·No text on this page.

·Poona Oriental Series No 89
RELATION OF THE EPICS
TO THE
BRAHMANA LITERATURE
WITH REGARD TO
HISTORY, RELIGION & SOCIOLOGY
BY
PROF. V, V, DIXIT, M.A.
ORIENTAL BOOK AGENCY
15, SHUKRAIYAR, POONA 2 (Indu)
1930)
Į PRICE Rs. 5

·No text on this page.

·No text on this page.

·No text on this page.

·Poona Oriental Series No. 89
RELATION OF THE EPICS
TO THE
BRAHMANA LITERATURE
WITH REGARD TO
HISTORY, RELIGION & SOCIOLOGY
BY
PROF. V. V. DIXIT, M.A.
BA
ORIENTAL BOOK AGENCY
15, SHOKRAVAR, POONA 2 (INDIA)
1950]
| PRICE Rs. 5

·HistORY_Introductory (1-2), The two wars and the heroes (2-4), The old tribes and their kingdoms-Bhäratas, Kurus, Pañchālas, etc. (4-8), The government of the country (8-10), The king and his cabinet (10-11 ), Legislative Council (11-12), Units of administration (12), An ideal king and state ( 12-13), Administration of justice and the penal code (13-15), Defence (15-16), Budget (16), Foreign policy (16-17), General remarks (17). RELIGION_Cosmology, Sacrifice, Popular sacrifices, Life after death, Religion and earthly life, Religion and state ( 17-26 ). SOCIOLOGY_Caste-system (27-30), Family and property ( 30-31), Professions and occupations (31-32), Physical sciences ( 32-33), Zoology ( 33-34), Other sciences, Arts and philosophy (34), Ethics (35), Psychology and logic (36-37), Music, drawing and stage ( 37), War (37-38 ), Euthanasia and eschatalogy (39), Marriage (40-41 ), The status of women ( 41-43), Women, ornaments, dress, etc. (43), Sports and amusements ( 43-44), The glory and misery of womanhood ( 44), Provincial and racial characteristics (44-45), Language ( 45-46), Literature ( 46-47), Education ( 47-48 ), Four stages of life ( 48-49), Amusements (49-50), Ceremonies (50-51), References with notes and appendices ( 52-90), General Index ( 91-96). (All Rights Reserved ) Printed by S. R. Sardesai, B.A., LL.B., Navin Samarth Vidyalaya's 'Samarth Bharat Press', 41 Budhwar Peth, Poona 2. Published by Dr. R, N. Sardesai, L.C.P.S., D.Ph. Th., (Leipzig) Proprietor, Oriental Book Agency, 15 Shukrawar Peth, Poona 2, ·INTRODUCTION The book was undertaken first as a thesis in 1929. It was presented to the Bombay University for Mandlik Gold Medal and Prize (1930). There were only two competitors. Curiously enough, the syndicate on the recommendation of the referees did not award thc medal and prize to either of them on the ground that none of the two works came up to the standard. Subsequently I sent the manuscript to the editor of Bhandarkar 0. Research Institute's Journal. It lay there idle in the pigeon hole for nearly two years. A sharp reminder from the author was necessary for its restoration. Then it was shown to Prof. V. G. Paranjape who went through it and offered his opinion about its publication. After some vicissitudes it was finally accepted for publication by Dr. N. G. Sardesai. The first four formes ( Pp. 1-64) appeared in the Poona Orientalist regularly. Afterwards there was a long break. This was due to shortage of paper. The remaining portion was published in the years 1949-50. Unfortunately Dr.'N. G. Sardesai is no more with us. His son Dr. R. N. Sardesai is carrying on the legacy of his father with a sense of duty and devotion. Had he shown less zcal, this book would not have seen the light of the day. I must thank him heartily for his co-operation and good-will. When I was collecting the data for the thesis, Prof. V. G. Paranjape made valuable suggestions and generously supplied me sith rare old texts, I acknowledge here with gratitude his help. I collected ample material but while writing the thesis I was compelled to be brief. I could have easily trebled the Folume of the book but the University regulation required that ·(ii) the thesis should cover about 100 pages. This would explain the brevity and also the cryptic style of the book. As it is, the book is a valuable guide to the reader who is interested in Ancient Indian Culture.* I request the Indologists to go through it and offer their remarks and suggestions. At the time of second edition I would try my best to incorporate them. I have not quoted my sources fully. At some places, I have only mentioned the chapter and the verse. I am conscious of these drawbacks, and if I receive encouraging response to this initial attempt I would certainly present a better and amplified version to the reader in due course. Poona City, January 1950. V. V. DIXIT. He will find that every statement is corroborated and supported by texts. For the proper appreciation of the book, he should read the refer. ences and notes carefully. They form an integral and vital part of the work.

·धमा विश्वस्य जगतः प्रतिष्टा। RELATION OF THE EPICS TO THE BRAHMANA LITERATURE WITH REGARD TO HISTORY, RELIGION AND SOCIOLOGY (V. V. Dixit) Introductory : --The term 'Epic period can be interpreted in two different ways. It can denote a period when the actors in the drama of the great Bhārata and Rāmāyana war lived and fought. According to the calculations based upon the genealogical data Pargitcr concludes that there is a gap of five centuries between the dates of the two famous wars. According to him Ráma lived in the fifth century before the war of Mahābharata which took place in 1100 B.C. Vaidya and some other scholars put it at the beginning of Kaliyuga i.e. about 3100 B. C. Western! scholars in general would not recede beyond the period fixed by Pargiter. If the gencalogies of the solar and lunar races given in the two epics are compared it would be found that there is a difference of 7 generations between Rāma and the Pandavas.' This esta. blishes the priority of Răma but the difference between the two periods is less than 200 years. There is a slight discrepancy between the two epics as regards the solar gencalogy. Nābhāga is put down as the son of Ikşvāku in M. Bhārata whereas Rāmāyana puts him much lower. Another interpretation of the 'Epic period' would be the time when the works were actually composed. Hopkins would assign a period of four centuries i.e. 200 B. c. to 200 A. D. to the main portion of Bhärata. Indian scholars would put it about 500 B. c. Rāmāyana of course is later as the language itself suggests. We are concerned with the dates of their composition as much as the period when the heroes actually lived. Other books that can be included under this period would be the law-books of Manu and Yājñavalkya, Grhya Sūtras and Dharma Sutras. As regards the Brāhmana period nobody has questioned the authenticity of the bistorical events recorded therein, the period ·2 V. V. DIXIT (P.O. Vol. VI and cosy. would roughly represent the time when Rohini and aftcrrards Kșttikä sosc at the vernal equinox. This covers a period of a thousand ycars. Some Brälmanas lilc Gopatha are very late yet they are prior to the cpic by 500 years. The two periods arc dividicd by a door zulf of about 1000 years. I mighty wave of revolution in social and religious field passcu over India which aliccted seriously the Vedic religion in the oth century 15. C. The old Kernel of Jaya was dercloped into V. Bharata with a view to combat the growing power of this new force i. c, Budhism. Brahmanism rallied all forces at their command and made Bralimanic rcligion morc attractive It was so modificd as to suit thc public tastc. 'The continuity of the Vedic religion was cunningly maintained. Rämina however has no such motivc. The historical and social data supplied by it is, thereforc, morc reliable and accurate than the other cpic, barring of course the instances of poetic cxaggcration. The two wars and the heroes : Doubt is expressed in various quarters about the historical data of the two cpics. Dutt obscrves to the followiug cffcct. As works of history they (the epics ) have no value at all but they reveal to us the customs and manners of the pcoplc living in those days. Draupadi along with five Pandavas, Dhſtarāşțra and his lundred sons, the war that was fought between them, these are all fictions according to him. Max-Müller holds a diametrically opposite view. Says hc whenever you come across anything in the ancient literature of Hindus which is repugnant to their feelings and opposed to their sacred traditions, be sure that it is genuine. Brahmans would have got rid of the uncomfortable and inconvenient fact of Polyandry about the heroes of the cpic if they could ; but it was too strong for them to be ignored or to brush aside. They, therefore, had to invent excuscs to white-wash it." WI. Some scholars hold that originally it was a Kuru Pāñcāla Later on Pändavas appeared on the scene and the poets fabricated accounts connecting the latter with Kuru family. Holtzmann thinks Bhişma must have been appointed to marry his brother's wives. He may be the real brother of Pandu who ·Nos 1, 2 ] RELATION OF EPICS TO BRAHMANA LITERATURE 3 was later on made a descendant of Kuru family for the purposes of the narrative and wrong It may be An altogether different view is quoted by the author of the Cambridge History. 'Brahmanıcal civilization received a crushing blow at the hands of the non-Aryans at Kuru-Ksetra which was the scene of: the greatest disgrace to the vanquished Aryans The poets in revenge and despair turned the spot into the holiest shrine and completely aryanised and dolised the conquerors to efface the memory of the disgrace" The view appears plausible so far as Pandavas are concerned. They certainly show traces of non-Aryanism. Their suspicious birth... Polyandry and systei of_joint property_point at the same. Vaidy opines that they represent another horde of Aryans who entered India through the valleys of Himalayas from the North-East at a much later date and came into conflict with the settled Aryans in the Gangetic plains Dahlman thinks that the war is an allegory and represents the eternal conflict between the justice and right and injustice This is due to Christian bias of mind noted that Dharma (Yudhisthir) is not a paragon of virtue Dharma and Duryodhana cannot be compared to Christ and the Devil It may be noted that the same explanation is offered in the case of Rāma and Rāvana by others The mythological explanation, viz , Kunts=the earth, Karna=ear of corn, Krşna=piercing intellect, Påndvas= animal kingdom, needs no refutation. It shows too plainly how easily human intelligence succumbs to temptations offered by the magic wand of fancy and becomes its willing slave eternally. Some would believe that the original hero was Karna He was superseded by Pandavas in the revised version purely instinctive and cannot be established by facts ✓ The whole trouble has arisen owing to the fact that Pandavas are not mentioned in the sacred books Satapatha Brāhmana mentions Arjuna as a favourite name of Indra It also mentions Subliadrī, this is all On the other hand Kurus as a race is very old. Aitaresa, Satapatha and Gopatha Brāhmaṇas allude to Janamcja, a, son of Parikşit, as being absolved from This 15 ·V. V. DIXIT (P.0. Vol. VI yut by thc performance of Rājasūya. Lalitāvistāra -āndavas as a mountain tribc. When we turn to the other cpic we find many scholars offering allegorical and mythical cxplanations. The reason is obvious. When we find many supernatural events in any place wc suspect its historical worth. Rāvana with ten heads and twenty arms, the size of Kumbhakarņa, the fcats of Hanumat and Vāli arc of the same type. Certain characters are Vedic in name. Sharamā, the companion of Sitā in her cxile, plays the role of a messenger of Indra at the court of Panis in Rgvcda. Vršākapi in Rgveda who plays pranks with Indrāņi and destroys the festival or sacrifice ( of Indrāņi?) very likely suggests the figurc of Hanumat who sets fire to Lankā. Sitā is nothing but the furrow on the sacred spot out of which she is said to be horn. It is not so casy to banish the personality of Rāma. However he is identificd with the moon. Thc ups and downs in his career represent the waxing and waning of the moon. Fourteen years of exile correspond to the dark fortnight. His return to the capital symbolises the appearance of the new Sitā is only his splendour ( Lakşmi). The critics often forget that Rāmāyaṇa is neither purely a work on history nor on mythology. It is a combination of both worked by a genius into a harmonious whole. For historical purposes we must separate the two elements. Slow but steady penetration of the Aryans in south India is the one outstanding fact revealed by the epic; and it is impossible to controvert the same by any argument. If we hold fast to this clue it is not difficult to shift fact from the mass of fiction. There should not be any doubt as regards the war. It was a struggle between the Aryans and the Dravidians or non-Aryans, whatever might be the cause. Janaka the philosopher king of the Upanişads is a distant predecessor of Janaka II, the father of Sitā. They are separated by the duration of 18 generations. This indicates that Rāma's period is posterior to the period of older Upanişads by about 400 years. The old tribes and their kingdoms :-The centre of Rg- Vedic culture was between the river Saraswati and the Drisadvati. During the period of the Brāhmaṇas it is shifted to moon.

·Nos. 1, 2 ] RELATION OF EPICS TO BRAHMANA LITERATURY 1 Kurukşetra The western tribes lose their importance power and are spoken of with contempt in Aitareya and Sata. patha Brāhmanas Saraswati continues to be the scene of long sacrificial sessions for some time The most prominent tribes are the Kurus and the Pāñcălas Kurus occupied a minor posia tion during the Vedic period. Rgveda mentions them indirectly (cf Kaurayāna) Spiñjayas were closely allied to Kurus as they had a common Purohita for some time. The once powerful Bhäratas have lost their supremacy along with Purus The following kings belonging to Bhärata tribe are noted. Satrăjita who defeats the king of hāśis 2 Pratardana a descendant of Divodas, Bhāratas who attached the Vatsas (Harhayas) to avenge the death of his kinsmen There was a family feud between the two families Haiha. yas, the rulers of Vatsa and Bharatas who were at the head of Kashıs Haryaśva was defeated in a bloody battle on the junctron of the Jumna and the Ganges by Haihayas Sudeva succeed. cd Haryaśva He met the same fate at the hands of Vatsas Divodasa succeeded Sudeva He founded the city of Vārānası on the northern bank of the Ganges Hajhayas again attacked him. Divodāsa was worsted in the fight and had to run away from the city. He took refuge at the hermitage of Bhäradvāja, his preceptor Through Bhäradvāja's favour he got son (Pratardana) who fell upon the Vatsas in their own capital and completely routed them. According to a Brāhmana narrative he inct his death on the battlefield. دیا 10 Dausanti vanquishes Satvantas on the banks of the Ganges and Jumna The first great king of Karus hurus is Parikshit The kingdom prospered exceedingly in his reign Prátisutvana (Pratiśrasa) and Pratipa are his grandson and grcat-grandson. Janamcjaya is a descendant in the same line whose Horse sacrifice is described in Satapatha The capital of Janamejaya was Asandisant. Maşnára, a kuru-king not found in the epic list is noted by a Brahmana Santarana was defcated by Påncălas and tras forced to retreat to the river Indus near the mountains. V'Asistha ·6 V, V, DIXIT [P. O. Vol. VI came to his help and led the Bhāratas (followers of Sanvaraņa) back to their own country in glory. It is likely that the Vedic tribe (the Bhāratas) was, during the Brāhmaṇa period, partially amalgamated with the Kurus and later on became identical with the latter. The rivalry for supremacy, between the Kurus and the Pāñcālas, is as old as carly Brāhmaṇa period. The ancient name of the tribe is Krivis. It is a mixed tribe. Grierson's view viz. the Kurus are pro- Päicñlas Brahmanical and later immigrants, compared with the older Pāñcāla tribe which represents anti-Brahmanical warrior spirit is not borne out by the epic. The theory that Pāñcālas are non-Aryans is worth investigation (Pancha + Ala (cal)). The people may have some sprinkling of Dravidian blood in their veins.!! The following names are recorded in Brāhmaṇa literature :- Kraivya and Shona (son of Satrāsāha) as performers of the Ašvamedha. Pravahana Jaivali is a philosopher and a king holding discussions with the learned at his court, The Janhus and the Yadavas to which Viśvāmitra and Kșşņa belong are sub-divisions of Kurus. Other tribes The capital of Yādayas was Mathurā. They gave it up and fled to Kathiawar and settled at Dwārkā for fear of the invasion of Jarāsandha, king of Magadha, In the south the following people are mentioned: The Vašas, the Usinaras and Satvants. During the epic Uſinaras were also known as Sibis after a king of that name. Sibi occurs as a name of the author of a hymn in Rgveda. This indicates the high antiquity of the people. Coins, bearing the legend Mazamikāya Sivijanapadasa, are found. Other kingdoms in the south are the Nişadhas and Vaidarbhas, In the extreme North beyond the Himalayas there were the Uttara-Kurus and Uttara-Madras, The former were invincible and were practically cut off from the main current of Aryan culture owing to difficulty of communications. The Kurus proper migrated southwards where they remained on the plateau. The gradual march of the Brahmanical civilization from the West to ·Nos 1,2] RELATION OP EPICS TO BRĀKMANA LITERATURE 7 Very old 16 the East is described through a legend in: Satapatha (1.4 1). Mathava Videgha carried Agni Vaišvānara in his mouth. His priest uttered a verse in praise of Agni and it fell down from the king's mouth. At this time he was on the bank of Saraswati. Agoi went on burning the earth towards the East. The king and his priest followed him Agni came as far as Sadânirā (Gunduck) Brahmans did not cross the river in former times thinking it had not been burnt by Agni... Now-a-days there are many Brahmans to the East of the river, which formed the boundary between Kosala and Videha." Atharva Veda knows of Magadha and Anga as distant lands The reputation of Magadhas as minstrels is It is suggested that Kibatas of Rgveda may be the inhabitants of this country They are also identified with Vrátyas of the Brāhmana period They display anti-Brahmanical traits throughout the pre-epic and the epic period The people of Magadha play a very important part in the religious revolt against Brahmanism led by Buddha, Jarāsandha made it a sovereign power in North India for some time. The Bhojas, a new tribe, were in alliance with Magadhas Videha was formed into a kingdom at the time of Tāndya Brāhmana"? by Namı. During the Upanısadıc period it was a flourishing state It became the centre of culture and learning under the patronage of Janaka I Kosalas were divided into Kosala proper and North Kosala The solar dynasty, founded by Ling Ikşvāku, with Ayodhyā as its capital, ruled over the former The two kingdoms may have been united during the reign of Daśaratha after his marriage with Kausalya Satapatha notes Sālvas and Kaskayas for the first time as western tribes This shows that there was a regu. far influx of the nen tribes from the West as the older ones penetrated further into the South and East A Salva King figures in M. Bharata Kaikeyi belongs to the other tribe Matsyas arc coupled with Sálvas in Gopatha Brahmana. Aryan, colonization of Sindh is older than the Brāhmaṇa period !, Jayadratha takes a prominent part in the Bhārata war Kusa of Videha pushed further East and founded a kingdom on the bank of Sona. In M Bhārata Kāmarupa (Assam) and its ruler Bhagdatta arc mentioned. Bālhila and Gāndhára are both western countries. The former is contemptuously referred to in the cpic and the Brāhmaṇas Aitareya Brahmana refers to a 0 ·8 V. V. DIXIT [P. O. Vol. 'VI number of non-Aryan tribes in the cpisode of Hariscandra." The Aryan settlers had to struggle very hard with the aborigines whom they called Asuras, Rākşasas, Nāgas and Sarpas. Satapatha vividly depicts the conflict between them: Asuras conquered the world by defeating the gods. They then began distributing and measuring the land from West to East: Gods approachcd them desirous of getting some share, They placed Vişnu at their head. They requested the Asuras to give them a share in the land. Whercupon the latter replied in malice, “You shall have as much share of land as is covered by Vişnu”." In the end the Gods pushed back the Asuras in all directions and occupied their country. The Sarpas and the Nāgas are two distinct but allied non-Aryan tribes. Arjuna married three Nāga Maidens. Agastya had a Sarpa mother. The Nāgas had a number of settlements on the northern bank of the Ganges but their greatest city was Taxilā, founded by Takşaka. The incident of the burning of Khāndava forest reveals the fact of a whole-sale massacre of the Sarpas with great cruelty by Arjuna. The new conquerors wanted free land for expansion and they resorted to such wicked means when it was not possible to get it by using gentler methods. The Nāgas must have given a lot of trouble to the new.comers by looting their cattle and women. Their position was impregnable when they were once in-side their natural fortress. Orissa, East Bengal and Assam were also the homes of the Nāgas." Gitā refers to their greatest kings Ananta and Vāsuki.During the epic and the Brahmanic period the Aryans were not so much afraid of the Nāgas and the Sarpas as they were of the Asuras and the Rākşasas. The latter had wrought such a terrible havoc in the Āryan fold from the days of Rgveda that they (the Aryans) never forgave them. never forgave them. At the beginning of every religious rite they wished doom and destruction to their eternal enemies.25 The Dasyus or Dāsas may be a distinct non-Aryan tribe or a generic name for any foreign tribe.26 India was divided into a large number of principalities. Each kingdom covered an area of about The Government of the Country four modern districts. Some kingdoms were smaller than a district. There was an eternal conflict for sovereign power between powerful king- ·Nos 1,2) RELATION OF EPICS TO BRĀIIMANA LITERATURE 9 was 33 doms Generally the supreme power satisfied if the feudatories offered a fixed tribute by way of presents on ceremonial occasions 11 The paramount power did not interfere with the internal administration of petty states Every state had a population which spoke the same language and were united by the ties of blood They had a homogeneous culture and traditions Under these circumstances bonds of friendship or hostility between neighbouring states continued for centuries Every state was ruled by a chief or hing whose office was hereditary The form of government was limited monarchy The powers of the king were restricted in religious and legal matters by the authority of Purohita and the royal clan The land could not be given as a gift by a king without the previous sanction of the clan during the Brahmana period * There was a popular assembly for the whole state mainly composed of the martial chieftains and the learned Brahmans Repeated mention of the cxpulsion of unpopular hings proves that the nobility and the clergy exercised real control on the affairs of state and acted as a wholesome check in case of misrule We find a similar instance in the political condition of medieval Europe when the hand of the Church and the nobility in political matters was felt very At the time of coronation the hing had to take an oath before all that he would forfeit everything his gifts, good deeds, life and offspings, if he played false to the priest The oath is mutual in haushitahi, showing clearly the close assucia tion of Brahma and hshatra 10 It implies an indirect promise that the hing would not violate the old Aryan traditions and would safeguard the status and prerogatiies of the priests There were very few states conducted on a republican basis with an clccted chief They were small tribes Anown as Gramas and Gaņas " They compare favourably with the city states of ancient Greece Buddha praises the republican spirit of Lichava clan and compares their assembly with that of the gods They had 7707 rulers of the royal clan They formed the principal assembly at Vesali, their capital It had an elected president who performed the functions of the crown Säljas had a similar constitution The following information can be gleaned from the organisation and working of Buddhist church about the working of the popular assemblies during the cpic period strongly » ·10 V. V. DIXIT (P. O. Vol. VI are (i) Rules were laid down regarding the moving of resolutions. (ii) Quorum was fixed. (iii) Open voting and voting by ballot were known. (iv) A Committee was appointed to discuss a complicated issue and in case it did not come to a decision the matter was considered in the full assembly. (v) Rules were laid down for the legalisation of the Acts done by an illegally constituted assembly. There is a dialogue between Dharma and Bhisma in Santi Parva where the causes of the downfall and prosperity of the republican bodies are discussed. It is suggested that the Gaņas should exalt worthy men in the state and be firmly united under the guidance of their leaders (Mukhyas). Factions and mutual jealousy would ruin them.33 Yādavas had also a republican form of government. Fifty six Koțis of Yādavas local organizations having one supreme body. Hereditary kings looked down upon the chiefs of these republics as they were not crowned like kings. That is why Kșşņa the leader of the Yādava clans was inferior in status in the eyes of Siśupāla and others. Bodily defect such as blindness, lameness and incurable disease made a man unfit for the office of The King the king. A person could be set aside for his general incompetence. Karna quotes three different sources from which a King may be elected.34 In case of incompetency a brave soldier or an efficient general became the ruler. Women were debarred from holding the office of the king permanently.36 The rule of primogeniture was usually adhered to.36 Taittiriya Samhitā and Brāhmaṇa supply the list of officers present at the time of coronation. (1) They The Cabinet or the are : Purohita, (2) Rājanya, (3) Mahişī, (4) executive council Vāvāta, (5) Parivrikti, (6) Sūta, (7) Senāni, (8) Grāmanī, (9) Kşattri, (10) Sangrihītrī, 11) Bhāgadugha, (12) Akşāvāpa. Tāņdya gives only 8 officers whereas Satapatha gives 10 only with a slight difference.37 The ·Nos 1,2] RELATION OF EPICS TO BRAHVANA LITERATURE 11 1 Executive council of Dharma had 8 members including the king himself They were all appointed by him Bhima Vice regent corresponding to the prime minister and Rājanya or Rājabhrātſ of the Brāhmanas 2 Vidura. Political and foreign secretary 3 Sanjaya Auditor general and finance secretary 4 Nakula Head of the royal forces, controller of food stuffs and pay master 5 Sahadeva Ard-de camp and private secretary 6 Arjuna Home secretary (Internal and external defence) and Superintendent of prisons etc 7 Dhaumya Head of the religious department legal adviser etc 8 Dharma (King) Highest tribunal and the head of the cabinet He was advised and helped by jurors and Purohitas This is certainly an improvement over the older system of Brahmanas The queens, it appears, had a direct hand in the administration of the country During the cpic times they lose their importance considerably Their indirect influence and power are however much dreaded Ramayana gives 8 officers in the kingdom on whom the king is to heep a watch through three spies each The eleven officers who are not members of the cabinet are under one or the other member of the body " The cabinet exercised great influence on the administration and sened as a check on the hings wilful conduct The relation between the king and the cabinet was similar to that between the viceroy and his council in India The king dared not override their unanimous decision There was a bigger body to frame the laws and decide the policy for the state It consisted of The legulative Council 4 Brahmanas, 8 hşattiyas, 21 Vaisyas, 3 Sudras and 1 Suta (in all 29 members) Out of this body the king selected 8 ministers for the transaction of ordinary business " Manu (VII 54) recommends a councit of 8 ministers including the prime minister, who is a learned Brahmapa The king is advised to consult them individually 39 ·12 V. V.'DIXIT (P. O. Vol. VI and jointly before taking any mcasure.41 Their decision was not binding on the king but it carried great weight. The village administration was vested in the headman who was assisted by the village council, It Units of administration was the smallest unit in the kingdom. Ten villages had one supervising officer. Two groups of ten had another. A third ruled over a hundred villages. Ten such groups had the highest officer." The headman was responsible to his superior and had the following duties : collection of taxes, keeping law and order, trying petty civil and criminal disputes, maintenance of a land record etc. He had four assistants. The village enjoyed freedom in internal affairs and the state had very few occasions to interfere in these matters. Jātakas throw considerable light on the relation between the local council and the headman. A certain chief prohibited slaughter of animals and another the sale of strong drinks; the villagers protested against these regulations on grounds of long standing custom. His orders were repealed by the higher authorities. One headman, who allowed the robbers to loot the village, was degraded to the rank of a slave.44 The whole village was jointly responsible for the loss of the cattle of an individual and had to make good the loss. The king punished that village where Brāhmaṇas who were unobservant of their duties, and ignorant of the Vedas subsisted by begging.95 Rāmāyaṇa depicts the following picture. There were no widows, no misers and no disputes even An Ideal King and State among women; all were virtuous and lawabiding. Long descriptions of a general state of prosperity are found in both the epics when the country is ruled by a just and wise king. He is advised to behave like a pregnant woman taking care of his state at the cost of his personal likes and dislikes even as she concentrates all her attention on the safety of the foetus. He is not to hate Brāhmaṇas. He is to be impartial in giving justice.7 Safeguarding the structure of the social orders and castes is an extremely important matter for him.48 He should be ready to sacrifice even his life in order to maintain his reputation and to please his subjects. He should observe sanctity of contracts, especially gifts of land etc. 46 49 IR ·Nos 1,2] RELATION OF EPICS TO BRĀFIMANA LITERATURE 13 50 the interest of cows and Brahmana' was a slogan during the cpic He is warned against infuriating his subjects by levying heavy taxation The fire created by the friction resulting from the oppres. sion of people would not only destroy the king but would ruin bis whole family A straightforward policy is not always possible for him He is not to couch the wealth of a Brahmana (by taxation) under any financial or political crisis He should pay equal attention to the three Purusarthas and should not confide his secrete to women 51 He was not to indulge in charity at the expense of public exchequer" He should guard himself from excessive indulgence in women, gambling, hunting and drink He should be neither too strict nor too lenient in dealing with his servants Above all he should be ever watchful and alert" The doctrine of divine nature of the king was impressed on the people He is identified with Visnu, Indra or Eight guardian deities 54 The political conditions were more stable during the epic There 18 an evidence of prosperity all round due to growth of trade and commerce The hing usurped more powers and grew despotic This is due partly to the estrangement between the two ruling communities the Brāhmanas and the Ksatriyas The incidents of dethronement of kings are generally pre cpic The idea of divinity naturally made them irresponsible in course of time Creation of a mercenary standing army meant Icss poser for the members of the royal clan The practice of wergeld is current from the days of Rgveda A man is called Satadaya ( one Administration of justice who can be ransomed for hundred cow& and the penal codo or the price of his blood is equal to that amount) Sunaśścpa is purchased hy Rohita from his father for a hundred cows as a substitute for his life This leads us to the inference that if a man in a high social position committed a murder he had the chance of saving himself by payment or by giving another person An Aryan was reduced to the status of a slave for his crite He could win back his freedom by the same practice Pressing of Soma symbolically represcats the slaughter of a warrior The sacrificer atones for his crime to the gods by offering a hundred cons Santi parva gives diffcrent punishments for the murder of 55 ·14 V, V. DIXIT (P. O. Vol. VI different castesmen, e. g. a man killing a Vaibya was punished with two years' penance and a ransom of 100 cows and one bull. The same ransom with one year penance sufficed for Sūdra. Brāhmaṇas received preferential treatment in law. They were never punished with the decapitation or death for any crime. The maximum punishment for them was branding and exile." A Brāhmaṇa murderer however is looked upon as the highest sinner. 64 Sexual union between the father and the daughter, and brother and sister was punished with death. Decapitation was prescribed for simple theft.fi Theft of gold, drinking liquor (for a Brāhmaṇa ), adultery, abortion are other serious offences. A less serious view was taken of adultery during the age of the Brāhmaṇas. Heretics and those who broke the law of caste were strictly dealt with. Treachery to the king (state) is recognised as a capital offence.65 Trial by the fire ordeal in a civil case is noted by Tāņdya Brāhmaṇa ( 14-6-6). Vatsa was accused to be the son of a slave woman by his rival. He walked through fire and established the purity of his blood. Chandogya mentions a general case of theft where the accused is compelled to hold a red-hot axe in his hands. Later law-books give the, ordeals of a balance, water, etc. They were resorted to in absence of any witness. But such cases were extremely few. The procedure of trial was systematised during the epic period. The village courts could fine a cultivator for neglect of work and expel ( or fine ) a thief or an adulterer out of the village. Serious cases of robbery and murder were excluded from their jurisdiction. These were sent to divisional courts. The highest tribunal was in the capital of the state. The work of the courts was shared by guilds, religious, and corporate bodies who decided cases by Arbitration when authorised by the king. The king enforced their decisions and heard appeals from them. These bodies enjoyed greater latitude when the central authority was less organised.58 Besides these there was the ecclesiastical council which was empowered to decide points of law. It consisted of ten members who were specialists in, different branches of law.69 It seems that the council acted only when any: matter was referred to them by the government or the people."

·Nos 1, 2 ] RELATION OF EPICS TO BRXIVIANA LITERATURE 15 71 M Bharata lays donn some general principles for the guidance of law courts (1) Acts done in state of insanity should be condoned, (11) If an offence is repeated a second time the culprit deserves death penalty though it ( offence) be not grave First offence should be condoned, (111) Those who commit an offence deliberately and deny having done so should receive drastic punishment even for a siight crime (iv) There is no penalty for killing a man in self defence under certain circumstances In some Republican states the procedure of trial was different The accused had to pass through six different courts, but the highest court alone had the power to convict him Any lower court could acquit him if he was found innocent 73 The army was divided into four distinct branches (1) Those who fought in chariots, (11) Cavalry, Defenco (11) Those who fought riding on elephants, (iv) root soldiers Although clephants are mentioned by the Brahmaņas (cf Ibhya Grama) the science of using them in warfare is not developed Similarly cavalry was not organised into a division Poor members of Kshatriya caste along with free non Aryans formed the bulk of infantsy Some Brahmanas tool to military profession in preference to priestly functions Besides these there were the drum beaters musicians and sappers and miners drawn mostly from Sudras 73 The nobility fought in chariots with bow and arrows This was the most important part of the royal forces Superiority in this branch decided the fate of a battle The infantry used broad axes and swords in ancient days In the epic it used Various weapons TH A Rathin received 1000 coins a month, others received less 7 The smallest unit is Patti containing 1 chariot, 1 cicphant, 3 horses and 5 foot soldiers Akşauhini is the largest unit Importance of maling payments regularly was absolutely necessary, otherwise the army would grow discontentcd™ It was considered safe to fight an enemy whose strength was frd less "s Soldiers from different countries were conversant with special modes of fighting The Gandharas and Sindhu. Szusiras had specialised in Jayclins, Uſinaras were noted for their stcadiness and could handle all weapeans, lakanas, himbhojas and people around Mathura were excellent at ducis T* ·14 V. V. DIXIT (P. O. Vol. VI different castesmen, c. g. a man killing a Vaiśya was punished with two years' penance and a ransom of 100 cows and one bull. The same ransom with one year penance sufficed for Sūdra. Brāhmaṇas received preferential treatment in law. They were never punished with the decapitation or death for any crime. The maximum punishment for them was branding and exile.59 A Brāhmaṇa murderer however is looked upon as the highest sinner. 65 Sexual union between the father and the daughter, and brother and sister was punished with death. Decapitation was prescribed for simple theft.51 Theft of gold, drinking liquor (for a Brāhmaṇa ), adultery, abortion are other serious offences.63 A less serious view was taken of adultery during the age of the Brāhmanas.63 Heretics and those who broke the law of caste were strictly dealt with.6* Trcachery to the king ( state) is recognised as a capital offence." Trial by the fire ordeal in a eivil case is noted by Tāndya Brāhmaṇa (14.6.6). Vatsa was accused to be the son of a slave woman by his rival. He walked through fire and established the purity of his blood. Chāndogya mentions a general case of theft where the accused is compelled to hold a red-hot axe in his hands. Later law-books give the ordeals of a balance, water, etc. They were resorted to in absence of any witness. witness. But such cases were extremely few. The procedure of trial was systematised during the epic period. The village courts could fine a cultivator for neglect of work and expel ( or fine ) a thief or an adulterer out of the village. Serious cases of robbery and murder were excluded from their jurisdiction. These were sent to divisional courts. The highest tribunal was in the capital of the state. The work of the courts was shared by guilds, religious, and corporate bodies who decided cases by Arbitration when authorised by the king. The king enforced their decisions and heard appeals from them. These bodies enjoyed greater latitude when the central authority was less, organised. Besides these there was the ecclesiastical council which was empowered to decide points of law. It consisted of ten members who were specialists in different branches of law. It seems that the council acted only when any: matter was referred to them by the government or the people.TO, 68 69 ·Nos 1, 2 ] RELATION OF EPICS TO BRAHMANA LITERATURE 15 T1 M Bhārata lays donn some general principles for the guidance of lay courts (1) Acts done in a state of insanity should be condoned ; (u) If an offence is repeated a second time the culprit deserves death penalty though it ( offence) be not grave. Torst offence should be condoned, (111) Those who commit an offence deliberately and deny having done so should receive drastic punishment even for a slight crime, (iv) There is no penalty for killing a man in self-defence under certain circumstances In some Republican states the procedure of trial was different The accused had to pass through six different courts, but the highest court alone had the power to convict him Any lower court could acquit him if he was found innocent 71 The army was divided into four distinct branches (1) Those who fought in chariots, (11) Cavalry ; Defence (111) Those who fought riding on elephants, (iv) root-soldiers Although elephants are mentioned by the Brāhmanas (cf. Ibhya Grāma) the science of using them in warfare is not developed Similarly cavalry was not organised into a division Poor members of Kshatriya caste along with free non-Aryans formed the bulk of infantry Some Brāhmanas took to military profession in preference to priestly functions Besides these there were the drum beaters, musicians and sappers and miners drawn mostly from Sūdras 7The nobility fought in chariots with bow and arrows- This was the most important part of the royal forces Superiority in this branch decided the fate of a battle The infantry used broad axes and swords in ancient days In the epic it used various wcapons A Rathin received 1000 coins a month, others rcccned less. The smallest unit is Patti containing 1 charjoty 1 clephant, 3 horses and 5 foot soldiers Aksauhini is the largest unit, Importance of making payments regularly was absolutely necessary, otherwise the army would grow discontented." It was considered safe to fight an enemy whosc strength was srd less." Soldiers from different countries were conversant with special modes of fighting The Gāndhāras and Sindhu. Sauviras had specialised in jaselins, Usinaras were noted for their stcadiness and could handle all weapeans, Yananas, Kimbhojas and people around Mathura were excellent at duels 74 16 ·14 V, V. DIXIT (P. O. Vol. VI different castesmen, e. g. a man killing a Vaiśya was punished with two years' penance and a ransom of 100 cows and one bull. The same ransom with one year penancc sufficed for Sūdra.58 Brāhmaṇas received preferential treatment in law. They were never punished with the decapitation or death for any crime. The maximum punishment for them was branding and exile.59 A Brāhmaṇa murderer however is looked upon as the highest sinner. 61 Sexual union between the father and the daughter, and brother and sister was punished with death.“ Decapitation was prescribed for simple theft. Theft of gold, drinking liquor (for a Brāhmaṇa ), adultery, abortion are other serious offences. 62 A less serious view was taken of adultery during the age of the Brāhmaṇas.63 Heretics and those who broke the law of caste were strictly dealt with.64 Treachery to the king (state) is recognised as a capital offence." Trial by the fire ordeal in a civil case is noted by Tāņdya Brāhmaṇa ( 14-6-6). Vatsa was accused to be the son of a slave woman by his rival. He walked through fire and established the purity of his blood. Chāndogya mentions a general case of theft where the accused is compelled to hold a red-hot axe in his hands. Later law-books give the ordeals of a balance, water, etc. They were resorted to in absence of any witness. But such cases were extremely few. The procedure of trial was systematised during the epic period. The village courts could fine a cultivator for neglect of work and expel ( or fine ) a thief or an adulterer out of the village. Serious cases of robbery and murder were excluded from their jurisdiction. These were sent to divisional courts. The highest tribunal was in the capital of the state. The work of the courts was shared by guilds, religious, and corporate bodies who decided cases by Arbitration when authorised by the king. The king enforced their decisions and heard appeals from them.? These bodies enjoyed greater latitude when the central authority was less organised.68 Besides these there was the ecclesiastical council which was empowered to decide points of law. It consisted of ten members who were specialists in different branches of law.. It seems that the council acted only when any: matter was referred to them by the government or the people.70 ·Nos 1,2] RELATION OF EPICS TO BRAHINANA LITERATURE 15 M Bhārata lays down some general principles for the guidance of law courts : (1) Acts done in a state of insanity should be condoned ; (u) If an offence is repeated a second time the culprit deserves death penalty though it ( offence) be not grave. First offence should be condoned, (111) Those who commit an offence deliberately and deny having done so should receive drastic punishment even for a slight crime ; (iv) There 18 no penalty for killing a man in self-defence under certain circumstances In some Republican states the procedure of trial was different The accused had to pass through six different courts, but the highest court alone had the power to convict him Any lower court could acquit him if he was found innocent 70 The army was divided into four distinct branches . (1) Those who fought in chariots, (11) Cavalry ; Defeaca (nu) Those who fought riding on elephants , (iv) Foot-soldiers Although elephants are mentioned by the Brāhmaṇas (cf. Ibhya Grāma) the science of using them in warfare is not developed Similarly cavalry was not organised into a division Poor members of Kshatriya caste along with free non-Aryans formed the bulk of infantry. Some Brāhmanas took to military profession in preference to priestly functions Besides these there were the drumbeaters, musicians and sappers and miners drawn mostly from Sūdras 7 The nobility fought in chariots with bow and arrows. This was the most important part of the forces Superiority in this branch decided the fate of a battle The infantry uscd broad axes and swords in ancient days In the epic it used Various weapons A Rathin received 1000 coins a month, others received less? The smallest unit is Patti containing 1 chariot, 1 clephant, 3 horses and 5 foot soldiers Akşauhını is the largest unit. Importance of making payments regularly was absolutely necessary, others is the army would gros discontentcd." It was considered safe to fight an enemy whosc strength was jrd lcss.Soldiers from different countries were consessant with special modes of fighting The Gāndhāras and Sindhu- Sauviras had specialised in javelins, Usinaras were noted for their steadıncss and could handle all weareans, Jawanas, Kimbhojas and people around Mathurā vcrc excellent at duels 76 ·16 V. V. DIXIT [P. O. Vol. VI (Niyudha) ; Southerners were good swordsmen. Various mental and physical tests are given, indicative of valour.7 As the kingdoms are mostly inland naval force is out of question.80 Principal cities were fortified and surrounded with a moat and bridge. For internal security military stations were kept in important villages. 81 Land revenue : All arable land was classified under three groups. The owner had to pay the $, j, or is Sources of income share of the crops to the state according to the fertility of the land. Cattle-breeders paid }th of the increment in the live stock. Villagers had to pay fth of the produce of timber, honey and fruit.8: State labour : Every artisan had to work 12 days in a year for the state so also all labourers (Sūdras).83 Merchants were taxed according to the value of the merchandise they sold. Shipping duties were paid in kind. Income tax was levied at the rate of half per cent on profit. In towns legal fines were collected in coins.85 States maintained cattle farms of their own which yielded considerable revenues.86 Special brands were used to distinguish state cattle rom the private. A royalty was levied on mines. Actors and courtezans gave personal service to the state like artisans. Revenue from gambling halls and liquor shops added much money to the state treasury. When the state treasury was completely drained owing to wars and famines an emergency tax was levied on all wealthy people.88 The state worked as a central bank lending money to merchants and farmers on interest89 which formed an important item of income. Heads of expenditure : (i) Private purse was fixed. (ii) Defence absorbed a good deal of money. (iii) Sacrifices and charity are included under public expenses. Brahmans revolted when this head was curtailed by the king.91 (iv) Public works. (v) Civil services; Narada recommends the ratio of 4 : 3 between Income and Expenditure.99 Foreign policy: Kaņikanīti contains a synopsis of the policy to be followed by a state (king) towards its rivals. It is frankly unscrupulous. Recourse to poison, treachery and ruthless murder of all political enemies is recommended. A thorough spy system ought to be maintained by the state. Public gardens, 37 ·Nos. 3 & 4) RELATIOV OF EPICS TO BRAHMANA LITERATURE 17 of the epic 94 monasteries, temples, drinking houses, holy shrines, rivers, forests etc were haunted by spies disguised as ascetics, blindmen, beggars etc to get information Greatest value is placed in commanding the followers with tact and keeping the counsel ecret 3 In fact international morality was very low as it had been ever for ages all over the world. The idea of kingship was deeply rooted in the hearts of the Aryans ever since early Vedic period The General remarks institution became sacrosanct by the timo Anarchy was dreaded and feared as the greatest calamity There is a world of difference! between a king in the epic and a king in the Brahmana period The former grew more and more autocratic as Brahmans formed a rigid caste and became priests merely The balance of power was thereby disturbed A general sense of weakness in an average subject is noticeable in the epics This may be attributed to increased prosperity, greater safety, climate and the theory of state all taken together People seldom used their theoretical right to resolt against the monarch on account) of misrule RELIGION Prajapati created first of all Brahman (Holy word or Logos) out of which heaven and earth were made º Cosmology He was alone but desired to be many. He practised penance and created birds and men, who are nearest to him They perished Secondly he created small creeping animals they also perished He created big reptiles who met the same fate Then he reflected and found out that the want of food is the cause of their destruction. So he created milk before the birth of animals on the breasts of females Thus they lived Milk is food and food is creatures The Asat (nebulous form of existence) consisted of seven vital forces (Rishayas) They could not fashion the universe separately. They joined together and generated Prajāpati out of Apas ( the nebulous form of the cosmos ) An egg came out of Apas Agnt burst forth from the egg The liquid portion of the cgs vas converted into a horse The crackling sound 2 ·18 V. V. DIXIT (P.O. Vol. VI complete. 97 became the ass. The liquid sticking to shell was transformed into a goat. The shell itself became the earth. The pair Agni and Bhūmi generate wind. Wind and Atmosphere generate the sun and so on till the creation is All accounts agree in putting a conscious life-force, which is eternal, at the root of creation. The exact relation between the nebulous existence and this Primæval power is kept vague. In the later philosophical systems this vagueness gave rise to to different interpretations. Sānkhya system postulates two eternal forces which are partly independent and partly interdependent on one another. In the Brahmana period material and spiritual force was considered to be of the same nature. The Act of creation and sacrifice are inseparable.se Prajāpati is a typical sacrificer who sacrifices in order to remove exhaustion after the work of crea- Sacrifice tion. It brought him food and joy. It is the most precious gift handed over to mortals by him. Sacrifice is identified with different deities.99 ! It is on a higher moral ground than the primitive totemism in which people tried to bring kinship with animals and thus to get all the supernatural powers by partaking of their flesh and blood in order to assimilate all their qualities directly. It was a sort of communion between the tribe and the animal (common descent was traced). It was not killed for lust or desire for food. Vedic sacrifice shows traces of this feeling. The cow, regarded as sacred, was offered. It is the very sacredness in the cow that made it the fittest victim, 100 Sacrifice on earth is only a miniature representation of the divine sacrifice conducted by the gods.101 Sacrificial Act is looked upon as a power superior to the gods, who are dependent on it. Sacrifice is the instrument through which the human sacrificer can bring them under his control and get his desired object. The gods in fact attained godhood through sacrifice. 102 Thus there is an element of Magic in the sacrifice. Every object connected with its performance contains divine essence and is endowed with supernatural powers: the cups, the stones, the pillar, the cart, the cooking pan, the fuel sticks, the bundle of holy grass, the two generators of sacred fire and other objects are praised along ·Nos 3 & 41 RELATION OF EPICS TO BRALIMIANA LITERATURE 19 106 with deities The food, that is left after sacrificing to the deities, has marvellous powers of generation and is highly lauded 103 Tive sacred fires are born of five leaps of Virāt (issue of Prajapatı) Ahavaniya (for offerings to the gods) is to the Last, Garhapatya (for domestic rites) to the West, and Dakshinägni (for the Patris) to the South of the Altar, which is broad on the West and the East and contracted in the middle The remaining two are the aasembly fire and the kitchen fire 104 The Prânās are identified with first three fires los Speculations on the nature of sacrifice contained the seed of its destruction Thus in Tait Aranyaka the parts of sacrifice are identified with human body Bharata enumerates seventeen constituents of sicrifice. The use of hair, horn, hoof cowdung and milk would make a cow-sacrifice A cow need not be killed In Iait Brah the symbolical act of besmearing Purodasha with the ash of the cowdung enriches the sacrificer with cattle, for the cow dung represents the cattle The epic carries the symbolism to its logical conclusion by altogether dispensing with slaughter of the victim The influence of Upanishadıc philosophy has also modified the religious outlook of the epics A man exclaims, I shall sacrifice myself to mysell (my) progeny will not save me ( 9 ) This directs the attack at the very root of the system Sacrifice was as much tempting, if not more, because of its promise of cattle, corn and progeny to its performer, as of its hope of getting a comfortable seat in heaven Later on some wise people lost their appetite for worldly enjoyments and wished only to secure salvation after death They discovered an casy path of contemplation and meditation on the nature of the soul or knowledge of self which would bring them to their goal The costly sacrifice with its round of slaughter of different victims produced a nausea in their mind It was declared that performance of sacrifice was not the way to salvation 107 As the word (sacrifice) was too deeply rooted in popular mind it was retained but an entirely different meaning was attached to it in place of the old one ! The ethical portions of M Bhirata roundly denounce those who croct sacrificial pillars and cat flesh Ficn the cating of consccrated flesh gises rise a to little sin Usc of a corn sictim is recommended instead of the living one son - Lilling is grcater than any other religious ritc, it is the highest 307 ·20 V. V. DIXIT [P. O. Vol. VI religion. Real sacrifice consists in charity, truth and penance." Another method is invented whereby Vedic sacrifice is done away with. Observance of fast for different lengths of time would be equivalent to the merit sccured from various sacrifices. (Thus one meal a day for a year = Atirātra ; taking th of the normal quantity of food for four years = Vājapeya and so on.)" Throughout Brahmana period big sacrifices are connected with the banks of certain rivers (Saraswati, Jumna Ganges, etc.) The rivers gained in sanctity owing to this historical connection. As the sacrifices ceased they (Riverse) gained in importance. Pilgrimage to these holy rivers and the shrines on their banks was considered as religious as performance of sacrifices (in old days).123 The horse sacrifice, was performed by rich people and princes. The horse is given a ceremonial Popular sacrifices bath and after certain rites it is sent out to wander for a year protected by armed warriors, Vaishyas andmothers. When the, party returns the ceremony goes on for eight days. The victim is consecrated and the three queens (wives) are asked to mark lines with pointers on the body of the dead victim for the purpose of dissection the next day. The crowned queen is called upon by the priest to lie near the horse. She is covered by others (queens) who stand near and encourage her. Thereby she gets cattle and progeny." Next day its flesh and fat are offered to deities. Throughout the year there is music and songs. It was performed to impress the people with awe and grandeur after a decisive victory and to consolidate the royal power, Rājasūya has a similar purpose. It is the coronation ceremony. It lasts for 16 days. Tāndya suggests twelve sacrifices on twelve days at the residence of twelve 'jewels of state '.115 This brought them into close union and lessened the chances of treachery in the kingdom. Vājapeya is a chariot race and a drinking boưt. It is the privilege of the first two castes. The priests wear gold necklaces. The warrior shoots seventeen arrows and seventeen drums are beaten.116 It resembles a sham fight. Gavāmayana (yearly sacrifice) is the imitation of the annual motion of the sun. The last ten days constitute Mahávrata. These are the ·Nos 3 & 4) RELATION OF EPICS TO BRAHMANA LITERATURE 21 warriors 117 119 days of revels when the tongue is let loose to conquer Prajapati completely Brahmans play on the lute and sing songs along with At the end there is a dialogue between the priest and a Shudra, the former maintains that the sacrificers have prospered and done righteous deeds Shudra retorts they have squandered wealth and done evil This is reminiscent of the old struggle between the gods and the Asuras in which the gods prevailed 113 The victims are, (1) horse, (2) cow or bull, (3) goat, (4) ram or ewe, (5) man Human sacrifice was current during the Brahmana period, but it had lost popularity and was discouraged During the cpic we hear of Sarpa Satra by Janame. jaya and Purushamedha by Jarasandha The former is incom plete, and the latter did not take place Even Gomedha became Tare The victims' flesh and fnt were shared by all after a portion had been offered to the deities The worshippers are thus brought into close union with them after death There was no ante thesis between the flesh and the spirit The flesh when assimilated into the body of the sacrificer would direct his spirit after death by the same path to heaven by which the spirit of the victim had gone Elsewhere the victim is identified with Prajapati and tlie sacrificer 180 The antethesis arose in the days of Upanishada and was developed during the epic by a school of philosophy which created a permanent gulf between the two !!! The sacrifice was a power for good or evil It was used to destroy or injure the enemy The sword like implement is thrown with a wish to injure the person whom one hates "12 Bakadalbhya offers his own flesh, and the prosperity of the kingdom of Dhritarashtra dwindles with progress of sacrifice !Sacrifice without the presence of the wife was no sacrifice at all In pre-Brahmanic period women played more actise part in it This is explained by Jcions on the ground that women had a prominent share in agri. cultural operations Sacrifice is closely related to Agriculture '14 The women's share in Vahātrata, Rajasuya and Ashwamedha has been alrcady noticed The sacrificer has to observe the rons of celibacy, purity and truth along with dictary restrictions Above all faith in its efficacy is demanded of him The altar is the holiest spot on the earth and the centre of universal lan It represents Lternity (Time) hich is identified ·22 V. V. DIXIT (P.O. Vol. VI with Prajāpati.195 In Hebrew sanctuaries there was a pillar of stonc ncar thc altcr on which the blood of the victim was sprinkled. It was the visiblc cmbodiment of the presence of Deity. This was transformed into the course of time into a statuc and the wooden pillar (Yüpa) was made into an idol.126 The cult of sacrificc was felt to be inadequate as it grow more complex and mechanical. The influence of Dravidian culture on the Vedic rcligion is already present in later Brahmana period.137 Vishnu (identified with sacrifice) is represented as coming out victorious among the gods.'S These two gods Vishnu and Shiva gradually overshadow Indra, Varuna, Agni, Soma and Iditya. Soma and Agni lost their importance along with the decay of sacrifice. Varuna sank into the guardian of the Ilcst. Indra no doubt rctains his kingship of Paradise, but it is not a place where the wise would desire to stay after death. Brahma-loka is the ideal of Upanishads (Brahman=Cosmic soul). Vishnuloka and Shiva-loka arc coreted during the cpic. The worship of Phallus which the Rigvedic people detested was incorporated into cpic religion and praised loudly.'*" The cpithet Ishāna clearly discloses the original home of Shivaworshippers. The god retains his Vedic attributes. He is the lord of creatures, and guards the sacrificial spot. In the epic ho dwells on the cremation ground which he regards as the most sacred spot.131 There is no difference from strictly theological point of view, between the two spots. He is identified with Agni and is the son of Prajāpati and Ushas. He is known as Kumāra,131 Krishna and Rudra. Rudra as a deity being very old, the people had to invent legends to make room for Krishna in the Hindu Pantheon. The first step is to identify him with Nārāyaṇa or Vishnu both of whom are already worshipped, Secondly, he is made a devotee of Rudra and is said to have sprung from him.'32 Finally Krishna-worship is commended. Theory of Avatāra ia the production of the epic genius. It is quite easy to incorporate any local hero or deity into the framework of Hinduism with its help. Parashurāma, Rāma, Krishna and Budha are actually thus brought in. Vāmana is developed out of a myth in Shatapatha. Narasinha is suggested by the event of the murder of Namuchi by Indra.133 The Boar incarnation is, according to some, borrowed from a Non-Aryan tribe in ·Nos 3&4) RELATION OF EPICS TO BRĀHVANA LITERATURE 23 central India The story of the deluge gives rise to fish incarna. tion Tait Aranyaka suggests the Tortoise The Brahmans had to fight and counteract the influence of rationalists and Budhists They had to present a cult that would appeal to the masses who were no longer of purely Aryan stock Compromise was inevitable The salvation by the path of knowledge was not meant for an average man Salvation through faith in a personal deity was discovered to be the only weapon with which all heresies could be easily fought's They made the two deities Ráma and Krishna as attractive as possible by investing them with moral and physical grandeur Krishna uburps the functions of Indra Indra and Vishnu won a 1000 cows from Vritra There arose a dispute between them about the share of each Indra secured twothirds, Vishnu got the rest The position is entirely changed in favour of Vishnu (Krishna) in Harivansha Indra destroys Ushas' chariot , Vishnu hilis the mother of Shukra (Venus) Indra kills the demon lying flat, Krishna kills MuchaKunda in cave while he is sleeping Vishnu of Brahmana and the epic (old) period is not a full fledged Man Rāma worships Narayana (Vishnu) by offering butter in fire and spends the night in the temple (Ayatana) of Vishnu 135 The temple of Vishnu is the sacred room where the three fires are kept There is no trace of image worship Images of gods are introduced after the advent of Budhism, (new epic period) Lien Shiva was given a human form besides the phallıc emblem Shila is a newer form of Rudra He had to make his way into the pantheon with somc difficulty Daksha admits eles en Rudras, who are Vodic, but refuses to acknowledge Maheshvara The new dcities con. tract even the vices of the old ones Both Indra and Krishna are adulterers 137 Non aryan Shiva brings with him other gods and goddesses Skanda, with his Grahas both males and females, 18 worshipped for the welfare of new-born children worship of Kumíra (an old name of t3 THT) is only another form of Phallus worship *** Durga is the female counter part of Skanda She is fond of dance, trine and flesh, scars serpent. ornaments and is represented to be an eternal maiden" Her chief abode 13 Vindhyachala-the stronghold of the aborigincs She combines in lcrself the traits of a virgin mother, Vishnu and Shankara In the hermitage of Agastya Vedic and non. Thc ·24 V. V. DIXIT [P. O. Vol. VI new vedic deities have their shrines.11 Ambikā, originally the sister of Rudra, is confounded with Durgā the wife of Rudra." A mouse is offered as a permanent victim to Rudra so that he may spare other cattle. He is the lord of Ganas.143 From these hints post-cpic Ganapati is fashioned. The Vināyakas are the destructive deities classed with Pishāchas, Bhūtas, etc. They might be compared to to the host of Vedic Rudra. The supreme spirit was given a triple form. Brahmā creates, Vishnu protects and Mahesha destroys the universe. The seed of the idea is contained in Upanishads.145 Rudra retains his destructive nature, Vishnu, the god of Aryan expansion and colonization, is fitly called a protector and Brahmā is Prajāpati in a form. Thus a continuous continuous tradition is maintained. Faith is a vital part of every religion. It is identified with truth and its reverse (want of faith) with falschood. Agni is the guardian of Shraddhā.146 Tait. Brahmana exalts it into a goddess. 'She is the foundation of the world. She dwells within the gods and makes them divine. It is said to be aroused in the heart of yajamāna at the sight of sparkling Soma. The enemy of Shraddhā is Avarice or Niggardliness (Arāti). She is a charming woman with a golden complexion.' A Medieval friar's sermon opened with an attack on greed as the greatest sin. Similarly faithlessness and avarice are condemned everywhere. Anything that is offered to deities, any penance, gone through or any gift given-these become null and void if not accompanied with faith. Men devoid of faith do not get salvation. 148 Faith is active as well as passive. The faith of a Vedic Aryan in Indra belongs to the former category. It is cheerful, assertive and welcomes this life with its pleasures and duties. The epic faith in Krishna-Vishnu is of the second type in many respects. There is a gravity, a sombreness about it which is chilling in its effects. Upanishadic cult has produced its full harvest. The passive aspect of Vedānta philosophy is stressed upon. All that savours of life-vigour is cried down. Both Indra and Varuna are painted black. The moral grandeur of the latter is no more. In the dialogue between Bali and Indra, the latter is vanquished and put to shame by his riva! who appears as an ass eating chaff. Namuchi the Vedic enemy. of Indra is morally his superior. Vritra is a saint and devotee 149 ·Nos 3 & 4] RELATION OF EPICS TO BRAHMANA LITERATURE 25 of Vishnu. This is quite Christian Power and glory are at a discount Nietzsche rightly calls it the morality of revenge or a chandala morality All those who are vanquished and down. trodden become saints being unfit for anything else' This is the dominant and woeful note struck in the ethical parts of the epics If we confine our attention to the actors in the epic drama, wc come to the conclusion that they were not affected by this withering morality Their faith is active The author (of मभा०) has to take note of this outlook It is said 'Everything that a strong mar does is wholesome holy and lawful' 10 In the chaos of religious views, the life of Krishna and his doctrine duty for the sake of duty, stand out in bold relief Agni (Sacrifice) 18 the bridge leading to the gods with whom the dead live in friendship 151 This life 18 Life after death a preparation for the next 192 in the stars is the life of virtuous men who go to the celestial world 153 Death makes him die again and in the yonder world, who goes there without escaping it (death) The tortures in the city of Yama described in detail in the epic are fore shadowed above The picture of Paradise as a land of pleasures IS common The man wishes to be with his wife and sons there He drinks Soma in the company of Gandharvas The virtuous enjoy there the lakes filled with ghee, honey wine, milk and curds The epics bring in a host of beautiful damsels who Burround the virtuous man with dance and music and take him in aerial cars of different types 19 Epic paradise is on the whole more voluptuous and corrupting than that of Brahmanas, the older conception of Yama as the first mortal and hing of the departed souls 18 in the background, although community with the mancs 15 coveted He now becomes a god of justice Life of immoral pleasure led bs gods and nymphs is fully depicted to attract the vulgar mind s popular religion has to come down to the level of the vulgar "TShatapatha describes <IX routes leading to Brahman They are Agni, wind, waters, the moon, the sun and lighting The philosopher and the warrior dying on the battlefield go through the sun's orb '* The story of Mudgala illustrates hon all the worlds except Vishnulola arc vitiated with onc defcct or another The antethesis between Vidy and LS ·26 V. V. DIXIT [P. O. Vol. VI 1 foes, 163 Karma, and Ātmayājin and Devayājin is fully developed in the epic. The latter is roundly denounced in Gita..no Sinners have to experience various torturcs according to the nature of sins committed by them. Shatapatha refers to Naraka loka.lk1 Another method of retribution is rebirth of a sinner as a vile creature. He is reborn as a serpent, boar, tiger, inscct, etc. Wicked are also reborn as trees and hewn by their Complete destruction of individuality is rarely mentioned. Katha gives a hundred and one paths by which the soul can leave the body ; onc that passes through head gives immortality. Shāntiparva develops this idea assigning different worlds for different passages. 153 Bliss, truth, merit and light constitute Paradise, Uniruth, darkness and misery Immortality with the carthly body is denied." It is believed that a gift of a thousand cows would enable the soul to travel the distance from earth to Paradise.ir A rationalist wonders how a cow's gift before death can save a dead man. make up Hell.164 The Brahmanas concentrate their attention on this life. A sacrificer is bound to prosper. In the epics Religion and earthly it is not always so. The devotee welcomes life pain, suffering and penury as an encouragement to greater devotion. This is the result of exalting spirit at the expense of flesh. Both are inseparable. The sphere of religion covers a wide field. It commands, advises or directs in Religion and state all social and political activities, The whole life of a man from birth to death is a sacrament. This worked well so long as the state was small and homogeneous. All defaulters could be easily dealt with by social ostracism as was done in ancient Greece. The number of heterodox persons grew fast in the epic, who asserted their independence in religious matters. With the breaking up of Vedic sacrifice there was anarchy in matter of worship. Social organisation completely broke down owing to promiscuous fusion of blood वर्णसंकर. This produced confusion everywhere. The Aryans had to pay heavily for proselytising the non-Aryan tribes wholesale.

·Nos 3 & 41 RELATION OF EPICS TO BRAHVANA LITERATURE 27 hıs society Originally there were no restrictions as regards diet, marriage and freedom of action In other Sociology.- Caste words there were classes based on professystem sion but no castes All enjoyed the same rights 167 This is true of Aryans The Non aryans slave (Shudra) who was admitted into the fold of Aryanism was assigned a special status The primitive stage when every person was his own priest and defender was long past Some devoted themselves to the study of Religion while others took to arms The rest followed agriculture and handicrafts The art of defence was most valuable and useful then The very existence of Aryan society depended upon good generals and their followers The king of men was a general who led an army successfully against his enemy even as Indra was the king of gods A brave king however is not a successful administrator and ruler He has his limitations He wants a councillor who would help him to consolidate his power The man of intellect, the priest, is fitted for this job He knows the weahness and the strength of He frames a code of law, religion and morality which subdues the intractable elements in society He takes pretty good care to see that his position is made secure in the hody politic The ruler cannot grudge him this much The priest's rank is directly below the king's He is the direct descendent of Agni and claims superiority over all classes Brahmans are gods on earth to be propitiated with gifts 163 The king has to remember that he is ruling the earth because the Brahman has waived his claim on the kingdom The king is in theory a deputy 16) The conflict of interest is hinted in the following I have recourse to the holy power, may the holy power guard me from lordly power I have recourse to the lordly power. Hail to the lordly power 170 The struggle between Vasışhtha and Vishwamitra repeatedly alluded to in the cpic symbolises a state of tension between the tro professions which has not hardened into castes It is considered to be a misfortune for a warrior that there should be born in his family a man having natural inclination for Vedic studies rather than the spirit of conquest And domination Os cr others " A Brahman f& an acccptor of gifts, drinker of Soma secker of lis lihood and dependent on the nobility.' Towards the close of the epic period ·30 V. V. DIXIT [P. O. Vol. VI has been able to destroy it. This marvellous tenancity is entirely due to it. So long as the first three classes could freely exchange profession and inter-marry among themselves and occasionally could admit even a Shūdra the system remained healthy. When the professions were determined by birth generally and intermarriages ceased it began to deterioriate.183 The liberality shown by the ethical parts of the epics towards Shūdras is only theoretical Conduct is the only test of Brahmanhood. For Brahmanhood is the same everywhere.' 'A person who is Shūdra by birth may be a Brahman (by virtue of conduct) and viceversa. He is allowed to study. A learned slave is giving moral instructions.183 The processes of ascent and descent from the original caste were governed by certain rules. These fell gradually into disuse.194 It is argued that the system is tyrannical and unjust to Shüdra and Vaishya. The only reply is that no civilization and culture of any worth has ever been reared up on principles of equality and fraternity for all. The Western or White civilization is based entirely on the exploitation of the black man, Roman and Grecian cultures had also their Shūdra class. Among the Aryans patriarchal system prevailed. The father was the head of the family and Family and Property could dispose of his property among his sons as he liked. He had full control over all the members of the family. Vishwāmitra disinherited his unsubmissive sons and adopted Shunasshepa. Yayāti set aside four elder sons and handed the crown to Puru. Dasharatha gave a promise to Kaikeyi's father that Kaikeyi's issue would succeed him. An intelligent and able son was not given any share if he had a number of brothers. 185 Ajigarta even sold his son. Ordinarily the property was equally divided among the sons, the eldest getting a few extra things. A daughter fetched dowry to the father.184 The personal property of the mother passed on to the daughter. The maternal grandson inherited the property of his mother's father in absence of sons. Polygamy was current in the upper classes. 18% Polyandry was not countenanced. Karna openly declares 'Draupadi is a prostitute as she has many husbands. Even Drupada and his son put up a strong protest when the proposal of five brothers wishing to marry her was placed ·Nos 3 & 41 RELATION OF EPICS TO BRĀHIVANA LITERATURE 31 188 97199 190 191 before them Niyoga is an old custom It is gradually dying out in the epic Great stress was laid on having a male issue No sacrifice was too big to get a son The scandalous practice of the priest being invited to generate sons on the queen by her husband is either a myth to cover up the foibles of the five heroes or is intended to show complete dependence of the warrior on the priest-ma pure propaganda to establish Brahman's superiority Wind attempted to blow and burn also The practice is at any rate not supported by Vedic authority. Different views are expressed about the eligibility of a daughter getting a share in paternal wealth Some maintain she is ineli gible because, (1) she can be sold, (11) she can be given as a gift, and (11) she can be exposed after birth Others hold that the grounds given are fallacious as they apply equally to a son Somahūtı refers to a daughter claiming the property of her father A widow did get some share of her husband's property Partition is favoured as a rule The system of Joint-property came into vogue when the advantages of guilds were realised Tribal societies stand on different footing altogether Dravidian influence is also a potent cause of its incorporation into Aryan Society 19a Tait Bra enumerates victims fit for human sacrifice The list includes almost all professions They Professions and Occupations Acting Prostitution, Music, Chario teership, Pottery Smithy, Jewellery, Arrow . making. Bow making, String making, Rope making, Hunting, Magic, Basket making, Fence-making, Washing and Dyeing (women), Horse master, Keeper of elephants Con herd, Shepherd, Vintner, Forest guard, Carpenter, Fisherman, Sailor, Tanner, Acrobat, Keeper of the gambling hall, Umpire of gambling In the epic period many of them organised themselies into guilds Jätakas gne a good deal of information about their administration Merchants and traders had also their organizations Damayanti accompanied the carasan traders when deserted by her husband Some guilds were big enough to form a village or tonn А Greek historian tells us that Tatta, now in ruins, on the bank of the Indus had a population of forty thousand seasers at the time of Alexander's invasion Different localities and streets Merc assigned to smaller guilds in cities " The head of the are ·32 V. V. DIXIT (P. O. Vol. VI 195 guilds was called Shreshtthin or Jetthaka who represented it at the court. Those who broke an agreement with a guild or stole its property were banished and their property confiscated. The guilds framed rules of business for themselves and had their own courts to try the members.193 Besides doing their work proper they served as banks, accepting money for safe custody and advancing loans on interest. The merchant worshipped the god of wealth (Kubera) probably borrowed from the non-Aryan merchants.194 Sometimes they resorted to 'cornering' and got fabulous profits. The Indians were the first to invent a system of numbers commonly known as the Arabic system. Physical Sciences The rudiments of geometry and trigonometry were discovered in connection with the building of altar, construction of the three sacred fires and observations of the heavenly bodies. There is an allusion to Rohiņi as the first constellation which was at the vernal equinox, the beginning of the year. Kșittikas occupied that position at a later period. 19 The precession of equinox is recorded by Tandya Bra. The beginning of Gavāmayana is (i) the Sth day of the dark fortnight of Magha or (ii) the full moon day of Phālguna, or (iii) the full moon day of Chaitra. The difference between the solar and the lunar year was corrected by setting apart twelve days annually or by the addition of two months at the end of five lunar years. 197 The Pandavas observed the lunar year and had already completed their vow when Arjuna appeared. The Science of Astronomy was developed by Atri-family in pre-epic days. Atri could calculate the time and duration of a solar ecplise. Garga was a famous astronomer under whom a number of scholars studied the science.199 The Pole star and the Great Bear are noted in ancient marriage ritual. Planets and their motions are recorded including the retrograde motion of Mars. Astrology, which is probably borrowed from foreign sources, is unknown to the Brāhmaṇas.306 Anatomy was studied indirectly through the sacrificial victim. It was essential that the various parts of the victim's body should remain intact. A skilled surgeon was appointed to slaughter the animal. He was a Kshatriya or a Vaishya, if a Brāhmaṇa was not available. In all there were thirty-six parts; each part was assigned to one 198 ·No 1] RELATION OF [PICS TO BRĂIVIANA LITERATURE 33 305 306 participator at the sacrifice 201 Gradually however the post of a Surgeon was considered low Ashvins who are on equal footing with other gods in Rgveda become Sudras because they frequently move among men » They knew the art of rejuvena. tion and substituted artificial limbs Tandya recognises the skill of Atharvans in medicine Substitution of the scrotum of the ram was resorted to to gain virility 303 Royal says 'Cgyptians possessed a wide knon ledge of practical Botany and their rege. table drugs were numerous and efficacious, some which they obtained from India 104 Administration of medicine with the help of magic is very common It is likely that a good deal of hnowledge concerning the use of herbs was received from the Non-Aryan tribes That is why a physician's profession was loohed donn upon Watch craft and sorcery, specially developed by Raksasas, Peśachas and Yakşıs, is the science of medicine under disguise Antidote to snake-bite and poisoning is dis. covered 307 Tour varieties of leprosy are noted ! From the relation between heart and gold we can infer that it was given internally to cure the diseases of heart *09 Sand bags were used to stop bleeding The value of out door life in treating tuber. culosis was fully realised ?9 Sterility was treated "1 Charala and Sushruta advise dissection of human body Yoga philosophy had a physical side Without a sound knowledge of nerous system and physiology it could not have made any progress in making the body perfectly healthy by means of breathing and other Sulabhå by Yogic fovers entered the body of Janaha who at once felt her influence Vipula, a disciple of Devasharma pervaded the body of his preceptor's wife when the latter was inclined to commit adultery with Indra Hc controlled all her movements and thought and thus saved her from ruin Vidura merged his individuality into Yudhıştıra's and died The latter felt himself stronger as a result Assuming different forms and motion through space was possible for Yogins Physiognomy is fully des eloped as a science in the epics Atharvaseda names more than a dozen species of snakes The dove, the hawk and the onl are the birds of ill-omen Ramayana classifics them according to their flying capacity.' 116 Horses and bulls were first to get full attention as they were 311 exercises Zoology ·34 V. V. DIXIT (P. O. Vol. VII 215 closely associated with human activities in cvery walk of life. Ashvins are the oldest veterinary experts. In the epic period, king Nala is called ula. He was noted for his horsemanship, king Shalya is another example. Nala and:Nakula are also specialists in Ashva-shastra. Bhima had studied the bul and the elephant.315 The horse of Sind is famous in Vedic and epic literature." The dog was a closer companion of man in the Brāhmaṇas than in later times."17 The world is divided into Dvipas and Varşas. Each Dvīpa is covered on both the sides by an ocean. Jambu is the smallest in extent, the second Dvipa is double in diameter of the first. Third is double of the second and so on. Varşa is a sub-division of Dvipa. Every Dvipa contains seven varşas, marked off by six mountains,218 The earth is covered by seas, the seas are encircled by Tamas, which again is cnveloped in Fire. Space is infinite Even the gods are ignorant of its magnitude. God alone may know it. 219 Seven aerial regions lying one upon the other have their respective functions.920 The Brahmanas know that there are maleficient and beneficient powers which are to be counteracted Other Sciences and Arts and Philosophy and to be pleased by different rites. The theory of Karma has not yet become complex. Predestination has not cast its gloomy shadow over human life. Freedom of will is the sheet anchor of Upanişadic Predetermination, Indeterminism and freedom of will are all voiced in the epics, 2-3 The theory of eternal flux and continuous growth is alluded to. The philosophy of Yājnavalkya approaches Nihilism of Budha, 224 He becomes the exponent of Sankhya system in Mahābhārata. The roots of the philosophy go back to Rgvedic period. 295 Time, Nature, Predestination or Chance is imagined to be the prime mover, Complete bifurcation of body and soul is the prevailing idea. The word Ātman which meant a living body becomes now pure spirit. Brahman is conceivd to be Finite and Infinite, Manifest and Unmanifest. 726 The doctrine of Māyā (Nescience) is the inevitable outcome of Sankhya philosophy. Jābāli expounds materialistic view. He is condemned by Rāma. A hedonist is put on the same level with Budha,327 philosophy.231 223 ·No 1] RELATION OF EPICS TO BRAHMANA LITERATURE 35 730 Nahuşa discusses the comparative merits of truth, charity and non voilence He points out that Ethics absolute gradation is not possible One may be superior to another according to the data of a particular case Religious conduct is associated with Virtue, nonviolence and prosperity Others say it consists in obeying the injunctions of Śrutı, but everything in life cannot be governed by Sruti It 18 pointed out that the function of religion is to make the life of man orderly Religion, therefore, changes 373 'The idea of relativity is here duly recognised It is absent in Brahmanas Formation of a perfect character is put bi heat elswhere It is to be built up by practising universal love, clarity and good acts '99 Bodily torture would not yield merit, sull its value in atonement of sin is admitted Confession in public reduces sin A man's action is judged according to his caste Begging in the case of a Kşatriya, is a great ein, whereas it is not reprehensible if a Brahman docs it'i Aman is restrained from doing wrong for three reasons (11 the fear of society, (11) the fear of the laws of state, (111) the fear of punti hment after death "33 The first was more effective in the carly period owing to solidarity and homogeneity of social units The law of Karma is systematised It is not permissinie to wash off your sins and throw them on your enemy's head The rites, having sinful ends, are at a discount The growth of humanitarian feeling is already noticed "33 It is assumed that man is responsible for his acts normally though technically there is a difference of view on this point An ordinary man has to follow the practice of forefathers and the virtuous in society who are safe guides Individual conscience is not raised to the level of Deity Conscience of perfect men alonc is infallible They are a law unto themselves 134 Faith alonc will not save It must be joined v th good acts A small gift (from wealth rightcously earned) is more precious than the performance of Ashvamedha with boots Another guide in cthics is 'Do to others as you wish to be done by them 'n Do that to others which others will not be able to do to you.' is the formula of Brahmanas Sexual morality of the spics is on the whole the same as Brahmanas in 115 219 .

·36 V. V. DIXIT [P. O. Vol. VII 'Ten organs are priests; their objects are the fuel sticks. The functions of organs are oblations Psychology offered into Ahavaniya (mind). Vāchaspati (Deity of Speech) is born out of this sacrifice. In other words language is produced by mutual action and reaction of the various functions and mind upon each other. Mind is divided into two parts-static and dynamic Speech is said to be superior to dynamic mind as it requires the help of words for its motion.238 (When mind is fully developed it can dispense with speech.) The theory of knowledge is opposed to intuitionalism. Mind claims superiority over senses. They contend that it is powerless by itself and it has to accept knowledge of things conveyed by them. All activities of mind in waking and dreaming states are wholly dependeut on them. They support life when persons lose their mind. Mind would be non-existent without them. All knowledge is empirical.940 Sacrifice was the centre of culture. Learned men assembled there and held discussions on problems-theological, metaphysical and linguistic. 241 The art of debates and the science of logic were cultivated and rules were laid down to regulate the Science of Logic debate between the two parties. Assemblies at the court of Janaka excited jealousy in the mind of other kings. Dialogue between Așțāvakra and his rival reminds us of the old debates. There were also spiritual mediums who delivered esoteric knowledge in trance. Sometimes foolish questions are gravely discussed, e. g., Why hair grow first on the head ; why men have beard and women are without it; why teeth fall and grow again ; how does a sacrificer reach heaven? What is his ladder ?43 Semantics and etymology often formed subjects for discussion."45 Some people made it their profession to go about and earn descent living by their skill in debates, 344 They are the sophists of India. In architectural skill the Aryans were far inferior to Asuras and Rākşasas. The latter lived in fortified cities. The credit of building a unique assembly-hall belongs to Mayāsura. The skilled workers were all Asuras, 3446 The material used for fresco paint. ing was kept secret by them. Big cities are unknown to Brah.

·No 11 RELATION OR EPICS TO BRAHVANA LITERATURE 37 manas They are the out comc of settled conditions in society Ayodhya was 96 miles long, 36 miles broad with roads well laid out Principal streets were daily watered and flowered It had several public gardens and groves of mango trees The palace stood in the centre' from which roads ran in four directions Lankā was more gorgeous than Ayodhyā It had buildings of Beven and eight stories with pavements of crystal Ritual furnished amusement from Rigvedic times The dialogues between Yama and Yami, Indra Music Dancing and and the rival gods and Urvashi and Purura. Stage vas must have been staged by priests and nobility during the sacrificial recess Mahāvrata is a musical pageant Like ancient Grecians we note a grave and austere note running through their mirth Almost all sacrifices were accompanied with music-vocal and instrumental 945 Krishna witnessed a dance and play in Arjuna's company at the festival of RaivatahYoung princesses were given instruction in music and dancing by tutors Women dancers were usually prostitutes and slave women " The Aryans learned much from Gandharvas, Yakshas, etc, who had made greater progress in these arts Hinumat witnessed an expert dancer (roman) sleeping in a dancing posture at Ravana's palace "T Women played their part themselves It was considered reprehensible to exchange dress at sports 313 A chariot was protected by four guards Two looked after horses, others protected the chariot's sides War Lach tribc uscd its distinctive banner and standard Chief warriors chose their own Dhvaja Some used in Bharata war are Lion's talc, five stars, lotus, alter with a gourd and box, serpent, bull, boar, swan, sharabha, "ulturc, moon with stars #13 The fighting units were arranged in different positions to suit the strength of the army A small army fighting against odds formed itself into needle position Besides various scapons the ariny had Boiling wax, raw sugar, sund, explosics, jars full of serpents The elephant's body was covered with a leather armour It had to drivers, tiro archers, two stordsmen and a man with a trident Investiture » ·38 V. V. DIXIT [P. O. Vol. VII 351 of a general was performed with great pomp like the coronation, The general addressed his soldiers before the fight commenced. Signal was given by blowing the conches to commence the operations.453 Musicians inspired the warriors by war-like songs and music.*$3 If a Brahman appeared in the middle of the two armies desirous of bringing peace they stopped fighting.*** (Brahman is a white flag of peace.) Alliances were sanctified in presence of sacred fire, the parties taking mutual oaths. Certain conventions were laid down for guidance of combatants in war-i. A fight was fair if carried between two persons whose equipment was similar; ii. use of poisoned arrow's was forbidden (Poisoned lances were allowed); iii. the fight stopped when signal to retire was given ; iv. A soldier without arrows, one with a broken armour and weapons, one who gave up arms and one who fled away, were not attacked.3”! Silk bandages soaked in oil along with ghee were kept ready to dress the wounds. Wives and mothers of soldiers were pensioned.25 When the city was besieged the following measures were taken: The bridges leading to the city were cut off and the ferry service stopped. No one was allowed to enter or leave the city without a passport. Actors, singers, beggars, eunuchs and drunkards were sent out of the city. Suspects were kept under safe custody. The acrobats, gymnasts and magicians kept up the spirit of citizens by their feats. Liquor shops were closed. The ditch was strewn with pointed iron bars and dangerous creatures. An allowance for active service was paid to soldiers and arrears were cleared. The country round the fortified city was made unfit for habitation by polluting the water-supply and cutting down trees. When the enemy was very strong whole villages were deserted and the standing crops destroyed. 257 The envoy from the enemy's camp was in no case to be killed. If he were found impudent he might be whipped or disgraced in some other way. from the battlefield was considered ignoble. Death, without being hit by weapons, deprived a man of good worlds after death.259 Bond of loyalty among the members of a clan was very strong. Seven hundred followers of Shalya sacrificed their lives on the battle-field after the death of their chief by making a desperate attack. 95€ Flight ·No 1) RELATION OE EPICS TO BRAHVAMA LITERATURE 39 The pro- In extremity of distress men and women practised self. immolation The origin of Satce can be Euthanan traced to this practice It was resorted to for winning over or persuading one's friend to one's point of view. Fire, water, poison and rope were the usual instruments Sitting in a fixed posture was considered more heroic 10 Bāna's tirade against it proves that it was held to be quite legitimate in old days Brahmanas do not show any trace of this practice 191. The corpse was dressed in silk and garlanded cession (in the case of Ahıtāgni) was Eschatalogy headed by all sacrificial implements and the sacred fires The priests followed The corpse was borne by men in the centre It was accompanied by the wives of the deceased and their female friends who were fully decked The priests chanted Sãmans which were confused with the weeping of the women Somc ses entered the sacred stream instead of resorting to fire The funeral of Rāvana tallies with that of an Ahitãgni The cow 1$ duly consecrated and spread over the corpse limb by limb *** Daſaratha's corpse was kept in oil for about a weak till Bharata arrived The elders came out of the house first, the youngsters following When the procession returned the order was reversed The deceased is looked upon as an offering to the sacred fires The body of Yogins was not burnt " Alt. Brāhmana prescribes a rite (Palisha Vidhi) when the body of the deceascd is missing A wooden statue of life size is prepared and the usual ceremony is gone through Loss of bones of the deceased deprned him of good worlds 34 The burial of bones was performed in a special cemetary Culprits were hung on trees at the cromation ground and remained there without any funcral sites 3*9 Trom the account of Kichaka's funeral it appears that the favourite object of the deceased was originally sacrificed on the same pi rc It was customary to decorate the pyre of the warrior with the weapons Funeral rites continued for a year Nes sacred fires flere generated and various gifts were given to the Brahmans, It was believed that the gifts would make the position of the deceased comfortable in the next tworld Absence of the funeral rites svas a serious misfortunc.;

·40 V. V. DIXIT [P. O. Vol. VII name Exogamy was current among Vedic people. Sāpindya terminated with the fourth ancestor and Marriage sometimes with the third.789 The interpretatian varied in different provinces. Political marriages with non-Aryan tribes increased during the epic period.970 Rāvana is a Rākshasa through his mother. Kubera, his step-brother had an Aryan mother. A king (Riksha) of the lunar race married the daughter of Takshaka (Naga chief). 271 Out of the eight forms of marriage Paishācha and Asura were condemned. In actual practice many marriages were contracted on a financial basis. Beautiful maidens were a great asset to their tribes and parents. Yādavas were blamed for their excessive greed on the eve of Subhadra's marriage. Gāndharva form of marriage which was commended to Kshatriyas, was borrowed from Gandharvas as the itself indicates. Svayamvara is a special type of Gāndharva. It has two varieties. In the first the girl was allowed full freedom to choose a husband from among those invited for the purpose. In the second a test was prescribed. Anybody belonging to a good family could get the hand of the bride if he passed it. Many a time an inter-tribal marriage marked the termination of a tribal feud. Feudatory princes or weak tribes saved themselves by giving fair maidens in marriage to the supreme power as a tribute. (Rajput princes continued this tradition by giving their daughters to Moghal Emperors). The ratio of age, between the bride and the bride-groom recommended by Manu was certainly not observed during the pre-epic period. Even during the epic it:might have been observed by:some Brahmans only. All Kshatriya maidens attained puberty before marriage. The marriage was consummated immediately after the ceremony. Besides regular marriages women belonging to Shudra caste were kept for enjoyment. Prostitutes on contract for a fixed period were also available.973 Marriage is a sacrament. The orthodox view is that the girl can be given only once. The idea of purchase is deeply rooted.974 The auspicious constellation for marriage was Uttarā Phalguni. The festival commenced three days early on Maghā. Shrāddha was offered to the manes and a simple sacrifice was performed. Sacred fire was the holy witness in whose presence the bride-groom took a solemn oath to protect and maintain the bride and share his prosperity and religious 272 ·No 1 ) RELATION OF EPICS TO BRĀVANA LITERATURE 175 279 merit with her Gärhapatya fire was kindled and worshipped by the pair every day until death The procession from the bride's house to her new home is beautifully described in Ash Gr Sutra Laws of eugenics were observed at the time of selecting a husband or a wife Evil effects of matches contracted in violation of these laws are described '* Women enjoyed more freedom in some provinces than in others 177 In the pre epic period the custom The status of women of purdah was unknown Women took an active part in agricultural operations and sacrifices In Rigvedic period some women fought on the batticfield and composed holy hymns : 3 Women philosophers like Gargi and Suſabha had enough courage to challenge the greatest philosophers of their day in a public assembly Women were best fitted for the work of mediumship in spiritualism Komen like Sulabha and others remained life long maidens, leading a life of wandering ascetics Marriage was believed to make a man or a woman perfect, without it he or she remained imperfect * Gargı contracted a marriage lasting for a night to escape this technical difficulty when the ideal of ascetism got the upper hand there was no necessity to go through this formality Salvation was secured without marriage A maiden was to wait for three years after puberty If the father failed to find a suitor for her she was at liberty to choose anyone she liked Shakuntala and Satyavati dictated their own terms before making an engagement This freedom was not however exercised The moral influence of a woman on the life of man was fully appreciated It was the duty of men to honour them by fusing ornaments and other accessories "Gods reside with pleasure in houses where they are respected' All pious vorhs vicid no reward where they are all treated If a woman 15 protected and restrained she becomes glory itself" The picture of a house wife is equally glorious in the carlier age They believed with Nictzsche that slavery was the only condition under which weak-minded men and especially tromen flourish Ethics for somen is different 'She is for God in her husband Service of her husband is her sacrifice, penance and Shraddha llomen enjoyed immunity from capital punishment like Brah 191 by ali ·42 V. V. DIXIT [P. O. Vol. VII mans and children. She could be expelled from the house if found guilty of faithlessness. Whipping and segregation of the wife for some period are permitted to the husband. An evil-tongued wife may be deserted.183 An ideal house-wife was expected to be up and doing, looking to the comforts of servants and guests. She practised economy and managed the finances of the house-hold. She was to be genial, smiling and mute in the presence of strangers. Spending too much time in gardens or in idle gossip with other women was not in her line. She avoided meeting alone her stepson. Excessive inquisitiveness was shunned by her as it was injurious to her chastity. She did not even observe closely the sun, the moon and a male tree! She observed the rules of Purdah.984 System of polygamy and fear of Varnasankara are largely responsible for these rules. The class of slaves had become numerous. Slaves were closely associated with household affairs. The lot of king's wives was indeed pitiful. The favovrite wife wielded great power over the king. This gave rise to jealousy, hatred and intrigues. The position of the favourite was very unstable. She was ousted the moment the king sighted a new star. Vātsyāyana quotes cases of murders in the harem in the post-epic period. Kautilya gives various precautions to be observed by the king for his safety in the harem. The situation was not so dangerous in the epic times. The Brahmanas sanction only three wives for a king. The favourite queen was not crowned. The discarded one was the third.285 With the growth of prosperity the life at the court became more luxurious and at the same time vicious. The number of inmates at the harem multiplied fast.286 At the royal weddings thousands of slave women were given as a gift by the bride's father. Besides these, there is a class of women arising out of mixed marriages and illegitimate issues, leading an independent life. They were experts at toilette, singing, dancing and the art of decoration. Both Damayanti and Draupadi served in this line in days of adversity. The institution of prostitutes was recognised and controlled by the state. They had to put in their appearance on occasions like royal weddings, Coronation, religious and social festivals.287 Some of them were taken in state service. They had a separate quarter. It was the richest and most luxurious in the whole city. They rode in ► ·No 1) RELATION OF EPICS TO BRAHVANA LITERATURE 43 781 gold cars. The state used them as spies to decoy the enemy and to get secret information Budhist nuns were also employed for this purpose The maidens conquered in war were also the property of the state The king disposed of them after a year in any way he liked The best of the lot were kept in the harem, the rest were given in marriage to the nobles 138 Women owned property The gifts given by her father's relatives and those bestowed on her by the husband and others were exclusively hers A widow had a right to her husband's share even though she had no issue She was sometimes cheated of it by wily kinsmen It was considered disgraceful to rob her of her dues '89 They had no right to their father's property after marriage Tradition and custom in different provinces differed The lot of the wives of actors and gamblers was indeed pitiful 90 Gold and silver were commonly used in making ornaments The rich had ornaments of pearls, emeralds Women and orna ments, des, etc crystal, coral, saphires, ruby and diamond, They were worn on different parts of the body Women wore shorts at the time of dance At the time of sacrifice grass shorts were put above the ordinary garments for purity." Rich ladies wore silk garments Sith's lower gar. ment was yellowish and artistically embroidered with figures of 'The upper garment was red and scented 3/3 The auspicious mark on the forehead was put on ceremonial occa610ns Rama puts the mark on Sita's forehead with red arsenic fox der It was originally an amulet to win the affection of the lover Collyrium was common to both the scxc #6 Afternoon was roseried for toilette Hair as braided in different Women were found of using floners instead of ornaments at times Sandle paste allayed the heat in summer Saffron was known for its crot c quality and was freely employed to heighten the complexion In summer men and women went out to the country side Sports and amuse I adics danced, played various games took mont bath in streams, fought in jolc, drank the best wine and exchanged secrets Somctimes the party consisted purely of women t A water picnic of Apsaras 18 hinted in the dialogue between Purūrasas and Urvashi Swans fashions *** ·44 V. V. DIXIT (P.O. Vol. VII Maidens finely dressed went out for sports to the parks, specially provided for them.397 There were public halls where instruction in dancing and music was imparted by trained persons. The kings employed old men or ennuchs to teach their daughters. Shatapatha notes extreme attachment of women to these arts." Elephant and bull fights, tournaments and gambling were other pastimes for rich ladies. Women exercised silent but potent influence over men in social and political spheres. Women like Kuntī, Draupadi, Sītā, Vidulā and Kaikeyi have changed the destiny of nations. The seamy side of her character is painted with equal frankness. Urvashi reminds her lover The glory and misery of womanhood 'Friendship with women is a dream. They have the hearts of hyena.' Women are falsehood.' They are as fickle, mysterious and hard to be pleased as the speech of the wise.' Woman is an extract of the edge of a razor, poison, serpent and fire.' They cannot be trusted with a secret.' 'A country where the woman predominates is doomed.' Their passion is difficult to control. She weans away man from higher ideals by her seductive charms. She is a friend and medicine to a man in distress, home without her is a desert; even the root of a tree becomes home in her company. Man is incomplete without her.299 Women observed certain rules during the menses, Journey of the husband and widowhood. Intercourse with a pregnant woman and one in menses was forbidden. 300 Washing, dyeing and spinning were monopolized by them in the early period. They worked as A. D. C.s among the Rakshasas. 301 (CF. King Dushyanta's Court in Sakuntala). Vāhikas, living in Panchanada, were mostly Vrātyas. Everybig house there had a slaughter house Provincial and Racial Characteristics and brewery. They were fond of decorating their houses, ramparts etc. with garlands and perfume. They spoke vulgar language. Women put on fine woolen clothes. On every black fourteenth night they held a festival in Shākala (the capital). They freely ate pork and the flesh of camel, cock, ass, and cow. Arattas are a subdivision of Vähikas. Distinction of caste was not observed among them, A Brahman became a soldier, trader, menial servant, barber and ·No 11 RELATION OF EPICS TO BRAHMAMI LITERATURE 45 307 again a priest Property was inherited by sister's son Tandya describes Vratyas They did not follow Vedic traditions and losed chiefly by hunting and tending flocks of sheep Their laws were in a state of confusion They spoke an Aryan dialect but mispronounced certain words They did not devote themselves to learning Their leaders were distinguished with brotn robes and silver necklaces $03 A special sacrifice was performed to Aryanise them All Aryan tribes who were outside the pale of Vedic sacrifice and culture were classed as such They freely mixed with the aborigines and borrowed many customs from them Yavanas were brave and advanced in all branches of knowledge Dravidians were crow-coloured, profligate, fond of women and given to quarrels Madrahas are noted for laxity of morals and crookedness They loved beef and wine Their women were fond of collyrium (Suviraha) They were akin to Sindhu Sauviras Intoxicated women played a naled dances Barley mixed with fish was their staple food Among Angas the sich were deserted and the wife and sons were sold 105 Originally the people of Anga, Vanga and Kalinga were Mlenchha Later on any Aryan, fallen from Aryanism was denoted by the 305 term It is synonymous syith Vrátya in this sense Asuras and Danavas belong to the same category They are distingui. shed from Rakshasas In the epic the Asuras are driven to the forests of Vindhya mountain Both were enemies of Aryanism They are closely associated with Gandharvas and lakshas Lure and love of beautiful women was their weak point The Aryans soon found out this and cmployed women to ruin them 507 Their civilization was higher in many respects than that of their conquerors Vanaras were backward in culture The weapons they used in war were crude and inferior compared to the box and the arron Their women wielded great influence in the state They were endowed with gigantic strength Hanimat onam a distance of 800 miles Others could make up 80 miles 806 990 The carliest specimen of Sanskrit Literature is the poetry of Rigveda The spoken language was not much different A thousand years passed and the idiom of Rigveda become anti. quited Fantastic explanations are offered in Brahmidas of ·46 V. V. DIXIT [P. O. Vol. VII 310 simple verses. Vaishyas and Shūdras who formed the bulk of the population spoke a language of a mixed type using many Deshi words and intonations. This was due to the growing contact with the non-Aryans. The process of Prakritization which had begun in Rigveda developed very rapidly. Sanskrit employed for ritual and educational purposes was least affected by these changes. The language broke up into two. The popular speech and the divine speech.311 Institution of sacrifice helped standardization of holy language spoken by the first two classes all over Aryan India. Severe notice was taken of the priests who deviated from this standard speech. Asuras spoke currupt Sanskrit.312 The same was true of Vrātyas an Aryan tribe, cut off from Vedic culture. Vidura conveyed his message of warning to Dharma in Mlencha dialect, spoken by foreigners.313 The Aryans imposed their language on the aborigines, the Sarpas, Nāgas, Pishāchas and Rākshasas. They modified it to suit their vocal peculiarities, retaining a portion of their old vocabulary. Mahārāstrī, Māgadhi, Shouraseni Paishāchi and Pāli arose in this way. Gradually these were spoken by all illiterate persons. Sanskrit spoken:by ladies of upper classes and 'Vaishyas was not as currupt as any of these languages in the epic and the Brahmana period, though it differed slightly from that Men spoke polished Sanskrit kindred to holy speech.316 Unfortunately there is no literary record showing the difference between these two. Classical Sanskrit drama does not represent actual conditions. There were provincial pecularities but they were insignificant.316 Sanskrit of the epics is the literary descendent of Vedic Sanskrit. The prose portion of the epic roughly represents the language used by the actors in the great war. 314 of men. Nothing appears more bald and sterile than the language of Erahmanas to a modern critic. Our in- Literature terests are not the same as those of the ancient priests. Lively dialogues and anecdotes are the oasis in the desert. Flashes of wit and bumour spring a surprise upon us at times. The dominant note is classic. Rigidity. gravity and earnestness mark the whole composition. There is a sense of superiority and strength about it. 317 ·No 1] RELATION OF EPICS TO BRAINIANA LITERATURE The Brahmanas are the product of scholarly discussions held in religious assemblies Sacrifice is the prvot round which all topics, which are secondary, move There is ample evidence poetic fancy and imagination which are however ruthlessly suppressed the prose legends, fragments of which are found in them, floating among the people are irrevocably lost because the art of writing was unknown and it was not thought orth. while to memorise them from generation to generation These would have enabled us to form a complete picture of social life in the period Mahabhārata, on the other hand, is exclusively fashioned sith a view to attract popular attention It 13 most indebted to earlier literature All available knowledge on sundry subjects has been amassed in the hook Like Homer's Iljad it has grown gradually to its present volume Ihe mind of several generations has worked upon it It stands a unique monu. ment of the epic period Though its purpose is dialectic it vibrates with life As it was meant for public recitation the dramatic clement has been fulls de cloped You have to add a few touches here and there and you can casily make a drama out of many narratives Dialogues, characterisation, sentiment, life thrill are all ready It is multifaced and has no literary unity Råmayana stands on a different footing As a lyrical work it stands unsurpassed The poet has an exquisite ear for music and rhythm He is justly called the first poct in Sanskrit literature force has not been sacrificed to lyrical beauty Everything centres round the central figure of the hero The didactic purpose is firmly restrained Its simplicity and concentration are wonderful Valmiks 19 a poet of nature in all its varied grandeur He is the direct descendent of the authors of Rigvedic hymns His knowledge o. human heart is thorough. He is inspired but forgets not art The academy of Kansa had 10,000 students. The subjects taught were: the Vedas, ritual, phonetics Edacation logic, metaphysics, jurisprudence, philology, astronomy, physics, chemistry, languages of birds and monkeys, folklore, materialistic philosophy * Vedic representative is Vidatha where Icarned men assembled and discussed all matters relating to sacrifice and layed down SUS Its ·48 V. V. DIXIT (P. O. Vol. VII rules of procedure. Sometimes members of non-local assemblies came and put forth their own point of vicw. Different schools (Charañas, Shākhās) arose in this way. Mythology was studied in these assemblies. Väska quotes different interpretations on certain words and hymns, where myths are explained on the basis of Nature, ritual and history.320 Students were admitted for instructions in these bodies. Advanced students visited famous centres in other provinces to perfect their knowledge of a particular subject. 391 The Academies were supported by princes, public and guardians of students. The land attached to them was exempt from revenue,"? The students were provided with quarters, food and dress free of charge. Teachers lived there with their families. Rigorous discipline was obscrved by students along with the vow of celibacy. Meat, wine, flowers as well as scents, swcats, company of women and music were banned. Sporadic outbirsts of passion did occur, otherwise the atmosphere was excellent. 323 Secular sciences were taught by individual teachers who were either employed by princes or led an independent lifc.394 The academies generally admitted Brahmans and turned out statesmen, philosophers, jurists, priests, ambassadors, physicians and men of literature. Women students were admitted in these under exceptional circumstances. Secular schools were open to all Aryans. Normal limit of student-life was twelve years. A few remained lifelong students observing celi- The four stages in life bacy. These included women also. An average student married after completing his studies. Then began a round of sacrifices and ceremonies which ended according to Brahmanas at the time of death. Vānaprastha and Sanyāsa did not exist for a householder. Upanishadic philosophy with its emphasis on meditation and retired life gave undue prominence to contemplative life. It was preached that after student-ship one could directly become a Sanyäsin. This is different from permanent studenthood in which one has to observe the regulations of student-life. During Vānaprastha the man could take his wife with him and live a stable life in retirement. A Sanyäsin had no fixed habitation, He led a nomadic life maintaining himself on public charity, ·Nos 3 & 4) RELATION OF EPICS TO DRÅNVANA LITERATURE 49 He had no property He enjoyed immunity from civil law 336 Budhism overthrew the old order and divided society in two groups, the ascetic and layman The former was organised into a powerful institution It built monasteries, charity houses and shrines and conducted schools for laymon Women were inelgible for the order of monks at first Later they were freely admitted Corruption and vice soon stepped in and polluted the sacred atmosphere Brahmanism did not establish Viháras for their Sanyásıns and discouraged women from ascetism Women and money have been the dessuptive forces in all religious insti. tutions Ascetics covered themselves with bark garment or tattered clothes sewn together Somc roamed naked Ihcy arrangcd their hair by using the juice of trees Ingudi sccdcrush was applied before bath Pindas offered to manes were made of Ingudi and Jujube fruit " Manu gives various methods by which Sanyasın is to hasten his death This idea of torturing the flesh to meet death is contrary to Brahmanas The orthodox View is voiced in the following 'If through renunciation any one can get salvation, the mountains and trees would soon attain it."830 Gira makes a compromise by reinterpreting renunciation' 377 9 Gambling sas popular ever since the days of Rigveda Two officers controlled the game The manager Amusements collected royal dues and the umpire gave decisions Bibhitaka was used in making dicc Cowries were also current Draughts were made of four ditterent colours hings made them out of emerald, gold, rory and mercury (gilded red) The cubical pieces were arranged on a wooden board with houses The play by proxy was allowed, other party consenting Stalcs included all articles of utility. Slaucs could be staked Nala lost his kingdom but refused to stakchis wife Staking of a wife is unparalleled A gambling house was a rendezrous of all bad characters in society Fraud and deception were common It ruined many an honest man There were public duels (armed and unarmed) of the warriors and gymnasts Men also fought with lions, tigers and clephants ! Usually all festivals were accompanied with music, dance and dramatic representation Hunting was a favourite pastime with Kshatriyas. The party was accompanied by trained dogs It 4 ·50 y. V. DIXIT [P. O. Vol. VIL was thought respectable for warriors to eat the flesh of the game hunted by them. Travelling was encouraged by making visits to. holy shrines a part of religious duty. Corporate travelling was a source of pleasure and knowledge.333 The king appointed jokers at his court to get relief from tcdium of routine.333 hymns.331 Coronation was a very important function. Shāntiparva gives the following description. There is a Ceremonies state processsion. Dharma is seated in a chariot drawn by sixteen white oxen. He resembles king Soma who is carried to the sacrificial ground in an ox-carriage. The streets are adorned with white garlands and flags ; fragrant powd.rs are scattered and incense kept burning. Pitchers full of water are placed at the entrance of the hall where charming maidens are awaiting his arrival. The priests consecrated him by sprinkling water fetched from oceans, rivers, ponds, springs and other sources, and reciting holy The king formally appoints officers to look after various departments, receives gifts from feudatories, rewards friends and scrvants and destributes charities.335 The Shatapatha account differs in some respects. Four wooden jars are carried along by the priest, kinsman, friend belonging to his caste and merchant. Seventeen kinds of waters, already procured, are poured into those jars. After the bath he ascends the tiger's skin representing the strength of Soma. He puts on an inner silk-piece and an outer garment of white wool. To these is added a robe. The neckgear is put round the neck and its extremities are tied to the lower garment near the navel. According to. others it is to be fastened round the waist (like a girdle). He is then given three arrows and a bow. A eunuch is standing nearby into whose mouth he throws a piece of copper to avoid death from serpents, etc. Afterwards he marches to five directions. A piece of lead, representing Namuchi, is thrown on the ground upon which he treads. On one ankle he puts on Rukma; a similar ornament is worn on the head for long life. He prays to Varuna and Mitra raising his arms aloft. Adhvaryu sprinkles the waters along with others. A chariot is brought in, which he occupies surrounded by a hundred cows. He puts on a pair of shoes made of boar's leather. He is addressed as Arjuna the 336

·Nos 3 & 4) RELATION Or TPICS TO BRÅAMANA LITFRATURE
51
sccrct name of Indra He descrics to be so-called owing to his
two-fold capacity yız knight hood and sacrificership Then he
bestows rewards He is carried in a royal litter to the gambling
hall The play begins hali is counted as the highest thros
The cow is offered as a stake The priest hands over to him a
wooden sword ºg
The oath of allegiance to be taken by the hing
is already referred to
Vrsakapı (identified with Mahavaraha liimself) appears as
the first sorslupper of Pitrs He offers
Shridha
three Pindas to the manes
*The balls are
the three lumps of wet carth shaken off
from the tush,
310
Upanayana is another important ceremony when the student
is formally given in charge of the preceptor
Thc ceremony was performed a second time by grown up
men, when they wished to Icarn a new science (farur) from
a teacher In Upanisads learned Bralımıns approach Janala
to get the rare knowledge of Atma Vidya Castc-supcrioriti did
not present higher castes from approaching cien à Sudra if lic
could impart any valuablc Vidya
311

·RELATION OF EPICS TO BRAHMANA
LITERATURE
References with Notes and Appendices
(V. V. Dixit)
(1) Mahābhārata a criticism (C. V. Vaidya).
(2) म. भा. सभा. Genealogy of the Lunar race of kings
विवस्वत्
मनु
इला (सोम)
इक्ष्वाकु
पुरूरवस्
नाभाग
आयुस्
नहुप
ययाति
यदु Founder of यादव dynasty
जनमेजय
यादवी x प्राचिन्वस् Conqueror of Eastern lands.
संयांति
अहंवाति
सार्वभौम
जयत्सेन
वैदर्भी
४ अर्वाचीन
आङ्गी x अरिह
महाभौम

·Nos. 3 & 4) REFERENCES WITTI NOTES AND APPENDICES 53 अयुतनायी कालिनी x अनोधन पैदेही - देवातिथि मानी x अरिह 1 नागी x ऋक्ष ( married to the daughter of तक्षक) अतिनार तंसु इलिन् शकुन्तला x दुप्यन्त भरत अभिमन्यु x दाशाही सुहोन हस्तिन् Founder of हस्तिनापुर विकुंठन अजमीद मेयरण Defeated by पाचालs सिन्दीप विदूर पलाकाध अनश्वा x मागधी बालम परीक्षित कुशिक मीमसेन गांधि प्रसिधया विश्वामिन ।

·54
RELATION OF EPICS
[P.O. Vol. VII
प्रतीप
मधुच्छन्द देवरात् and
others of.ऐ. प्रा.
शंतनु
विचित्रवीर्य
42 पाण्ड
तराष्ट्र
अर्जुन
अभिमन्यु
परीक्षित्
जनमेजय
रामायण-सूर्यवंश
विवस्वत्
मनु
इक्ष्वाकु
कुक्षि
विकुक्षि
वाण
अवरण्य
पृथु
त्रिशंकु
धुन्धुमार
युवनाश्व
मान्धातृ (गो-बा. refers to him as
सोमयाजिन्
सुसन्धि

·Nos. 3 & 4) REFERENCES WITII NOTES AND APPENDICES 55 ध्रुवसन्धि प्रसेनजित् भरत असित । TT ( poisoned when in the womb of his mother) असम 1 अंशुमान् दिलीप भगीरथ known in connection with the regula. tion of the Ganges, करस्थ । कल्मापपाद (A cannibal) Genealogy of विदेह kings मुदर्शन विदेह अप्रियणं निमि शीघ्रग मिथि Founder of मिथिला मह 3जनक 1st 11यंप प्रमुधुक । अंपरीप 20 इम्बरोम । 21 जनक II. Father of मीता नाप पाति नाभाग ·56 RELATION OF EPICS [P.O. Vol. VII अज 35 दशरथ राम कुश (3) ते. ना. रोहिण्यामग्निमादधीत...स्व एव योनौ अन्ततः प्रतिष्ठापयति and also myth of रोहिणी. श. ना. एता ह वै कृत्तिकाः प्राच्य दिशो नच्यवन्ते सर्वाणि ह वा नक्षत्राणि प्राच्य दिशश्च्यवन्ति. (4) Cf. Civilization in Ancient India Vol. II. (5) Cf. Ancient Sanskrit literature. (6) Das Mahabharata. (7) Frazer quoted in Cambridge History 'tia was already sacred during the days of ताण्डयवाह्मण.' (8) See No. 2 विदेह Genealogy. (9) Cf. अनुशासन, म-भा. The account is partly corroborated by ते. प्रा. 15. 3. 7. दिवोदासं वै भरद्वाजपुरोहितं नानाजनाः पर्ययतन्त स उपासीददृपे गातुम्मो विन्देति तस्मा एतेन साना गातुमविन्दत् । (10) Cf. अथर्वसंहिता. The Geneological tree given in सभा० puts परीक्षित् very much low in the line. जनमेजय of शतपथ and जनमेजय the grandson of अभिमन्यु are quite different. personages. (11) The complexion of Draupadi is dark as her name' viz. कृष्णा, suggests. (12) See note 2, the line of जन्हु kings. रा. वाल. gives a different list-कुश → कुशनाभ → गाधि → विश्वामित्र. ताण्डय and ऐ. बा. connect विश्वामित्र with the same family ( जन्हुs). (13) श. बा. refers to नड (नल) as a famous king of the tribe (निषधs). भीम the king of विदर्भs is also mentioned there. This shows that Vedic culture has travelled south of Vindhya mourtain. नल and भीम are the same as those described in म. भा-वन. (14) ऐ. बा. viii. 23. When the priest of a certain king demanded his gramot the former replied 'When I conquer the उत्तरकुरुs thou wouldst be the king of the earth and I thy general'. (15) श. ब्रा. तां ब्राह्मणा न पुरा तरन्ति अनतिदग्धानि वैश्वानरेणेति The order of colonization was कोसल, विदेह, मगध, अङ्ग, वन and कामरूप.

·Nos 3 & 4) REFERENCES WITHI NOTES AND APPENDICES 57 (16) Cf Rs कि ते कृण्वन्ति कीकटेपु गायो नाशिरं दुहे न तपन्ति धर्मम्। (17) ता मा 25 10 17. King Nam' (रामायण निमि) appears asa sacrificer on the bank of सरस्वती. He is the founder of विदेह dynasty (18) सिधुक्षित् राजन्यर्पि is the author of a hymn of Re तां प्रा. mentions another King of Sind, दोघंश्रवस् (12 12-6) (19) CE रा. याल (20) म मा मर धिम्या यादीका etc {/ (21) ऐ मा. पुलिन्द, भूतिय, मर्यर शक # #1. ant saves a longer list of Non.Aryan tribes that were sprung from the body of the cow of af te along with their habitations सहदेय conquered some of them (सभा०) (22) श.प्रा। 4 13 (23) म भा Arjuna married count the Näga princess for political advantage. ऋक्ष of चन्द्रवश had contracted a similar match with the daughter of axis, a groft (Cf note 2) The Nagas lived in Southern India also (रामा.) ता मा records । सर्पमय performed by Sarpas where धृतराष्ट्र, ऐरायत, जनमेजय, अर्बुद (काद्रवेय) and others acted the part of priests सर्पसन of जनमेजय described in RT is different from that of a AIETE possible that gifera might have been captured in war and offered as a victim to the Gods by Nigas (Sarpas) जनमेजय avenged his father's death by offering hundreds of Sarpas at the sacrifice He must have made them captives after attaching their strong hold viz. Tarıla पाताल {(पताल ) = lower Sind } was a Naga. Sarpa colony (ct म मा. उद्योग.) (24) रा v 41 भोगयता the capital of Sarpas lay to the south of Ceylon Vasuki was their grcatcst ruler They appear to be the carlier scttlers of India in comparison with the Nagas नमिपारण्य on गोमतीतीर was haunted by them (25) CE अपहतामुरारक्षासि येदिपत , राक्षासून In Rs etc (26) ए मा से दस्यूनां भूयिष्टा see note 21 (27) अवमेध or रागमप was performed by a great king Thic fcudatory princes liad to malc contributions to defray the crpcnscs and attend in person q Al. 21 (28) When formata tua fase a piece of land to 7:44 (his priest) the carth protested : 'No man whatever ought to It is quite ·58 RELATION OF EPICS [P. O. Vol. VII give me... I shall plunge into the middle of the water. Vain was this thy pact with काश्यप.' Cf. श. ना. xiii. 7. 1. 15. (29) अथर्ववेद vii. 12. 1. सभा च समितिश्चावतां प्रजापतेर्दुहितरौ संविदाने। श. ना.xii. 9. 3. records that पौसायन was expelled from the throne owing to his misrule. In xiii. 22. An oppressive king is denounced राष्ट्रीविशमत्ति...विशंघातुकः । (30) ऐ. बा. viii. 15, श. वा. (iii. 3. 3) describes तानूनप्त्र ceremony. It was a sacred covenant between various individuals or groups who accepted the rule of one chief. The five groups of gods take mutual oath to stand by each other and accept Indra as their overlord. वायु (तनूनप्त्र=vital breath) is a witness to this holy transaction. The sacrificer-king represents Indra and the priests represent the remaining deities. Cf. अथात: सममृशन्ति एव एतद्ध देवा भूयः समामिरे इत्थं नः सोऽमुथासत् यो न एतदति- TIHTO. A curse is pronounced against any one who would turn a traitor. The ceremony is called सत्यं साम and देवजं साम, (31) जै. वा. iii. शार्यातो मानवो ग्रामेणाध्यवास्यत् म. भा. सभा. सिन्धुकूलश्रिता ये च ग्रामणीया महाबलाः। Megasthenes mentions small republics as well as bigger ones. Sabarcae a powerful tribe ( TUT) had an army of 60000 soldiers, 6000 horses and 500 chariots. कौटिल्य अर्थशास्त्र (xi. 1) enumerates the following people who enjoyed a republican form of Government : लिच्छिविक, वृजिक, मल्लक, मद्रक, कुक्कुर, कुरुपाञ्चाल. म. भा. शल्य० शाल्व is called म्लेच्छगणाधिप. (32) Muzumdar's corporate life in Ancient India. (33) म. भा. शां. भेदाद्विनाशः संघानां संघमुख्योऽसि केशव' Another hint given to the Ganas is न गणा: कृत्स्नशो मन्त्रं श्रोतुमर्हन्ति भारत. (34) म. भा. आदि. आचार्यस्त्रिविधा योनी राज्ञां शास्त्रविनिश्चये। सत्कुलीनश्च शूरश्च यश्च सेनां प्रकर्षति ॥ देवापि the elder brother of शन्तनु was disqualified for his leprosy and his coronation was cancelled. There was set aside for his blindness. Cf. Rv. iii, 5-7, श. ब्रा. iii. 4. 17 andxiii. 2-2-18. (35) After the death of दशरथ, it was proposed by some that कौसल्या should be invested with regal powers. Nobody paid any attention to this, thinking that it would be only a temporary measure (रा. अयो०). म. भा. makes a reference to स्त्रीराज्य, but it was not an Aryan kingdom.

·Nos 3 & 4) REFERENCES WITH AOTES AND APPENDICES 59 (36) There are exceptions to this rulc Falfà deprived his clder sons of the right to the throne and appointed the youngest son his successor See also note (34) (37) Out of this list of twelve, 3, 4 and 5 are the swives of the King What functions were exercised by them in the body politic is not clear The remaining ainc arc concemed with the various departments of the State (38) Gry and threat in Ramayana and Draupadi in Mahā bharata wield indirect influence over the course of Statc affairs Arct warns up against the danger of that Ihe influence aorked through subterranean channels and as such it was difficult to withstand or resist it (39) TT 11 100 The chief minister, Purohita and the Crown princc arc to be excluded from surveillance The other officers (cleven) are 1 lhe Door Iceper, 2 Superintendent of the harem, 3 Inspector of prisons, 4 Pay master (cal), 5 Pay master (military), 6 Officer in charge of the Assembly (u), 7 Chief Justice, 8 Superintendent of Police 9 Officer in charge of forts, 10 Officer in charge of fronticr stations, 11 Officer in charge of internal defence cft 37 where he males no erception against the Crown prince (40) # TT TT 85 The eight ministers may be identical srith the cabinet members mentioned on page 11 a different body acting as the standing committee of the Legisla. tive Council (41) According to oft srü The strength of the Legislatie Council 3516d thith the size and population of any State Thc The decision of the majority was to be accepted by the king TT 1. 63 advises the kings to be on their quard at the time of selecting men for ministershuigas Cf Marafagat atat TÜ arfaffeis 7 I Boraftalat fagot forgfarvat il अपश्य मन्प्रयासास्ते कन्या कृत्यपरा । (42) H11 116-117 # T 7 fires the samc arrangement with the addition of its to look after the city As regards the duties of नागरिक का अर्थ नागरिकमाणिधि The title fuefa may refer to the ruler of 1000 sullagcs, cf 7 HT The five officers Or it may be ·60 RELATION OF EPICS [P.O. Vol. VII L in the villages are प्रशास्तु (Headman), समाहर्तृ (messenger), संविधाता (Accountant), लेखक (Scribe), साक्षी (Public prosecutor ), cf. म.भा. i.113. (43) Local customs had the force of law and they were upheld by the king. A man accepted the bride's money (शुल्क) the village court fined him. On appeal to the higher court the fine was refunded and the plea of the accused viz. it was a custom in his family ( to accept 3076) was accepted as valid. (44) Cf. Corporate life in Ancient India. (45) वा. धर्मसूत्र. iii. 4. (46) रा. बाल. म. भा. सभा. cf. छान्दोग्य v. 11 'न मे स्तेनो जनपदे न कदयों न मद्यपः नानाहिताग्नि विद्वान्न स्वैरी स्वैरिणी कुतः।' The ideal State in the epic is more luxurious because of its greater prosperity. Drink and women (courtezans and harlots) stand out prominently in this period. cf. कौ. अर्थ० on Prostitutes and drinking saloons. म. भा. शा. न केनचिद्याचितव्यं कश्चित्कस्यांचिदापदि। इति व्यवस्था भूतानां पुरस्तान्मनुना कृता ॥ 1 (47) 47) म.भा. सगर deserts his own son for his wickedness. (48) मनु, कौटिल्य and the epics (in fact all Brahmanical writers) lay special emphasis on चातुर्वर्ण्यरक्षण and चतुराश्रमरक्षण. Together they form the keystone in the arch of social life. (49) रा. vii. 45 कीर्त्यर्थं तु समारभ्भः सर्वेषां सुमहात्मनाम् अप्येतं जीवितं जह्याम्...म. भा. स्वदत्ता परदत्तां वा यो हरेत वसुन्धरां स विष्ठायां कृमिर्भूत्वा पितृभिः सह पच्यते॥ पष्टिवर्षसहस्राणि...आच्छेताचानुमन्ता तान्येव नरके वसेत् । (50) म. भा. शा. तस्मान्मिश्रेण सततं वर्तितव्यं युधिष्ठिर। कौटिल्य recommends triagot for actions of the king; the object is to disarm all opposition. To advises him to placate people by performance of sacrifices and other charitable acts (दम्भनार्थं हि लोकस्य धर्मिष्ठामाचरेस्क्रियाम्। ). (51) म. भा. सभा see नारद's questionaire कञ्चिन्न श्रद्दधास्यासां कच्चिद्गुह्यं न भाषसे। The exemption originally applied to learned Brahmins only. कौटि. अर्थ. धर्मार्थयोरविरोधेन कामं सेवेत । (52) म. भा. वन. Three kings present their budgets to अगस्त्य to convince him of their inability to spend more money for a charitable purpose. They seem to consider themselves as .

·Nos 3 & 4) REFERENCES WITII AOTES AND APPENDICES 61 landins . fiduciaries ( not the owners as some Indian princes think) of the State property In उद्योग. गरड remarks to गालय अपीटय राजा पाराहि यो नी कुयोग्यतार्थिनी।" 153) म भा. गृध्राष्टियंकालीन. श्वचेष्ट मिहविनमः। अनुद्विम काकशाही भुजाचरित चरेत् ॥ (54) . या ci. ऐन्द्रमहाभिषेक श. या (note 30) मनु, नाविष्णुः पृथिवीपतिः। रा महती देता होप नररपेण तिप्रति । १.५ (55) King येन's incident is older than the epic (56) During the Brāhmana period the kings were entirely dependent on the support of their clan. Cf Fcudal system in Europe A standing army, paid regularly, considerably strengthened the hands of the rulers (57) ऐ प्रा शुनदशेषकथा ता मा 16 1 12 वीरहा या पप देवाना यः माममभिपुणोति या. (गायः) शतं यैर तावानवटयते । म. मा अश्वमेध. वीरं क्षग्रियं हिल्या गोशतेन प्रमुच्यते। This practice persists down to this day in Afganistan, a country where Aryan culture and traditions flourished in ancient times (58) म भा अश्व० Patricide was scierely dealt with The murderer covered himself in father's skin and wore the shull round his nech Tuclic years had to be spent in asceticism in this fashion árangan recommends 1000 cows for the murder of a क्षत्रिय, 100 for a वैश्य and 10 for : शूद्र. One bull was given to the State (King) for breach of peace 159) ते मा. 12 8 तद् ग्रहहर्ण नारयप्ययत! cr the effect of माझहरया on इन्द्र म भा उद्योग ते प्रा. and d प्रा म. भा. शा. विधीयते न भारीर दण्टमेषां कर्य धन । A Brahman thief was considered to be a serious reficction on the King's Government (60) प्रजापति's incest with his daughter (ऐ मा.श मा) रा.(1v 18) adds intercourse with younger brother's wife to the list भीरमी भगिनी मायां पाप्यनुनस्य पः प्रघरेत नरः कामात्तम्प दण्डो पधः Fra. I Cf. Rv. x the dialogue between th and at. This was looled upon as a heinous &in set there is no mention of capital punishment for it ia Rs or ATTATUTS (61) म. मा शा. सिमित was punished with amputation of his arm which plucked the fruit of a trec owned by his brother in his absence suithout perm15310n ·62 RELATION OF EPICS [P. O. Vol. VII 97FFTTTTT prescribes a curious penance for adultery. the culprit kills an ass and puts on his skin. He then goes about declaring his sin to every person he meets. A गुरुतल्पग cut off his genital organ and wandered as a recluse for life. (62) In the case of a prince adultery and stealing Brahman's wealth are punished with exile (TP. ii. 72). H. HT, TT. prescribes penance for two years for the former offence. Another form of punishment during the epic period was to keep an adulterer in a dry pit or well for a year. Cf. The etymology of the word nia. Polyandry is declared unlawful and it is a thing to. be abhorred. It is on the same footing as adultery. #. H. FHT. poi declares eran a harlot (FFF) in the eye of the law. Cf. The protest of an and his father is before rel's marriage. Among unnatural offences 3TIETÈT is noted in # 7. Throughout Vedie and epic literature there is no reference to sodomy, a fact worthy of notice. Masterbation is alluded to in स्मृतिs ( अवकीर्णी ) indirectly and directly in वात्स्यायनकामसूत्र. (63) Cf. The episode of gari who was kidnapped. (Rv.) The same story is repeated in म. भा. Cf. arty's unlawful intimacy with the moon. T. ET. ii. 4. 3. The wife of a sacrificer is to declare her guilt so that the burden of sin may be light (FTET. वा एन: कनीयो भवति।). याज्ञवल्क्य shows the same leniency to women ( Cf. TEATTTETTT). (64) 7. JTITO 3770's punishment for practising penance. È. ET. ii. 19 Exile of 77977 for his participation at a sacrifice. The death of afãs on whom hyenas were let loose by 55 । इन्द्रो यतीन् सालावृकेभ्यः 3712777 repeated frequently in ar. 71. ). They were punished for their heresy (or atheism ?) To disguise oneself as a man belonging to a higher caste, concealing one's true caste, is also a serious crime. Such crimes must have been frequently committed by ambitious men of low birth as the society afforded them little scope in their own sphere. Cf. The dishonour to which suf was subjected at the time of angi's Faziat and the tournaments of affaargt simply owing to his alleged low status in society. The evil was less pernicious so long as the three castes married frequently amongst themselves and formed a compact body. Only Shūdras suffered from social disabilities. The growth of the evil led to Budhistic Revolution ·Nos 3&4] REFERENCES WITII MOTES AND APPENDICES 63 which tried to break down the social structure based on prerofatics of birth (65) amiralt al. The mutual oath at the time of coronation CF 7 AT, arta 31 ght issued a proclamation prohibiting citizens and other subjects from having any dealing whatsoescr (of a friendly or sympathetic character ) towards their or ling नर who was exiled (66) का अर्थ. (67) यह. स्मृति and गीतमधर्ममूत्र (69) Cf The conviction of Frais gaT. (69) मनु x1 110-113 the compos tion is as follows 3 वैदिकs, 1 यायिर, 1 मामासा, निरक्त, 1 स्मात, 1 ग्रह्मचारिन् (नष्टिक) 1 गृहस्थ and 1 वानप्रस्थ %D (10) (70) Cf The Supreme Court of US I as a parallel (71) म भा पन (1) अबुद्धिमाश्रिताना तु क्षन्तव्यमपराधिनाम् (This covers accidental injury or death CF 'Ihe case of the of a Brahman boy in ETETUT dit ) (u) मर्यस्यबाराधम्ते क्षन्तव्य द्वितीये मनि यध्यस्तु स्वल्पेप्यपरते भये। (in) जानता तु पृत पापं गुर मयं भवत्युन etc दान्ति (1) आततायो हि यो हन्यादाततायिनमागतम् न सेन श्रृंगा। म म्यात्। Cf मनु गुर या यार वृद्ध वा मानण या यहुश्रुतम् आततायिनमायान्त न्यादेवाविचारयन् । (72) जेना पसून लिच्छविs and शाक्यs had such a Judicial System It afforded the maximum safety and fairness to the accused person (7) 71 80 Geologists, diggers, guides, engineers, builders, woodcutters etc go ahead of troops to prepare the road for an army when the way lies through a Jungic or hilly tract (741 Axe nas the favourite nearon of परशुराम. Cr थुपय Rs. in the fight of ten kings म भा. उधोग सामर, कुगर, मुहर, शनि गदा, असिctc nere used by the infantry TIPS of तोमरs were poisoned (75) म भा ।। 61 176) Tach ugifruit contains 21870 charsots and clephants It is divided into ten dissions A division is progressively split up into 3 parts unul the losest unit (for) is reached ·64 RELATION OF EPICS [P. O. Vol. VII FT. 37afo gives different kinds of armies and discusses their relative utility. Cf. मित्रवल, कुप्यबल, अटवीबल, भृतवल and श्रेणीवल. Ca(paid) is the best. Suitas comes next. It is better than as which stands third. (77) T. ii. 100. Besides pay they received rations. (78) म.भा. उद्योग. Cf. The proportion of कौरव-पाण्डवसेना. (79) H. HT. T. (80) Teáat iv. The Añgas had a strong fleet. (नौसाधनोद्यतान् अङ्गान् ।) In ब्राह्मण literature we hardly meet with any reference to a naval force. Here and there we find boats mentioned (par. Ta à gani i anet etc.). Rgvedic period was more active in sea-faring than the ब्राह्मणs. Cf. वसिष्ट's 's prayer to TCU (Rv. vii.). Also the hymn to Uşas (Rv. i) - BEAT THE दधिरे समुद्रे न श्रवस्यवः। There is a distinct reference here to a merchant fleet. The Indian sea-board was mostly occupied by Non-Aryan kingdoms. It is curious that I did not think of using ships to cross the sea, but built a colossal bridge instead. We may infer that the art of navigation received a set-back after Vedic (carly) age. (81) # vii. 114. (82) HS vii. 130, 137 & 138. (83) See note (82). Corvée was current in the epic period. रा. ii. 127. विष्टरिनेकसाहस्री चोदयामास पार्थिवः। (94) . H7. ii. 5. (85) See note 58. The coins came into vogue during the later part of the epic. During atau period the cow served as the measure of wealth. Cf. . Eff. on different grades of fine: - साहस, उत्तमसाहस, मध्यमसाहस according to the gravity of offence. (86) म. भा. वि. cf. गोधन of king विराट also वन० स्मारणे समयः AŤ TERA 21 tl et. 37af. gives minute details about the management of a cattle farm owned by the State. The profession was looked upon as a monopoly of azels. For a set of six cows that he managed he received milk of In addition to this he got two per cent of the total increment of the live-stock per annum. etapf. gives further details about the distribution of skin, hide, horns and hoof of the dead animals. one cow.

·Nos 1 & 2] REFTRENCES WITH AOTES AND APPLVDICES 65 . ८ म भा. शान्ति प्रजापतिर्हि वश्याय सृष्ट्वा परिददी पशून् the Brahmanas also agree with this (87) शान्ति. They were licensed and kept under strict surveillance by the state अक्षाचाप shows that gambling was controlled during the Brāhmana period bs, state. Control on liquor was not in vogue in prccpic days, cf #1277 also (88) Brahmans are excluded शान्ति. अमाह्मणाना वित्तस्य स्वामी राजेति वैदिकम् । (89) मभा (म मा ) प्रत्येक च शतं वृद्धद्या ददामि ऋण (90) See note 52 So also Indra's share Money spent on gambling, sport, drinh anu women was to be kept confidential सभा) (91) Cf ira's administration. (92) This is the maximum + I is the minimum (मभा. नारदमन), कौटिरय recognises the value of money as the basts of state यन्यिद धर्ममित्याहु धनादेष प्रवर्तते। (93) आदि म भा. cf कादिरय cf defence of कृष्ण in गदापवं where he quotes p's policy towards Momen uscd as instruments of destruction of death of मय (रा) ते मा. 17 1. नमुचि's death (आदि. म.भा ) दुर्योधन talks of secret assasination of भीम, use of beautiful women to decoy पाण्डवs away from द्रोपदी आश्रम (म भा) सर्व परवता धर्म । For home Police arregra mas essential and ho pocrisy प्रहरिप्यन् प्रिय पूयात् । (94) नारान जनपदे etc रा 11 673 म भा | 66,67 (95) शन 1 ९ मा s 96 (contd) साण्डय 2015 2. प्रजापति was alone ilis nature was Vir second to Him Ile wanted to give a definite shape to shapeless Ilc rent thrice his splitting it up into three dissions I ach generated heaven, atmostphere and carth the three syllables generate मयं, पायु, अमिct. निगम गो प्रा. disandes the nesthe syllable. (logas) into the letters and four syllabuc instantes, with first letter he 511 I (carta), alt worlds, desires and cities, with the second all luminaries 1st माया फायेद, भूमि, शि, यगन्त, 2nd मामा याद, पायु, प्राम, प्राण ete 1 Cosmos out ·66 RELATION OF EPICS [P.O. Vol. XIII. - 3rd मात्रा = सामवेद, आदित्य, दर्शन etc. 4th अथर्व०... cf. भग, गीता ॐ मित्येकाक्षरं ब्रह्म । (96) शत. 11.5 (97) शत. See मनु. अप एव ससर्जादौ तासु बीजम वासृजत् तदण्डम;. थवढेसम्...(i. 8, 9) म. भा. शान्ति. अव्यक्त (मानसेश्वर →महत्→अहंकार →आकाश→वारि etc... बिष्णु is identified with महत् who is described like पुरुप in R. V. शैलास्तस्यास्थिसंज्ञास्तु मेदोमांसश्च मेदिनी समुद्रास्तस्य रुधिरमाकाश- मुदरं तथा...। Cf. R. V. (x. 129. 4) कामस्तदग्रेसमवर्तताधि मनसो रेतः प्रथमं य आसीत् Cf. उप. आत्मनः आकाशः संभूतः आकाशाद्वायुः etc. cf. Genesis (old Testament), (98) Cf. गीता-सहयज्ञाः प्रजाः सृष्ट्वा पुरोवाच प्रजापतिः ( 99 ) विष्णु(यज्ञः others are अग्नि, प्रजापति, संवत्सर. (100) Literary History of India, traces of totemism' are discovered in the Brahmanas. यजमान puts on कृष्णाजिन covering and rubs himself with the horn of the antelope. He puts on a head-dress of grass. अथ कृष्ण विपाणां सिचि बध्नीते iii. 1, 5. 18. 31. तस्माद्दीक्षितः कृष्णविपाणयैवकण्डूयेत । (101) अग्नि = होत, अश्विनs = अध्वर्यु , गो. बा. gives वायु =अध्वर्यु, सूर्य = उद्गात, चन्द्रमा = ब्रह्मा, पर्जन्य = सदस्य, विश्वेदेवाः = सदस्य, विश्वेदेवाः =होत्रका:, ऐ. ब्रा. makes अग्नि -पशु. (102) रथचक्र प्रवर्तयति मनुष्यरथेनैव देवरथं प्रत्यवरोहति (ते. ब्रा. i. 6) देवान्भावयतानेन ते देवा भावयन्तु वः (गीता.); cf. यज्ञेन यज्ञमयजन्त देवा: R. V. (x. 90. 16) ब्रह्मा finding he could not attain to infinitude resolved to offer up himself in created things and thus attained self effulgence and supreme dominion (शत. xiii. 7. 1. 1) महादेवः सर्व यज्ञो महात्मा हुत्वात्मानं देवदेवो बभूव (शान्ति.). (103) उच्छेषणाद्वा अदिती रेतो धत्त (ते. बा.); cf.पुत्रकामेष्टि in रामायण and the birth of परशुराम (म. मा.) उच्छिष्ट contains all gods, men, animals, Vedas ete (अथर्व.). यज्ञशिष्टाशिनःसन्तो मुच्यन्ते सर्व किल्विपैः गीता (3. 13). (104) तै. बा. 1. 1. 10 Five is a mystic number, cf. पांक्तोहविः पांतोयज्ञः पांक्तः पशुः पंचाग्नयः पंचव्याहृतयः। . .

·Nos. 1 & 2) REFERENCES WITH NOTES AND APPENDICES 67 (105) माण आहवनीय, उदान = गार्हस्पत्य, ध्यान अन्वाहार्यपचन (शत. it. 1.6. 18). (106) मारमा यजमानः, शरीर - इध्म, उरस् - वेदि, श्रद्धा-पानी लोमानि = यहिः, काम- आज्य etc. (107) जानन दुर्गन तरन्ति यतः, कि ते धन यान्वळ किंते दाराह्मण यो मारप्यमि, कि प्रजया करिष्यामः। (108) श्रेयान् द्रव्यमया धमाज्ञानयन: परंतप also मापाने जुदति प्राणं माणेऽपान तथापरे.... अपरे नियताहाराः प्राणान्प्राणेषु जुदति । (गीता) (iv. 33, 29,30) (109) The clue is already furnished by AGM, cf. O. AT, पुरपेभ्यो य मेधा उदफामत् । (110) शान्ति अनु (111) अनु. (म. भा.) (112) ऐ.स. & ताण्डय. प्रा. (113) Cf. तीर्थयात्रा of बलराम with a retinuc, also वनपर्व. (114) ते. प्रा. iii 9.6 द्रौपदी and कौसल्या perform this duty (म. भा. भध, & रा. याल.). This revolting ceremony is not found in ऐ. पा. and may the attributed to Dravidian influence along with the worship of Phallus, (115) द्वादशरमहविरिटि. (116) ताण्डर मात. (117) ते. पा. iii.9.14 आ. describes how sixteen young ladics surround the priest, seated on a swing and sing songs. cf. christmas festival. (118) ने. मा. 1. 2.6 also ताण्डय. The conversation between the bachelor and the prostitute indicates the presence of sexual orge (ने. भा.) + (119) गुनः रोप legend (प.प्रा.). ते प्रा. gives the test of human victims. (119) Deities are fond of special uctims (साण्डय. पा.) पर अप, % गो, भ= अर, स्वष्ट - भयि, पूपन् - उष्ट्र + (later discarded), पायु-गुग, प्रजापति- पुरण हस्निन् + , पराह+, मीहि,क्षेन- पति -तिर, मापा-, मषिभश्चतर + (120) शन, . मा. यामानो या एप निदानेन यत्पाः। (121) मांra philosophy Pessimisn of Upanishti. - ·[P.O. Vol. XIII . RELATION OF EPICS (122) यं द्विप्यात्तं ध्यायेत्, ब्रह्मणः परिमरः (ऐ. बा. viii. 27). (123) श. गदा. ( म. भा.) also श्येनयाग & द्रुपद's यज्ञ. (124) Cf. नवान्नेष्टि, शुनासीरीय, अयज्ञो वा एप योऽपत्नीकः, cf. the olden image of Sita in रामायण. तन्डस्मैतत्पुरा जायैव हविष्कृटुपोत्तिष्ठति ग.i.1.4.13. (125) ऋतस्य नाभिः, Cf. the construction of the alter in ते, बा. where all measures of time are represented by bricks • 179 in number, T. gives another method which includes all deities. ( 126 ) R. Smith ' History of Semites'. ( 127) शत. on रुद्र, कुबेर, वैश्रवण (king of राक्षसs). (128) शत. xiv. ( 129) मा शिस्नदेवा अपि गुतं नः Rv म. भा. द्रोण., रामा. (130) न च मेध्यतरं किञ्चित्स्मशानादिह लक्ष्यते (शान्ति.)। (131) शत. 6. 1. 3. etc. (132) द्रोण. (म. भा.) य एप रुद्रभक्तश्च केशवो रुद्रसंभवः। (133) ते. ना. i. 7. 1 प्रल्हाद कायाधव is mentioned (i. 5. 10.) शन. vii. +. 1. 5. कश्यपो वै कूर्मः (134) मन्मनाभव मद्भक्तो मद्याजी मां नमस्कुरु, सर्वधर्मान्परित्यज्य मामकं शरणं व्रज. (गीता) cf. वुद्धं शरणं गच्छाभि etc. of Budhism. (135) द्विभाग इन्द्रस्तृतीयो विष्णुः (ते. वा.) उभा जिग्यथुः... वेध सहस्त्रं ( R. V.). (136) रा. बा. अयोध्या See शत. यजमान has to sleep in th HASTITIT for a night. (137) Cf. राधा, अहल्या; दक्षक्रतुध्वंस. (138) Cf. पष्ठीपूजन (कादम्बरी). (139) Cf. हनुमत् worship in Deccan. (140) सीधुमांसपशुनिये, कोशिकी. (141) रामा iii. 12 कुबेर, अनन्तनाग,, कार्तिकेय with gods. (142) शत ii. 5. त्र्यंबकयाग. (143) गणानां पतये: नमः (रुद्राध्याय ) शान्ति. म. भा. रक्तमाल्यांवरधर. (144) शान्ति. याज्ञ. (145) तजलानिति शान्त उपासीत (छां. उ.) 3 ·Nos. 1 & 2] REFERENCES WITII NOTES AND APPENDICES (146) Cf. वाज, मंहिता. (147) अथर्ववेद 5.7.1, 5 ct. the initiation of a pagan to christianity when liquor is used. cf. Fidessa and Duessa of Spencer's fairy qucen' अप्रधानश्च मध्यात्मा विनश्यति अश्रध्दया हुतं दर भपतसं कृत १ यत् भयत् इत्युच्यते गीता (४.५० and:१७.२८) (148) गीता, cf. प्रद्धयाग्नः समिध्यत प्रध्दया इयते हविः R. V. (x. 151) लोमो धर्मस्य नाशाय (मभा. म. मा.) (149) म. मा. शान्ति. इन्द्र & am as adulterers and vicious gods. (150) आश्रम. म. मा. सयं यल यतां शुचि सर्व यलयता धर्मः (151) से. ग्रा. iii. 10. (152) शत.x. 1.5. (153) से. प्रा. & शत. vi. 5.4.8 रामा ५. १ याश्चयवन्तेऽभ्यरातारा: पुण्यशेष समावृताः (154) Cl. modern practices.cf. पञ्चामृतस्नान in daily worship. अ. थे. xii. 3. 17 मजाययासहपुत्रैः स्याम् vi. 120 शत. x.4.4.4. (155) म, मा. अनु० (156) पितृमि : महमालोश्य मास्मगठहाकोदरः ( सभा. ममा.), धर्म- राज, यमेन ये मधमादं मदन्ति R. V.(x. 14.8.) (157) रामा. i.45, 46 म. भा. धन. रामा. उ. vi.25 ct. llouris of Kuran. (158) शत. xi. 4. 4. 1 cf. कोपीतकि उप. the travel of the spirit. (159) म. भा, द्वौइमा पुग्यो ...सूर्यमण्डलभेदिनी परिमाड्योग युक्ता रणेचाभिमुग्गी हतः मुण्टक मूर्यद्वारेग ते विरगोः प्रयान्ति. (160) मभा. यन. भात. x. 5.4. 15, xi. 2. 6. 13, कर्मणा पध्यते जन्न पिंघया पप्रमुग्यते. (161) CE, म्यगारोहण. ममा. (162) वृहदार. उप. शत.xi.6.1. (163) cf. सूर्य चक्षुगंरतु यात मा मा Rr. (. 16.3) (164) अमृत सममो रूप (मभा.मा.) भन्धनमः प्रविशन्ति ये अविधा. मुपामते (इंग) (165) स्पा.मभा. कौतिकी. (166) पे. प्रा. i.17 तापदग. 21. 1.9 शान्ति, म. मा.

·70 RELATION OF EPICS [P.O. Vol. XIII (167) शान्ति. न विशेपोऽस्ति वर्णानां सर्वं ब्राह्ममिदंजगत्....कर्मभिर्वर्णतां गतम् । There is no suggestion made that the system is divinely ordained cf. गीता चातुर्वण्यं मया सृष्टं गुणकर्म विभागशः (iv. 13) (168) शत, ii.1.6 यावैदेवा देवा: आहुतिभिरेवदेवान्प्रीणाति दक्षिणाभि- मनुष्य देवान्. शान्ति. ब्राम्हणो ...ईश्वरः सर्व भूतानां धर्मकोपस्य गुप्तये. सनु०i.99 (169) अनु. पत्यभावे यथैव स्त्री देवरं कुरुतेपति आनन्तर्यात्तथाक्षत्रं पृथिवी कुरुते पति Cf. The claim put forth by the Papal power in Medieval Europe. (170) ऐ. ब्रा. vii. 22. (171) ऐ. ना. Cf. युधिष्टिर in मभा. (172) अनु. सभा. आदि. आसीनं च शयानं च पिता ते पितरं मम । स्तौति बन्दीव चाभीक्ष्णं नीचैःस्थित्वा विनीतवत्. ( 173) गोपथना. 1. 2. 21, 23 cf. शान्ति. वृपलीपति, नर्तक, ग्रामप्रेग्य पिशुन are shudra like अनु. क्षत्रियापति, मृत निर्यातक etc. cf. ऐ. बा. father of. शुनः शेप. दासनीयाश्च सर्वशः (सभा०) (174) ऐ. बा. (175) शान्ति. a आश्रम. (मभा.) (176) वैश्यस्तोम ताण्डय. ब्रा, (177) Cf. कवपऐल्प's story in ऐत. वा. मनु. रा. उत्तर. शम्बूक, (178) कात्या. श्री. सू & आश्व, गृह्य. (179) वाज. सं. refers to a rich Shudra. शान्ति. पैजवन is a charitable T6 giving alms in thousands. (180) शान्ति. (181) Cf. white civilization in relation to Negroes, Africans and others. (182) कवप ऐलूप (ऐ. बा.) रैक्व (छान्दो.) of. मभा. आदि. अविवा- ह्याहि राजानो देवयानि पितुस्तव but क्षत्रं ब्रह्मेण संसृष्टं...is the old custom. (183) CF. मभा. शा. आर्यवर्णेषु शूद्राश्चापि तपोधनाः, अनु. (184) ममा वर्णोत्कर्पमवाप्नोति नरः पुण्येन कर्मणा cf. मनु. A क्षत्रिय lost his caste after three generations by following agriculture etc. cf. गोपथ. (185) ऐ. ब्रा. v. 14 नाभानेदिष्ट मानव. (186) (2) Condemnation of शुल्क in स्मृतिs and मभा.- shows the strength of the usage.

·Nos 1&2] REFERENCES SITH NOTES AND APPENDICES 71 CE अभय हि भूरिदायतरा या विनामातुरत पापा श्यालात् (R VIct आप विवाह (आ गृह्य माधोपन्या (ममा उद्योग) (1) ममा अनु , ताण्डय तस्माद्य पुत्राणा दाय धनतम मिति शूदापुन received the minimum share, during father's life time and maintenance after his death (187) एम्मे ण्य पुसे जुहोति यहीभ्य इव खोभ्य तस्मादपि एपस्य पुमी यावो जाया भवन्ति of रशना : यूपात (183) कायायुमा विधवर दवर मयंठ योपा कृणुते सधस्थ आ (RV) पायभाये यधैव म्री दवर कुरन्ते पति अनु ममा cf the birth of एतराष्ट्र पापड and पिटर, दयर (द्वितायोवर ) यास्त्र ( निरस) (199) मनरकुमार s simile of Fire and wind मभा क्षेत्रन is however mentioned in 11 Bharata & #3 4 6 4 and 1 10 11 (190) तस्मात्पुमान्दायादाऽदायादारोति विनायते तस्मास्त्रिय जाता परास्यन्ति न पुमा निरन (अ. 3 + ) अमृत या एप करोति या पत्यु प्रीता सरयन्यधान्यधरति शासदादिदुहितुनभयं गा etc R.V मनु अविशेषण पुनाणा दाया भवति धर्मत मिथुनाना दत्त क्रांतक कृत्रिम क्षेनजीरसा पुरा . (191) गारगिर सनये धनानाम् (R Sof स्त्रीधनकरप (कार्टिस्य अथ) (192) कौटिन्य अर्थ (193) + या 180 मनु vUL 41 + ममा शान्ति विनय पीटक . 226 (1941 ममा पन also योटि प मृच्छकटिक mentions स्कन्द as a god of theics (195) नाण्डय मा 17 14 2 रामा युद्ध 28. 10 मास्य अयुन gles another 10 भयुत-प्रयुत system based on 10 प्रयुत = नियुत 100(centinal) 10 नियुन - अयुद the highest term being महाध to अयंद-न्ययुद Vodern terminology 10 म्यर-निग्य is a combination of two 10 निषय - पद (यद्ध) निग्रं? 10 या अक्षित सदर and decimal 10 अक्षित मी system is from TS ·72 RELATION OF 'EPICS .[ P. O. Vol. XIII (196) · रोहिण्यामग्निमादधीत (ते. बा.), शत. एतावै कृत्तिकाः मभा wrongly connects रोहिणी with the moon. cf. प्रजापति's incest with his daughter and ब्रह्मा's with सरस्वती.? (197) द्वादशाहसत्र, द्वादशबून्यदगोह्यस्यातिथ्ये रणनृभवः - (R: V.) पंचसे पंचमे वर्षे द्वौमासौ उपजायतः (विराट), Five year cycle संवत्सर परि- वत्सर etc. तै. & ताण्डव 17. 13. 17 cf. वेदा य उपजायते. A month was subdivided into, 5 weeks of 6 days each cf. गवामयन ताबा. (198) अत्रयस्तमन्वविन्दन्नह्यान्ये अशक्नुवन् (R. v.) आसुरः आदित्यं तमसाविध्यत् तस्यात्रिीसेन तमोऽपाहन् ( T. B. 14. 11. 14 ). (199) शल्यगदा पर्व मभा. cf. गर्गसंहिता. ( 200) तै. बा. i. 5. 2 यमनक्षत्र अनुराधा to. भरणी देव ... कृत्तिका to विशाखा, मूल (बर्हणी) is inauspicious to असुरs cf. रा. अयो. अवष्टव्धं च मे राम नक्षत्रं दारुणैर्ग्रहै;...सूर्याङ्गारकराहुभिः राजाहि मृत्यु मामोति घोरां वापद- मृच्छति cf. The position of planets on the eve of M. war and. death of Krishna. The star Sirius is famous in the epic and classical literature. cf. रघुवंशः प्रससादोदयादम्भः कुम्भयोनेर्महौजसः (4. 21.) (201) ऐ. बा. cf. अनुस्तरणी at the funeral आ. गृह्य. iv. .and रा. vi. 112. [ cf. चिकित्सित (मभा, शां.) The cow in the vedic. period was replaced by a goat during the epic period. (202) The story of च्यवन. कृष्णात्रेय is the founder. ( 203) रा. बाल. 49 मेषस्य वृषणौ गृह्य शनायाशु प्रयच्छथ शान्ति. इन्द्रो मेषवृषणत्वं प्राप्त cf. also ययाति. (204) Antiquity of Hindu Medicine. (205) अथर्ववेद is full of such charms cf. शत. ताण्डय. अर्बुद as maker of spells उद्योग, सभा.. mentions जंभसाधक ब्राह्मणs who were alchemists. (206) Cf. सर्पविद्या: The caravan addresses दमयन्ती as निशाचरी राक्षसी, यक्षी, पिशाची cf. यातुधान: (207) Cf. THETT's case (HT.), the physician bribed by तक्षक. (208) अस्थिज, तनूज, त्वज and कृत्याकृत तै. बा. 2. 4.4. (209) Cf. हृदयहि & cordial (good to the heart). (210), 'Cf. विचित्रवीर्य's case मभा, आदि. (211) वृषभानपि जानामि...येषांमूत्रमुपाघ्रायांपिवन्ध्या प्रसूयते (मभा. विराट.) :: (212) कृष्ण is योगेश्वर cf. ऊर्ध्वरेतसः ऋषयः in सभापर्व. शान्ति, अनु.

·Nos. 1 & 21 REFERENCES WITH NOTES AND APPENDICFS 73 " (213) Typical features of man s. woman (राम & सीता) (214) 1 कुरित class रामा.1159. यलिमान Their motion is minuately. भाम examined. cf वर्ण ममा हसकासारयान गृभ तित्तिरि, भरद्वाज, मयूर, पितर. " ॥ श्येन " " . ॥ वैनतेय " 8 was (215) रा बार 6 the elephants are divided into three categories, according to their size Length Height Girth मृग 7 5 $ मन्द्र 6 9 भद्र 9 7 10 By cross breeding + mixed types are csoked They were captured in Vindhya & Ilimalayan forests White elephants were prized most of other & cleplants at एका ( रा V + ) This explains why Buddhists look upon a white elephant as divine (216) यथा मैन्धयो महाजय पशिशदान . ( उप ) मन्ध वाजिभि 1s common in म मा काश्मीरवि नुरगामी Kashmerian mare remarkable for her gat (म मा. विराट ) काम्योन, वनायुज also (217) शुनश्शेर सुनसणं also R. V Inरा, a troop of dogs was presented by अधपति to भरत cf युधिष्टिर's dog (स्यर्गा म.मा ) (218) भीमपर्य The idea that the earth is unsupported and is moving dosin and down eternally is cited and contradicted. दीपs are 7, 8 or 9in number. The Brahmanas have not attempted any such dnsion Only serious Lolas are mcutioned 1219) c सोमा घेद यदिया न वेद (RVx) (220) प्रयह controls clouds and lightning आयर. the 1180 of luminaries absorbs sca moisture मम्याद carrier of balloons दियह Causcs storms cic, परियह causes the paxing of the moon. परापत doprises men of their breath. Vedic Varuts are 8 in number, ·74 RELATION OF EPICS [P.O. Vol. XIII (221) क्रतुमयः पुरुषः यथाक्रतु छान्दोग्य, (222) रा. अयो. कश्च देवेन सौमित्रे योद्धमुत्सहते पुमान् नेशोऽयं सततं दही नृपते पुण्यपापयोः ( शान्ति.) २३ वीरा: संभावितात्मानो न देवं पर्युपासते। (223) कलानां पृथगर्थानां प्रतिभेदः क्षणेक्षणे + वर्तते सर्वभूतेषु सौम्यातु न विभाच्यते न चपामत्ययो राजन् प्रभवो नच लक्ष्यते अवस्थायामवस्थायां दीप- स्थैर्वाचिंपां गतिः cf. सप्तभङ्गीन्याय of जैनs & क्षणिकवाद of बुद्धs cf. Creative evolution. Bergson cf. आत्मा हि जज्ञे आत्मनः The original seed Persists though individuals perish वीजादीजं प्रवर्तते । { 224 ) न प्रेत्य संज्ञास्ति, cf. स्थितो मनसि यो भावः स वै क्षेत्रज्ञ उच्यते, व सति क उच्छेदः शाश्वतो वा कथं भवेत् । ( 225 ) R.V. द्वा सुपर्णा सयुजा सखाया समानं वृक्षं परिपस्वजाते तयारन्य:- पिपलं स्वागन्यननन्नन्यो अभिचाकशीति, for प्रकृति & गुणs अजामेकां हिनां श्वेताश्व० चतुर्गृह is सांख्य made Deistic. + ( 226) Cf. उभयं व प्रजापतिः निरुक्तश्व अनिरुक्तश्च परिमितश्चापरिमि- नश्श, cf. गीता. He entered beings and gave them name and form (ने.बा. 2. 2. 7.), cf. त्रिवृत्करण. (226) God is finite, Highest Principle is infinite. Gita - harply distinguishes them, though immutability of the Highest principle is stressed still from a higher point of view Brahman is incomprehensibe cf नेति नेति. ( 227) रा. ii. 109, Vedic bards had to win such fellows with persuasion, cf. श्रदस्मै धत्त सजनास इन्द्रः । ( 228) वन. dialogue between धर्म & नहुप शान्ति. मभा. ( 229) Cf. प्रल्हाद's legend:धर्म, सत्य. वृत्त etc. depart when शील (tc. is gone. (230) Cf. शत. ii. 4. 20, ब्रह्मकपालवन्दन for ब्रह्महत्या in म. भा. cf. पारस्करगृह्यसूत्र on atonement. A गुरुतल्पी had to cut of his organ and wander begging for years. (231) वैश्यतुलाधारकथा (शान्ति.) As the caste rules hardened क्षत्रिययाजक and ब्राह्मणयोद्ध were condemned, cf. द्रोण. (म. भा.) (232) राजदण्डभयादेके ...पापाः पापं न कुर्वते यमदण्डपरस्परभयादेके... शान्ति). (233)CF. कौषीतकि उपनिषद् , ब्रह्मणः परिमर. ( ऐ. बा.) (233) Cf. the priest seething in a hell pit because he advised Somaka king to sacrific his son. सभा वन.

·Nos. 1 & 2] REFERENCES WITII NOTES AND APPENDICES 75 (234) Gita' aims at creating such men. (235) रा.vii.78. स्वारारं स्वयापुष्टं चुचंता नप मुत्तमम् । दत्तं न तेऽस्लि मूक्ष्मोऽपि ... याध्यसे क्षुत्पिपासया, cf, अनुयाशिः समिध्यत...। (236) Cf. म. भा. अश्व, नपुस्त's legend. (237) यद्यदारमनि रहेत तरपरम्यापि चिन्तयेत् शान्ति, म. भा, but यं द्विप्यात ध्यायेत् (ते. ग्रा.)। (238) गुम्तम्पाहि गुर्वथ न दूपयनि मानयं 1s an older view later disapproved. मिक्षिते परदाय च तद्धर्मभ्य न दूपकम् । (239) अश्व, ममा, The dispute about the priority of mind to words is quoted from Tait. San. cf. शत. मन एव स्वच्छेयो मनमी स्वं मृतानुकरानुवरामि cा. शिक्षा, मारमा युद्धया ममैन्यायन्मिनी युक्त विवक्षया... (240) This is suggested by a similar dispute between organs in which 387 is proved to be a king as body would fall without it (छ.. (241) Cf. मुलभाजनकसंवाद, prattle of गेला . प्रा. VI. 33. wife of पतंचल काप्य सुलभा enumerates the defects of speech. Speech is defective (i) when it is not उपेतार्थ, अभिन्नार्थ, न्यायवृत्त (ii) rhen it is अधिक मन्दिग्ध, गुर्यक्षरसंयुक्त, अमृत, ग्रियर्गविग्न्द, अपस्कृत, न्यून, निवर्ग- विरन्द, पटाद, सोष, निष्कारण अहेतुक, दोपs are (i) ci. words (ii) and sense (म. भा.) five fold syllogism पंचावयययुनस्य पाक्यम्य गुण. दोपवित्. रा. iv. 3 मीता praises हनुमत् for his perfect speech. (242) C. गोपयमा. गृह. (243) गो. मा. *आप मा undergoes प्रसारण पू-म् पुरिशय शत. ii. 2.2. 2. अपि = अमि. इन्ध = इन्द्र इन्धनारसर्पपां प्राणानाम् . ज्यपक सी+ अग्यिका=स्ययक, रा. vii. 30 भदल्या न विद्यते हल्यं यस्याः हल -यस्य । ममा. यन. नारा (भापोदेहादिरूपा)+ भयन (स्थान)-नारायण, शान्ति. (244) मभा. शान्ति भपन्ति मुदुराया ऐनुमन्नोऽपि पण्डिताः यकारो जनसंसदि घरन्ति यमुधो परम्नां यावदका यहुश्रुताः । Cr. Rv. नीहारेण प्राश्ता जाप्या धासुनुप उश्यामश्वरन्ति. ct. उपनि पामायण of उपनिषद् (245) सं. म. iii.9.14 प्राणी or प्राह्मणक्षत्रिया योगागाधिनी गायतः Musical profession was not yet disgraceful, but see गोपथ, ct. R. v.x. 18. 3 प्रायो अगाम नृतये इसायदापीय भायुः प्रतरं दधानाः । (236) पे.भा.(71) महायत six or three women tserrants) .

·76 . RELATION OF EPICS [P.O. Vol. XIII । dance round the fire ; the wives of the sacrificer play on lutes ताण्डय ब्रा.5.6.8. Musical instruments अपघाटिला ( Mutes), बाण (with 100 strings), रा. V. ii. वीणा, पड्डुक, पटह, वंश, विपञ्ची (सप्ततन्त्री वाणा) मृदङ्ग पणव, आडम्बर डिण्डिभ, शंख, दुन्दुभि. मभा. अश्व, musical scale is discovered. (247) रा. V. ii. ( 248) Cf. शान्ति. & साम्ब incident, विक्रमोर्वशीय. (249) भप्मि & द्रोणपर्व Ancient Aryans very likely used fire as their emblem, cf. शत. विष्णुमेव पुरस्कृत्य... a (विष्णुवै यज्ञः) (250) सूचिव्यूह, अर्धचन्द्र, चक्र, मकर, श्येन etc. ताण्डय ब्रा.( वाजपेय. यज्ञ ) mentions chariots of one, two, three and four horses स्थरि and अस्थूरि. (251) कर्ण. मभा., आश्व गृ., ऐ. वा. , ऐ. वा. इन्द्रो वै वृत्रं हनिप्यन् सर्वा देवता अब्रवीत्... ( 252) भीम. भा. आश्व. ऐ, ब्रा. वृत्रस्यत्वाश्वसथा......विश्वेदेवा अजहुर्ये सखायः (253) Cf. वसिष्ठs in दाशराज्ञ fight also सभा. (254) शान्ति. (255) मभा. : भीष्म observed additional rules personally. Temples, cemetaries हविःशेष & अग्निसाधन were not molested. Maidens captured in war were not to be touched for a year, cf. रा. iii. 5. (256) मभा. शान्ति. याश्च तत्रस्त्रिया: काचिद्धतवीरा हतात्मजाः also सभा. (257) मभा, वन. attack on द्वारका by शाल्व, शान्ति. f. कौटिल्य. (258) 6 258 रा. v. 52 न दूतवध्यां प्रवदन्ति सन्तो.दूतस्य दृष्टा बहवो हि दण्डाः वैरूमप्यङ्गेपु कशाभिघातो मौण्डयं तथा लक्षणसन्निपातः हनूमत्'s case. (259) Cf. धृष्टद्युन्न's request to द्रौणि to save him,from such a death. सौ. मी. cf. Death by disease for a क्षत्रिय. (260) विषमग्निं जलं रज्जुमास्थास्ये तव कारणात् (मभा. वन. रा. अयो.) cf. दुयोधन at घोषयात्रा and भरत's सत्याग्रह ; cf. अङ्गद, द्रोण etc. cf. modern Japanese practice of Harikari and Johár by Rajput ladies. शूद्रक's entrance in fire, cf. हर्षचरित. cf. उदीर्व नार्यभिजीवलोक R.V.x ..

·Nos. 1 & 2) REFERENCES WITII NOTES AND APPENDICES 77 (261) अनुगमन did not exist in Rigredic period. The widow sat near the pyre, but soon retured अमयां नाम ते रोका अन्धेन तममा वृताः तोस्ते प्रेग्याभिगन्ति ये के घामानो जनाः ईश. expressly forbids suicide, cf मनु who extols at मभा, मामल व्यासंग्राही यया। (262) Four wives of वसुदेव enter the funeral pyre, उलूपी entered the stream: 3 TE The bier is carried in a cart drawn by builocks. People shovered gold coins and garments on the bier as the procession marched \cdic funeral was more solcmn Women were similarly decked, but they were not to weep इमा नारी अनश्रया अनर्माचा सुरना, आरोहन्तु जनयो. R. V. X. 18.7 मभा, omits reference to gratuit owing to its humanitarian tendency. रा. mentions it in the case of रारण of R' अमेवर्मपरिगोभिव्ययम्य x 16 7. Note that none performs Sati at ito's and Travel's funeral, Burial also existed in Rigvedic period of उर्णप्रदायुवति दक्षिणायत एषा त्या पातु नितेरपस्थात् ( R. V. 18 10) ( 263) CF पिदुर (264) शत. ग्रा. पुरा इतिथ्य मरिण्यामि न ते अधीनि च न गृहान्प्रा. प्स्यन्ति। (265) Cr the phrase आदहन स्मशान आ. गृय (266) ममा विराट, The corpse on मोवृक्ष शान्नि. यिागेरपभुकम्य शरामापतितस्य च असिना चोपभुनम्य कुन. मजीवन पुन. ताण्डय 8 3 22 Dogs were let loos to devour a man, cf नृमेधस आभिरम मनमामीनं शभिरम्यादयन् । (267) पीचक's brothers were allored to sacrifice सैरन्धी whorn his heart was fixed cf नीपर्य धनुभि शनिभित्रय रयनीय माधव गुन्ति धचितामेते cf Rv. x. funeral hymn मा गृ धनुधक्षत्रियाय । CF i gyupan & Chinese custom of entombing living servants malc ind female alons kith the dead master (268) भीम protested against the idea that धर्म should ofer gifts and perform wird in memory of ina who was a great sinner cf. I wyptain and Chinese custom of prouding all articles of food and furiture to the deceased in his toinb (269) गन गम्मादुममानादेय पुरादनापाचश जायते इदं हि धायें पुरपे ननाये घाctRI X 10 गर्भनुनी जनिता देपनीय अनु भमपिण्या या मागरमगांया नया पिशु माति. नर talks of गायम. The tictum मागतमादप्यं मापिण्णय नियनंन concs into on ·[P.O. Vol. XIII. RELATION OF EPICS or sce later, legality of the marriage on grounds of aniqot is ot questioned in अर्जुन-सुभद्रा or वत्सला-अभिमन्यु marriage. ( 270) अर्जुन's marriage with चित्रागदा princes of Manipur nd with out for a day, with स्नुपा (widow ) of ऐरावत नाग chief for a day. ऐ. वा. vi. i. अर्बुद कादवेय, cf. ताण्डय. ( 270) पुलोमा was promised to रक्षस् मभा. आदित्य. सोमवा tras born of Naga mother and made a पुरोहित of जनमेजय. मभा, सभा. ( 271) See gencalogy Note 2. connection with गन्धर्व and यक्षs is also noted elsewhere. (272) मनु lays down 12 & 30 8 & 24. त्रिंशद्वर्पो वह कन्या हृयां द्वादशवार्पिकीम्...... ( मनु. 2. 94 ) as the standard age of the bride and the bridegroom. This is explained on the ground that Hindus wanted to stop conversion from their ranks to Budhism. They might have been influenced by ‘mystery of numbers' आश्वः गृह्य विरानं द्वादशरात्रं सवरसरं वा 'ब्रह्मचारिणी स्याताम् is in favour of fost puberty marriage. Medical authorities recomend 16 & 25 as the right age. ( 273 ) भवन्ति गेहे बन्धक्यः कितवानां युधिष्ठिर. अनु. A Brahman begetting a a Shúdrá was abhorred. Contraceptive methods must have been used in such cases. (274) In thc Vedic period also the widow had to choose the close relative of her husband if she wanted to get a son or marry again. Her freedom was gone for eyer along with the right her father's family upon her, मनु. मभा. वन, सकृत्कन्या प्रदीयते. ( 275) अघासु हन्यन्ते गावोऽर्जुन्योः पर्युह्यते Rv. x.:85. 13 and a सोमोददगन्धर्वायगन्धर्वोदददग्नये...cf. आ.गृह्य. marriage hymn. रामा. वा 71 मघाह्यद्य महावाहो तृतीये दिवसे विभो फल्गुभ्यामुत्तरे राजस्तमिन्वैवाहिकं कु अस्मिन्गृहे गार्हपत्यायें जागृहि द्रोण. the seven stages complete the ce mony 499€î being the last which made it irrevocable. (276) मभा. वनपर्व-भेरुंडा वासनाः कुब्जाः स्थूलशीस्तिथैव श्वान्धाश्च बधिरा जायन्ते त्युच्चलोचनाः “शान्ति. अपुमांसोऽङ्गहीनाश्च स्थूल विचेतसः । the science of eugenics was thoroughly studied bec there was ample material. In the Brahmanas such marr were rare as the Aryan Society was more compact. quidist also considered non-Eugenic. on son ·Nos 1 & 2) REFERENCES WITHI MOTES AND APPENDICES . (277) ममा, अनु romen of. उत्तराs enjoyed equality of freedom with men. भादिपर्व अनावृताः रिल पुरा गिया आसन्... (278) या विश्पला. (279) c मुलभाजनम्यवाद-शान्ति. यावरस्य, गार्गि, (यह 11.61 पतचर वाप्य' wife asa medium रा. भ. सीता mentions homely prophets 1280) मुरुमा did not marry because of the difficulty of getting a suitable husband (भतरि असति मद्विधे) she was the daughter of a क्षत्रिय prince शत मा अधं या एप आरमन. यरपानी also यूपारोहण विधि R v. v. 61.8 पति-पत्न्याधभाग . मभा श ग. नारद Says अस्कृताया न्याया शुनो रोषस्तपान. (281) CE Daughter of शापिडरय (282) ममा अनु ल मनु यत्र नार्यस्तु पूज्यन्ते Cf the marriage hymn Rv र मनाक्षी मारे भय (253) मभा शान्ति, स्त्रियाम्नधापचारिण्या निनिस्यादपका milder punishment is also prescribed रजमा ता विशुध्यन्ते भस्मना भाजन यथा cf या मनु. भायां चाप्रिययादिनीम् (284), ममा यन. मनु अनु न मूर्याग्दी न तरन् पुरानी या निरीक्षते ममा उपा कीतहरमरा साधी रा. युद्ध. व्यसने पैर युद्धषु न परपु स्वययरे नाना न वियाहे या दर्शन दुप्यते त्रिय । (235) CE केयी पामरया मुमिया and पायाता, मरिपी. परिणि (286) The number of slave women and independent women servants in the employ of the qucens 18 fabulous, they numbered sicral thousands (287) रा. भयो. पौरिय अपं,मभा. (288) (b)नायार मेरमरात् पन्या प्रश्या विनमाहना-शान्ति रायण allows the same period to off. This shows a higher degree of civilization than one found among other conquering races (259) मभा पन प्रायः षणाना तथा याममपि विधयाना Forstofa Thy They had to go to the 12 court to get their share गागिर मन धनाना Rs In case of misconduct or remarnase the forfeitei it, अपुरा दशिवायन पापी। Ichvol of jurists ciuins that madons use enuto in lare Cf.

·80 RELATION OF EPICS [P. O. Vol. XIII maintenance. Cf. तै. सं. अनिम्द्रिया अदायादा: मनु. & बौधायन follow this view. ( 288) (a ) द्रोण. हैरण्यास्तत्रवाहिन्यः स्वैरिण्यो व्यवहन्पुरा cf मुद्राराक्षस कौटिल्य. विपकन्या, दुर्योधन once thought of dividing पाण्डवs by using women. In the Brabmana period the institution is not legalised. 'The class existed Cf. पुश्चल साधारणी Cf. वारस्याकामसूत्र शत. iii. 2. 3 योपिकामावे गन्धर्वा वाच मेवैभ्यः प्राहणुवाम Cf. सुन्दोपसुन्द. ( 290) शैलूप इव रामोऽद्य परेभ्यो दातुमिच्छसि रामा, अकालज्ञासि मेरन्धि शैलू पीच विरोदिषि विरा. भा. Cf. Gambler's hymn R. V. X. 34 दमयन्ती & द्वौपदी. (291 ) रा, v. 9 वैडूर्य & मुक्ता-हार, नृपुर, रशना, कुण्डल शत vi. 3. 6. 11) कुरीर ( ( crownlet ) 2. 4. 15 किंकिणी, iv केयूर, वलय, v. 15 श्वदंष्ट्र, अडगुलीयक men were not behind women रा. वाल. 6 they used कुण्डल, मुकुट, स्त्रक्, अङ्गुलीयक कटक, अङ्गद निष्क, The king was privileged to wear रुक्म on one ankle ( शत० coronation ) ( रशना) रास्ना Girdle of gold set with jewels was put round the waist by priest. हार छान्दोग्य० ( जानश्रुति's gift), निप्क (ताण्डय.) (292) शत. v. 1. 6. 8. चण्डातक was worn at the time of sports also. वा. (293) हंसाङ्कितेन क्षोमेण किंचित्पीतेन संवृतां श. 73 At menses, only the lower garment was worn. Cf. द्रौपदी at the gambling hall, ते. ना. 2. 3. 10. ( 294) सीता सावित्री loved सोम who was fond of श्रध्दा. सावित्री's father gave her स्थागर ( a fragrant substance) with which she decorated her person. Approaching her lover she repeated charms and won his love. Cf. अम्लान माला तिलको as the secret art of वासवदत्ता कथा सरित्सागर गौग्गुलवेन प्रातः सवने सौगन्धिकेन माध्यन्दिने अक्ष्णोरञ्जन ता, बा. 24. 13. 4., आञ्जनेन सर्पिया R. V. x. CK. मभा, & रामा. Cf. आ. गृह्य. समावर्तन (295 ) रा. v. 15 त्रिकपर्दा, शत. vi. 3. 6. 10 सिनीवाली सुकपर्दा, चतुष्कपर्दा युवतिः R. V. In husband's absence एकवेणी. (296) मभा. आदि,. Cf. देवयानी शर्मिष्ठा dispute अवभृथस्नान on the banks of ſumna etc. are holy water picnics, held at the end of sacrifices Cf. ताण्ड्य, शत. (297) रा. ii. 67 नाराजके जनपदे - सायान्हे क्रीडितुं यान्ति कुमार्यों हेम भूषिता:

·Nos. 3 & 41 REFERENCES WITII NOTES AND APPENDICES 81 (298) CI. गृहसदा । विराट's court. पात, 111. 2.3.6 तस्मादपि एतर्हि मोयसहिता एक्योपा एवं हि यागुपावर्तत तामुग्रन्या अनु योपास्तस्माघ एव नृत्यति योगायति तस्मिता निमिम्लतमा इच, C. उदयन वासवदत्ता episode (299) ममा. अनु. The dialogue between पबचूडा and नारद, कामश्चाष्ट विधः स्मृतः, काठक उप, न पैनणानि सन्यानि सन्ति R.v.x. It is recognised that if men are well-goi crned there cannot exist a vicious woman ct. न स्वैरी स्वैरिणी कुतः छान्दो० and शान्ति. (300) तस्मान्मलयद्वाससा न संपदेत न सहासीत से सं. also nात. All decoration, oil bath, out door sports etc. were prohibited cf. मनु. मभा. (301) ते. या 3 4 पुरपमेघ cf. रा. सुन्दर. रावण's Court. (302) ममा वर्ण. है हते. सूक्ष्म कम्बल वासिनी, lars of inheritance suggest Dravidian origin of modern Kerala system. (303) ता.मा. 17.1.9Four types of ग्रात्यs are given, one type consists of cxiled people who live among otas. They are accepted into the Anyan fold if they give beasts in charity. Another type covers people who live with arts since boyhood (1 ये नृशंसा निन्दिताः मन्तो पात्या प्रवसेयुः,2 ये फनिष्टाः सन्तःमारयां प्रयसेयु 3 ये ज्यटा सन्तो...4 अदुरक्तवार्य दुपामाहुः भदण्यं दण्डेन अन्तश्चरन्ति etc....12. 1. 2, 5, 14 न हि प्राचयं चरान्ति नपि न पाणिज्यां प्रात्य is used for any heterodox people cf. किं ते पृण्यन्ति पक्टेिपुगायो नाशिर दुहे न तपन्ति धर्मम् R. V. 1. 53.14 फोपीतकीs are so called in ताण्डप प्रा. रा. V. 22 + 309. The Engineering feat of नल is remarkable they used pulleys to lift and carry heavy stoncs. (304) ममा द्रोण, काकवर्णा दुराचारा खालोतरावरहनियाःद्राविटाः, सर्वज्ञा पपनारामन् शराश्रय Dr. R. Altra holds that यवन originally denoted the country and the people to the West of Kandahar, Arabia, Persia, Medea or Assyria. At a later date the term included Arabs, Asiatic Grecks and Egyptians. 47915 not found in ATGRIET It. ममा कर्गोगा मदग्निया मल भावराणां श्याग : स्पदारमुग विम्या.. मा. गुनः नेपस्या. (305) मभा. भीष्म also लेम्स्य मापर: शफ इदि यरनsana classified with Rct. तस्माद् प्रामगो न ऐन्टेस् (306) भपहनामुरारनांसि येदिपनः Rakshasas are the aborigines ·82 RELATION OF EPICS [P.O. Vol. XIII of South India. The Brahmana period is a record of struggle between देव & असुर mainly; रामायण deals with the struggle between the descendants of देवs ( now a mixed race) and राक्षस रा. iv. 51. मय is the chief architect of दानव' King of Vindhya Mt. भा. सभा. सथ is आसुर. (307) कुबेर is worshipped by Asuras, Cf. रा. iv. मय's death भा. सुन्दोपसुन्द, Cf. योपित्कामावै गन्धर्वाः शत० (308) Music, Drama, architecture, medicine etc. ता, ब्रा. 7. 5. 20 उशनावै काव्योऽसुराणां पुरोहित आसीत् तं देवाः कामदुधा- भिरुपामन्त्रयन्त Cf. संजीवनी विद्या their vices are exaggerated रा. v. 20 C. स्वधर्मो रक्षसां भीरु...गमनंवा परस्त्रीणां हरणं love of Luxury & ease ruined them. (309) रा. iv. 22 तारा, iv. 33 रा. v. 1 It was a swimming feat. (310) This ignorance is deliberate in some cases. ( 311 ) प्राकृत's influence कुटस्य (कृतस्य R. V.) तस्माद् ब्राह्मणा उभयीं वाचं वदन्ति या च देवानां या च मनुष्याणां. मै सं. i. 11. 5 quoted by -- यास्क. (312) श्यापर्णs are censured in ऐ. ब्रा. for foul pronunciations ( पूतायै वाचो वदितारः) (312) होलवो हेलिव : for हेऽरयः शत. बा. iii. 1. 5. 24 also उपही for उपधेहि, आही for आदेहि. ( 313) अल = अनल शिशिर = अग्नि, शस्त्र = प्रासाद मभा. आदि frat did not understand this dialect. ( 314) पैशाची is phonetically in the same state as पाली spoken by a tribe in TFETT, नेपाळ & बाल्क. (:315) रा. V. 30 वानरश्च विशेषतः वाचं चोदाहारप्यामि मानुषी मिह संस्कृतां यदि वाचं प्रदास्यामि द्विजाति रिव संस्कृतां रावणं मन्यमानां Fl atarnitar precafa According to Genealogy 'Tao had Aryan blood in his veins. The language of Vànaras was unintelligible to Aryans. Sita could not have understood a syllable of it. TEHOT does not understand the report of मधुवनभङ्ग by दधिमुख. v. 63 रा. vii. 36 हनूमत् was a linguist and ritualist Cf. High 'German & low German. .

·Nos. 3 & 4) RCFERENCES WITH NOTES AND APPENDICES 83 (316) शयति गति कमां कम्बोजव माप्यते विकामरयार्यपु भाषन्ते शप इति, दातिलंवनायें प्राच्येपु दायमुदीच्येपु - निरुक ii. 2. ( 317) Cf. कट्ट मुपर्गी Humour in च्यवन's story in different प्राह्मणs. ऋग्र legends मनु and the fish, शुनः शेप etc. (318) C. गीतगोविन्द of जयदेव. (319) ममा. आदि, नारद gives a list of sciences he had mastered in to ? cf. Budhistic universities at Nalanda & Taxila where hunting and archery were also taught. (320) CE. वृनइन्द्र fight and Nature of Ashvins, (321) Cr. नारद in वृह, इन्द्र & विरोचन as students of philosophy, कच going to शुक्र for medicine? गमा. and ताण्ट्य. (322) At Nalanda nobles and princes sent their sons for cducation, they richly endowed the institution. (323) Cघृहस्पति's wife and चन्द्र, Frequent rel. to गुस्तल्यग in the cpic period. For discipline see धौम्य & his disciples ममा. music was tabooed at later date cf. मभा. आदि आ. पीप्य. कच देवयानि. (324) Princes had an elementary knowledge of Vedic culture and learnt the following subjects आश्वारोह, गजारोह, रयचयां, धनुर्वेद, गान्धर्व, विविध भाषा, etc. cf. the exhaustive list in कादम्यरी ref. चन्द्रा- पीई's education & कौटि. विद्यासुमुद्देश परशुराम An idependent teacher द्रोण a servant of state. Prohibition against music during the student lifc is of late origin. C. कय देवयानि, & मनु. जयेन्मधुमांसं...गीवादनम् (2. 178) (325) नैष्टिको ब्रह्मचारी तु बसेदाचार्य मसिधी...या स्मृ. (326) मान्धात punished a ricked Shramana for adultery with younger brother's wife रा. iv. 18. (327) मुलभा पडवा, गार्गी arc exceptions, ग्रामगs lost moral prestige xben they began to amass wealth. (328) मभा. मध, साजिनधराधान्ये मुण्डाः केचिदमपृताः रा. याल. प्रमणा: (दिगम्यराः?) रा.ii. 102 iii.6 पन्नाहाराः सलिलाहारा: पायुभक्षाः आकाशनिलयाः भाद- पटयाममः, V. 13 पक्षमलिक. ( 329) न पुरा आयुषो स्वःकामी प्रेयात् रात. (330) ममा. शान्ति also रयं पुनररण्येषु मुममेफेन जीपिनु अयिभ्रता पुप्रीमान्दपोरानियोन्पितॄन् नमै मृगाः स्वगंजिता न यराहा न पक्षिण: ct. महायान हीनयान schools, ·84 RELATION OF EPICS [P.O. Vol. XIII ( 331.) सभा. विरा. ततो व्याधेश्च सिंहेश्च द्विरदैश्चाप्ययोधयत्. (332) बलराम's तीर्थयात्रा cf. ऐ. वा. चराति चरतोभगः पुप्पिण्यो चरतो जधे भूप्णुरात्मा फलग्रहिः शेरेऽस्य सर्वे पाप्मानः (333) T. vii 43 They are absent in ZTETUTS (334) Cf रा. ii. 6, 14 Lamp trees were erected in minor streets, flags were hoisted on all trees in the town. A chariot of 4 horses ( with 8 maidens a palanquin, white bull and fine horse.) marched.. (335) C. पोडशदानानि- (336) This is a symbol of world conquest. 7) This is opposed to upanishadic and epic tradition where कृत is the highest Throw cf. छान्दोग्य. कृताय विजितायाधरेयाः संयन्ति. also सभा. शत, कलिरेपहि सर्वानभिभवति (v. 4. 1.6) when all five gold couries have their faces upwards then it is pair with which he conquers five quarters. (338) Cf. the two swords in the Bible. (339) Cf. शान्ति, पिण्ड पितृयज्ञ on every अमावास्या शत. divides the manes into सोमपs and असोमपs, (340) Even a grown up man had to approach a wise man for higher learning with formality cf. समित्पाणिः श्रोत्रियं ब्रह्मनिष्टं. also गीता iv. 34 तद्विद्धि प्रणिपातेन परिप्रश्नेन सेवया for पुंसवन सीमन्तोन्नयन अन्नप्राशन etc. see आश्व. गृह्य. Many of them do not belong to Brahmana period. e. g. the worship of सर्पा & नागs the Totem of the two non Aryan tribes. मधुपर्क was offered to a distinguished guest. A heifer, bull, or a goat was presented to him and killed for food. With the growth of humanitarian feeling the guest simply touched and released it. (cf. पारस्कर गृह्य.) ऐ, प्रा. a barren cow was offered. नवा- ब्लेष्टि was modified. (339 cf. रा. iii. श्राद्ध & सपिण्डीकरण by राम ) into $a wrique on raitoint in the epic TrHTO iv 16. वास्तुशमन is very old cf. RV. वास्तोपपते प्रतिजानी ह्यस्मान् स्वावेशो अनमीवो भवानः etc राम performs it on चित्रकूट offering venison to विश्वेदेवा रुद्र. विष्णु. cf. मयसमा मभा. ( 341 ) #T allows all seekers after knowledge to receive education from any inferior person, It includes both secular ·Nos. 3 & 4) REFERENCES WITH NOTES AND APPENDICES 85 and spirstual learning. When a Brahman teacher is not availa. ble, he allows Brahmanas to get education from a क्षत्रिय or वैश्य, cf. मनु.२ २४०, २४१,२३८ खियो नान्यथो विद्या धर्मः शौचं सुभाषितम् । विविधानि ध शिल्यनि समादेयानि सर्वत ॥२०॥ अग्राह्मणादध्ययन मापरकाले विधीयते । अनुपज्या च शुश्रूपा यावध्ययनं गुरोः ॥ २४१ ॥ श्रद्दधान' शुमा विद्यामादधीतायरादपि। अन्त्यादपि परं धर्म स्त्रीरत्नं दुप्फुनगदपि ॥ २३८ ॥ We have already noted how ma non-Brahmana was at first cursed and driven out of the sacrificial hall on account of his infcrior caste, but later welcomed as a respectable pricst by other sacrificers (. प्रा.) In छान्दोग्य वृहदारण्यक there are in. stances of Brahmanas approaching a क्षप्रिय to get spiritual knowledge. As the barriers of caste became more tight the process of assimilating nen of learning into the highest class disappeared. The attitude of his different from that of the author of Ontar प्राह्मण in thisrespect. GENERAL INDEX (Contarurd from Pages) Vriskapia,51 Vrtra 23,24,65,83 Var37,63 Wils42,75,7,9 Witchcraft21,33 Women 21,41,42,43,4 (Seamy tidool),43,49,8,9,30, their influence in politica 44, 59 Y Tadams6,10,15,40 Yahanikya1,34,62,69, 11,83 l'ajun cda 65 Janvas 33,45 Yama 25,37,61 Yamt 37 Yaska4s,11,82,83 Yarana 45,81 Yayatt 30,52,59,72 Yoga-philosophy 33 Yosic porrers 33 rudusthira 33,3 z Zoology 33,3 ·APPENDIX A The rise of the new philosophy which gradually kills Vedic religion in which sacrifice through 2014 to the various vedic gods is the principal mode of religious worship शान्तिः अ, २२६ इन्द्र-नमुचि dialogue. The lost his wealth and power. He is defeated by gods and bound with ropes. But the acquired the highest philosophical knowledge. He was perfectly calm and peaceful. इन्द्र puts him the same question that he had done to वलि & प्रल्हाद before. The gives a similar answer. gives a similar answer. He delivers a similar philosophical sermon to Sr. Therein he propounds the theory of predestination. Since all things are predetermined by the creator-( God) why should one be sorry or gleeful? A philosopher should be quite indifferent and neutral amidst all changes of fortune. He is never angry, never afflicted with grief but is always unruffled in spirit and steady like the Himalayas. It is a key to happiness. In the Upanisadic period इन्द्र and विरोचन-father of वलि-go to प्रजापति to obtain the knowledge of आत्मन्. विरोचन misunderstands the teaching and goes away satisfied, returns again and again with doubt until he gets the correct knowledge of STEHT. In the epic period the situation is changed. fataa's son are becomes the greatest philosopher and saint and see approa. ches him for the highest knowledge. What metamorphosis? Forse riding his favourite elephant begins his search for af. He finds af in a deserted house in the form of an ass, eating chaff as described by ब्रह्मदेव (इन्द्र having defeated all असुर's and inquired the whereabouts of aes whose wealth is inexhaustible inspite of his eternal gift-making). इन्द्र asks him Are you not unhappy in your present posi- - tion, considering your magnificent and flourishing past ?” ames reprimands some for his unchivalrous remarks and says your mind is vulgar therefore you are talking in that strain. Free repeats his question, 86 ·No. 3 & 4) APPENDIX A 87 ates gives him a loog lecture. Its purport is. Everything in the world is dependent on Time. All creatures have to submit to it. My present state is not the result of my previous cril *; it is entirely due to Time. As I have secured ANTHIT why should I be jubilant or sorry for the good or evil that I experience? That all-pervading force-Time-will also dethrone you (**) in due course. (Note the Upanishadic law of Karman is out right rejected) (STR. 37. 380). meets are a sccond time in a mountain cave.is riding 147 and fie is followed by other gods. af is a prisoner, but he is neither sorry for himself nor jealous of 's pomp in his captivity. He delivers another scrmon to who applauds af's spirit of complete resignation and tranquillity and spares his life. शान्ति. अ. २७९ शुक्रवामुर सवाद. पुत्र becomes a saint and philosopher after his defeat. शान्ति.अ. २२२ इन्द्र.प्रल्हाद संवाद. प्रल्हाद had obtained आत्मशान. He was leading the life of an ascetic in a desolate house (the same as चलि's). इन्द्र admits प्रल्हाद has all possible virtues and he is leading a peaceful and calm life. inquires the cause. HET cxplains to how and why he is not miserable and unhappy even though he has lost all his wealth, status, grandeur and is vanquished by the enemics (gods). The object of the story in the Upanishad is to exalt the importance of STICHET even the great god of Vedic and Brāhmana period is imperfect unless he possesses ancilla, Thus indirectly is reduced to the level of an ignorant man. महाभारत goes a step ahead. In it demons like प्रल्हाद, पलि, agfa and la play the part of saints and philosophers. They impart spiritual knowledge to the principal vedic god A. inspite of his hearenly empire and grandeur is painted as an impudent blustering philistinc. His downtrodden adversaries assume the function of preceptors and enlighten bim. In the Upanishadic period he goes to another sod-angla who jobtructs him. That is not as degrading 26 his going to his defeated foes for आत्मशान, ·88 RELATION OF EPICS [P. O. Vol. XIII शान्ति. अ. २७२ हिंस्रयज्ञनिन्दा A devout Brāhmana named loses the merit of his life long penance the moment he thinks of offering a deer as a victim in the sacrifice. Non-killing is declared to be the highest religion (अहिंसा परमोधर्मः) Direct condemnation of sacrifice is found in several places in FETHT because it entails killing. Vedic gods are utterly discredited. विष्णु-कृष्णभक्ति is put in the forefront. Vedic gods and sacrifice are inseparable. There vedic sacrificial system has to be overthrown. This is achieved in various ways. That does it mildly by changing the meaning of T3 and assigning a lower place to sacrificers of vedic type. Vedic 55, like Nietzsche's superman, is beyond good and evil. This ideal is no longer of service to combat the influence of Budhism. Following the clue of Budha's previous births a system of facu's avataras is evolved and presented to the people in an attractive form. The process of stut's deification is clear from the following episodes. १ कृष्णदौत्य at the court.of कौरव's. २ विश्वरूपदर्शन in गीता. ३ कृष्णपूजा at the close of राजसूय performed by युधिष्ठिर. ४ कृष्ण reviving the life of still-born son of उत्तरा-अभिमन्यु. ५ The famous declaration भगवान् वासुदेवोऽत्र कीर्त्यतेऽयं सनातनः, ६ Addition of हरिवंश as a 19th पर्व to महाभारत makes it complete. - ·APPENDIX B Supercession of Vedic primar by cpic y-fans. Common traits कृष्ण (1) is born miraculously (1) appears as a fivecf. Rv. IV. tg hymn. year child at birth He is अयोनिरांभय. His birth is miraculous. (2) Through thamc Ft's (2) In tas also concealed mother concealed him in a by his father, through fcar, in secret place after his birth. Gokula. अयद्यमिय मन्यमाना गुहाकरिन्द्र माता पीर्येणान्यूटम् (RY.) (3) At his birth there was a (3) At the touch of go's violent storm in (aerial) toe the Yamuna which was in waters, he stopped it by letting spate suddenly became quiet out the waters through a and fordable. channel Rv. ममन्छिदापः शिशवे मगृश्यः (4) FI destroys the chariot (4) कृष्ण Lills कटामुर. of उपस्. (5) 77 kills aiit (scrpeat) (5) कृष्ण Hills कालिया who had who by obstructing the flow of poisoned the trater of the acrial waters had caused havoc Yamuna and makes it pure and and allows the waters to flow uscful for the people. for the good of the people. (6) He kills afit lying in the (6) He kills to who was mountain fast asleep in a case, unexpec. सहसहिपते शिधियाणम् (Rt.) tedly. (7) 7 kills by using (7) विष्ण (नरसिंह) kills दिरप्य. fraud. feng similarly. (8) defcats powerful (8) facy by assuming various 391's. It is his special duty. incarnations defcatsra's and राक्षस'. (9) made the flying (9) Pahang (16) makes the mountains stable (by cutting sinking carth stable by lifting their wings) यः पर्वतान्मा पितों मरम्मात् (Rt.) SO it up.

·90 RELATION OF EPICS (P. O. Vol. XIII इन्द्र facons (10) z's weapon is वज्र (10) कृष्ण (विष्णु) has a सुदर्शनचक्र which has many sharp points. which has many sharp points. With he kills his enemics. कृष्ण kills शिशुपाल and others with this weapon. (11) इन्द्र is गोपति गवामसि गोपति (11) Tite is 1977, the lord of 75: (Rv.). cos. (12) enjoys the company (12) कृष्ण sports with गोपी's in nym phs in 7767 garden. the grove along the Yamunā river. (13) ? is the paramour of (13) stop is thc paramour of 2166TT. He enjoys her fraudul राधा. विष्णु violates the chastity ently. of 777 by using fraud like som (14) assumes various (14) Epic Rūto takes various forms by his miraculous powers forms to destroy demons c.g. (इन्द्रोमायाभिः पुररूप ईयते (Rs.). मोहिनी, नरसिंह, वामन. दुर्योधन censures to because he uses HTUT to deceive the encmies. (15) Formerly people prayed (15) The world when harrasto F. for victory in battle sed by Demous and राक्षस's against enemies त्वां हवन्त उभग्रास approaches epic ſavu for relief आजियु (Rv.). with prayer. दासा च वृत्रा हतमार्याणि च (Rv.). (16) 's love for his sister (16) कृष्ण loves कृष्णा (द्रौपदी is well known. his adopted sister. Note that stor has to assimilate all the qualities of his old Jival, In order to facilitate the succession of some by facuj z tur, shtet stopp ed the age old worship of some and replaced it by the new worship of गोवर्धनगिरि (हरिवंश ). This in effect means कृष्ण (his devotees ) discards Vedic sacrifice in which some figures prominently and starts the school of Hitation in which he himself ( Soul facer) is the highest god. + ·GENERAL INDEX . A Asri 28, 32, 72 Actors 16,38,43 Avatāra 22 Aditya 22 Ayodhy: 37 Adultery 14, 33, 62, 69, 83 Agastya 8, 23, 60 Agns Vassagra 7, 22, 24, 25, 27, 56, Baladalabhya 21 66, 75 Balarima 84 Bilhika 7 Agriculture 21 Ahutagns 39 Balı 24 Airāvats-naga 78 Bina 39, 83 Aitareya-Aranyaka 67, 75 Baudhiyana Sutra 61 Astareya-Brahmana 3, 5, 7, 39, 54, 57, Bergson 14 58, 60, 61, 62, 64, 66, 67, 68, 69, Bhagadatta 7 70, 71, 74, 75, 76, 78, 81, 82, 84 Bharadisja 5 Ajigarta 30 Bharata 39, 73, 76 Aksauhını 15, 63 Bhirata-date of the book and war Alexander 31 1, 7, 15, 19 Bhäratas-a tribe S Ambika 24 Bhima 34, 36,77 Ananta 8, 64 Blusma 2, 10 Anatomy 32 Bhogavatı 57 Angas 45, 56 Bhojas 7 Arit 24 Boar--incarnation 22 Arittas 44 Botany 33 Arbitration 14 Brahmn24 Arjima-Nimc of Indra in Satapatha Rrahmi and Kshatra 9, 13 Br.3, 8, 11, 32, 37, 50, 54, 57 Brahmana period 1, 4,8 9, 15, 17, Army 13, 15, 63 Aryans-defcated at Kuruksetra 3, 21, 22, 23, 26, 34, 35, 39, 45, 46, 49, 61, 64, 65, 82 8, 23, 24, 26, 27, 29, 30, 31, 36, Brahmanas 12, 13, 14 (Preferential 37, 45, 46 treatment in Law) 15, 16, 27 Waandiyant 5 (Power in State), 28, 29, 30, 31. Atsam 8 35, 38, 39, 40, 44, 45, 51, 72, 78, Auzdvakra 36 83, 8) Astrology 32, 72 Brahman 25, 34 Attronomy 32 Brahmanism 2, 49 Atura (Asuray) 8,21, 36, 40, 45, 82 Bride-moncy to Ayvamedha 6, 35, 57 Dudha 9, 22, 34 Asvias 29, 33, 34, 66,83 Dudhism 2, 9,23, 29, 47,79 Atharva.veda 7,33, 56, 58, 66, 79,72 C Aurstra 20 Cabinetinuence of 11. members Atman 34, 67, 75, 59 Arma vıdya 51 Cambridge llistory 3, 56 Atons-yizin 26 Caric-syster 15, 27, 28, 29, 62, 85 91 ·92 GENERAL INDEX Elephants 15, 73 Epic period 1 (interpretation of), 8. 14, 23, 26, 27, 31, 40, 42, 46, 47, 62, 72, 83 Ethics 13, 35, 41 Eugenics 41, 78 Exogamy 40,77 F Faith 24, 35 Fire and other ordeals 14 Fish incarnation 23 Five sacred fires 5, 19, 38, 39, 40 Funeral 39 F. rites 39, 77 Cattle-farm 16, 64 Chandogya-upanişad 14, 60, 68, 70, 74, 75, 80, 81, 84, 85 Charaka 33 Chastity 42, 79 Chiträñigadā 78 Christianity 29 Coins 6, 64 Confession 35, 62 Coronation 50, 51 Corvee 16, 64 Cosmology 17, 18 Courtesan 16 D Dahlman 3 Daksha 23 Damayanti 42, 72 Dāgavas 45, 82 Dancing 37, 42, 43, 44, 45 Dása (Dasyus) 8, 29, 57 Daśaratha 7, 30, 39, 58, 77 Dausanti 5 Defence 15, 16 Devāpi 58 Devayājin 26 Devayāni 80, 83 Dharma (Yudhisthira) compared to Christ 3, 10, 46, 50, 74, 77 Dharma-sutras 60, 63 Dhaumya 11, 83 Dhritarãshtra 2, 21, 58, 71 Divodās 5, 56 Draughts 49 Draupadi 2, 30, 42, 44, 56, 62, 65, 80 Dravidian culture 22, 31, 45, 81 Drśadvati 4 Drupada 30, 62, 68 Durgā 23, 24 Duryodhana 28, 65, 76 Dushyanta 44 Dvīpa 34, 73 Dārakā 6, 76 G Gambling 13, 16, 49, 51, 65, 80, 84- Gañas (Grāmas) 9, 10, 24, 58 Ganapati 24 Gāndhāra 7, 15, 82 Gandharva 40 Gandharvas 25, 28, 37, 40, 45 Ganges 5, 20 Garga 32 Garga-Samhita 72 Gargi 41 Gärgi 83 Gavāmayana 20, 32 Genealogy-of Solar kings 1, 54, 55, 56 of Lunar kings 52, 53, 54 Of Videha kings 55 Geometry 32 Ghoşhayātra 28 Gifts of land 12, 84 Gita 8, 26, 28, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 74, 75 Gomedha 21 Gopatha Brāhmaṇa 3, 7, 54, 65, 66, 70, 75 Great Bcar 32 Greece 9, 26 Grecians 37, 81 Gșhya Sūtras 41, 62, 70, 72, 74, 77 78, 80, 84 Griers on-on Kurus and Pāñcbāla 6 Guilds 14, 28, 31, 32 East Bengal 8 Ecclisiastical Council 14, 63 Education 47, 48, 83, 84, 85 ·GENERAL INDEX 93 Haihayes 5 Handmat 4,37, 45, 68, 75, 76 Harischandra 8 Harivansha 23 Harsacharita 76 Haryasva 5 Herctic: 14 Himalayas 3, 6, 73 Hlindu Pantheon 22, 23 lloltsmann 2 Homer 47 11opkins 1 Horse-sacrifice (Aswamedha) 20, 21 Houris 69 Human sacrifice (Puraşarnedha) 21, 67 Hunting 49 Iksvaku 1, 7, 52, 54 Image-worship 23 Income tax and other levics 16, 64 Indra 4, 13, 22, 23, 24, 27, 33, 37, 51, 61, 63, 65, 68, 69, 72, 75, 83 Indrāni 4 Indus 31, 58 Isina 22 J Jabili 34 Jaiminlya Brahmanx 59 Jain-Nyaya 74 Jatakas 4, 7, 33, 35, 55, 75 Janamcjaya 3, 5, 21, 52, 54, 56, 57 Janhus 6,53 Jarasandha 6, 7, 21 Jatakas 12 Jasa 2 Jayadeva 83 Jayndrathu 7 Jevons 21 Jumna 5,20 R Kacha 83 Kadambart 69 Kadra 83 Kuitcst 7, 30, 44, 59,79 Kali throw at a gambling match 51, 84 Kali-yuga 1 Kalinga 45 Kämaropa 7, 56 Kümbhojas 15 Kanila-niti 16, 17 Kanva 47 Karna-hero of Bharata 3, 10, 62 Kartikeya 68 Kashyapa 57, 58 Katha 26 Kathianat 6 Kaurayina 5 Kausalya 7, 58, 59, 79 Kaushitaki 9 Koupilya 42, 58, 59, 60, 63, 64, 65, 71, 76, 79, 83 Kavasasilusa 62,70 Khåndava--burnt by Arjun 8 Kichaka 39, 77 Kikafas-identificd sith Vratyas 7, 57 King-of Kalis 5, king's coronation 10, 50, 51 an ident king 12, 13, 17, 27, 28, 49, 61 Kosola 7 Kraivya 6 Krivis 6 Kiana 6, 10,22 (Namo of Sini), 23, 24, 25, 37, 72 Kubcr 32, 40, 68, 81 Kumar 22, 23 Kumbhalama 4 Kuruksetra 3, 4, 56 Kurupanch:12, 5, 6 Kurus 3, 5, 6 Kusa 7, 55 Kita 84 Kshatriyas 28, 32, 35, 40, 49, 61, 70, 76,85 L Ialymi 4 lalitävistina 4 Land totcnuc 16 Lantı 37, 73 ·94 GENERAL INDEX Nalanda 83 Nami (Nimi) 7,57 Namuchi 22, 24, 50, 65 Nārada 59, 60, 65, 79 Naraka 26 Narasinha 22 Närāyaṇa 22, 23 Navigation 64 Nepal 82 Nictzsche 25, 29 (view on caste. system),.41 Nişadhas 6 Niyoga (Lcvirate) 31, 78 Non-Aryan tribes 8, 15, 22, 27, 32, 33, 40, 46, 57 Legislative Council 11 Lichavi 9, 58, 63 Logic 36 M Madrakas 45 Magadha 6, 7 (anti-Brahmanical spirit of the people) Magadhi 46 Magic 18, 21, 33 Mahābhārata-war 11 M B and Iliad 47 Mahāraştri 46 Mahāvrata 20, 21, 37, 75 Maheshvara 23, 24 Maitrāyanîya Sahmită 71, 82 Manu 11, 40, 49, 59, 60, 61, 63, 64, 70, 71, 77, 78, 80, 81, 83, 84, 85 Marriage 40, 41, 78 Maruts 73 Maşnāra 5 Māthava-vidcgha 7 Mathura 6, 15 Matsyas 7 Maxmuller on the histotical value of the cpics 2 Māyā 34 Mayāsura 36, 65 Medicine 33, 72 Medieval-Europe 9,70 M, friars 24 „Megasthenes 58 Mind--static and dynamic 36 Mitra 50 Mlenccha 45, 46, 81 Mitsakatika 71, 76 Muchakunda 23 Mudgala 25 Music 37, 38, 44, 76, 83 Muzumdar 58 Mythological-explanation 3. N Nābhāga 1, 52 Nägas 8, 40, 46, 57, 84 Nahuşa 35, 74 Naimişāranya 57 Nakula 11, 34, 75 Nala 34, 49, 56, 63 Orissa 8 Ornaments 80 P Paisbücha 40 Pākayajna 29 Pali 46, 82 Pāñchälas 5,6 Pandavas 1, 2, 3 (show traces of Non-Aryan tradition) 4, 65 Pāndu 71 Paņis 4 Paradise 25, 26 Paramount Power 9 Parasurāma 22, 63, 83 Pargiter 1 Parikşit 3, 5, 54, 57 Patti 15, 63 Pausāyana 58 Penal Code 13, 14, 15, 61, 62, 63, 64, 74 Phallus--worship 22, 23 Pillar (yüpa) 22 Pindas 49, 51 Pisāchas 33, 46Paiſachi 82 Pitęs 51, 84 Pole-star 32 Polyandry 2, 30 Polygamy 30, 42, 71 Popular Assembly 9, 10 Prahlada 74 ·GENERAL INDEX 95 82, 84 Prajipit 17, 18, 21, 22, 24, 61, 66, 72 Salvas 7 Fratiloma-marriage 29 Salvation 23, 24, 41 Pratıpa 5 Samas eda 65 Pritardana 5 Sambaks 62,70 Psötsutsans 5 Sanatkum3ra 71 Pravahaņa-jaival. 6 Sanjays 11 Primogeniture 10 Sinkhya 34, 67, 74 Property 30, 31, 45 Sanskrit 45, 45 Prostituti 40, 42, 67, 78, 80 Santanu 58 Public exchequcr 13 Saota Parsa 10, 13, 19, 26, 58, 60, 61, Purdah 42 64-72, 74-78, 83, 84 Purodska 19 Santarana 5 Purohita 5, 9, 28, 59 Sanyasa 48 Puru 30, 52, 59 Sanyisın 4-9, 83 Pururains 37, 43, 52 Säpind ya 40,78 Purus 5 Sarama (RV 2. 105) 4 Puruşarthas 13 Saraswati 4, 5, 7, 20, 57, 72 Q Garmischi 80 Qucen 20, 42 Sarpas 8, 57, 84, S. vidya 72 Satapatła Brahmana 3, 5, 7, 8, 10, 22, R 23, 25, 26, 50, 56, 58, 59, 61, 62, Raghuvaisa 64, 72 63, 65-72, 74, 75, 77, 79, 80, 81. Rarvataka 37 Rajanya 11 Satec 39, 76, 77 Rajasüya 4, 20, 21, 57 Sattinta 5 Raksasas 8, 33, 36, 40, 44, 45, 46, 81, Satuantas 5,6 82 Satyavats 41 Ramg 1, 22, 23, 43, 73, 8+ Selt immoistion 39 Ramsyana 1, 4, 11, 12, 33, 47, 57, Shikhis 45 59-65, 68-76, 78-84 Rasana 3, 4, 37, 39, 40, 77, 79, 81, 82 Shakuntal: 41 Rcligion 26, 27, 35 Shais a 34, 38 Shankara 23 Republics 10, 15, 58 Rocda 4 (compared to Rimiyanı). Shiv 22, 23 5, 13, 28, 33, 34, 45, 46, 47, 49, 61, Shouraseni 46 66, 68, 69, 71, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, Shraddhi 40, 41, 77, 84 78, 80, 81 Shukra 23, 83 Royal 33 Shrasfsheps 30, 67, 70, 73, 81 Royal-clan 13 Sıbı-author of a vedic hymn 6 S Sibis 6 Sabhu l'arsa 52, 56, 57, (0, 63, 64, 65, Sind-Aryan Colonization 7,34,58, 69, 72, 75, 76, 78, 82, 54 7 (horscs) Sacrifico 5, 18, 19, 20, 25, 26, 28, 31, Sindhu souvitas 15, 45 33, 36, 45, 46, 47, 4s, 57, 60, 65, 81 Sišupita 10 Sadaniti (Gunduck) i Sit 4, 43, 44, 73, 74, 79, 82 Sahadeva 11 Skaads 23 Sakyss 63 Save 13, 27, 37, 43,79 ·96 GENERAL INDEX 4 Smith 68 Vadavā 83 Solar dynasty 7; solar eclipse a year Vaidarbhas 6 32; solar-face 54, 55 Vaidyamon Pāņdavas 3 Soma 13, 22, 25, 27, 50, 80 Vainya 28 Soņa 6,7 Vaisya 14, 28, 29, 30, 32, 46, 61, 64,85 Spencer--Fairy Queen 69 Vājapeya 20 Spiritual mediums 36, 41, 79 Vājasaneya Samhita 69, 70 Spy system 16, 17, 43, 59 Vāli 4 Subhadrā 3, 40, 78 Valmiki 47 Sudeva 5 Vāmana 22 Sūdra 14, 21, 27, 28, 29, 30, 40, 46, Vānaprastha 48 61, 70, 71, 78 Vānaras 45, 82 Sulabhā 33, 41, 75, 79, 83 Vanga 45, 56 Sumitra 79 Varāṇasī 5 Suparņi 83 Varnasankara 26, 29, 42, 78 Sushruta 33 Varşa 34 Syena-sacrifice 68 Varuņa 22, 24, 50, 64, 69 T Vašas Taittiriya-Aranyaka 19, 23, 67 Vasavadattā 80, 81 Taitt-Brāhmaṇa 19, 31, 56, 57, 61, 65, Vasiştha 5, 27, 64, 76 66, 67, 68, 69, 72, 74, 75, 80, 81 Vasuki 8, 57 Taitt-Sanhitā 10, 75, 80, 81 Vatsa 14 Takşaka 8, 40, 57, 72 Vatsas 5 Tāndya Brāhmaṇa 7, 10, 14, 32, 33, 45, 56, 61, 65, 67, 69, 70, 71, 72, Vātsyāyana 42, 62, 80 76, 77, 78, 80, 81, 83 Vedānta philosophy 24 "Tanūnaptra 58 Vedic Religion 2 Tārā 62, 82 Vena 61, 65 Tatta 31 Vernal equinoxmin Kittikā and Taxilā 8, 83 Rohiņi 2, 32, 56, 72 Toilette 42, 80 Vesali 9 Tortoise-incarnation 23 Veterinary science 34 Totemism 18 Vidarbha 56 Trigonometry 32 Videha 7, 55, 56, 57 Vidula 44 U Vidura. 10, 33, 46, 71, 77 Udyoga Parva 57, 61, 64, 71 Ulūpi 57, 77, 78 Village Council 12 Upanayana 51 Vinayakas 24 Upanişads 4, 19, 21, 22, 24, 34, 48, Vindhyāchala 23, 45, 73, 82 69, 74, 77, 83 Vipula 33 Urvasi 37, 43, 44 Virāta 19 Ushas 22, 23 Virochana 83 Usinaras 6 Vişņu 8, 13, 22, 23, 24, 25, 66, 68, 84 Uttara-kurus and Madras 6,79 Vişvamitra 6, 27, 30, 56 V Vrātyas 7 (their anti-Brahmanical spirit), 44 (Vähikas), 45, 46, 81 Vāchaspati 35 (four types of) (Continued on Page 85 ),

·No text on this page.

·No text on this page.

·Mo POONA ORIENTAL SERIES [ Almost all works are fully annotated & transd. in English and those unpriced ones are almost in Press) Title Rs. As Mo. Title R. AL 1 भगवनीता शांकरमाप्योपना 31 मेघदूत-K. B पाटक Best Critical Text 2nd Ed 7-8 32 पशतन्नं मृर-Dr. Edgerton 1-12 2 -ATresh Study-प्रो. यादेकर 1-4 33 काम्यादर्श-s. K. येलयर कर 3 फेन उपनिषद मटीकमात्र ed. by 34 काप्यारकारसमगृत्ति Text 2-8 म.म.श्रीधरवानी पाठक 1-12 35-Eng Trans. by G AT 2-8 2-8 36 Riştrakūtas & Their Times-- 5मुण्टर 1-12 दो. आळनेर 8-8 6शापाम्य 1-4 37-22 श्रुतिs of Ind Music-तेरंग 0-12 7 Constructic Survey of 38 Hindu Ethics-चंदावरकर 1-8 Upanışadıc Philosophy 39 डॉ.GRI.Commn. Jol. 17-8 by Prof R D Ranade 40 कृष्ण Problem-ताडपत्रीकर (Rough paper) Ordinary cd 11- 4 41 यजयन्तिकोश-G Oppert --Glazed paper Libry. cti 17-8 42 Democratic Hinduism 2-8 धीकराचार्यविरचितमपरणग्रंथाः 43 अमरकोश क्षीरस्वामीटकायुन माल्यकारिका-डॉ HD. समां 5-0 with marginal English 10 -सरपकीमुदी-,,.G. मा 5-0 meanings, Indexes etc 11 -System, CriticalStudy-मोवनी1-4 दॉ शमां .. N.G मरदेसाई 7-8 12 Rgreda-Lectures on-1.5 घाटे 4+ शाश्वतकोश-N N कुरमर्गी 2-8 Revised ed by डॉ सुम्पटणकर 3-12 45 शरदरूपायरि 0-6 13 प्रारमन 11-1-2-डॉ. बेलवलकर 8-0 46 Systemes of Sx Grammar 1 पदान्तमार-मो. हिरिभण्णा 1-12 47 Sb Inscriptions-foTTT 15 मरंममद-दीपिकामान 0-12 48 याणभविरचिता कादम्बरामूलमान 16 सभा मूरमार्ग-गुलकर्णी 1-4 ed P L accordg to 17-English Tr byGशा 3-12 Peterson's pagination 18 अप्रह-D.५.गोगले 2-8 -कथामुम्ब only, with Notes, Tr.3-12 19 न्यायमार-अपरदेयधर 2-12 49 काप्यप्रकाश:-ॉ. शां. 20 सतपदा-15 पाटे 1-12 50 भामिनी बिलार-HD समां 2-8 21 धम्मपद-टो PL.पंच 2-8 51 याप्यमकान III उसम 0-12 22 प्रायप्रकारा- 3-12 52 जातरमप्रह- .मुंगार 23 Manual of Talı-CV wat 3-12 53 Ancient Karnataka (Tulsis) 24 Comp.-Philology-मो जागिरदार by Dr Salctorc 11-4 25 गुनाराक्षाप-K.H भूप 4-8 26 वर्गामधार-K.दक्टि 5 भामनाटाप मूलमा Texts of 3-12 27 एपमपामपदा-मो CR.देवधर 3-12 13 भाम's Plays-C.R. देवधर 25 मनिमा-मो.st पर 55 पारीमपम्पायर्ग 3-12 29 Plays .lecribed to HTF (Thesis) 56 Picturesque Orientalia by Dr. -~C. R दंपपर P.N.Sardest Alburn of 103 30 उमरिण गामार-डॉ पनप र Photos of llestern Indo'ogies 11.4 (Critical Text) 1-12 57 काम्पमmISl-दो. मां " 1-4 ·M No, Title Rs. As. 58 न्यायसूत्र (गौतम) वात्स्यायन- भाग्य खद्योतीका-टॉ.G. झा. 59 --Full Eng. Trans. 10-0 60 कवींद्रचंद्रोदय-टॉ. शर्मा 2-8 61 प्रतिज्ञायागंधरायण-C. R. देवधर 1-12 62 न्यायसूत्रपाठ 0-8 63 गंगालहरी लार्थ (मराठी) 64 Brahmanic3l Asceticism (संन्यास) Thesis-डॉ. मार्मा 2-8 65 चारुदत्त-C. R. देवधर 2-8 66 गंगालहरी समश्लोकी 67 गंगालहरी मृलमात्रं 0-2 68 महिन्नन्नोत्र सार्थ (मराठी) 69 अमरकोश with Eng. meaning 1-12 70 ब्रह्मसूत्रचतुःसृत्रि-टॉ. शर्मा 2-S 71 चाणक्यनीतिलार-सार्य (0-8 72 उरभङ्गम्-C. R. देवधर 73 पाली धातुरूपावली-तुंगार 74 Ancient India S. I. Hist & culture-~-Dr. S. K. अय्यंगार 2Vols, 22-8 75 Fertschrift (Commn-lol.) Prof. P. V. काणे 17-8 76 Hist. of Guptas-डॉ. R. N. दांडेकर 5-8 77 अलंकाररत्नाकर-C.R: देवधर 3-8 78 छांदोग्योपनिषद Eng. Tr. of Text & शांकराप्य by G. झा. 7-8 79 मराठी गाईड to pali Manual 1-0 80 गुजराति 1-0 81 हिंदी 1-0 82 इंग्लिश No. Title Rs.As- 83 ऋजुलची मालतीमाधवकथा 2. 84 मयूरसंदेश-डॉ. C. K. राजा 3--1 85 संबंध निर्णय of गोपालन्याय- पञ्चानन-S.C. वानर्जि 86 विल्हण's चौरपञ्चाशिका-ताडपत्रीकर 2-1 87 उवासगढ़साओ-प्रो. N. A. गोरे 7-8 88 गान्धीगीता-(म. गांधीप्रणीत-राष्टोहार. तत्वविवेचिनी) S.N. ताडपत्रीकर 3-11 89 Epic & Brahmana Literaturerelation to---V. V. दीक्षित 5--0 Some Noteworthy Books 1 History of Classical Sanskrit Litcrature by Dr. M. Krishna. machariar. Demy pp. 1800. 15-0 2 भगवद्गीता काश्मीरपाठानुसारिणी ed. -S.N. ताडपत्रीकर 3- 3 गीर्वाण ज्ञानेश्वरी Being the Sanskrit rendering in verses of Sri Jnāneśvara's famous Comm. on Bhagavad Gita. Part 1, 1-6 chapters 3-0 Part II. 7-12 chapters 2-0 4 कोशावतंसः (काव्यमयकोश) of राघव कवि ed. खांडेकर 2-0 5 Ancient Rajputs by C. V. Vaidya (Med. India, Vol. II )8-8 6 Catalogue of Indological Books (C. I. B. No. 3) published in Jan. 1947. Demy pp. 212. 2-1 Supplementary to Catalogue No. 2 published in May 1930. Demy pp. 333, priced at 3-0 me- THE POONA ORIENTALIST (A Journal devoted to Oriental Studies; started since 1936. Annual Subscription: Rs. 6 in India, Sh. 10/6 of $.3 outside India) Besides research articles, each issue contains a select Bibliography of latest Indological publications, ORIENTAL BOOK AGENCY, 15 Shukrayar, POONA 2

·No text on this page.