on the onginal scock The few and ample funcoons of government prevailing 157 the early persod--the functions of "the police state-bare been supplemented by functions bewildering in Tarietocul krtice undrcamt of are by a few at the middle of the aine teenth century A mere description of the fills volumes. So with the growth of poliucal democracy she obligations of popular government underwent a revolution Over Free Land Sreeps Texency What became however of the "free land" and "unluured resource" which were to furnsh opportunities for security and · Irvelihood for four hundred of mine hundred years? By 1990 thut ficuscious year wbuch marked the closing of the frontser " practically all the good arable land available to borat readers lud been granted away and the rest of the free land open to kilement wu of low quality By that fatefol year only 372 659 homestead entnes had been perfected, granting Prendent Revarch Committee, nley Ciftchell chairma. Report Sxid Tra ha tbe Uxit St tos. Now York BScGow Ha Look Cour 1933 2 role toodety Carroll IL Growtb of ik Fird Gormur W3 11 Nov York Bicane H book Co., 1934 177 A ·48,225736 acres to supposed settlen ara ler than that of the state of Nebraska and equal only to 3% percent of the total terntory west of the Mississippi River By that date more than four time a moch land had been given to the railroad companies." Between 1870 and 1890 "as the population 10 creased 63% percent, manufacturing labor more than doubled in number while the total cogged in agriculture grew by only about 45 percent." Surveying the state of things at the end of that penod, the Industrial Commission accounted for 8,395 634 persons engaged in agriculture in 1890 of whom 3 004 061 were hired laborers. In addition there were no less than 1 500 000 teneat workmen. Thu learn less thin 4 000 000 perrons alling land of their own including all the mortgaged farm. Only three-eghths of the families of the United States were culuvating the soil us owners, tenants, or laborers, and the ratio was declining constantly Over ball of these were on an economic basu scarcely of any better than that of the city Laborer The fortunes of farmer, tenants, share croppers field laborers, lad migratory agricultural laborent after 1890 need no recapitulation bere. The cumulaave effects are re corded in the census returns in pitiles figures, revealing cul tural implications that reach the very depths of American Life. School graduates by the millions can no longer look forward to free homesteads on which to apply their talent and energies The Call for Conservation Cbecks ibe Rxsb of Unrestraned Exploitation Within fifty year after they were made prophecies of opportoate in agriculture for four hundred or nine hundred years were belied by events. There wu no more free arable land of real quality Nerly all the best foren, moeral and grazing land had been alienated for a ploitation by pneare enterprise By that time the government of the United States was turning in back upon its histonc polias, as indicated by Shannon, Ind A. "The Hornetad Act and the Labor Surplus" Anni a Hafork Inn 41 637 11: July 1936 [ 41 ] ·the enactmeat of 1891 which provided for the creation of forest reserves on the remaining public domain. Now in oor day the government has been called upon by a half frantic people to irrigate deserts, to protect whole regions against the foods that docend from deauded hill, to reforest slashed and runed acres by the millan, to restore to grass millions of acres thar never should have been given to the plough, to do battle with durt storms, and to resettle beaten sod deutore farming families that sought opportumty in the West Escb farmer at Adam Smith might say knew best what to do with hus land bar he could not forecast distant resulas after all farmers had long followed there immediate interest had drained swamp cut down tree sad lowered water levels for regrons vast in expanse nor did he know the effect of hos own output sn the market on wluch hus price and scandand of life depended. After a comprehenne survey of the tendency of thing in the use of our natural resources the engineens of the National Resource Board set forth so cold realism, in 1935 the ruinous prospects of land and water resources, unless historse practices are discontinued Corporate Ou nership Ortsbadow's Indutand Ownership is Industry During the long period w which educational philosophy and the publr schools were taking form and developing pro found changes were occurring in industnal organizados end proceduremmen that world of economic opportunitses for which the schools were training millions of pupils anoually In the production of staple commodities, the mall local plant inds ridually or corporately owned and operated by a small sumber of employees, save way to the pointc plant or system of pland corporately owned and employing thousands of workers By 1930 corporsions orded and controlled approximately 71 percent of Amerkan business wealth and two hundred of the largest corporations orned and controlled about $t per ·cent of all business wealth. Lo rubstance this corporate development made a revolution in the types of industrial opportuni ties and pracuca prevailing when public education pas entablished. It marked a large-scale transfer of individual ownerstup from real property to paper the creation of benny fidoczury obligioons, a thorough going alteration in the working rela tom of employers and employees, and the imposition of new retrunts on possibilities of rang into the ownership and man ngement of real property Lord Economirs Are Tkd into National Economy Accompanying thus growth of corporate ownership and management was a specalization of industry and agriculture by commodities, regions, and groups. For divernfied local foc tones that supplied perly all community wants were substa tuted speculized industries relying upon pational and interna tional markets for survival and prosperity For the welf suffiang bomestead və substituted the one-crop rystem--the dury farm, the wheat farm, the cattle ranch or the frut and vege table farm Inevitably there was a corresponding growth of interitate commerce and interdependence among regions, in dustnes, and occupation. Asocuted with thus growth came na integration of specialized industne through industrial corporibans and supercorporations, investment concerns, banking instications, and holding companies in spite of the anti trust laws designed to restore the forms of early economy Thus in effect, industry and agriculture were nationalized in operation and interdependence wagen, hours and working conditions region affected mages, boun, and working conditions in gton and the matronal consequences of parks or dwlocat bons in economy were intenfied. It became scarcely posible for any section or staple industry to enjoy prosperity and provide full employment while other actions or industnes were in a state of depression in each ·Indiuidxals in Economy Art Organred in Asocutions Interroven with these changer la economic practice was the organization of participant i producaon within m dustry and outsidempingfacturers, industrial workers and farmert Owners and managers of productive and destributive establishments were assocated inmediately by specialises manufacturers of electrical supplia and retail merchants, for cxample and they were affiliated verucally and horizontally through local, scarc and national astmasabony and chambers of commerce. In the field of labor a similar process of organıza cion occurred until the major portion of the workers in large staple cogerprses were organized in independest and company unont. Loss effecurdy but still on a consderable scale, espe culls with state and federal assiscance agricultural produceri were drawn together in cooperatsye markeung and credit us sociations focal and nationwide in scope. No comprehennve figures are available, bur ir safe to say that only in wolated and special cases do individuals in the productive and destribu are processes stand alone unaffiliated with any economic as sociation and completely free to determine their own working rules and to dictate the terms of char own contracts or managerial operations. And steadily through the years have been developed codes of fare practices limiting the range and types of individual activities and opportunities that prevailed when the philosophy of public education was first formulated Family Economy Is Disintegrating No less significant for national culture, for the fortunes of individuals and for education was the loosening of the family bonds that cruted when industry and agriculture were local szed and more or less self-sufficing For centuries the household had been the center of education in the practical arts and the humantes y school of mutual and and the social vitve in dispensable to the stare However intense the struggle for caust ·the manger cace, mutual and collective responsiblity and individual sacn fice bad marked the economy of the family It is not without reason that Anstotle, witing long before the birth of Christ, started hus immortal treatise on Poulics with a comuderation of the domestic unit for he said "The family is the association oublished by nature for the supply of mens everyday wants and the members of it are called by Charandas companions of the cupboard and by Epimendes the Creton companons of "Nor us it to be overlooked that the very term "economics" u derived from the Greek word meaning "the management of household affairs." As long as the funily was self-sufficing and intact, its mem ben assumed responsibilities for education and group welfare according to capacity they ebired food, clothing, and abelter they pershed together in floods, droughts, famines, and wins. But when machines and indutnal specializacion descocegrated the household and destroyed the homestead arts, they drew members of the domestic unit, young and old, mto factories and other enterprises beyond the hearth. Although the family remained its incent economic ties were broken. Often the "Apid ity of labor enabled its members to escape enärely from home od from responabilities in millions of cases, even the mother, from primitive times guardians of the household art and scnficial conservators of family soods became wage-earners in shops, factories, and offices. Hence old reliance upon the family u a guarantee of security and as a generator of moral forces steadily weakened. Long ago educational administration fde the shock of this transformation. A rettatement of edu cational obligatons must reckon with 10 relevant facts. The Functions of Government Toxcb All Broncbrs of Life and Economy With the mechanization of economy and the loosening of the family bonds ran the multiplication of governmeor func tions and arrices, to which brief reference has been made [45] ·These funcuons not touch every branch of industry agnicul ture, finance, the management of natural reources, employ mens morals, and acunty They go far beyond the crude protection of life and property Some ere regulatory factory legislation control of utilices, and rules pertaining to industries affected with public interest. Other public functions are sumu Lauretanis subsidies bounties, and government purchaang and lending In certain fields government has catered oper anng economy--the Panama Canal, the Tennessee Valley devel opment parcel post, postal savings, water works, parks, for ets, docks, harbor facilities. In many relacions government cooperates with private enterprise mehe Boulder Dam power project, the New York subway system and rural electrification (and projects) With diantegration of towo uod village mi ciency with the merging of the family and the community into a specialized and integrated cconomy government fed cral state and local ormed social obligibons on a huge scale insututional care, old age pensions, and insurance against dependency and unemployment. The Growib of Public Functions Is Comindalive The origins of the expansion in pablic functions may be traced back into the nineteenth century and in some cases, beyond. los municipal manifestations reached a high powot by 1914 18 state forms, in many respects, son parallel and widened u the nineteenth century merged into the twentieth federal functions, in some features, date from the adopoon of the Con stitution bus, in their proliferation mark the advance of the twentieth century The styolationary character of the con trast s sharply illustrated by a comparison of Prendent Van Burens refusal to lift a finger in the panic of 1837 with the agumpuon of heavy obligations by President Hoover in the crous of 1929 ind still heavier obligatons by President Roose rele ja 1933 (461 ·It Is Not ibe Work of Any Single Political Party The growth of public fooctions has been a process of accre con and accumulaton. No political party has deliberately and consstently furored it No poliacal party in practice has delib crately and consistently opposed it. A study of the votes in fate legulatures and in the Congress of the United States shows that on most of the measures adding to public obligations polit ical parties have themselves been divided The benefits, there fore annot be scribed to any party nor the evils. Indeed the growth of public funcaons has gone on despite the fortunes of parties and leaders With something like the inexorablenes of a natural process, it has accompanied the developoient of American pociety over a long period of time, gaining momen tum as the nineteenth century turned into the twentieth Crite may condemn admirers may pruse. The fact remains. And even the percrest critics make disenminations they would preserve some of these functions while abandoning others No Sborn Line Divides Public and Prirrte Economy So deeply embedded in the texture of cconomy and social life ure these government functions that no sharp line divide public and pnvate economy Theory may draw it in words practice and knowledge cannot discover it in the conduct of affair Thos a transformaton in the very structure of American Society must be recorded noce the establishment of cducational philosophy and practice in the age of Jachsonian democracy At the opening of that period American society was relatively simple. With Right sacrifice of truth it could be said that it was actually gorcraed by Adam Smith mechanical prin aples" (See page 30 ) In our age on the other hand society Na complication of individual activities and social relationt. The indoidual romuns, and individual virtuos are still indrs penable But all individuals must in cold fact operate their [47] ·economics and conduct their lives under what John R. Com monu alls "the Working Role of Going Concerns, taking many forms and names, such as the common lan statute law shop rula, bussess ethics business methods noms of conduch, od to on, which these governing or regulating groups of amta ciated indinduals have laid down for guidance of transac trons" If anything us known about the actual nature of human affun and human relations, thu much u koown All educa tional philosophies and actinius daugned to prepare pupils for the real world of going concernu must take account of it and cope with its trust and demande Failure to do so means an arordance of truth u well us of obligations The Scientific Melbod Diaoletes Old Socle Dogma The validity of what hus just been said rests upon asorber ponure development that hu taken place ance the advent of Jacksonun democracy and the carly formulations of educa tronal philosophy namely the wide application of the scientific method to the study of human affaire la essence the applica tron of the rescatific method means the utmost possuble eman dipation from the dictates of a pron or dogmauc notions, whether of theological revelation, Colbercan mercantilum, Ricarduan individualum, or Maranan communion Correlatively it mens an effort to know thing as they have been and now are without reference to preconceived dogmus respecting the way they ought to have been and to be. In short, the Axenofic method fostered by learning brought the keeo edge of analyto to bear on the babitual assumptions of the period which gw the establishment of public education. Tbe Social Sciences Present Huge Bodies of New Kroutedge Without doubt those who apply the scientific method at human cod subject to crror bat by employog sona of ·zuthentcetion and cross renfication they have created immense bodies of knowledge which command authonty through the consensus of competence. The fruits of their labors are repre sented by whole librnes of works wntten since the age of Andrew Jackton-critical and documented history anthropalogy poliacal economy political science sociology psychol ogy and institugonal behavior Despite all conflicts in socul theory and many shortcomings in presentation these branches of knowledge are no solidly established that theorists and prac titioner in government, economy social relations, and educa tion are compelled to use them, unles content to be futile or utopian. Although the social sciences have not attained and in the nature of things cannot attain, the exactness of generaliza ton reached by the phynal sciences, they are us indispensable to efficient individual condact and social practice u technology to machine industry and reliance on them will increase as society grapples resolutely with its problems and potentialiter. These Transformations Provide « Novel Setting for Educdrond Planning It is evident from thu summary that the movement of inter ests nod ideas has created for educational philosophy and prac oce a social contat which w fundamentally different in many respect from the setting in which the founders of the public schools worked American society B no longer a fairly ample order of agriculture and manufactunng, in which prudence talent indastry and thnft are automatically mured places and achievements. It is instead a highly complicated association controlled by a close mechanism of working rules, public aod prvute which must be effectively observed to assure anything like an adequate functioning of eber economy of government The opportunities and responsibilities of the indindual in the society are correspondingly complex. Coping with them alls for specialized knowledgs, and for a strong spirit of goodwill Simple confidence in the usertion of nghts against society 1491 ·whuch characterized the nineteenth century is no longer ruffi cent. It s now everywhere recognized that nigha asserted are futile unless accompanied by the policy and the competence necessary to maintain the kind of society in which nght prodimmed can be enjoyed The Task of Recosting Educationd Pbilosopby in New Teres Fols on Educatrond Leadership Such being the case, it fallows that American society u not one in which the problems of government economy and social living bare been solved for all time leaving to education the simple function of disseminating fixed doctrines and the knowl edge of the practical arts or of serving the authoritics immc diately in power On the contrary it is a society which con fronts basic ssues at home and in foreiga relations cven the fundamental issue of preserving the democratic procese them selves. In such a society education has creative as well as con serrative functions and obligations of the highest order If it is said that education must merely follow the Statc then the question arises What is the Statc? The Provident of the United States at the moment? The majonty in Congress? The majority in the state legislature or the city councıl? The gov crnor or the mayor? Directors of farm organizations trade unions, chambers of commerce or any minority that can ciert pressure on the schools? This question surely answers itself at least for all who are nor prepared to throw overboard the cultural obligations of education and accept the dictation of immediate political offi cens or special interest. To be sure educational leadership does not and cannot ignore other forms of leadership in American ociety nor does it arrogare to itself infallibility even within its own sphere. But the funcuons of education in maintaining and cnnching civilization distinguish it from instant political and economic activities and impose upon it responsibilities cliat are aider and desper than any mere profesuonal concern (10) ·Those responsibilities we difficult to krop uod discharge. That goes without symg But loyalty to the Laowledge and upira tion assocuted with educagon requires in aploration and definition of ia obligations, with all the powers of mind and understanding tvailable. Belittling our apacities in the pres ence of duty w Jaho Morley and long ago, is u indefensible us fostenag in unwarranted egotism. Summary of tbe Background Public education : anchored in the nature of civilization us unfolded. It as thus closely wesociated with the ideals, policies uod institutions of government and economy u well u the arts and sciences. Although some forms of private edoction may be far removed from the hard world of practice public education can maintain no such boladion. Many profcmonal representatives, it me, my properly concentrate on school room procedure, methods, and testing, but the leaders who determine the content and objectives of instrucaon most work under the immediate impacts of society-10 needs, dates, and demands. The degree to which these constructive organizers are aware of ind informed respecting the hustoncal and con temporary forces pretung upon the schools, may be mad to mark the state of their preparation for effective leadership Dotngushed founder of the Republic deemed education indupenable to the perpetuty of the nation, to the realization of 10 ideals, and to the smooth functioning of American pociety Under the mpetus of this deep conviction, they a plored the nature of education made plans, and urged the establishment of institutions of learning appropriate to the American getting Having waged war in a common cotxe, baring establohed 1 Constitution to form a more perfect union, they lud berry emphan on the utility of educatoo m over coming the durupure tendencks of particolarm and prepar ing the people for the docharge of pational obligatom. In to doing they displayed profound innght into the forces requs ·att to the creation and operation of a great society They did more They *t in impressive example to all those of nucceeding generations who are called upon to make constructare efforts la educioon on a large scale and under grand conception of public policy They demonstrated for all time that education as an enterprise worthy of the highest talents, inviting the boldest thought and forever linked with the cultural destiny of the nation In the secood period of Ameran development public eduaron was deemed so la umportant. Indeed st * o hughly esteemed chat imtinse sacrifices were made to secure its establishment But thu penod wo marked by an intense reaction against the culcural outlook of the foundert, by em phans on the sovereignty of the states, by larexez faire in federal policy by the march of equalitarian democracy and bro pas sonate individualism. Not until the close of the avil conflict in 1165 -35 t clearly decided that the Voron could survive the Action of chose cenenfugal forces, la other words, the second rage in the growth of American society presented many as poca of a sharp antithens to the first and they were stamped on educational theory and practice Yet the antiche did not wholly prevail The unity of the nation was preserved, is the founders of the Republic had hoped But it was democratized in a way which fety of them contemplared. Liberty was widened by the abolition of slavery A profound stimulus was given to indivdual enterprise 15 educagon cqualized opportunity for training And by a strange face the energies of indiridual enterprise thus truned in schools under state and local auspices, and released in action swiftly rouaded out the continent, laced all parts of the country to father by soms of transportauon, and bound its sections and industries into a national economy Deane hile agencies of communication merged provincial ideas and thought in a larger consensus such 3 the founders of the Republic had sought to create So it has come about that pubic education as in 1789 us 112] ·once more concerned with national economy and interests, dospite is ongins in state and local enterprise Whereas George Washington once urged the promotion of education by na tonal action, state and communities now tum to the federal government for and in carrying on the work which they imusted opon starting under thar own control. Through the influence of common ideals, methods, and associations, public education Itself draws into a unity of thought and purpose which us mtionwide in its reach. Even in the most independent com munities the impaco of national economy art felt and the social studies which the schools teach ure of necessity deeply concerned with that economy The age long conflict between centralison and particularum between collecure caterest and pavate interest, has not closed and cannot be closed but upon educational leadership devolvos i certain responsiblity for keeping that conflict within the bounds of cact knowledge, goodwill, and the democratic process and of contributing to the formulation of wise and humane decisions. So viewed, the 1980ciation of educational history with the encompasuing history of American avilization u not a form of antiquanaoom and dust-sifting On the contrary by thu process alone does it secm possible to obtain sure guidance in the formulation of an educational policy corresponding to the realities of the living present Dow roing out of the past. [ ·VL. THE NATURE OF EDUCA TION AND ITS OBLOATIONS THEN all that is mocuated anh education us philosophy Wind reality to brought under review, it prevents two phwes which though inseparabls, may be called for convenieace inime and crtrinsic Whic education constantly touche the practical stain of the hour and day and responds to poliacal and economic exigences, it has it own terra beary with the thought and acnfices of the antund. It possesses a benicage of knowledge and heroc cxamplesmen cepted values tamped with the seal of permanence. Yet it o more than the animate record of tradition, more than books, maps pictures, modds, and methods of instruction. Education finds expression in the living personalspies con pected with it, in the relation of board and adminuirauon o the assocution of rechers and pupils, in acutades, beaning, and skills, in all the nobler impulses of the humanities wuch are ruschining forces of society Forever affiliated with educa ton, in verging degrees of intents o the inscrutable urge of 24piration and creasc intelligence which gives clevatoo co daily duties and seeks the improvement of the bentage. It guards chose sutus of the race that are youchsafed to the humblesindustry patience kelf-denal, and consideration for others and at the same time it rumulate the more um penal gifu of saginston, originality and invention by which the treasures of mankind are enlarged and enriched. Vielding no weapons of sheer poter claiming no pomp and circura stance of State educauon noonshos the underlying valus upon Fluch State and Society depend for theu cristendom values which outlast transformadons in the working roles of gorerament and economy and offer promises of humane reconitruction in coma of crisis and threatened devoluton.

·Beyood quaton, the members of the teaching profession do pot claim to be adequately prepared by natural talent or by truning for the waghty tasks imposed upon then by edoa tion. Nor don nay Hippocritic oath bind them into a angle fraternity committed with whole heart to the ideals of thar own heritage. But even an elementary knowledge of the history of education, from crude drawings on the walls of paleolithic are to the complicated activua of the modern woryernity vest in them a fiducury trust meritorow in itself and to be protected aguost mere cocraon and expediency Thus trust remamu a center of interest and affection when that aspect of education, alled atriosis, f drawn into consideration and the obligations of the schools to government, economy and society are determined and usumed The Intrinsic Features of Education No sharp lino can be traced between the inmost substances of education and the external circumstance that influence it and call upon its leaderabip for KIVICE. Yet there o a center of gravity in educabon treasury of knowledge, upirations, and values that endures iod is to be chersbed against mere cipediency This beritage is old in its origins and still ever new in contemporancous thought. It contuns some feature peculiar to America and some that are common to education in all and all countries, however arned on-under domestis, private, religious independeat, or public auspices. These features are indeed primordial for avilization. They represent values which the sponsors of democracy from antiquity to modern ames have deemed essentul to humane living and to effccare self government. This is no place to attempt a dostillaaon of forty centune of educational thought and spiration, even were the powers to undertake it at command. But stress must be laid on the intnnnc aod endurog features of education. Otherwise they may be neglected amid the pressure of immediate demands ·upon the schools and encouragement may be given to the menacing conception that education is nothing in itself is 1 mere servant of iniumphant powerpoliacal, miliary or economic It is obvious, and still must be emphasized that education bu obligations attached to the profession. The teacher not 1 soldier a lawyer « phynician, a businessman a former or an industrial worker Other calling bave their responsibilities. Taching has the responsibilities of 10 commitment. In o beritage u knowledge of the great classics deemed appropri ate for instruction in the schools of educational philosophy from Placo through Roussen and Froebel to the latest path breakers, of the scientific works employed in the several branches of learning and of the technical works on method and practice It is the duty of teachers, according to ther powers, to muster w mocb of thu knowledge as they can. Above all education bus obligations to truth in itself and for its own ske obligations to seek it, defend it, and make humane use of it. Education must keep alive memories liplung the past with the present and tempering the stations of the hour by reference to the long cıperiences of the ruce. It must kindle and feed the imagination by bringing past achieve ments of the imagination into view and indicating how new forms of science, as, inventon, and human asociation may be called into being Educagon must foster aspiration the desire to be more, to acquire greater skill and knowledge and to create. It must cherish beauty 13 a value in itself and us contributing to mental health power and pleasure us adding rewards to labor sad delight to life Concerned with truth and the great powers of mind and hears education u bound to assert the liberty in which they may flourish, to quicken minds, to encourage searching and inventiveness to employ colerance and the rudicul spuit, to inculcate habit of gentlenes ind justice. On these considerations education has no monopoly to be sure, but is intrauic obligations fall within che broad field thu lad out (36) ·Guardians of Educationd Vans Hove Tbrtr Professiond Obligations Protecting and enriching the intrinsic powers of education u a task for all who are concerned with education, whether as teachers, administrators, or lay persons outnde the school tem. It has been thar task nace the dawn of civilization, per haps arlier There is ground for faith that the task will never be abandoned The lamps of learning were kindlad long ago They have burned in caves and log cabins, as well as in great building erected by wealth and power Wc may be sure that no barbaren new or old can atinguuh them forever Should society enter upon an age of corn and neglect, cren should the wrath of men tear down the very walls of school buildings as it burned the library of Alexandna, should one or all these put out, some hands will rekindle them and will de fend them for a better day While paying due beed to the ci igences of times and occanons, educabonal leadership truc to ia trust must conanue to uphold the intronc values of educa lamps be COLL Potenties as well as Heritage Entor into considereitos But a statement of what has been done and is being done by education is not enough. We have before us a body of thought and practice beanng the name of education. That must be amined. Ve bave befort current theory and urge. With them wo must be ferailur Still another step must be uken. We do not work in the past or for the mere ends of the present. By the very nature of our obligations, we are com pelled to face the future. All planning and action have reference to it We cannot plan for the past, bor act in it. The public schools are concerned with the comming geocrations not with the past and the passing It is in the year ahead, not in any 150 gong, that these generations will live ther live, carry on their work, wwert thur aches, and discharge their dotic (17) ·Tbe Program of Education Is Never Completed By thu concepoon of education, the very xdea of completed formalism and perfect practice banded down by the past us ruled out. Tachers are not pedagogues. They cannot discharge ther obligations by aying to pupils *There is your Virgil in the corner are the burches learn your Virgil." Society will not let them rest content with such a procedure, even if they are inclined to do so. Nor are they wo inclined Moved by the ancient command to search out all things under the sun and by the spint of science to seek new knowledge endlesly teachers are proneers, not mere camp followers. Their task is not limited to preserving and paining on heritage of knowl edge and treasured aperience they must take account of ad Yunang knowledge, add to it when they can oft and create u well u accumulate. II Grows wiib tbe Growtb of Humanity Unless they do this they fall under the dead hand; knowledge will adrence without them, in spite of them and soacty findung death, not life in the schools, well withdraw support. Or perhaps society belf deriving no nourdhmeat from cdu cation cod ceanng to grow will omfy if not disintegrate. Hence, educators cannot abide by the record alone. It unfold u thar keeping They too are sturted by the questing spunt, spurred by the examples of the great thinkers and doers whose record they keep stimulated by the currents of thought in society itself So moved they are literally compelled to enlarge their own powers, to enrich their own minds, and crer new to chart their own obligations. Like the buman history in which It s applied the program of education u never completed. The things that educauon can do are thus us presing us the things which it has done and does do. For all we know until we have thed to the utmost the work ahead may be more im portant. Hence any definition of education calls for a con 111] ·aderation of what may be done in its name is well as what has been done and on being carried on. Its Source Is Life Not Marely Books and Laws Erpendace, the great jurist Oliver Wendell Holmes has said the life of the law; no matter how much at times and places formalists erek to bund 10 trunk and stunt its growth. Hanng in front of him the written Constitution of the United States and the records telling of its history another jurist, Thomas M Cooley declared "We may think that we have the Consti tution all before w but for practical purposes the Constitution # that which the government in its several departments and the people in the performance of ther dead us citizens recog dize and respect as such ind nothing else Cervanto ay: 'Everyone is the son of his own works. This a more empbatically true of an lostrument of government than it can pospbly be of a natural person." We may have before us all the volume cyer wntten on the intrinac faturu of education all the great treatises on methods od procedures, all the curriculums, and the relevant statutes, orders, and decrees yet all of education is not in them. To para phrase Judge Cooley education is that which living educaton official posutions, and a zens who give theur life and thought to the promotion of education, recognize and respect us sach. How could it be otherwise? If us the poet has sud, dead but sceptered povereigns rule us from their tombs, even they rule only through the thought, memories, and aspiratons of the living. Education not only preserves and teaches history it makes history-n some way large or small, according to the conceptions and powers of the educators Edacation Embraces Koortedge Training and Aspirator Agunst such background nothing less, must any vide reaching statement of educauon for our time he made Well ·irure that there is something urbatran in all definitions, we may acvertheless make the attempt The pnmary busines of educabon, in effecting the promotes of Amencan democracy is to guard chersh, advance, and make available in the life of coming generations the funded and growing wisdom knowl edge and aspirations of the race. The involves the disemina tion of knowledge, the liberation of minds, the development of skills, the promotion of free inquines, the encouragement of the crcaure or inventive spint, and the establuhment of whole some attrudes toward order and change-al useful in the good bfe for each person in the practical arts, and in the sainte noce and improvement of American society as our society the world of nations. So conceived education recms to transcend our poor powers of accomplishment. It doar in fich if perfection be a pected but such as the primary business of public education in the United States theory support its practice loadequately lwtratus sod confirms in Knowledge of tbe Praction and Sorial Arts The knopriedge disseminated by the schools has been class fied scoording to a scheme extending from "extentials to "or memena" Although fallacious, the clasufication : conreuat for the moweat. In the first claw come all thox subject of in rrubou deemed by general consensus to be accesary to the pracucal arts, namely reading wnting. enthmetic, and the clamenu of natural science. There branches of learvuog art re- Garded 2 independent of time, place, and arcumstance-abore tad beraad al portal and partisan Intereste la the scoad class come rubjects respecting the "working rulo of society in boch public and private uspecth. Although they have been de rded lato rule of government on the one ude ind rule of porate economy on the other spolual saence and economics their relations in practice admit of no desa-cut dition Within this class s embraced knowledge of political ideas and larutubons, government, Liberty and the processes of democ (60) ·nicy-proposal, discommon adoption, and appraisal Here falls knowledge of imutubong ideas, and practices, private and pub- Lis, especully connected with the production and dutribugon of wealth using wealth to include material goods and well being. Knowledge of the Funded Wisdom od Aspiralbons of ibe Race In the third claw of knowledge disseminated by the schools uro the literature of imagination and aspiration and the rocalled fine arts, which ere often regarded by the thoughtless es ornamental." Ia truth they are not mere refinements of life. They bear opon and are interwoven with all the technical and practical arts supposed to be necessary to the very custence of society They no low than the practical arts, serve to disdingunh civilization from barbarsın. Indeed, it is possible to imagine a society of people well fed and wel governed, and still devoid of all the knowledge and interests that make human life worth Living Even the maintenance of economy and JOY crnment depends upon other things than mere technical knowl edge and competence. In truth, the distinction between the fine and the practical arts u muperficial and unreal a bolt of cloth a piece of furniture, and a steel bodge may be dougned with a nyere eye to use, and in that functional perfection be & fuperb manifestation of "fino art. Without the literature and the arts which keep alıre imagina top and spiration, which reflect taste and give enjoyment, industry would be on a low level and government would par ake of the culture of the barrack. Without the ethical and esthetic uspirations reflected in the great literature of the race -embodying its funded and accumulating wbdom-govern ment, industry lod even the "fire" urts would be without form, spint, and force. Uncontrolled by ethics and othetics, the practical urt may destroy arilizaton. Apart from there avilization is conceivable uod impossible. (61) ·The Practical, Socid and "Fine Arts Are All Essential Parts of Education Hence, while the knowledge which the schools dissenunate may be classified for convenience into subjects treuung of the practical arts, the working rules of society literature and the fine arts as if there were here a scheme of values to be arranged in a hierarchy the classification and hierarchy are false to reality All these values are necessary to a civilization, and each is essential to the exstence and development of the others All must be brought within any plan of education designed to disseminate knowledge useful in the practical arts the good life and the muntenance and improvement of society In stating its position educational leadership of loyal to its heri tage and to the society that sustains the school, must discard the conception of a hierarchy of values and 10sust on the preserva ton and adrancement of all these branches of knowledge and interest. Any curtailment which economic stringency may rc quire must be proportionately applied Knowledge Alone Is Not Enough Esbics Is Indispensable In the definition of public education for the United States thus generalized, it is evident, the dissemination of knowledge 19 not the whole bunass of education. More dusive elements are included The nature of the knowledge to be disseminated It qualified by the condition, useful in the good life and in the maintenance and improvement of Amencan society Both ethics and the nature of American avilization are drawn into immediate and inescapable conaderation. Knowledge alone does not present imperiure of conduct nor kindle aspiration for the good life nor necessinly excmplify it. Knowledge of chemistry may be employed to poison a naghbor as well as to heal the sick Knotledge of banking may be used to explore and wreck banks as well as in banking practices of unquestioned socul dvantage. There is nothing in a chemical fact or in a n] ·financial fact, which necessarily instructs the lamer in the nght use of it. Corrmands relative to vrage come from other sources from the fanded medom ind uspirations of the race, whatever element of a pediency may enter into the account. Echia u, therefore, not a ndo issue with education where con ceived but is a central concert concern that give direc ton to the spread of knowledge. The xkction of knowledge to be disseminated and emphaas placed on courses of study are cthical choices, not categorical commands inang solely out of knowledge or out of studies hitherto pored Educators Corry Elbice respondbilities The statement that ethics B a fundamental concern of edu cation rests upon the intrinsic heritage of education is well u opon immediate aperience. The acknowledged leaders and sponsors of education in all ages have been in fact ethical teachers. Their theories and practices have centered opon en during good, not upon evil or indifference to evil. Even those leaders of educabon who have laid emphasu on the scanufic method as a correct instrument for securing accurate knowl edge concerning matters phyncal and human bare proceeded upon some ethical assumptions, some conceptions of things worth while either tat or apliat. No educational leader has ever beld that teachers may properly organize themelves into a band of robbers for the purpose of employing koowledge in preying upon society The very idea is odious to educatonal thought. A declarbon of ethical purpose is therefore inherent in education as theory and practice The Claries of Learning Are Elbical Morcorer in the funded wisdom and knowledge which edo citon cherohes and a pounds are the claxcal works of the world a ethical tacher Education would cease to be educa tron if it ruled out of consideraton Platos Republic the Bible (6) ·or the writing of all such thinken as Thomas Aquinas John Ruskin, or Ralph Waldo Emerson. Ironal as it may seem if society were stripped of ethical cement it would offer nothing co bandits and robbers Even they thrive on the ethics of others for ethical forces are indispensable to the exstence of every society permitire or arilized By the examples of leaders, by the content of the hentage committed to it, education denyes from ethics and us bound to make ethics a controlling and inspinang concern of its continuing interest. Education includes tbe Trening of Body and Spirit Ic o not merely with the transmission of knowledge that education is deeply concerned The functions of the schools are not fully descobed by a summary of programs, curriculum, and methods No written or spoken words do or can, com pletely convey the meaning of education as the day to day living force that it u in fact and may be in the transactions of the classroom in the relatiom of teacher and pupil in the a sociations of pupil and pupil and in the experience of the library and athletic field Here are exchanges beanings and influences too subtle for logical cipression and exact meature ment. ctc cannot doubt their existence at least those of us who recall our own educational crperiences and see tcachers at work Here in the classroom the auditorium laboratory and gymnasium are in constant operation moral and cultural forces just as indispensable to civilization as knowledge or any matcnal elements indeed primordial in nature and the pre condition for the crilized uses of material things. We cannot set them forth in mathematical tables, nor in parallel columns Fe can merely hint at their more evident characteristics In classrooms day by day thousands of teachers com- into mortet with children of all sorts and conditions races and nationalities religious and ethical background. From homes of erors sind-those bmt en by disputes of parents racked hy the uncertainties and distresses of porcity and unemplos ·meas, ao las thao those tranquil in management and ruppled by the means of material well being From homes poor in spint, devoid of art, without books, without interest in things above the routine of living and the babble of gosup thin in culture, perhaps unged with crime beset by distempers of mind no less than from the homes that represent the best in American Life Here in the classrooms is manifest the gamut of American creulization. The school B not set apart from society on an academic hill Teachers are more constantly and intimately 1390c1ated with or at least brought into contact with, things great and small 1o Amerian society high and mean than the members of any other profession public or private They must grapple with the distempert which society and individual conduct generate while seeking to preserve and to doseminate the best that s in iu culture. The schools deal with the enduring stresses of hu man life as well as with 10 enduring values. And thu they do through the living contacts of teacher and the taught pupil and pupil. Discipline and freedom au thority and responsbuity helpfulness and challenge are made living in the spoken word, u atarude, gesture and beharror When thu sho tcomings of educaton are admitted when the pettiness or incompetence of thu or that teacher is conceded tre have only to imagine what American society would be if all public school buddings were razed and all public education abandoned This is not to say that there was nothing good be fore public education pas etablished but that public educa tion maintains and demonstrates human relations indsponsable to the good life in itself and to the perdurance and functioning of a derpocratic fociety Edacation Fosters the Social Virtan loy Erample In the classroom and on the playground from hour to hour and year to year are in fact exemplified the better virtues of the cnlarged family Order and play are balanced. mutual TA!!

·ud and mutual respect arc promoted displays of unleashed pas s10n are discredited and discouraged and the give and take of the good hfe are llustrated. Habits of reasoned obedience, 1 luminated by knowledge of consequences, are inculcated The good and the beautiful, without which both the fine art and the practical arts are poverty stricken and lamplets, are incor porated in conduct and in visible ogos books and maps pictures and flowen, or drawing and designs. Eren in the poorest and most barten schoolroom in the poorest and most barren community education in form and pracace rises to some haght above the lowest common denominators of the district not high enough, by confeston, yet to some haght. Here so to speak is a little focus of avilization a symbol of its values, an embodiment of 10 aspirations in things words, and deeds. Here the values of society appear in miniature, in microcosm. Here o woven during the formative yean of youth 1 texture of knowledge, habit, aspiruon, and mutual respect which aids in holding society together counteracts the divme forces of personal, political, and economic avalry and helps to sustain humanity and all the forms of untned being through which it must pass Police, economics, finance, administration amusements, the practical arts, wars, and even social cyclones are phases of life; education is concerned with the whole of Lfc and the best of it. It has been to conceived and us now 10 conceived however faulty and defective the personalues and procedures associated with it. Thousands of schools io che United States, no doubt, fall far below the ideal standards, but that facto merely evidence of the need for heroic efforts in the direction of impropernent, pot a repudiation of educational obligations Educolton Is Commilled to be didntenance and Improvement of American Society Beyond the fiduciary trust vested in it beyond the hentage of ideas and practices which it deems inlande values, educa tron he other obligations called for convenience eristada ·is all wrong there will death. Its occupation, allios230 professions, bt accidents of birth Gateway are not clored to talcots by down It is committed to the muntenance and improvement of Amen can society us now conotated and unfolding and to the use of knowledge and the pracacal art in a meaner conducive to these cods. Outude of society Deither education nor indi Tidual liberty nor the practical arts can flourish. Those obo would make a be social order can scarcely imagine that there is no good whatever in the present array of things, or in the men and women out of which the new order to be made Nor will any who fun would limit education to the cat maintedaoce of the present order issuming that it will not change in the future, be bold cough to say that it is otopt, a good without posubility of improvement, tamned with avil. Although extremot may enjoy the luxury of such ters, educator loyal to the knowledge which they are bound by tbar office to cherish cannot accept ather of them us a dicure for educational theory and practice. If the past why study it or hope for the future? If the present a perfect, why the poverty and distresses of children in the ectodmorn and the conflicts of party and interest outade? The sharp anathens pometimes down between those who would have the schools create a new social order and those who would confine them to a mere defense of a deus quo does not corretprod to the known facts in the case. This American Society Is Democratic The American society which education and to haming and improving us by declaration, profession, and foresterni organization • democratic society. It is toch is toch towerer for short of the deal it may fell in many respecu. It is not a monarchul society It is not a military dicerentsp It has do begally establuhed classes with prescriptive nistas of roene Children are not asdgned to a clots by Eurzh iod kad the opportunities to enter there are not obry determused E lax Government derive their Just port from the [071 Coveracomo ·the governed cod may be altered by the governed through the institutions of the law itself the conflict of pockety are to be resolved and it problems are to be bandied by the processen of diseason and popular action. It Repedhates Government by Sbrer Force To this type of society the American people are committed by ther benage, by long practice and by the sense of values. Other types have custed and now cost. Whatever their di vernities in eternal forms, they are distinguished from the democratic society in their reliance on force for the establish ment of government and the direction of donetic policy The founder of the American Republic were famdiar with them. They did not foresee the same that were to be applied to such focieties in coming years; but they anderstood their essence examined ther ments, and rejected them. In establish ing the Constitution of the United States by proposal, discusson and popular decision instead of reporting to force, us advised by hot-heads, they broke the rhythm of horrory and correctly believed that they had set an cumple to mankind. The rejecaon of the lesson by other societies does not destroy the validity of the democraac process for the United Saten, Democracy Nourtibes Ibe Free Spirit of Science It may be sud however that science and the scientific method which Amen.can education u bound to nouruh are acuerzl, are indifferent to forms of government had the human Falues of democracy; in other words, that science may be mon uchual, absolutust, or dictatorial in spine Alen of science may no doubt, bow to military and police force; they bare often done post that. But lacnct cannot employ its powers in ndringing the boundana of knowledge, unless it a free to inque and to a pound its finding The age long conflict be (61) ·tween science and ruthority demonstrates the truth of thus proposition It so happens, therefore, that the democratic proc esses of government are in harmony with the processes by which tance proceeds from victory to victory In Amencan society citizens are free to inqure, to apound to propose ind to approx. Constitubonal rules declare this freedom Custom Actions it. Institutions of government protect it. Among ito many obligations, public education is charged with disseminating the knowledge and keeping alive the spint neces Rry to the fonctioning of democracy In doing it helps to provide the conditions in which scence con ilourish and bence o loyal to the tradiooms and requirements of cacace. Democracy Rests on Ideals Institutions, and Economy The founder and early sponsors of Amenan democracy were not under the illusion that it would work automatically by the more counting of heade Emphins on eternal vigilance was a constant uod us noteworthy us their championship of the democratic idea. They were poignantly aware that duc tatorshups had been established on popular destempen that advocates of physcal force had repeatedly appealed to pas mon for support. Democracy they know rests opon + moral imperative that human life has a value in itself and cannot be used for purpores alen to humamty Vormittag insistence upon this value, the development of this moral rense, in obligation of all who teach and lead sa democracy Further more, loyalty to the institutons through which derdocracy funcdoos, 1 willingness to abide by popular verdicts reached by due process, and to seek reveral, if desired by the time method these too are central elemend of our democradc society Yet, while laying emphats on moral valoa and insta tutional loyaldes, the founders and sponsors of Amenaan democracy also recognized the basic fact that the forms of property and the dutribution of wealth-the way iad means ·of phyical life-bear an inescapable relation to a democratic society to it establishment and maintenance, and to the ad justonents requwite to its functioning The Pbdosophy of Democracy Enters into Ibe Definition of Educalon In any realistic definition of education for the Vated States, therefore, must appear the wholc philosophy and proc uce of democracy Education cherishes and inculata 10 moral values, doseminates knowledge necessary to its fuacuon LOC spreads informabon relevant to its institutions and econ omy keeps alive the creative and sustaining spirit without wuch the letter u dead. The solution of specific problems of democ racy devolras upon society Education does not arrogate that function to roolf It does not claim cither the competence or the sole poverlegal or spiritual But education does pre serve and spread knowledge appropriate to the solution of specific problems, iesalls the disciplinas essental to the acqui atron of knowledge, describes the points of view from which problems are discussed ceu forth the assumptions and impera more on which solutions depend, and in the classroom illustrates the spirit and procedure in which knowledge and remon are applied in coplus with the adjustment of society Whecher these pros are related to political institutions, to finance and Garabon, to industry commerce, and agriculture to public health, to the conservation and use of natural rexorces, to Laternadonal relations and naconal defense, edacation is con cerned with them It prezent knowledge relevant to them. Ic seus forth theoria and values, from wbuch they are ap proached It illustrate in miniature, apart from the temper and detempen of the poliacal areas, the process of enlighten ment and discussion by which matured deagons are reached Such is the obligation imposed on education by the democrac society in which it fupepons and which it kry. It annor do less than assume the obligation, if loyal to 10 commitmeath In to doing it acts not us a mert branch of government, as 1701 ·one profesnon among many engaged by government. It stands behind, exemplifies, and ands in sustunuag all the processes of government and society Tbe Assurance of Democratic Society Is No Longer Taken for Grmted A me of social responsibility has not been absent from education at any stage of its development but for a long time the muntenance and improvement of American society were taken for granted us the automatic outcome of individual activities. It was once assumed by porno thinkers that the pn mary fuoction of education was to train individdal so that they could rise into callings deemed higher of not more lucra dire. By other thinkers it was asumed that education must be concerned centually with teaching the elemenu of the practical arts, and that the possesson of these clement would automaacally find just od appropriate opportunities for en ploying them in the economy of rodety for a period in Amen can history while the caploitation of the Land and resources of the continental domain ww proceeding and world trade expanding without apparent limits, these assumptions seemed fonnded on the realities of American practice. To be sure, some element of botory and aviat were taught in thu age of confidence, but instruction in these subjects was often to formal u to convey to pupils no sense of their worth or uportince. It becoms in harmony with the record to say that for nearly fifty years from approximately 1870 D 1920– education took for granted the future of democratic society and perhaps to a la atent, the eternal validity of the theory that both individual prosperty and social secunty were to be automatically sured by the free application of talena to personal enda Now the future of democratic society s challenged, not anly in Europe and Asia, but in quarters by no means obscure or negligible in the United States. 171) ·Education Now Los Empbells on Its Socle Obligations As organized education turns to the future then, it doscards the theory of automaac democracy It recognizes that night to life, liberty property work and the pursuit of happines are shadors, unless those wbo claim the nights are competent and have the moral power necessary to the creation and main tenance of the social arrangements in which nghts may be realized If thes obligaton u staggering in its dimensions, edu cational leadership must accept it, acquire the knowledge, and put forth the sustained effort calculated to discharge it. Here, too in facing the futurs education reemphauzes the fact that it u not merely one profession among many one branch of government among many Its functions are al encompassing Ios duties ure unique in their human aspects 11 M*st Serve on Associationd Economy Not only o the automatic theory of democracy challenged by event. The very economy in which it was once applied with assurance has been altered by events. So far as the major branches of manufacture mining and transportation are con cerned the stocative system of the corporation has been substituted for individual ownership and management. To a less degree this rule holds for distnbua e branches of economy In the field of industnal labor freedom of individual movement is likewise limited by the associatve efforts of independent and company unsons. Eren in agriculture once the stronghold of individual independence cooperative organizations gain strength, for marketing iod credit purposes and to come ateat for buying. More and more the frut grower and the dairy farmer for comple, find themselves entering into and bound by collective marketing agreement to which are generally stuched by law or curom standards of quantity and quality (721 ·It Must Prepare Yoxıb for Asociabond Ufo and Activities From thu atuation emerge stubborn fucts with which edu cational theory and practice must reckon and cope The over whelming maporty of the graduates of the schools in the ata who enter upon cconomic acomties will be employees of corporatons, including the managerul, clerical, and in dustrial branches. If in business on their own account, they will be, in most cases, in corporate burneo or in enterprises to come atent locative in character If independent in theory they will have collective responsibilities in trade or gorzadons and will be bound more or less by codes of fur procacc. Graduates who enter employment below the man agerial range will, in large proportion, find themselves in economic associations of some kind, carrying obligations and limitations. Specializing farmers, bendes skill and resources, will need the knowledge and power requote for the function ing of the locations through which marketing and price adjustments are effected Thuis school graduates will in the mun, whatever their careers, reqwre knowledge of their associative obligations and the power to prevent such activities from degenerating into antisocial interest The business of society with which education concerned u even more complicated than these few words indiate. The pnyate organizations that occupy tuch a large area of cconomy bere associations with one another organized labor pith or ganized industry, milk producers soacoes with datributors; ctncare industries with manufactunog industries, for a umple The relations already establisbed by pracuce art oumer ow and technical; on both sides special knowledge us employed. Economic science et forth thus knopledge, with more or les completeness. Education disseminates it The graduates of schools will need 15 as certainly as technical proficvacy in the life and work upon which they are to cater How are private economic Associations formed? What are ther present struc (751 ·tures? How do they function. What are theu nchus and obli gatops? In what reagon do the individual and the family stand to the forms and activities? If graduates from the schools are to have preparation for the real world of economic practice, education is compelled to take up these questions. To refuse this obligation would be to fall back upon formalism and unreality To education alive to its responsbilities such withdrawal o impossible. Il Muse Prepare Cittsets for Participation in Association Government The chart for educauonal planning is not yet completed. Surrounding these private associadoms of society with govern ment as its agency Without the express or tacit consent of gorerament these asociations cannot come into being Once in curtence they rame problems for government and bring pressure upon it To an increasing degree in the nation and in the states, irrespective of partis and politics, Government is drawn into the relations and activities of associations. It prescribes a great body of law for them. It aircumscribes their conflicts. It is subject to unpulses from thar interests. It cublishes agencies for facilitating their intertrade negotia trons and adjustments. It imposes restraints on their pracuce. It is called upon to conserve the natural resources which they employ and to define the "Fite uses of these resources. It has balances to maintain, endless adjustment to make Yet the gorernment does not act in a vacuum under its own motion. Its olículs are chosen directly or indirectly by enfranchised ciuzens. The public funcuons which they assume the activities which they carry on are the outcome of popular discusion and decision. So it happens then that citizens called upon to obey the law are the makers of law and education o invited to do its part in preparing youth for a dual role cooperation in obedience to law and cooperation in determin ing the forms and ends of lax (741 ·Il Must Ald in Upbolding Sorld Values All paety » concerned with these 1ssociations and with Roy government for the moment in power Society also has values which are more than economic or political in nature, wbuch we indeed indispensable to economic and political operations Society is concerned with all of culture, with the moral code that holds 10 members together as well as with the trade ethics of particular interets, and the fortures of particular parties. Men and women Deed to live, but they can be poor in spint, fecble in powers, hateful in disposition low in avilization and disrupave in influence, even if nch in material goods. No society can be founded on purely pecu alary standards, or can endure if so founded, or can give to Lfe that nchpes of satisfaction and opportunity which makes it worth the living And upoo education u lad an obligation to see that the youth of the land poor the cultural valoa which sustain society hold the conflicts of politics and economy within bounds, and ennch life itself 11 Faces New Responsbilities for the Education of Adults Development in machine industne ind the deepening pub lic interests in the quest for solutions of collective problems have also added obligations in adult education to the already beavy burdens of the schools. The period of youth is prolonged by the restriction of opportunities to enter upon lifc work. The high tempo of industry tends to ducard men and women from occupations at or dear the close of middle life Public health measures the curtailment of immigration, and a declining birth rate raise the proportion of adulus in our LOCHTy The requirement of democraoc self government make If necessary for a tizens to acquire a wder and deeper knowl edge of public questions. Under the impact of these forces schools are compelled to make anna prororoos for youth [75] ·approaching maturity and for men and somen with leisure at their command other forced or voluntary lanure. They are called upon to open the doon for the reasoned sad sober discussion of public questions to mamtain forums in which chc coauderatioa of great issues may proceed. All this, no doubh u both fitong uod proper in keep ung with iad an empangon of the democratic process of self government. It is not forugn to education. Yet it imposes upon leadership in school administration the duty of widen ing 1 horizon und grappling with intellectual and moral problems of the highet onder The issues s raised are ces tainly not less fundamental than those involved in freedom of the press and speech Indeed by judicrous administradon, representing the general interest school authorities may well supplement the discusons carried on by private agencies, such as the press and the radio, make their public hearing" less partial and more informative, and contribuce even more powerfully to the maintenance of democraac methods in government. As thus far developed under federal and state auspices, adult education in the public schools doplays stand ards of administrative impartiality and local autonomy that promve to keep this channel of communication and inquiry free and wide open. The ci perimenu already undertaken refined and cxtcoded will doubtless form a permanent part of educational duties in the United States So Defined Education Is Distinguibed from Propaganda By the conception besepith presented education b dotin guished from propaganda but the point desertas amplifica tron. It u true that propitzada "in the broadest sense us the techo que of influencing human action by the manipulation of representatoas* which may cake "spoken, written, pictorial or musical form. Yet in practice propaganda may be more security characterized us influencing bumis conduct by 171) ·the manipulation of misrepresentatons, or at least partial representations, for the advantage of special interests and with 1 view to commanding unquestioning obedience. There may be, and often , 1 large element of truth in propaganda with out that dement even the most ingenious propaganda fails. When the purpose of a propaganda u to influence the whole of society hopover it means imponog upon all individuals slogans formulas, and patterns of conduct in the interat of those in popret at the moment or seeking to get into power It is an instrument of a faction or a party It is the foe of scientific exploration, of the opeo discussion required for the windowing of truths particular and general and of the prog ress that comes from the competition of new devices ideas, processes, and practice. As applied to politics, it usually aralas in the name of the state the power of party against the indı vidual, and demands krvile acquiescence In the form of Fascism, Individualism or Marxem propaganda asumes the infallibility of omnucience and pretends to possess a closed system of knopledge which enables adepts to prescribe the "right thing" in all circumstances and to guarantee the pre dicted outcome 1 good immediately or in the long run. Whatever its guise it belies single hearted pursuit of truch and is the foe of every educational program committed to guarding enlarging and disseminating the funded knowl edge of the human race To be furc education cannot be entirely divorced from immediate ends and objective. Yet there is a center of gravity in education which is not the center of gravity in propaganda. The spint of education differs from that of propaganda. In some respects, us in other matters it as a question of emphasis, but the emphasis os fundamental. The propagandet deliber ately refuses to present with all the furness that human faVi bility will permut the other positions or point of view which enter into competition with his orn He places the interest of his group above all other intereses. His temper dogmauc, not inquinog or reasoning He puts forrard opinions 1 ·stablished facts and closes hos mind to set truth incompasible #7th his ends. If education could perchance endorse any of ho designs, st could not proceed in huis touric or follow kos mechods without nolaring its trust. By its inescapable obliga trons, it has other functions to discharge ·VII. CONDITIONS REQUISITE FOR THE DIs- CHARGE OP EDUCATIONAL OBLIGATIONS TA HAKEN in its fullnen, educatson stands apart from the other publc services, such as public works and public safety and dutinguished by obligations of its own. It underlies and helps to swton all public services. The schools furnish in the main the preliminary discipline upon which training for the termice is based and state univcraties provide tech nical instruction necessary for the dorcharge of professional doties. The schools and college dessen inate knowledge per tuing to the sciences, arts, and crafts employed in every branch of adminstration. They distribute informaton und promote understanding respecting the vicennformation and understanding calculated to maintun the public support and cooperation which enable admistrative division to func tion effectively Education also supples an ethral cement that helps to hold together the very avilization in which all services operate, upon which they depend for rustenance. American society could exist on some level of comfort and convenience mithout improved roads, electric lights, or potary codes 10 did in the eighteenth century and at the same time demon strated qualities of true greatness but it canot exist upon its present level or attain a higher level, with an iterate and ignorant population dominated by low standards of waste, rubairtence wants, and primitive conceptions of life. Scbool Administrators Nerd Specie Qualities Wes edua on u considered la terms purely edmunutra bre, distinctions from other services are likewise crident. The schoolboards and boards of college trustee rasponsible for the general poliad and the admmustration of edgaton have [79) ·contact with pockety and power over individuals that are different from, and wider reaching in subtle comequences than those osigned for instance to s government coramion which regulates railway rates, passes upon the trade pracoces of given randustrus, or maka rules for transactions anting from work meni compensation law. To emphasize this would be to repeat all that has been ord before The school superintendent also has dones not imposed on any order administrave officer Records and account be must keep or scrutinize estamata and reports he must prepare and other funcoons of admin striuke routine he must perform In these respecu hu respon sbilstics resemble those of adminstraute officers in general although bus statistical statement represent distinct aspects of bunnan life and aspirations, as well # money materals, buildings and applier. But the superintendents obligations are more extensive Those of obe health commissioner the supersacendent of public works, the director of public welfarc, and other admua istratire officers are not to be underestimated but ther duties and contacts with society are limited and specialaed As heid of syriem in which all arts and sciences are taught, the school adminstrator is called upon to possess knowledge and imrellectual interests that are broader than those of any one profanon. Without chu knowledge and like satereo he annor act effecurely u the channel of communication be ween the schoolboard and the teachers who organize cus nculum and carry on instruction, to say nothing of taking the leaderihip expected of his in such matiert. As head of the schools he is subject to impacts from Bearly all the inter ots good and bad, that operate in the community ssot merely to those touching health, or public works, or the relief of depcadent. Under kss uradicion are children from pracu ally all sections of the community not merely those affected by specific regulations of a police anitary or industnal char acter Literally nothing that goes on in the community is alen to burn. The res nature of bus office impoxs peculiar dukket (10) ·opon him. It b not by speeches at poliacal rallies or by public appearances toast he decharges them his work is in the domain of knowledge and spiration and often the les that u beard about it, the better it w done. If legally speaking the school ruperintendent one administrator among many the term u meaningles until the paimary function of educaton are brought into connderation. It u then that the unique charac teristics of educational administration become evident and present the case for a speaal administrave readon to the general structure of government. Yet Education Is One omong Mony Brancbes of Growing Public Service-All Incolving Public Support From the point of view of finance and administrabon, born ever education s one among many public xrvices Associated with the ring standards of arilaation Communities demand better highways, more adequate water supplies, improved public health adminstration, hospitals, public works, and other techmcal utilities deemed assental to good living Like education, these services have urually imposed burdens upon to resources and have led not unnaturally to a certain compet ton among them for financial support. Demand Has Arisen for More Centralized Control Over All Divtibors of Administration The pressure of the public services upon tht community for revenues bas been largely responsible for the rate and growth of . movement for budget reform and for the consolidation of all administrative agencies in a centralred system. Leaders in this movement all attention to the increase in ospedditures rendered necessary by the apannon of public series. They point out that u the services bare multiplied and outlay have struned the resources mailable, budget making and the un fiason of agencies have become imperiure They inot that ance resources are limited and cortailment in apenditures (11) ·are demanded all the krtices weking places in the budget past be appraised as parts of a common program. Extremists imong them propose to make educational adminstration a mere branch of the general sdm wustration headed by a single polis ical officer and to treat the school budget as 3 mere droon of the general budget Benda urging these alocauons in the post tion of the schools, chey advocate a thoroughgoing central ization of accounting purchasing plant construction, and per xonnel adminstration Any Adaptations to Sobremes of Centralization Are To Be Made uten tbe limits of Educelrond Objecties Educational administrator recognize the exigencies out of which the demand for efficiency and economy hu sprung and the community interests which they are designed to krve Where it can be demonstrated that there are net advantage in the consolidation or coordination of administrative opera tsons, it should be elected so far as the unique services of education are not thereby impured Ar all time there should be a free exchange of technical experiences and opinions in re spece of common adminstratste processes throughout the entire Government and this exchange will be facilitated as the stand ards of competence and public responsibility are raised in all branches of sorernment. But in these consultations in cooperation school and college authorities as by the obligations of their trust to safeguard the nature of the educational function and to pr unceanog reiteration its primary and bucs lectual and moral contnbutions to soocty upon which all services dependt support. Whether it us question of ing of account, the selection of supplies, or the construction of school table requirement of education call for ure distinctions fully adapted to the care ·This does not mean that educational authonta are or abould be indifferent to the demand that school budgets be mado and school administration conducted with reference to the total financul atuaton of the community or of the larger areas to which they may be related In the best of jurisdictions school budgets are prepared with a view to the requiremeno of the other service and the financual retource mreilable to all In these juridictions school authontio are well informed respecting the state of general revenue and expenditures end do give to appropriate budget making officers, as well u to the public, complete informibon relative to school recapes and outlay. They also seek information on the general atua tlon from fiscal officers and invite from other specially qual fied persons and the public a consideration of the tentativo educational budget before reaching final determinations This best practice should be more widely extended. By such processes of developing information and suggestions, the advantage of ecodomy and efficiency may be obtained without surrendenag that degreo of autonomy necessary to the discharge of educa tional obligations. Understanding of this character are the more readily effected where school superintendents are well prepared by training and aperience for takig leadership in community affurs and for presenting to the public and its official representative the school budget in terms of the human values covered by its items and like demands may properly be mode opon other administrative officials in their special fidd. Herein seems to be the bope for meeting the legionate demands for efficiency and economy in general administration while safeguarding the fiduaary trust rested in educational authorities by the Amencan system of government. Scille Practice Accords Higb Degree of Administrathe Freedom to Elication d All Lareis The peculiar nature of education and io fonctons in society have been recognized by the sober judgment of the American [13] ·people o apressed 10 constitutions and statutes. This judg ment is revealed in many type of admiautreure authonties to wluch educatrooal responsibilias ure usigned by law These vacy no doubs, from state to state, kad region to regron; but onc fundamental principle underlies almost all of them. It that authorities, state aod local in charge of the public Achools and college are to stand apart from the account and Jegulative branches of the government which respond annually brennially or quadrenoually to the majority or plurality of roter cast in popular elections at the close of poliacal campaigns The remoteness Fines in degree, Member of the schoolboard may be chosen by popular rote et a general or special electon, and thus stand upon an independent basu As a rule the inde pendence in elective trustees is strengthened by renewing only 2 portion of the board at each election, thus assuring a certain continuty La policy If the members are appointed by an exccu tive authonty alone, or in conjunction with the legislativa branch or one house thereof they are wually given longer terms and providica s made for overlapping traure po that the pobucal agenu endowed with appointng power crosedom make a clean sweep of the officials in charge of education. Morcover where geatral administrare control over the schools is verted in a board of some kind, practice often permo bipar wan or mulnparutan representation. Frequently the school board 1 given an indepeodent taxing power within lunity, nad ia ruch arcumsteaces u pot crea subject to crecutite und legislative control in matters of finance or of educational policy in detail. Other differences in methods and agencies of control have been developed for rinop levels and branches within the school fitem. The public cleracntary and secondary school preme, although creatures of the state ere ordinarily admin wtered by dotnet, moncipal, or connty bosrds of education The colleges and univerutia which make up the state metas of higher edocation are commonly controlled by appointed or clected boards of segeat Arald all this directly of adminis ·tritve machinery bowerer a high degree of administrative freedom is generally provided not only for the local public school systems, but also for state eduagonal administration, and for the agencies of higher education and research. The ducumon here us to be mterpreted in inclusve terms educa bon," "teachers," and "schools" refer not merely to the cleroca tary and secondary fields, but to the higher institutions of learning and research & well. The Daire To Keep Educulls out of Paritson Polltes Is One of the Reasons for Admhdstrative Protection The removal of edocational adminstration some degree from penodical turnover in regular legulatre and axecutive offices u no accident. Although it cannot be aid that in the begroning our lawmakers always bad . ponove philosophy of administrative independence for the schools, they arly discerned a distinction between education and other public serv ice functions. The idea of verting public power in a board, u distinguished from a ongle elective or apponave officer was, of course, do novelty in the middle penod of Ameri cun bustory when the foundations of public education were ucurely lud There were many American precedenu in other department of administradon, especially where large powers In the determination of policy were in goed to public agenda If the nature of eduaronal function had not been mafi cient to warnt the pracace of resorting to boards, the desire to escape from the obvious erils of the spoils system and parti tin fquabblan introduced wholesale in the Jacksonun en, might have effected that outcome. Indeed, in some cases, such u police and health administration, the board system was deliberately adopted with a view to making administradon at least bipartita in control and director Whatever the determining factor in the as of educaton, the administration of schools was early committed to boards and they were nogaed high degree of independence in policy and finance.

·Ext Adtalnistrative Comsolllation Recognizes tbe Sperid Posillor of Education There has been, it is true, a decaded reaction against the con funon of independent boards, offices, and commissions which Jacksoosan democracy promoted This reaction has appeared ua the consolidation of state und local Administration in all para of the Uata. And it has been tramed by some logicians that the concentrbon af ruthority will and must continue unul all public functions are united and organized in hier archical form wich : angle poliacal acclive at the top. Yet as a matter of fact along with this powerful movement so che direction of administrative unification, practices of another tendency have contoud or developed aspecially in connection with education. Olber Pablic Functions Are Provided with Kindred Safeguards For example, from the very beginning of Amencia hustory a certain independence has been mogoed to the judiciary Enurely apart from ther fuastma of pusing upon the con stitutionality of statutes, judges deal with nital matters of long ume valtat, ruch as crime civi liberty property nght), and domestic relations. Whatever may be the results of peet odical elections, whatever changer legslacort may make in the avil and cruial lar the now u connected with the old and fundamearal matters continue froras decide to decide or develop slowly ander the impact of forces not purely or even munls political On such grounds, judges of fuperior courts are given life terms, or long terms and seldoos o an enure bench renewed at a rngle election. There u also a teadency to make the elec tion of judges nonpartsan, by the reporal of party symbols and designations from the ballot in judicial dection. More arer poutre restrictions are placed upoa the removal of judges by political authonuses. By god large the judgment of the Amencan people runs against throwing the puoishment f) ·of crime and the adjudication of personal relations into the turmoil of annual or bramal dlections The removal of public agencies some degree from Immeduate polbal tumorens has not been confined to the judiciary Many branches of federal und stato adminstration, especially boards and commutuons, have been given a special posbon in the frame of governmeal. This is particularly truc of agence that have smilegislativo aod semijodigal, as well as admin strative funcuons. Strikmg examples are fornshed by the Interstate Commerce Commission, the Federal Power Com missron, and the Federal Trade Commimon. Members of these bodies, though appointed by the Prendant und Senats, are given long terms. Thar cendres utt made overlapping, so that 1 certain continuity of competence is suured and in the ordinary course, angle popolar elections do not make drastic changes in the personnel. In addition, the removal power of the Preadent u hedged about by restrictions, with a view to attenuating the force of mere partizanship. There o banc work that must go on in society whatever the cost of the party thought and the direction of particular decigons at the poll. With che growth of techaological frac ooms in economy and government, thus banc work expands and the depcadence of society upon the competence employed 10 it incruises all these things are bow recognized by law incorporated in practice, and rustaped by an mformed public opinion As a matter of fact, in many department of government where the executive hus free appointing Lad remoonil poyer competence, tenure, uod promotion we mfeguarded by practice, for reason dmilar to those applied by law in many fortances. A searching study of federal wage in these matters of personnel shows that relatedy few of the divurons and bureaus about one fifth of the total mumber are purdy polid aal, in that the heads are likely to be ousted with each party turnorer Nearly all the technical dirisons entomology plant industry forestry reclamation chemotry and public roads, (17) ·for examplemmare now geoxerally aublished on the ment baas. The worst spoilmas in federal politics would not put an uatrained real estate agent in charge of research in fixed morom gon. If he were to inclined the pressure of civic and profa nonal associations, organized outside the government, would place barnen in his way The most ardent partisanship mort recognize the expediency if not the saal need of competence in technical and professional branche of the government Eren states and manjapalities which have no civil service laws take some account of chu reality by afeguarding competence in carrying on the banc functions of government. Autonomy Is in Keeping with Democratic Principles In all thus there u no denial of democracy No public ageoches, no public policies are placed beyond the reach of the popular rerdict as delivered in duc course. Democracy require that the sudgment of the people must prevail, but Amcncsa stista fugoms are designed to assure that in matters fundamental che popular rudgment be matured in other words, they do not place all nght and obligations of lfe, liberty and economy at the disposal of the majority or plurality which carries * angle election for political officers Such rights are not absolute, nor are they indefenable against government for all time. no public officer or private person enjoys privileges forever beyond she preregnty of the seasoned popular verdict. Legal safeguards, tenure and independence of whatever kiod or degree, are intended to serve not to block, the deliberative processes of democracy and to guarantee the competent des charge of its primary functions The principle as not to be employed as a subterfuge. It is enuted to more than lip erTIC. It is so fundamental to the future of democratic society that It must be respected, mantaned and defended of a way u to be seeered between government by plebiscite and govern ment by pnrilege, whether newly ufurped or entrenched in tradition and prescriptor ·It is within an ottabonal setting which istures a certain competence and continuity of administration that education has also been iwgned a high degree of independence. Thus independence o do accident of polita and lar; it , at least ca a large measure, the result of deliberate policy adopted with reference to the broad porpores of education and defended on pontye grounds. Yet the sutonomy to guaranteed does not cut education off from society or from the long run juds ments of the electorate. The protection afforded, such as its merely runs gunst the presure of ecope and raciferous maanties, and to some Qtent against particular majorities wbuch win control of the Recutite and legulative departments at particular moment on the other than those of edocauon. In duc courte the deliberate opinion of the community prevails in educatonal administration, as far as general policy goes; but even community judgłoent cannot overturn the knowl edge wluch education • pledged to cherish and disseminate, without destroying education T bere Art Specid Grounds for Vigorously Supporting Educationd Independence But general principles are not cnough. Lo vier of the presrures brooght upon the schools by organized minontes, in View of recent legisladon questioning the integrity and loyalty of teachers in VICT of recent political interference mth profemuonal appointed and damals, in vich of the demand that education be placed immediately under the financal con cral of occuore ind legeative autbonaes, it necessary to 50 into details. Why does public policy asign high degree of independence to cdoagon? Scientific Instruction Is Independent of Pallins I With respect to technical and coenobic subjects of 10 struction in the schools, especially those related to the pracucal arts, education u in fact independent of political [*] ·at the polls. This rule applies to mathemates, the natural sances, and many dements of studies less act in nature. The smogs of popular majorities do not affect the validity of the mulaplıcapou table. The law of gravitation operates under Democratic u well as Republica or Socialut administrations The conjugation of English and Spanish verbs us not ousted by un uncoming party fresh from victory If in a momear of actement a lepslature should order the schools to teach that the world is fit, educational administration cannot obey if it is to be loyal to knowledge and truth. Where it is necesary to formulare a curculum adapted to the demands of the practical arts of community needs of any kind, the selections to be made, the methods to be adopted and the organization to be effected must be entrusted to those having technical competence, if the very ends of instruction are not to be defeated. However sble poliacal czectures and legislatures may be, they can do no more than lay down general princi ples of educational policy and must entrust speafications to educadonal authorita The Humanities Have I betr Independent Insperolives 2. La the domain of the bumanitieerstars, the fine arts, economucs, poliacal science, sad saclogy for example--the prescriptions of the subjectmatter are lots cact than in lan guages and the ostural science but even 18 thus domain there are mease bodies of authentic and auct knowledge which competence and loyalty to truth must take into the reckoning Even to coumerate them requires un encyclopedia for instance the Encyclopedia of Ibe Social Sciences. But illustration may be grea. The prices of commodiucs, the pages of Labor and che costs of uodustnal insurance are not scadena wholly sobrect to logolatre fat, utopecure of prevailing condiuons. If they were the Congress of the United States, or at all event & sovereign constitutional body could, by mere resolution, make everybody nich. ( 10 ) ·Lo bumio uffure, no less than in the astro-phyncal universe, there are some necessaria by which even popcragn political force is limited. Although that accesate it not a clear and poslove us in the phynical world, political policy must take account of them and accept thar requirements, at least in the long run. Competence bu not yet reduced them to en aict science, but competence alone is fitted to aplore and set forth thar boundaries. Hence it must be mad in the broad field of the humanities, where differences of opioson do appear there are many findings sustained by the general consensus of competence. These findings do not dictate policy to poliacal authonden but they do wet lumit to the operanoas, methods, 1od revula of policy For this reason eren partaamatup mutt allow a high degree of liberty to inqmry iad teaching in the humities, unless it is totally indifferent to the outcomes of its own determination. Although it is difficult to make this u clar to the heedles as the exigences of the multiplication able, intelligence is fully aware of it, at least in rober mom.enth. Tbr Teaching of Controvered Questions Calls for Judiche Prerogatives 3 Into cultural subjects, mch us history and corromics, new ideas, or ideas foreign to the accepted thought and practice of the community Dentably come, uolen the subject arc deliberately dotorted. For example, it is imposable to teach European history as truth without conndering the dryere types of political, social and economic theory and practice which bare appeared in that bustory u fuct. To state and describe those theones and practice with exactnes and balance require a perties of a high order and a scenofc spirit foreign to the pamonate dispute of partida debate. Not cren the ablat ito dent of the subject will claim infallibility or the possession of Mche whole truth." But certainly the informed and disciplined mund can come nearer to the ideal type of far and balanced intracoon a such difficult mobsects than the uninformed mind inflamed by parts of actanan pamos, (91) ·Preparation for Collzenship Transcends All Partisan Limits 4 There art wider uad more scure reasons for a high degree of educagonal autonomy than the cagencies of mere competent instruction in the natural science and the pocul studies. They be in the processes of democratic government itself. These processes, as already indicated, involve freedom of ati zens to propose mestures of government, liberty of ducusuon, unawed and unbought decuaons on policies and measures, and continuous reexamination and apprawal of their result. These processes call for knowledge and an attitude of mind which are indispensable to the endurance of democracy To acquire, preserve, and disseminate such knowledge v a primary func uon of educauon. It is likewise the boundea duty of educaton to give that mental training which prepare the people for discussion in an informed and equitable spirit and for the acceptance of popular decisions without resort to force, "the parent of despotism." In the higher ranges of public education, we of current society must come into instruction unless it is to be sterile and false to life. Here under the direction of truned and com petent teachers pupils may be taught to look all around modern problems, to osmine the points of view from which discusion proceeds to acquire cact knowledge, to learn the assumptions on which decisions depend and to develop that eren temper so oecessary to the preservation of democratic institutions. When the processes and ends of our democratic society are placed above the exigenas of partuan polad and the immediate advantages of power then it becomes crident that education as a síeguard and preparation for democratic Isting must not be subjected every hour and in cvery way to the unrestrained control of men and women Gifted into political office for a brief term by the fortunes of campaigns and elections (92) ·To Education Are Entrusted Enduring Interests and Venes 5 Beyond this argument it reems impossible to go. Yet one more step seems necessary Owing to the nature of popular tage, there is danger that the term democratic society be taken too narrowly in a mere political sense. Society w more than politics. It embraces ill culture. And democracy implies the widest possible diffuson of culture and all the means to cul to the good life. Computted by it hotonical and immeduta obligations to cherishing and advanang the funded was dor, knowledge and aspirations of the race, education came responabilities which outrun the fortuna of annual, biennial or quadrenoual decuons, the ups and downs of parties, the twnts and turns of public opinion. In a literal senxe, education brooted in eternity despite its proper affiliation with temporal cvents. It is concerned with all the hamane interests which shape society government, and public poliac, and give nch ness to indisdaal life. The very nature of such obligations and undertakings accords to education in the United States a special poution among the administrative services of gov crement The Constitution of the United States and the fundamentul law of each state guarantee the freedom of inqury and du cushion which education is under obligation to preserve and cheruh. That is not all These constitutions also make provi Hou for changes which eventuate from freedom of inquiry and discussion, bendes giving a wide latitude for operations of policy within the limits of asong constitutional law In common with all other atzens, teachers are under obligaton to respect the Law but in common with all other atizens they most recognize that changes in the law are constantly before the public for consideration. If ther observe the dictates of truth when they teach the subjects touching government, economy and society they are compelled to present fairly and squardy changes which have been made great nue of change (9) ·Do peodios rod the uaderlying osumptions by which they are to be determined an oath to support a comutaton does pot impose an obligatos to condemn und raust changes in it such an oath carnes with it an express obligation to rapport prormons which authorize ulcerations. This is obvious enough to gem braal bat confusion in public opinion require re statement School Authoritla Har ik Obligation To Suids Educationd Liberty In respect of legalsare measure impoting upon schools the duty to teach certain subject or to refrain from teaching them, other conoderations prevail. The nght of political turhonda, within constatational Lauts, end of the electorate through proper process, to require the teaching of some subject and the adunon of other us beyond question. Yet it u the duty of educational quthontics to rerutouze ordinary legalaave acts mich reference to comestucionality Surely the guardians of education have the same right as any laterested patate party to challenge in the courts any and all infnngements of con statoconal guarantece. By the very ostare of the ducia com mitted to ther, they are apecially obligated to do so. An individual may nonlice a night, but public authontes, charged with fiduciary responsibilities, capot do it without betraying ther trust. No schoolboard u bound to obey u legulative act that u rudged by proper legal sucbority to yxolate the con satutroa under which it operate Vhere a duty & legally and properly los poxed opon educa tronal zathorities, they are compelled to adjust the decharge of that duty to all the responsibilities entrusted to them by lor any other conceprion would make the whole curriculum a sport of pining logislaure mayonida To confer upon . legislator or in fecutive in charge of other matters the power to prescribe mundue rules for education u to dedare mchool boards, muperintendena, and teacher onvorby of thor office ·cod to shake the confidence of pupils in the integnty of Lotruction Al Tben Circumstances Reinforce tbr Nord of Legd Protection for Educatbox Thus, disturbing event bring forcibly to the foregrounds aetetuty for aguring to edacational authorities throsphere the empre school synem a wide rungt of freedom in eodem minution of policies and the conduct of the school. The ut not enutled to and do not feel, posipan of mere trresponsibility against pocxty or its matured rudgerec Tac do not deny the validity of the claim that country b must be balanced, by curtailment if neceway to stres. They accept the broad praciple of democessze actie It u wunst the ravages of tranatory politicum crg mere Inqunitorial expedicons that they demand protector They object to having teaching position in der det yemtes turned into the spoils of office, with colors anset tements and turnovers from election to decina Teet fra en against allowing soy legislative or adminseunt tehersisy chosen for other purposes and mainly enro-decer tot ness to latertene se will in educabonal adamanterian 20 threaten college preudents, ruperintendents, descters with repricali, to upset carefally arranged correctly for ferry reasons; to dictate the purchase of boobs and mastermis; to locate school buildings with respect to real estate projects and otherwise to rubject the schools to pang tertera and the demands of poate intereste la Rating der Pralon, school machonistes merely say that those responsals fere ed across! policies and administration should be in front sespordible, souls have power commensurate with their creat, and should immune against sporadic rada by men who et pot rooper ble. La so contending they simply auert a fondamental protect ciple of democracy and sound mussten. As form of public Kitice having obtiprices different (9) 1 ·truoscending other services, education must loost upon measures of law degned to usure it that form of autonomy in which it can best discharge it paracular function To Legd Safeguards Alust Be Added Safeguards of the Spint Legal roles, however de tot enough lostitutons of goy trument must be sustained and supplemented by a determined spirit and by the efforts of individuals and associations united on constructive prinoples. Educaton, no more than atzens at larg, can a pect to enjoy liberty without darving it, by the more fact of their carence. Human uffu do not run that way Authontis in charge of the schoolomboards, admin istrators, and teachers alike.gad atzems desirous of protect ing the educational trust against aarrow pen and pasting tempen are themselves under obligaton to weight their case rich Falues beyond debate. They must be on guard yunst char own specul interests uod inquire into ther own motives. It u not enough for them to estert privileges rod to cnocze in general terms political officers who seek economy and efficacy La gorernment or who put forward educagonal policies for public approval. The issue o not one of prescripare night Agalost power It u rather one of establuhed Lad demonstrated cdacatonal services agunst a short sighted conception of public police. So cherished and defended education may confideadly look forward to scoring from pociety that autonomy and economic support to which it is caused on its menth And Eterna Vigilence Is Necrary It may be mud that these alarms are without warrant and that these pradples are obrioody taken for granted. Yet we have been duly instructed chat eteraal rigiliace is the price of liberty We know that the schools have been and are subrected to the premure of powerful nipontis seeking to im pose thar polaires, not only by law but also by threat of (W1 ·reprosal. We se opon our feature books an increasing volume of legolation dictating the rubstance of education and the procedure to be followed in the clasroom. We ree competent teachers, procipals, state mupenntendents, and morrernty presi depu dismuted for partisan ar factional moure that threaten the very Integnty of learning. To what lengths this tendency may go we have no way of kooring. But concerning the untu und logic of some measures and actions there an be no doubt Exact knowledge of current forces and movemenu s rufficient to forevion us. The way to more the integ rity of education is to be on guard aguast nolitons and co adopt practices designed to prekrve it against dissensions within and attacks from without. No golden road s open to us but cIperience muggest possible procedures. In providing the conditions necessary to the discharge of their obligations, educa tional authorities may find guidance in the efforts of constitu bon maken to combine liberty with mothonty and progress with secunty Tbts Vigilance Calls for Perfecting the Constitution of Self-Government for Education Despite pamerous conflicts over "autonomy of the schools mod "freedom of teaching." few school authorities have worked out for their own gudance a statemeat of the fundamental principles to be employed 10 resolving such difficulties. Yet in i collectivo vier of the best practices now prevailing we can see the broad outlines of constitution of self government in education already cakung form. Here in the best practices, are defined the brord purposes of education and the powers of the agencies tothorized to arry them lato effect. The doua sad nghus of schoolboards, administrators and teachers in general and in particular are set forth Rulos controlling the relations of school authonda to other branches of the government, to the public, to paread to super atendenti, od to teachers LT jald down. The obligations of teachers and pupils sa classroot accues, especially those involving coacrorernul faroes, et (97) ·clanfied. Agence and procedures for the adjudication of dif ferences of opranon respecting night and doties bare been lasttuted. It recarios for us to unite the fragments, to general ize the best achievements, to enlarge upon and illuminate them, and to project for the future an edocational philosophy and practice to which men and women of goodwill muy repair, trusting that event beyond the horizon will justify coatinu and improve the work thus far adranced. Tbe Demand for More Enligblenmeni and Greder Efort Is Here Many obstacles, no doubt, le in the way of realizing the ideals and docharging the admitted obligations of educauon. The task places a beary strasn on the competence and the qualue of administrators and teachers; and the school is merely one of the many agencies concerned with education in its widest sense. Such contentions are to be readily con ceded. The answer howeveru not to lower the objectives established, to seek an casier way or to narrow education to the routine of the common denominator in the proferston. The Ideals are clcarly before us, in the beritage of education and in the presenptions of its leaders from antiquity to our own tuma. They are by no means the peculiar possession of public education; yet public education is bound to cherish and expound them The responsibilities are likewise before us, in experiences cridcot crea to the beedless. That the home the church, the press, the radio and pntate institutions also share the deals and the responsibilities is recognized and must be emphaszed But in no way does this fact diminish the burdens of the public schools in thar sphere The degree to which administrators and teachers now fall below the highest stand ards xt for sbena mersures the urgency of the command that they canch their own intellectual and spiritual resources subject themselves to a more cracting discipline, abundantly deserve the public support through wl Lion can attain its deak and discharge its obligau ore 1

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