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University Extension Lectures
UNIVERSITY OF RAJPUTANA
INDIA'S CULTURE AND HER PROBLEMS
1947
Dr. P. T. Raju,
Dalmía Professor of Philosophy,
University of Rajputara.
Sometima Visiting Proſessor of Philosophy,
University of California
and
Tata Visiting Professor of Philosophy,
The Asia Institute, New Yozk.
Price 3/8)- or 1 $ or 5/6 Sh.

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·Το MY MOTHER.

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·INDIA'S CULTURE AND HER PROBLEMS: Introduction. The following four lectures frere delivered at the Maharaja's College, Jaipur, under the scheme of the University Extension Lectures of the University of Rajputada, and retain their origi. 121 form. The author was at first asked to write a paper on the subject for the Unesco; and he expanded the ideas of that paper into these lectures. In the West, cultural and religious factors ceased for a time to be so important causes of confict as political ideologies, though in totalitarian states politics is determiting the form of culture and $0 culture has agais become a cause of confict. But in India and the Near East, religion and culture are sti}} direct causes of conflict. Many of the educated Indians, pasticularly among the Hindus, are reluctant to make this admission and a few seem to be ashamed of doing 50. One reason given by them is that, il we make this admission, we have to discuss it, a procedure which would hurt the feelings of this or that commucits. But if our aim is to remove the conflicts, tre hase to understand their cutes, and for that purpose again we have to know the latter as thes are. Whether the problem is that of social or physical science, our attitude to it should be impersosal and objective. To speak the truth may hørt the feelings of some. Wher Gu'ilco spoke the truth about the earth's movement, the feelings of the Christian fathers were really hurt; but in course ol time they appreciated what he said, for truth cannot be suppressed and falsity sindicated for ever, Progress of science would not have been possible, if the sentiments of the Christian fathers bad 124 10 receive everlastirg respect: So also no social and politi. al progress would be possible if the sentissents of some un. compromisics traditiovalists and fanatics were to be the guide The prosperity zod Wellare of society is far more importsat thab the sentimeats of traditionalists

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·INDIA'S CULTURE AND HER PROBLEMS: Introduction. The following four lectures were delivered at the Maharaja's Callege, Jaipur, under the scheme of the University Extension Lectures of the University of Rajputana, and retain their origimal form. The author was at first asked to write a paper on the subject for the Unesco; and he expanded the ideas of that paper into these lectures. la the West, cultural and religious factors ceased for a time to be so important causes of conflict as political ideologies, though in totalitarian states politics is determining the form of culture and sa culture has again become a cause of cogflict. But in India and the Near East, religion and culture are still direct causes of conflict. Many of the educated Indians, particularly among the Hindus, are reluctant to take this admission and a few seem to be ashamed of doing so. One reason given by them is that, if we make this admission, we have to discuss it, & procedure which would hurt the feelings of this or that community. But it our am is to remove the conflicts, we have to understand their cause, and for that purpose again we have to know the latter as they are. Whether the problem is that of social or physical science, our altitude to it should be impersonal and objective. To speak the truth mag bort the leelings of some. When Galileo spoke the truth about the earth's movement, the feelings of the Christian lathers were really hart; but in course of time they appreciated what he said, for truth cannot be suppressed and falsity vindicated for eses. Progress of science would not have been possible, if the sentiments of the Christian fathers had 10 receite everlasting respect: So also no social and politi, al progress woulj be possible if the seatimeats of some ua. ponpromisios traditionalists and fanatics were to be the guide The prosperity 3ad welfare of society is far more important than {be sentiments of traditionalists ·Indeed, one need not be blind to the importance of tradition as a conservative force for society. But traditions have their roots in the historical and geographical conditions of some remote past and could not always have been started with an eye to their unknown future. So if the future declares some tradi. tions to be unsuitable, it meabs 20 disrespect to the formulators of those traditions. Similarly, if the future discovers some foundations of those traditions to be false superstitions, it is equally not disrespectful to their formulators. Einstein showed Bo disrespect to Newton when he discovered that some of the latter's hypotheses were not adequate. Progress is possible when we discover the truth, speak freely about it, and act accordingly. If progress is desired, facts as such should be grasped and discussed. The attitude of hesitancy to face facts and recognize the problems cannot therefore be called healthy. The author him. self was adopting this attitude; but it was Unesco's invitation to write frankly that made him speak out. Even if a problem is found to be unsoluable, it is better to understand it objectively than to ignore it. But really no human problem should be insoluble, if we have the will to soive it and if the people con cerned co-operate with each other to find out a solution. Pride and prejudice are the greatest obstacles in the way. It is given to children, the academic circles and stigts to speak out the truth, however unpalıtable it may be to many, to raise problems, and to ask for and suggest ansivers. When the author speaks of some aspects of Hinduism, Islam and Christianity, he wishes neither to praise them nor to condemn them. He speaks only of their effects on our cultural ideal. He wishes to make only a factual representation. No religion contains everything good or everything evil. Cultural conflicts are due to eschewable factors being uncompromisingly treated as sacrosanct and uneschewable. If we have the courage to give up or transform them by following reason, conflicts ·(vii) #ould be avoided and progress would be made possible. But if a single community shows reluctance to adopt this course, the reacting of other communities also would be rendered undesirable. Cultural progress is a co operative enterprise, in which the groups conterred should work with the spirit not only of 'sive and take' but also ol give up and take up. In thes, lectures the term 'Indian culture' is used in an ua. desined sense. Originally Indian culture must be the culture of the pre-Dravidian aboriginals of India. Later, it includes that of the Dravidians, afterwards of the Aryans, ches of Islam, and finally of the West. In its present phase, the conflicting elements of the culture of the country have not been transforth ed ag yet, and proper integration has not yet been achieved. It is the practice of some writers to equate Indian colture to Hindu culture, 24 treat Islamic and Christian cultures as difereat. Some regard even Buddhist culture as different from ebe Hindu, though there is less justification for doing so, as originally Buddhism was part of the Arya Dharma, which later on acquired the name Hinduism. The author therefore found it advisible pot to give a kind of a priori definition to start with. Early Brahmanic culture cannot be said to be inheregtly oppos:d to the Buddist, because the basic factors of Buddhist culture are traceable to the Brahmaras and Upanishads. Hindu culture, as it is called, took a de hnite form after the rise and spread of Buddhism. It was this Hindu cultare that entered into serious conflict with Islam. After the advent of Island, Indian culture would include the Islamic, though many Muslims may not like it to bi so treated. The West came into contact with lodian culture only as including the Islamic. At presept, ladiza culture tocludes the Christian and Westers scientific culture also. And the problem (nx Loria on is as, to to bring about a true integration of these factors, which have been allowed to remain without being properly assimilated to each other.

·These lectures do not deal with all of India's problems; por do they deal with all her problems that are directly and indirect. ly created by her culture, but only with some of them that are primary from the human and social point of view. Culture is the ianer mental side of civilization and is expressed in the several forms of mythology, art, social and political structure, religion, science, and philosopky. It is impossible to treat all these forms or even to do justice to any one of them within the scope of these lectures, which were meant for general audiences. The lecturer's aim was to present the broad philosophical aspects of our culture and some important problems it has created. A bird's eye view of our cultural development is given as a histori. cal perspective, in which of course no attempt could be made to establish the truth of dates and facts. The author takes this opportunity to thank the University of Rajputana not only for inviting him to deliver these lectures but also for printing and publishing them. P.T. RAJU.

·INDIA'S CULTURE AND HER PROBLEMS.* LECTURE I. The Formative period of Indian Culture, There is justification for suying that India has becomo the battle ground of Fast and West, provided we continua nying this words in the sense of oriental and occidental cultures. l'or tho term, East-West conflict, has come to refer to the conflict within Europe itself, the culture of which has been traditionally called West. However, what is peculiarly East, the life of the inner spirit, was and has been the most conspicuous character. istic of Indian culture even after the advent of the British, After which West has mado powerful inroads. There are observers, like Dickenson', who think that India alonc is representative of East and that China and Japan have much in common with West. Even if we do not so the whole length with them in this opinion, we shall not at all be wrong if we say that Irdix is especially representative of East; for so far as religion, in the sense of the life of the inner spirit, is concerned, it is India that supplied it mostly to China and Japan. Even Christianity owes its ideas of deeper spiritual life to India Two of the most important works of early Christian mysticism, Thic Cloud of Unknowing and Barlins and Jawases, the concepts of which are cloquently explained by Huxley in his drey Eminence, arc Christian versions of the life and philosophy of Buddha. And Moheranad derived his spiritual ideas from the atmosphert of mixed Christianity and Buddhiim. But the pesetration of West into India has cos brought about any convulsion Inda's revoiations, as Fishes aptly guts ile ars silent This observation holds tror fot only in the . These ser lectarea la orpstas be contents of the aston's entre b.109 crtie s hip... Orobet 1743, 104 thema 1. Calls leerstes 'Wol' Item Smasis by record 1 L 16 14444kribasi, R:!31 on Keskin ThngaiCbar, ve! VI. 3. Indus's Silent Kattern Repolufisk, 1 ·These lectures do not deal with alt of India's problems, por do they deal with all her problems that are directly and indirect. ly created by lier culture, but only with some of them that are primary from the human and social point of view, Culture is the inner mental side of civilization and is expressed in the several forms of mythology, art, social and political structure, religion, science, and philosophy. It is impossible to treat all these forms or even to do justice to any one of them within the scope of these lectures, which were meant for general audiences. The lecturer's aim was to present the broad philosophical aspects of our culture and some important probleins it has created. A bird's eye view of our cultural development is given as a histori. cal perspective, in which of course no attempt could be made to establish the truth of dates and facts. The author takes this opportunity to thank the University of Rajputana not only for inviting him to deliver these lectures but also for printing and publishing them. P. T. RAJU.

·3 To understand or evaluate Indian culture, a bird's eye view of its history would be useiul. Cullure is generally represented in religios, philosophy, arts, literature, 3a 1 social and political Wilt But as the primitive ta regards all his activities as parts of his religion, ali ancient cultures give religious colouring to their espressions. Indian culture was no erception. Somehow, without the least intention on the part of the Injang themselves, ladian religion has come to be called Hinduism or Hindu religion But in none of the ancient Sanscrit works themselves do we find the word Hindu. The Vedic sages called their religion Vedic Dharma (the Law or Path of the Vedas) and also Arya Dharma Ithe Law or Path ci the Aryans) Even Buddha and Mahavira called their religious Arya Dharmas. Further, Hinduism defies definition. It is not a revealed seligion and is cot expounded by a single individual. It is the result of a natoral spiritual development of man, the Quicome of the cumulative spiritual quest al humanity, retaining in the sesult all the imperfect stages of its growib, Dot lowever la their original meaningless crudity, but as steps or pointers to derpet spiritual realization. That is why Hinduism presents to eke outsider a vast array of the most incongruous forms of worship from that of stone and wood to the mental korship of the spirit withic. No wonder it Con accommodate every new cult-which is irritating to those who wish to retain their religious particularisan. lindu religion 3$ 50 cillet by the early Persizas, who pro. nounced the word Sind 43 lind Hind for them was the land of the filet Indus or Siddhs; its people were called Hindus. The Europeans call the religioa Hinduism. Now that it has been ia eristese for several centuries, muy we not attempt a definition? Bearing in mind that Hioduis does not possess any set of dogaus or formuhs enunciated by a pers33 or couocil, we may say that it stands for the belief that "God or Ultimate ·Sphere of her religion but also happily in thrt of her politics, ol which Mahatma Gandhi's work is an outstanding example. It is India's genius to bring about revolutions silently, peacefully and without bloodshcd, provided she is allowed to do things in 'her own way. In arts, literaturo, politics and social organizi. tion, she is introducing western scientific ideas slowly and stcadily, without fear of losing her soul in the process. Her culture reached a depth of view.point, whenca she is not nimid of rational reforms. India is a fitting example for study for organizations like the Unesco, which are interested in understanding cultural conflicts and syntheses In no other country in the world have so mtay races and cultures set as in India. It is usual to speak of Americi as the inciting pot ; but it has not been a melting pot of so many races as India. America's calour problem has not yet been solved. If at all, it is only the European races that havo molted together in the new continent. But in India, almost all the races of the world met long before the advent of Islam; but they developed a peculiarly integrated culture, the depths of which have neser been surpassed, whatever inade. quacies it may disclose in some of its workings. Ons important point we should remember is that Enst nod West no longer coincide with the geographical divisions. Western science and humanism have taken root in countries of the East, particularly India, China and Japan. And already somo of the leading thinkers of the West have begun to realize the value of East for the \Vest, which otherwise is losing even the humanistic values to which it has given primacy. East and West are tending by slow degrees to become hypothetical entities, which, one may expect, will no more be scen with their decisive differences in the near future. So whenever we speak of India, in the present lectures, as the East, it should not be understood that present-day India has nothing of West in ber.

·II To understand or evaluate Indian culture, a bird's cye vieto of its history would be useful. Culture is generally represented is religion, philosophy, arts, literatore, and social and political Bot as the primitive mah regards all his activities as parts o! his religion, all arrient cultures give religious colouring to their expressions. Indias culture was no exception. Somehow, without the least intention on the part of the Indiana thenselves, Indian religion has come to be called Bingorm or Hindu religion But in none of the ascient Sasserit works themselves do we find the word Hisdu. The Vedic saces called tbeir religion Vedic Dharma (the Law or Path of the Vedas) and also Arya Dharma the Law cr Path of the arysas) Even Buddha and Mabavira called their religioas Arya Dharmas Further, Hinduism defes defnition. It is not 3 fevealed religion and is not expounded by a single individual. It is the result of a natural spiritual development of mas, the outcome of the cumulative spiritual quest of humanity, retaining is the result all the imperfect stages of its growth, tot however in thesr orig aal meaningless crudity, but as steps of pointers ta derpes spiritual realization. That is why Hipduisen presents to the outsider 4 vast array of the most incocgruous forms of worship from that of stone and wood to the medial worship of the spirit withia. No wonder it can accommodate every new cult-which is irritatiаg to those who wish to retain their religious particularismo. Hindu religioa was so called by the early Persizas, who pro. toond the word Sied as Hiat Hind for them was the land of the river ledus or Sindho; its people were called Hindus. The Europezas call the teligion Hinduista. Nor that it has bees in clistence for several centuries, may we got attempt a De nition? Bearing in mind that Hinduista does not possess agy st of dogmas or formals coupciated by a persoa or council, we may say that it stics tes the beliel that "God or Ultimate ·2 Sphere of her religion but also happily in táit of ker politics, of which Mahatma Gandhi's work is an outstanding example. It is India's genius to bring about revolutions silently, peacefully and without bloadsbed, provided she is allowed to do things in her own way. In arts, literature, politics and social organizi. tion, she is introducing western scientific ideas slowly and steadily, without fear of losing her soul in the process. Her culture reached a depth of view.point, whence she is not afraid of rational reforms. India is a htting example for study for organizations like the Unesco, which are interested in understanding cultural conflicts and syntheses In no other country in the world have so many races and cultures met as in India. It is usual to speak of Americt as the melting pot; but it has not been a melting pot of so many races as India. America's colour problem has not yet been solved. If at all, it is only the Europenn races that have melted together in te new continent. But in India, almost all the races of the world met long before the advent of Islam; but they developed a peculiarly integrated culture, the depths of which have noter been surpassed, whatever inade. quacies it may disclose in some of its workings. One important point we should remember is that East and West no longer coincide with the geographical divisions. Western science and humanism have taken root is countries of the East, particularly India, Chida and Japan. And already some of the leading thinkers of the West have begun to realize the value of East for the West, which otherwise is losing even the humanistic values to which it has given primacy. East and West are tending by slow degrees to become hypothetical entities, which, one may expect, will no more be seen with their decisive differences in the near future. So whenever we speak of India, is the present lectures, as the East, it should not be understood that present-day India has nothing of l'est in her.

·w To understand or evaluate Indian culture, a bird's cyc view of its history would be useful. Culture is generally represented ia religins, philosophy, arts, literature, ani social and political 551c But as the primitive min regards all his activities as parts of his religion, all ancient cultdres give religious chlouring to their expressions. Indian culture was no exception Sorchow, without the least intention on the part of the 102 the ulvet, Tolian religion has come to be called Ilinn or linla religion Lut 111 aone of the orient Sanrit works themselves do we find the word blindu. The Velic s15e3 called their religion Vedic Dharma (the Law or Path of the Vedas) and also Arya Dharma (the Law or Path cl the Aryas) Even Buddha and Mahavira called Niels religions Arya Dharnai Further, Ilindoism defies delnilion. It is not a reveiled religion and is nat expounded by a single individual. 11 us the result of a natural spiritual development of man, the C'llcome of the cumulative spiritual adest of humanity, retaining in the result all the imperfect stages of its growth, cot low-ver la tf otipimai meningiess crudity, but a steps or pointers to dreper apriluri realization. That is why Hinduism presents 10 the outsider a vall array of the 1738 mcongruous forms of worship from that of stone and wood to the mental worship of Ilse spirit within. No wonder it is accommodate every TW cult-wloch is irritating to those who wish to retain thrir trigou particularis. ilmla religion 125 So Cilt 1 by the early l'ersiins, who pro. scent the word Sind 13 in! Sind for them was the land of the river 18!J1 or Sindha; ils peaol test calles lipdu.. The Luropens all the religion Midlum, Now that it har ben in existence for excral centuries, may we not allemyt A de sitios 1 Berrioz ia mirt that flinduism does nnt magna 3 ·Sphere of her religion but also happily in that of her politics, of which Mahatma Gandhi's work is an outstanding example. It is India's genius to bring about revolutions silently, peacefully and without bloodshed, provided she is allowed to do things in "her own way. In arts, literature, politics and social organizz. tion, she is introducing western scientific ideas slowly and steadily, without fear of losing her soul in the process. Her culture reached a depth of view.point, whence she is not afraid of rational reforms. India is a fitting example for study for organizations like the Unesco, which are interested in understanding cultural conflicts and syntheses. In no other country in the world have so many races and cultures met as in India. It is usual to speak of America as the melting pot; but it has not been a melting pot of so many races as India. America's colour problem has not yet been solved. If at all, it is only the Europeaa races that have melted together in the Dew continent. But in India, almost all the races of the world met loog before the advent of Islam; but they developed a peculiarly integrated culture, the depths of which have nei er been surpassed, whatever inade. quacies it may disclose in some of its workings. One importaat point we should remember is that East and West no longer coincide with the geographical divisions. Western science and humanism have taken root ia countries of the East, particularly india, China apd Japan. And already some of the leading thinkers of the West have begun to realize the value of East for the West, which other ivise is losing even the humanistic values to which it has given primacy. Last and West are tending by slow degrees to become hypothetical entities, which, one may expect, will no more be seen with their decisive differeaces in the near future. So whenever we speak of India, io the present lectures, as the East, it should not be understood that present-day India has nothing of West in her.

·5 it is difficult to fix the earliest date of this colonization and say how the Hindus effected it. But the history of the Hindu colonization of South East Asia and the East Indies bas been triced by the modern historians and archeologists to the Ist Ceptory B. C. or A.D. The culture of these countries is den- Ditely Hipdu and many are still Buddhist in religios. Even the spread of Islam in the East Indies has not completely siped out the ancient culture. The chief Architects of Hindu culture and civilization are the Aryans. It is generally believed that both the Aryans and their predecessors, the Dravidiaps, were immigrants into India. The latter seem to have conquerred the original Negrito races and occupied India some twenty thousand years ago. They had & well developed culture of their own. Some think that priest. hood and miste Systela were in existence in india even before the hrst Aryans set foot on the soil, who in their turn conquerred the Dravidians and established themselves The Aryans seem to have catered not only through the Khyber Pass but also via Baluchistan, and to be a constant conflict with the Dravidians all along this route right from Iran." The majority of the scholars believe that the Mohenjo Daro civilization was pre. Aryan. its people bort coifon, agriculture, pottery, writing, fine arts hic dancing, building of cities, sanitation, metal work. ing and trade. Their golernment might have been of the republican type. They had a cult of the Mother goddess or Saxti worship and also Y082 or surrender of one's soul through psychological discipline They worshipped Siva as Pasupati (Lord of the beasts) and also as a Yogin in meditation. There are indications of the worship of the phallus It is likely that they worslippeil the buffalo 23 the symbol of destruction, which fales brume, la llindu mythology, the tahana (arrier) of 1112, the col of death E.F. Orion : Lintuith the Past Agcs, p. 70, 7. The sistb Ella ns the kixtea. 150rding to Jatetraadi, was comto-ed s Anshma ta Itu ·Reality is inward and is our innermost being, and also for a systemitized technique and a way of life conducive to the realization of that being.". The Hindu has no objection to consider as true e very other religion that recogaizes this priaciple and will even find a place for it within his own fold. That is why Macnicol characterized Hinduism as "omnivorous". By a modest estimate we may now assigo the begipoings of Indian culture to about 4000 B.C., the time of the Mohenjo. Daro civilization. Some place the beginnings pearer, but the date is not of primary iniportance for the present purpose. Hindu history must be lar older, though unfortunately we do not possess sufficiently recognizable evidence to trace the continuity. The ancient civilizations of the Aztics in Mexico and of the Incas in South America are, for many reasons, considered to be Hindu. The Puranas, which unfortunately mix up history with mythology, contain indentifiable references to the Maya civilization, its Teligion of Sakti (Maya) worship and human sacrifice and its astronomical system. Observers of South America have brought to ous notice several replicas of Hindu gods and goddesses, similarities in the architecture of temples and in social practices. Sir W. Jones says: "Rama is represented as a descendant from the sun, as the husband of Sita, and the son of the princess nimed Causelya. It is very remarkable that Peruvians, whuse Incas boasted of the same descent, styled their greatest festival as Rama Silya; whence we may suppose that South America was peopled by the same race who imported into the farthest parts of Asia the rites and fabulous history of Rama." Purapic references indicate that not only did the Hindus conquer and colonize these remote places but were constantly coming back to their original home and taking part in wars and battles. But 4. Vide the author's presidential address to dite Section of Plulosophy aod Religion of The All-India Oriental Conference 1913. Published op The Vedanta Kesari, December 1948. 5. Asiat: Researches, Vol. I, p. 426. Quoted in 11. D Sarda's Hondu Superiority, p. 133.

·7 towards the end. By that time, the other Vedis also with their Upanishads were composed and the Aryan religion achieved its insardoess glad began to feel that the light of the self within and of the son trithout were identical" The Upanishads contain ideas of sensora or transmigration, the law of karma, immor uality of the soul, higher and lower knowledge (psra and apara rifra), ike supremacy of the Absolute Spirit (Brahman and its identity with the knowledge of it, alcog with some formulations el m-thods of meditation. By the time of the Upanishads the te system dereloped, though it did tot crystalize into the later rigid forms. The books written on caste system are legion, some higlily extalling 11, others depreciating it and attributiog everything evil jo lodia to it. But weatever view is takea, as ALAT P. V. Kane rightly says, the early refereres to the four castes are only references to a lact, and not to a theory that was to be realised as an ideal. Tho Purushasukta of tbe Rig reda speahs of the four castes, Brakmans. Ksbatrija, Vaisya and Sudra They are priests, Warriors, merchants and agriculturists, and sersants and cultivators, both the last asles carrying on agricultore. HacDougall 539s that all the ancient pations are caste pations. As waye after wave of different races asd tribes of the same race poured into ladis as conquerors, they settled dows, forming several social strata, which were finally reduced to the four castes. The Sar:scrit words used for caste are forna (colour), jati (bittb), med kula (family, community or tribe). The caste system in India, me was therefore say, was based upon the three principles. But it does not coincide with any one merely The word, Sudra, for instance, did fiat at first deagte only sees of the ron-Argan rice. Prolemy mealiccs a tribe Sydroi thabiting serthera Arachosis." It was used for a pre-Atyza tribe also inhabiting 9 Tacteriss. 3, 10.4. 10. story of Dharmasastra, Vol. 11. Part 1. 17. 11. Grow 3. d. 297. 1. D. R rhindary Scme aspects of Ancient Indian Culture ·6 From 4000 B. C. to about 2000 B, C., to which are generally assigned the beginnings of the Rigveda, we have no connected history of India. It is not even established beyond doubt as to who destroyed the Mohenjo Daro civilization. It is of interest to us because its achievements are retained and absorbed by Indian culture in its progress The Rigveda cannot antedate the Aryan immigrations And we cannot imagine that the Mohenjo. Daro civilization, though uniafluenced by the Aryan in the beginning, remained what it was in 4000 B C. even after contact with the latter The early Aryans svere worshippers of natural forces. It is therefore thought that the intensely inward religion of the Upanishads did not originate in them. It is often asked whether the Aryans were Indianized or India was Aryanized". The Aryans of the other countries did not develop a religion of the inner spirit and had no caste system. The question is there. fore significant. And whatever be the answer, it has to assume contact and interfusion of different cultures, unless the view that India was the original home of the Aryan; is accepted. Of all the Vedas, the Rigveda is the earliest. No Veda is the work of a single auth » Each has four divisions: the Samlitas or the collections of hymns, ihre Brahınanas dealing with ritual and sicri 'ce, the Aranvakas or forest treatises, and the Upani. shads which are philosophical disquisitions The earliest portions of the Rigveda Sambita do not show that the Aryans turned their gaze inwards in the attenpt to discover the Ultimate Truth For some time they might have continued the worship of natural forces like the sun, the moon, the stars, the winds, etc, and of the desties supposed to be presiding over these natural forces. The Brhadaranjuk, which is one of the earliest of the pre- Buddhist Upanishads, is ascribed to 900 B.C So roughly from about 1500 to 900 B C, interfusion of the two religions, worship of natural forces and worship of the lader Spirit, might have continued and their integration might have been completed 8, Sir Clarles Elliot: Ilinduism and Buddhism, Vol. , p. XY.

·9. watouchables" were not deprised of some of their human rights. They were in deed culturally for inferior to the Argacs and the Dravidises of the time, Yery uaclean in their life and habits, But the treatment given to them by the early Arysos of India compares very favourably with that meted out not loos ago ia the Christian era by some Europads to the inhabitants of America and Africa. No tribe tvas forced by threats of extermination to give up their mode of life and religion. The Aryaa religion achieved iowardaess, in the light of which they interprete their own past cults; and they endeavoared to confer the same spiritul inwardness upon the cuits of the barbarous tribes they conquerred, teaching at the same time that the idols they worshipped and the methods of their worship were symbals of the innor spirit and of the processes of its realization. The Taittiriyopanishad says that the processes of reality may be interpreted in a five-fold way: adhiloksm or as catural physical processes, askijsoliham or as due to gods or deities (the bright ones), adhuvidgam or as sacrificial acts, athiprajain or as the creative processes of the seses, and athyalman or as the processes of the self. This passage show that, by the time of the Taittiriya, an atterapt was made toamnigamite five distinct views of the world add its creation, which were to constitute the philosophial foundation of the religious life of the people Ultimately, the first four were kubordinsted to the fifth ; We find this subordinatioa practically 10 every Upanishad."* Some people were performing sacrifices us ia the Withraic cult; same were worshipping natural forces; somn the desses presiding over the forces; some, particularly 1. Valooca bility was due got only to telonging to some mbes but 130 en compiling heiceas cristes ad fellowing cruel and impere profes- 1715. Kite History of them ustrs, Vol. IL Pars I. p. 167. 13 The Bhatuna shished tod be first part of the Brhadarangako Pantshat Are Yery interesting is ones. They show that the Atyres ao longer newed sunbees As Dete prepitatieas of gods tot as faded prxches cl kil-sarrendet **b tostat 10:1 Fliiosophical signitare ·8 the land of the Indus. Further, we have said already that the Dravidians also had a caste systein, which, some think, was adopted by the Bryans, as it was the most convenient and peaceful way of incorporating the conquerred who were far more numerous, without at the same time giving up the superior status of conquerors. For instance, Ravana, king of Lanka (Ceylon), whom Rama defeated and killed, was a Brahmin; and for killing a Brahmin, who belonged to a higher caste, Rams had to perform prayaschittis (atonement, cxpiation). Again, many Aryan tribes were treated as Sudms, as for instaace Sakas (Scythans), Yaranas (lonions), Pahlavas, and Asuras (Assyrians) Some of the suras were again Kshatriyas like Kamsa and Naraka but not admitted into the orthodox Aryan fold though having inartial relation with their Panini (600-300 B.C) mentions a peculiar compounding of the names of Sudra, with whom interdining of the higher castes nas permitted ? : Again, messbers of the same tribe were Kshatriyas in one country like the Rathores of Rajputana and Sudras in another like the Rattods or Reddis in indlys. On the whole, the people of Western India tended to be orthodox and those of the Eastern and the Southern to be somewhat heterodox, the difference being that the former clung more tenaciously to the l'edic and the Brahmanic cult and the latter were proac to rationalization and spiritual disciplins, though very slowly introducing aste divisions. Io course of time, special occupations too were attached to astes and sub castes, the latter consisting of tribal divisions within the main astes and of the progeoy of inter-maste marriages. By about the fourth century B. C., ciste became crystallized all over India Whatever b: the disadvantages of ciste to present-day India, there were some great principles involved in its formation. The conquerred tribes and races were not oaly not exterminated but also givea a place in the Aryan social fold. Even those who were left out of the faur astes and constituiod the ith casto ol 13. Ashtadlja, 1, 2, 12.

·prohibited the destruction of the lile and property of non-combatants So though kings were destroying each other, life in the couairy Feat oa is the usual way. The spectacle of the peasant with his hand on the picugh and watching Deacefully from the fields the rate of chariots, elephants, cavalry and foot-soldiers belonging to rival armies march along the highway to the beat of drums was common in India then, which disappeared from the time of Muslim invasions. Kings fought, but very often for recognition, which tras apsin in many ases a token. Wars were pot peoples' wars but of kings; peoples vere always friends. king fought for the heroic ideal, not in greed. This is the second consequence of the waste system. The third was that it readered the specialization of prolessions more easy, when instruction was given by example rather than by theory. As occuparions were hereditory, the parent taught his sot, and Loght bim with allection and sincerity, Lastly, as shorn in the above para, each group was allowed the freedom to develop spiritually in its own was, without losing its economic hold on society. And it should be acted that in the beginning icdividuals were raised in caste as well as lowered.' 16 is unnecessary to write upon the evils of caste system, as much has been written upon the topic by sociologists, psycholosists acd historians. As it has been observed, the spirit bebind the formation of astes was last sight of, Mutsal jealousies between astes, lack of social solidarity, impossibility of social movement, and eradaptability to new changing conditions are the natural results of aste rigidity But this is not the same as saying that the custes constantly fight with each other, that Hliada society is not a daily, that Hinduism means many reli. fions, and that the lo fez castes do not care to be called Hindus. Tbrugb igwardness was achieved by the Hinduism of the time, file or end was not spsrged Tte people of the Rigvedic times pray for prosecs, vises, wealth and many worldy add 16. Satulatshs tad Jalgsstarika, Set Kaae's work relerted toalete. Po 61 fol.

·10 the pre-Aryan settlers, were followers of sex.worship, either as the worship of the Mother-goddess or as that of the phallus ; some were practising yoga or the worship of the indeling spirit The Aryags of the time already saw that the light within man and that in the sun were one in esseace. The worship of light seemed to them the most high, sober ard rational religious practice, to which they subordinated and in the light of which they interpreted every other. Thus all external forms were treated as symbols at the inner. It us not easy to teach the primitive barbarisas the practice of inner worship. Hence the Aryans allowed them to continue their old practices, at the same time pointing out that those practices had en inner meaning. This attitude towards the less cultured resul. ted in toleration and accomodation and also in the system of castes and sub castes, But then when once the castes were formed and crystallyzed and regarded as belonging to the same Hindu society, the spirit behind the formation in the past was lost sight of : and tribes which were allowed to develop their life in their own way were not allowed to develop it in any other way, so far as religious sanctions went. One great boon which caste systein conferred upon India was a peculiar unity of social and cultural pattern in spite of ritual diversity Politics belonged in general to the ruling Kshatriya caste, which often, though not always, employed Brahmin advisers, because the latter, accustomed to constant self-copirol and spiritual self-discipline, were less prone to be carried away by passion in their judgments The village, with its castes and sub castes, to which were assigned the necessary productive occupations, was a self-sufficient social unit, which paid its taxes to the ruler, whoever he might be. "Vars between kingdoms were the concern of the ruling Kshatriyas. This statement holds true only in general. Some imperial dynasties like those of the Sungas, the Kanvas, the Andłıras, and the Kadambas are said to be Brahmin and of the Gupta's Vaisya. But as ruling classes, they intermarried with the Kshatriyas. The Aryan Dharma ·13 It has already been mentioned that in Eastern and Southern India there were peoples who did not recognize the Supremacy of the Vedic and Brahminic culture. Further, the Vedic cult of sacrifice to gods of nature and the Sakta cult of Mother-worship, icvolving likewise animal and even human sacrifices, transgressed reasonable bounds. Many sects, though declared heterodox, felt that true religion did not lie that way, The Upanishadic seers also felt similarly, but were perhaps pot powerful enoogh to stop those practices. Attempts therefore were made to discover true religion and weed out symbolism and ritual. Truth had to be Inown in its purity; and the method cl its realization was to be ratiomlized and direct. If symbols stand for certain facts, why not grasp the facts and leave the symbols, which may mislead? The Upanishads, as parts of the Vedas, teach the same spiritual truth in its purity; but the Vedas give their authoritative support to so many other undesirable practices and so have to be discardct. The Upanishadic iruths might be discovered anew by each mn, if they are truths at all. Of the people who adopted this attitude, Buddha and Mahavira, both of the 6th century B.C, stand out supreme of these two, Buddha, who had a peculiar charm of personality, attracted more attention of the world, and his gospel spread almost from the Pacific to the Atlantic Till very recently, it was the practice to treat Buddhism and Jainism as different from Hicduism. But we should not forget that the word llicduisa was not haown to Buddha and Mahavira Both knew the words Vedic Dharma and Brahmaaise; and it is to then that they were on the whole opposed. But along with ortbalox religious leaders, they were claiming their religion to be Arya Dharaa. We should therefore infer that both the orthodox and the heterolox were claiming to be the true representatives charya Dharma So if the word Hinduism is to stand for the religion that claims continuity from the times beforė Buddha and Mahavira, Hinduism should mean the same as Arya Dharma ; and as Brahmsaism, Buddhism and Jainism, all claim to be the Arya Dharma, all the three should be treated as branches of Arya Dharmaind so of Hinduism. This trte perspective will ·heavenly comforts. Even alter the Aryans jealised that the Ultimate Truth lay within and could be realized by turning the gaze inward, they exhorted men to strive for the values of the world by propitiating gods through sacrifices. Il'omen were not treated as personifications of sin, and sanngasa (renunciation) was not taught as the sole path to salvation Prof. Kane writes that "the word asram does not occur in the Samhitas or the Brakmans',1? which are the earliest parts of the Vedas. Asramas are the stages into which the Aryaas divided man's life for its gradual inwardization. In the later developed Hinduism during the time of the Dharmasastras, they are four in number: bralimscharg'rt or the life of the student, sarkastya or the life of the householder, vanaprasthya or the life of the forest-dweller, and sausasa os the life of renunciation In the first stage, man acquires knowledge from his teacher; in the Second, le goes through the experiences of the world and enjoys its values as a dutiful member of his society; in the third, he leaves home with his wife and selects upon his experiences and evaluates them; and in the fourth, he renouuces everything and turns his gaze withia. Now there is evidence that the carly Rigvedic Aryads knew the first three, but not the fourth. Even the Chhandogra speaks of osly the first three. However, the Vedic Aryans knew of 1218155 (observers of silence), whom they extolled, and of gaiss, whom they destroyed. Prol. Kane thioks that the latter were sorcerers practising putu (black magic). The later Upanishads speak of sanayasa. Even earlier Vajosvalkya is said to have left bone and family. But perhaps this remunication was of a different kind from that which seems to have gained a place of recognition in the Hindu scheme of life after Buddhiss left its impress on the social life of ladit. Further, the post-Buddhist Upanishads advocate renuncitation the moment one feels disinterested in the world, even without going through the earlier three asramas, a practice definitely due to Buddhist influence. 17. Ilustory of Diarmasastra, Vol. II. pars I, , 418. 19. 11. 23, 1.

·15 Baddki Dever spoke of social inequalities Fourthly, ibe reasone which all Buddhists accept for Buddlia's leaving his home were old age, disease and death, but not asy social injustices that paiss! bita or stom which he suffered. Lastly, Buddbists never ared to formulate a social code like the Code of Hanu. Buddh. ism was confined mainly to monasteries. It was a religious crder, though clerodox, within Hinduism. It never attempted to form a masteless society. But it say no reason why members of all mutes and races could not realize the Inger Truth by following the same method of renuaciation and psychological amlysis, Wherever is spread, either in Siberia, China, Tibet, Aenam, Burma or Ceylon, it gever tried to reforth or disturb the existing social order. Herein lies ita greatness as well as its Keakness: greatness in being a purely spiritual religion, not caring to enter the scheme of mundibe life, namely, of the individual and society and weakness is having no hold on swiety just for that rezgon. When Hinduism offered, for instance, to meet the aime spiritual need by introducing sanngara and later by laca parating Buddhist philosophy and waking Buddha as anation of Vishou, no Indian feſt the loss of Buddhism. It is for this season that Buddhism appealed to the people of every country as the religion par excellence with uncontaminated elhics and spirituality. But it 925 very easy to eradicale it as it *is confined to monasteries and the lay disciple's social life was allowed to contique in the old way. In contrast to Buddhism, 11:05 adopted a social schenge alipost alors lives of the Hinda, or rasker, it tried itself into the Hindo social schege, and so did ner disappear from India The 1sauryan emperors of India polronized Jaipist and Haddham. Chandragupta I 4th century B. C.), the founder of the Mauryan dynasty, became a Jain and Ask (3rd cedints LC) cabraced Dalhism Both the sames are two of the treatest in Taalaa histoty, the latter in world history also. Asaka's empire extended from Algbacistan in the north to almost the Cape CA530519 19 the south ; wat de was the only coperor ·enable any one to see that Buddhism and Jainism were only reform movements within Hinduism. As I said elsewhere, they are its unorthodox forms only, and are "as intimately connected with it as Sikkism. Virasaivism, the Brahmo Samaj, the Arya Samaj, and Tamil Saivism. .... We should not overlook the fact that some forms of Saivism in the South do not at all accept the Vedas as an authority; and yet their followers are Hindus". To be heterodox does not prevent a map from being a Hindu ; for even as late as the 8th century A. D., Sankara denounced the Panchara tra and its Agamas as unorthodox because they claim superiority even to the Vedas. Yet the followers of the Pancharatra are Hindus Nor is it necessary to ackuowledge the authority of the Vedas in order to be called a Hindu ; for some forms of Tanjil Saivism, as pointed out above, do not make that acknowledgement and yet are called Hindu. Hinduism has no articles of faith listed in any book; it is there. fote unnecessary to ask: "What is the dogma in which I should believe in order to be a Hindu" Hinduism would treat such faith as easy religion and as an insult to man's intelligence. Nor is it necessary to follow any particular social custom or practice ; for some sects of Sudras have still their own forms of marriage. if religion is the quest for the inner spirit, Buddha and Mahavira wanted that its bature should be hnown in its nakedness, without regard to established forms. That the inward spirit was the truth of religion even the orthodox could not deny. It was the affirma. tion of this truth that made every Indian of the time a Hindu. Another mistaken interpretation is calling Buddha a statesman and a social reformer. A few Indians also adopted this fasbion First, this interpretation was due to the criticism of Christians and Muslims, ope of the main targets of which was the Hinda caste system ; for to poiat to a casteless religion of India was supposed to be a fitting answer, Secondly, we should not forget that, during the time of Buddha, there was no rigid caste system in Eastern India, which required reform. in the third place, 19. See the author'a address Teſerred to above, ·15 Bofika cover spoke of social inequalities Fourthly, the re2902 which all Buddhists accept for Buddha's leaving his home were old age, disease and death, but not any social injustices that painel bin or from wkich he suffered. Lastly, Buddbists nerer ared to lormulate a social całe Ske the Code of danu. Buddha SSID 428 confused mainly 4 monasteries. }t was a religious cries, though keterbjor, withis Hinduisen. It seves attempted to form a casteless society. But it say no reason why members of ali mastes and races could not realize the Inner Truth by following the same method of sesunciation and psychological analysis. Wherever it spread, either in Siberia, China, Tibet, Asean, Bonus of Ceylon, it never tried to reforse or disturb the existing social order. Hercis lies its greatness as well as its weakness: greatness in being a purely spiritual Teligion, not anog to enter the scheme of mundade life, nacely, of the radividual and society; and weakness is having up bold on sytety just for that reator. Waea Hinduisca affered, for instana, o meet the same spusstual need by introducing sapinsass and later by Scorparatung Budsist charlasaghy and making Buddha 20 Encarnation of Vishou, no Indias left the loss of Buddhista. It is for this reason that Buddhisto appealed to the people of every COUDITY 24 the religioo Der ererlinct with upcontaminated chics and spieltlits. But it is very easy to eradicate it as it *as carga) monasteries and the lay disciple's social life was allowed to coatinge in the old way, in contrast to Buddhism, Jaimus: adopted a social scheme almost along lives of the Hinda, or esther, it fitted itsek into the Hinda social scheme, and so did cot drapear trora India The Ulsuria emperors of lodía prironized Jainism and Visin. Chandragupta (4th century B. C.), the founder of te 1929 drests, became a Jain and 4502 (3rd century B. bruce 19His Rock the names are two of the Briteit in latiss tistory, the stize is world history also. Anks's mpire creaded from Afgharistan in the Dorth to almost the Cape Canaria in the south; bat he was the only caperor ·14 enable any one to see that Buddhism and Jaiqism were oply reform movements within Hinduism As I said elsewhere, they are its unorthodox forms only, and are "as intimately connected with it as Sikkism, Virasaivism, the Brahmo Samaj, the Arya Sanna), and Tamil Saivism. .............. Ile should not overlook the fact that some forms of Saivism in the South do not at all accept the Vedas as an authority; and yet their followers are Hindus", 1" To be heterodox does not prevent a man from being a Hindu ; for even as late as the 8th century A. D., Sankara denounced the Pancharatra and its Agamas as unorthodox because they claim superiority even to the Vedas. Yet the followers of the Pancharatra are Hindus Nor is it necessary to acknowledge the authority of the Vedas in order to be called a Hindu; for some forms of Tamil Saivism, as pointed out above, do not make that acknowledgement and yet are called Hindu. Hinduism has no articles of faith listed in any book; it is tbere. fore unnecessary to ask: "What is the dogma in which I should believe in order to be a Hindu". Hinduism would treat such faith as easy religion and as an insult to man's intelligence. Nor is it necessary to follow any particular social custom or practice; for some sects of Sudras have still their ows forms of marriage. If religion is the quest for the inner spint, Buddha and Mahavira wanted that its nature should be known in its nakedness, without regard to established forms. That the saward spirit was the truth of religion even the orthodox could not deny. It was the affirma. tion of this truth that made every Indian of the time a Hindu. Another mistaken interpretation is calling Buddlia a statesman and a social reformer. A few Indians also adopted this fashion First, this interpretation was due to the criticism of Christians and Miuslims, one of the main targets of which was the Hindu aaste system ; for to point to a casteless religion of India was supposed to be a fitting answer. Secondly, we should not forget that, during the time of Buddha, there was no rigid caste system ia Eastera ladia, which required reform. In the third place. 19. See the author's address referred to above, ·17 emphasized. First, Buddhism iaid all eaghasis on ose single math (murgal, amely, the way of requeciation. That is why it confined itself to monasteries. Alonzstic lite became so great a lasdios in Nanzdik2, the chief province of the Nagadban Empire, that it soon lust its original nime ad acquired the name of Bibir, "The Land of Vibaras" or monasteries. The best and te most intelligent mea were thereby lost to society and the economic life of the community suffered. We read that, in China when the evil edects of the monastic fashion of file were recognized, thousapds of monasteries were closed and monks and suas were forced to take to secular life. The orthodox religioa, on the othes hand, recognized several other margas (ways). particularly darmond, ga {way of action) and dhe ininga iway of devolion). Though life was divided into four asramas, I was not necessary to go through the last asrama. lanaka, for instance, did not give up his house holder's life. The ideal that one should go through one's family and social Julie, without at the same forgetting that one is only as instrumeat ia the hands of God, was equally well encouraged. In the second place, the Upanishads always insisted that 1920 as a microcosm was a reflection of the macOCASE whatever be their uti maic nature. The sun (ahar), which was according to them, the at 2011 OCD. Of the world, w29 idential Fila the selt lakas), which was the centre and source of the individual experiego, Realization of the Alman was realisation of the Brabad. The D'WITH $525 tds thertiore lost by IPIDOg igrard. But, for the Buddhists, realialıp lay in simply 201|ysing away the at or puigula. Thus, as I have seen what was a conquest for the Uggestads is seduced ID as escape by the Buddhists. 1 The Brahmanic reaction natarally followed with success. The admission of guns into monasteries led to SSITSprinn hiel it writted by .." Sposa - 15 Aruar ... selecbos of Daddu 1935", formal Atke istry of Idejasgary 1931, See 1; fistory of Badunt. 3 ·16 who justly could speak of himself as governing the vast empire with Dharma (Law) and not with the sword. Buddha's gospel spread like wild fre throughout the world, and Buddhist mis. sionarios enthusiastically crossed the seas to presch it. It was a message of hope and peace to humanity suffering from man's cruelty to man in hardened egoism. It was not a new truth to the Indians; even the most staunch Buddhists now recogotze that it was a continuation of the Upanishaclic tradition : but divested of the encumbering ritual and symbolism, it had a freshness and directness which could easily impress the susceptible minds of the Indians; and Indian religion became intensely ipward. The four fundamental truths of Buddhism nre: the world is full of pain; pain has causes; there can be cessation of pain; and there must be a method for effecting the cessation. This is a factual analysis of the human situation in the cosmos, as Buddhism saw it. But the analysis proclaims that world is a vale of misery. Buddha might not have taught such thorough. goide pessimism, But this was wiat Buddhism preached sometime after his death. And without thinking that inward realization was an achievement, many Indians came to regard it as a necessary escape. Spiritual inwardness became one-sidedly intense. It is true that Buddhism made India crceptionally spiritual and religious. But some of its great admirers had 10 admit that its after-effects were passivity, pessimism, enervation. one-sided other worldliness, loss of vigour and zest for lite. However great it might be as a spiritual force, the effects of Buddhism, as a social and political factor, upon India of the time were on the whole harmlul. Even Havell sites, after extolling its ethical and spiritual greatness: "At the same time Buddhism as a social and political creed contained within itself elements of wenknees which after Asoka's death led quickly to the break-up of the tko Mauryas Empire", In the opinion of the author, certain differences between the Buddhist and the Vedic or Brahmanic outlooks cannot be over 20. srpan Rule in India, p. 101.

·17 emphasized. First, Buddhism laid all emphasis on one single path (murgal, namely, the way of resunciation. That is why it confined itself to monasteries. Manastic lite became so great 2 fashion in Magadha, the chief province of the Magadban Empire, that it won lust its original name and acquired the patie of Bihar, "The Land of Vibaras" or monasteries. The best and the most intelligent mea were thereby lost to society and the ccopomic lilc of the community safered. We read that, ia China when the evil effects of the monastic fashion of ble were recogoized, thousands of monasteries were closed and monks ani nurs were forced to take to secular life. *The orthodox religion, on the other hand, tecognized several other margas (ways), particularly karmasidige (way of action) and Ohiktra marga (way of devotion). Though life was divided into lour qaramas, it kis not ncoessary to go through the last asraina. Janak, for instance, did not give up his house-holder's life. The ideal that one should go through one's family and social duties, without at the same forgetting that one is only an instrustent la the hands of God, is equally well encouraged. In the second place, the Upanishads always iasisted that was a micro cosm was a relection of the macrocosm whatever be their ulti. matc pture. The sun (ahar), which was accordiog to them, the catre and source of the world, was jdeptial with the self lakar, which was the centre and source of the individpal experience, Realization of the Atmas was ralisation of the Brabman. The outward was got therefore lost by turning inward. But, for the Daddhists, realization lay sa simply analysing away the almer or Dwigala. Thus, a3 ) bare 537, what was 3 conquest for the Upoishads 1533 reduced to 20 esmpe by the Buddhists, The linhainic reaction naturally allowed with success. The admission of or iato monasteries led to corruption, which 13 mtted by Buddhist writers themselves, and lent support to 21 Sep bu {. Ceea Zea: Caspese Culture, 52. See aisa Arthur 11, Wxht: "a lord the Rebecost of Bartály542". Journal She istory of Sout. 1sary 1931, Sre In: Tissors of Beddum.

·- 18 the Brahmanic revival. The Mauryas were succeeded by the Sungas in 183 B. C, who supported Brahmanism as against Buddhism. The social evils of Buddhism already began to be felt; but the antidote, the Indians thought, lay in the reassertion of Brahmanism in its strictest forms. It is to this period that the Janudharmasastra (The Code of Man), with its great emphasis upon the supremacy of the Brahmins, belongs. 39 After ruling for a little over a century, the Sungas were followed by the Kanvas. Towards the end of the Ist. century B. C, the latter were succeeded by the Andhras, who ruled for about four centuries. It was during the time of the Indhras (also called Sata valiasas) that Buddhism again raised its head. But it became more Upanishadic than before The two Mahayang schools, the Madhyamika and the Yagachara, started by Nagar runa nad Maitreyanatha, belonged to this period. Nagarjuna (2nd. century A D.) was patronized by the Andhras and, though he was the most dominating figure in all the Buddhist universities in both the South and the North, his permanent abode was on the Nagarjuna Hill near Imaravats on the banks of the Krishna Maitreyanttha belonged to the North. The former expounded the doctrine that the ultimate nature of the world is sunga (void), which echoed the Upanishadic doctrine of the indeterminate Brahman (nirgunabrahman), and the latter preached that it is pure formless vijnant (consciousness', which also came near to the Upanishadic view that the Brahman is pure consciousness (chit). Though the Andhra emperors gave splendid encouragement to Buddhism, they did not discourage Brahmanism One of them even proclaimed himself to be a Brahmin Like the Sungas, they performed the horse sacrifice in the orthodox fashion to proclaim their suzerainty over the whole of India. These facts justify our understanding this age as the age of the gradual coming together, through both rivalry and absorption, of Buddhism and Brahmanism. The naked directness of the 23. Sce Jajassal: Mark and Yajnarolksa.

·19 Buddhist sadhand method of realization or merge or path of seliation was by degrees giving place to other ways (marras! advocated by the orthodox," thich was encouraged by both the Andhras and the Kushans During this period was written the Code of Yagnaraldss, in which the incomparable supremacy given by Maou to the Brahmins was lowered. The orthodar Rindus up to the time, even the Drahmins, were non-vegetarians, But from this time vegetarianist began to be adopted by the orthodox under the influence of Jainism and Buddhism. Altes the collapse of the Andras in the 3rd or the 4th It was centgry A. D the Guptas rose to power in the North at the court of one of these Guptas, Chandragupta II, that Kalidasa, the greatest Saoscrit poet and the author of Sakuntala, Nourished. The Cupta Age was the Age of Hindu Tevival and the Golden Age of Sanscrit literature It should, bowever, be poled that Buddhism is not suppressed or persecuted by the Guptas in the way it is sometimes represented. It was allowed to coatinue, thougà it did not receive that amount of imperial patronage which it did from the Mauryas, the Andhras and the hiusk255. It is said that Skuudhagupta was a zelove disaple of Vasubandhu, one of the greatest exponents of Mijnraiva Buddhism. This also shows that the difference Ortkeen Buddhism and Bramanyam was wearing thinner and shpres uart Buddhism is finally absorbed and vanished in the 26th century. It just hingered on during the time of the Vizunxar Emple. During the rule of Harsla af kanajib centutri, who was a $c103 of the Guptas, it received gaid priority a zoyal patronage, aites which 33e we have no instance ! Any great momech taking it his state religion. In the 8th recluy. like Brahmisic seaction was consommatal by Sankara, ho tecorporated the philowphy of liter Buddhism Even carlier, Sanlar's faitescher, Gau pula, did it in his Ildadute lankst. That w3s the time shen great spiritual forters *est Ebangice from Brahmanis: a Buddnism to :). See llarel. dyja Fale in Indu, r 153 ·20 Buddhism and Brahmanism in order to discover which spiritual discipline would take one deeper. Bhartrihari is an outstanding example. Gaudapada himself is supposed to have been a Buddhist at first, And we find that not only as Buddhist Vijnanavada assimilated but also was the Buddhist concept ol Sunya (Void) incorporated by the growing sects of Saivism and Vaishnavisin? 25. See the author's article, "an Vonoticed Aspect of Gauda pada's Kanduka-karskas" (Vol XXVI. Past I. Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institutes ·INDIA'S CULTURE AND HER PROBLEMS LECTURE II. Indian Culture as integrated. The best expressions of Hindu culture in religion, art, music, literature, politics and social organisation took definite shape by about the 8th century. Social divisions were crystallized even by the time of Manu, that is, the Sunga period. But Brahman um and Buddhism, the two main contestants, did not yet settle the issues then. It took about fourteen centuries to realize fully stat Buddhism endeavoured to teach the same highest truth of the Upanishads, and so for final absorption and assimilation. Hlavell say: "5t was the Brahasic intellect more than the Kubatsisa sword which led to the dowplall of the Buddhist Sanghal" The truth is that the contestants not only argued intellectually about each other's highest concepts but also tried to verily spiritually their corresponding realities, thus implicitly accepting the absolution of the Inter Spirit, by whatever name * *s called. It is this that gives unity of perspective to the whole of Indixo Thilosophy and religion, which is unfortunately missed by some of its interpreters including some Indias. Som Irderns who have seen this feature ol the Upanishadic 1rmitiua tasve not well tt consistently enough. The Upanishads do not peters system of philosophy. It is the schools, the fost ders of which wrote commentaries on the Upanishads, that attempt to give systems. Each school has its owa stand.point, Grays inon dualism), druits dualism), visishladraila (nonduals of the determinate brahm10', dusitsdraila (dualism. carga durm), idealism, realise and so forth. It is therelore thought that the Omaishad: hare to stand point of their ontl. Hlut Iscre 11 a stand point higher than the stand-point of the cehold, hib 11 accepted by all of them and which is found in the Uriaszt. It is the stand-point of the inward Absolute". 28. due Role in Ix4, 131. Str Bahnstatas, 19,1.3.

·22 All schools accept that the highest reality has to be realized within as one's self, whatever be the interpretation put upon the word self. The Absolute is within us; it may be the Sell of our selves, may be identical with thera, different from them, or partly identical with and partly different from them; it may be inclusive of matter or exclusive of it, or matter may not have a different being at all from it: these are secondary details. In Indian Philosophy distinctions like realism, idealism, pluralism, dualism, and monism fall within the absolutism of the Inner Spirit To ignore this feature is to miss the primary character istic of Indian Philosaphy and culture. This holds true not only of the Vedantic and other orthodox systems but also of Buddhism and, in a very significant sense, of Jainism, both of which differ from the orthodox tradition only is rejecting the authority of the Vedas. Even Jaina scholars now claim Vedic origia for their religion.35 King Rishabha of the Vedas is claimed to be one of the earliest Jaing teachers, and it is even said that early "Saivism and Jainism were one and the same.''' The same spiritual depth was striven after in literature also. Literature, in fact no fine art, was regarded as a pastime. Its aim was highly ethical and spiritual Even the earbest writers saw the contageous and educative influence of poetry and the advantage of untilizing it for making people follow the Bharata Dharma or lrya Dharma (the way of life of Bharata or the Aryans). Vidyanatha, the author of Prataparudriyani, says that the Vedas teach a man by word of command, the Puranas like friends tell him what is good and bad, but a poem like a sweet heart charms him into doing what it wants. The tenden cy of the reader of a poem or the spectator of a drama is to imitate the hero through a sort of psychological identification And he identifies himself with the hero through fascination for him produced by poetic charm. So the hero's character has to be developed according to the ideas of Bharata Dharma. This was 29. Chakravaru "Contribuuan of Buddhism and Jainism 10 the Cultural Unity al India", Tho Vedanta K'rsari, Dec, 1943. 29. Of city, p. 17).

·23 step by Astaghosha, the Buddhist, who wrote his poem Budda. charita (The Story of Buddha) and also Saundarananda (Sundari ant Nandal, in order to preach the Buddhist ideal of life. It is for this reason that the Puran19 or Epics are trated as Vedsagas or studies subsidiary to the Vedas. Puranas are grand world histories dealing with creation, dissolution, some dynisty, its relation to the originators of Lumanity and its achievements. Most of the Puranas were written to extol a particular sect, god or dynasty, but all ophold the same spiritual truths. But with such an ambitious aim, they mixed up a lot of mythological with historical material. However, what we All epics include not only Puranas but also Itihasas, which are histories proper, and mshalatyas or great poems win ithasa is drfined as a story which is interwoven with 3dvice about warmd (duty), driha (wealth), dznia (love), and moksha (salvation. I mahaksuga is one in which only one bhava lemotion, sentiment) is primary The theory of emotions and sentiments and the realization of the Brahmin through their best helis enjoyment (rasa) is a peculiar contribution of India culture. This feature of our errerieace was discovered long ago by the Hindas; but it was Bharati, the author of Nutsasastra (The Theory of Dance) *ho systematised both the theory and art and became the authority to all subsequent writers. He says that there are nice Dhards emotions, sentimente), love, humour, anger, en thusiasm iteroism), pity, wooder, drezd, disgust, and peace. The corresponding rasas (aestbetic feelings) are also nice and are alled by the same cance of these agala santi (peace) is the highret and in the source prakriis) of the rest. When a Mara íemotios, seatiead is made stable istnagin) and enjoy. adim by the art of the artist, it brcomes 1853 (aesthetic feeling); and the pur brlongs to the techaique of arti Rasa or aesthetic piratare 18 a relection, in the saitsiko (pore) form of buddhi of intelligence, or the ananda (bliss) of the Brahman. The Jo. St Jousiva, V'L. 107.4 ·24 bliss of the Brahman and so the Brahman can be realized through emotional enjoyment or the sublimatioa of emotioas. Thus not only literature, but also dance, architecture, painting and music were tucoed isto methods (sadhanas) of sublimation, dealing with different material. A most interesting and inportant theory developed by the ancient Hindus in this connection is that of the Sabda-brahman or the Nada-brahman (Sound-Brahman or Logos), which is the Bralman in the inmediately next stage of descent to the phenomenals: world. In the Bible we read of the Word or the Logos in the beginning; but later the idez plays no important role. We rend also that, according to the ancient Greeks, Logos meant both Word and Reason. This ider had a wonderful development in India, If Logos is so immediately near to God. must it not possess the latter's bliss aspect also ? Il'hy should it be merely Word and Reason and not feeling also ? The Logos or Sabda-brahman has diverse forms; as word, it is the unities (splodus) of our words; as Reason, it would be the unities (sphoias) of our universals (samAnjas or jatis); and as sounds tinged with emotional pleasure or feeling tone (noies), it is the melodies (ragas), which would also be sphotos. Thus sphola is of at least three kinds, words meaning objects, logicut universals, and meludies each with its owo peculiar form of feeling tone. Hence music is considered to be a sadhana (method) of God-realisation, the realisation of God through the experience of the Logos. The original Nada or Sabda (Sound or Word) has its owa feeling tone, which is bliss; and all the inelodies are reflections of it or participate in it Music with any other aim is shallow and inferior; because it cannot touch the deepest core of our being. Music is certainly meant for enjoyment; but perfec; music is for enjoyment cinalized into the deepest core of our being occupied by the Logos. In politics and social organization also the same high ideal was upheld. There is any amouet of nisunderstanding about 31. Cp, the ider this! Christ is die son of God and the Logos.

·25 politics and administration in the East iacluding lodia, the kiegs being represented as tyrats and despots, before whom the subjects cringed ja abject fear, But this opision regarding India is not completely true; or rather it is not more true than what can be said about the monarchs in general of the West. Relerence has already been made to what the caste system bad accomplished throughout India, so far as selations between the rulers of the different kingdoras were coacerred. The "Santsparva" of the Jahabharata, where the king's duties are described, and even Kautilya's Arthasostra give the lie to such represertations." The king was an incarpation of Viskau, the sapposter of the Universe, and his duty was therefore to work for his people's prosperity, and seek his own happiness in theirs. He was held responsible not only for their happiness and mixty, but also for their sios ao Bierits. It was his duty ta uphols Dharma (Law) and be their example. The king was to subdue bumself first before he sought to subdue bis foel. la few other countries do we find stories of kings becoming rislis fascetics) and performicg pensate To become A rajarshi frasa! ascetic in old age was ibe aspiration of Aryaa kings 1.8is the great Chandragupta became a Jain monk in the end and left his isdom; and Asoka's own children took to monastic Swit, le himsell became a Buddhist arliat sriat). It is rot take that may kings lived exsl lives. And this holds true cot only of the Orient but also of ibe Occident Yet, so long the linta rule lasitů in India, such kings did not rule long enough, for other kings were always on the watch to take atsastuse ol their mistule. M'estern descriptions are based citing on the observation of kinge durice the Muslim rule is Ich Thir id-als placed belore the kings, the religious and Arep orizitual atmogbest prevailing at the courts and in the 10.etry, and the coastast match kept by kings on each other totale the easiest opportunity of miscule succeeded to a very Sutlar:) Arsh Time in Indha R, C, Tazda Outlines /led-< ***** Curaten, ·26 large extent in preventing tyranny and despotism. And tre should not forget that there were olimrchies and republics among the states of Hindu India. We have already seen how the caste system developed as the social order of India, and how it was sought to make the scheme of castes and asramas a suitable instrument for the observance of Dharma and the realization oi the Inner Spirit. It might be an imperfect instrument; but the Aryaps lound it more convenient and peaceful to transform what come in their way into an ethical and spiritual order than to build everything anew alter destroying inconipatible elements. Because Hindu culture is represented as essentially spiritual, it skoald not be thought that Hindu India had no achievements to her credit in positive sciences. The ancient Hindus wrote on mathematics and gave the subject its zero and decimals They wrote on physiology, embriology, anatomy, cugenics, on the use of mercury, iron and other powerful metals as medicines, on government, municipal institutions, lat, warfare and even laws of nations. Regarding fine arts, they propagated the highest ideals. Most of the works were translated into Chinese and Arabic and, through them, reached all the civilized countries of the world. Again, because India has adopted the highest spiritual stand-point in each of its cultural activities, it has wrongly been thought that it is a land of ascetics, who do not know how to enjoy life. As Henri Berr33 says, their detachment from terrestrial realities is exaggerated. It should be noted that love and sensuality and therefore women occupy a large place in our literature. The motive behind this high spiritutlity is the desire to see the depth of life in every respect. None has better expressed it than Sankara, the sannsasin (ascetic), in his prayer to the Mother-goddess : "Let my speech be the recitation of thy name, my actions thy ritual, my lying dowa prostration before thee, walking the going round thee, my cating etc. an oblation 33. Grabuska. Stera aad Massos-Oarsel: Ancient India, pn, xui xvii.

·-27 to tare, all my enjoyment the surrender of myself to thes; let everything I do be thy worship"." Here there is no indication that everyttiag should be repougced but that every thing should be sees is the light of the lader Spirit, whether it is alled Metkes, Father, or a beutra! It. The lodian enjoys life, and he caigys it to its depths. Shallow acd superficial enjoyment icot his ideal. It should be deep, intense ; and intensity is atticed when our whole being is gripped. Hence the direction Add motive of ladiad causic, literature and other fine arts. There a be a better proof that Indians knows how to enjoy life than tbat a Torded by Vatsayana's Kamasastra (The Science ol Erotres). Tor the same reason, to say that Indian art, literature etc. are religious, ibong Dot Wong, does not convey the whole meaning to non-Indians. The word 'religious' might convey the meaning that it is puritanical, austere and dry. On the other land, it is emotively rich, highly sensitive, and touching thin depths of our being. Art might have started, in the history of humanity, as the expression of emotions. lo lodia it was sot left as the expression of stray emotions; both the emotions and their expressions were sublimated till they became tho emotions and expressions of the over-individual spirit withis us. 115 emotions an be experienced by us in moments of great exaltanan. Daste, for instance, is the expression of the bythesssc vibrations of the Universal Spirit as Siva, the Nataraja or the Lord of Dance That is the reason why traditional Carces, according to orthodox Bharatanatya, are not lewd apl *tuous, though highly seasite. They appeal to our heart, but oot to our lowet wtart. It cannot be said, however, that 18 Fractice all India dioces te inspired by this high idet? How test cas ne characterize Indiza culture? }sit aesthetic, indewal, pristati os religiout? The soost suitable term wems to be pical. Se le already pointed to the misunder- # Afslan1, 23. 3 Haral Artur fuftindus, p. 39.

·26 large extent in preventing tyranny and despotism. And we should not forget that there were oligarchies and republics among the states of Hindu India. We have already seen how the caste System developed as the social order of India, and how it was sought to make the scheme of castes and asramas A suitable instrument for the observance of Dharma and the realization of the Inner Spirit. It might be an imperfect instrument; but the Aryaas found it more convenient and peaceful to transform what mme in their way into an ethical and spiritual order than to build everything anew after destroying inconypatible elements. Because Hindu culture is represented as esscatially spititusi, it should not be thought that Hindu India had no achievements to her credit in positive sciences. The ancient Hindus wrote on mathematics and give the subject its zero and decimals They wrote on physiology, embriology, anatomy, eugenics, on the use of mercury, iron and other powerful metals as medicines, on government, municipal institutions, law, warfare and even laws of nations. Regarding fine arts, they propagaled the highest ideals. Most of the works were translated into Chinese and Arabic and, through them, reached all the civilized countries of the world. Again, because India has adopted the highest spiritual stand-paint in each of its cultural activities, it was wrongly been thought that it is a land of ascetics, who do aot know how to enjoy life As Henri Berr3 says, their detachment from terrestrial realities is exaggerated. It should be noted that love and sensuality and therefore women occupy a large place in our literature. The motive behind this high spirituzlity is the desire to see the depth of life in every respect. None has better expressed it than Sankara, the saingasis (ascetic), in his prayer to the Brother.goddess : "Let my speech be the recitation of thy name, my actions thy ritual, my lying down prostration before thee, walking the going round thee, my eating ctc. an oblation 33. Grabuska. Stern and Masson.Oorsel: Ancient India, PA, XYi zrii.

·29 perfect, dance made perfect, literature made perfect, perfection be. ics weatured by the degree to which art etc. are able to grip man's deepest being. That is why we find so much metaphysics in Indian religion. Jfan is not merely to know but to become the metaphysical truth. And though reason is discouraged as being sever conclusisclapratishthanai), lodian Philosophy is through al through rational, reaching the very bounds of reason. That is why Indian religion is treated sometimes as goosticism. Son: Western triters characterize indian religion, in short, all eastern religion, as westbetic. The word assthetic may convey the meaning that the Indians are satisfied with a cult that pleases their seatbelic sense This macaging is both true and false So far as worship at home goes, cery attempt is mile to decorate the rooms of worship as richly as possible. But norship in temples, particularly in the Saivait temples, 18 Quite Assiete We should cot forget 1.3t etterpal worship, arcsráirg to lligduism, is symbolical of psychological sublimation of our sclips ->ublimation not in the metaphorical sense of education but in the lateral and factual sensent the Universal 5e 19 rebol. The process of sublimation may take several ethical, emotiopal and intellectual forms, all being treated as forms of Yox or sadhana To live one's life without losing 0.7's bratar:ss to the inner Spirit is Yoga. As this psychological pigesnicance is not lost sight of ia lodian religion, it may appear *^3thetic to the cutsider But the word aesthetic is misleading. Il sy mean merely the Seasuous or what pertains to beauty only. I den religion is not coaficed to either or both. The word aesthetic may also convey the meaning that Indian 1.losophy and religioa arc unethical. In fact, there has been uch a criticum code for a long time by Western writers at It is ». Norberg. Huline of Csil ex. West. p. 403. la oor personal ur t'mlosest Nor:brp armlessed :st te d.d set wera wkt me object $:t.es: the problety onse of Les readers als at Beati » Se Sor Chere De: lide 4*Budhism, l'ol' I. p. Xarir» !<brug In. Erhss. Hofkist, is has t'thus of Indis jertet te ·28 standings which the word religious may produce. Further, the word may men also what accords with an institutionalized religion, the sanction for which was obtained from some historical person of some remote past. The word may suggest the desire to perpetuate the conditions of society belonging to some antiquity. The Code of Alang may perhaps be pointed to ia support of this meaning. But there are several Hindu codes dillering in details which indicate the existeace of progressive Thinking on social matters. The word pragmatic may have both a narrow and wide meaning. It may mean that the culture is directed towards the accumulation of worldly wealth, just as the word American is sometimes made to mean. Indian culture is certainly not so. Wealth is recognized to be one of the four aims of life, the others being dharma (duty), kama (love), and moksha (salvation). But moksha is regarded as the highest of all. The pragmatic is not a self-sufficient ideal. Wealth is useful of course ; but useful for what? Of course, for the human being. That is why pragmatise needs humanism for its completios. But humanism, in its turn, is oot selfsufficient; and this becomes evident if we raise the question : What is man? The validity and importance of a philosophy of humanism would then depend upon how man is under tood. Is man merely a social unit to be understood in terms of society ? Or is he merely a physiological organism to be understood in terms of biology, physiology and anatomy? Or is he merely & structural pattern of atoms to be understood in terms of physics and chemistry? Indian Philosophy accepts all these ideas, and yet goes beyond and traces man's Identity with the Universal Self. Should we then say that Indian culture is intellectual? Yes, it is intellectual, but not merely intellectual. Intellect is a servant of life, and our life teaches up to the lafinite Spirit. Hence the decp metaphysical tone of Indian culture is all its aspects. But this metaphysics is not dry rationalism, as some interpreters of Indian thought take it to be. It is & philosophy of life, sot 3 mere abstract speculation It is a philosophy of every expression of life, idealized and made ·31 grimarily the duties of monks 3od dups. The duties of sravakas llistecers, Lay disciples) come into coasideration only incidentally, And this Buddhist attitude to ethics was out witbout infipepce og orthodor llinduism. To accordance with the above criticism, we should say that any culture would be e:hical, il it gives psimacs to ethical values c:nbodied in social ideals. Such a culture would value religion for the side of ethics. For instance, in comparative religion when we say that one religion is higher than another for re. stesenting its gods as more moral, we are implicitly giving primicy to ethical plues. But il the question, which etlical standırdt are higher is raised, ethics itself canot answer. Here it betrays its self-transcendence. Western Philosophers would say that it becomes metaphysics; but the Indian would say that its standards cow become spiritual. In the field of spiritual as well as that of social discipline, sell control is needed. So if a Dew definition of ethics as the science of self-control is giveo, then it is the realms in which self-control is exercised that di Terentiale between the forms of ethics. The important point then to note is that these realms should got be allowed to fall Amrt but should be praded into a continuous scheme of life. It in cot meast that these stages should be castes and asramas with their traditional rigidiy; but that it is necessary to graduate Isle in such a way that social values do got suffer and yet can be trwalord and sublimital so that they can find their fulfilment in brcomias spuitas! slues Critics of lodiin thocght who Ny that it 11 octhical do not see that ethics is pot self-sufficient to! x! transceden! Even it me Becept an ethical Qualysis like thas given by Pulo in his Recublíc, we shall have to go beroal 023. agd society in order to understand the full nature of 1. The pa problem for leaders of society would then be to sirites busz between ethics aiming at the realization of socis! ra'sri aalthst uming at the realization of spiritual values. There well be no calict between the two, waless ope is made +) Scot'nts. Cikis! Shad coçare Hegel's riews dua tutjesh ·said that Indis produced great melaphysical systems, but not a single system of ethics. It is even said that Indians, in spite of the austerities and asceticism they practice, are unethical in their conduct. In answer to this latter charge, the reader may be referred to the writings of other Europeans right from Megasthanes to Abbe Dabois, who formed quite a different opinion. It is true that the Indian, either the Hindu or the Muslim, will not identify himself with the social laws of the Europeans, who may forget that their moral code is just one of many. If morality consists in controlling one's inclinations and propeasities, in short, in self-control, no other religion or philosophy laid greater emphasis on it than the Indian. Too often it is repeated in Indian writings that the senses are horses, mind the tein, and that one should control the horses by the rein and not allow oneself to be led astray by them.38 Set. control is an indispensible step, coming under sama add miyama, s' in spiritual progress. Yet, Indian culture, just as it is not merely aesthetic, is not merely ethical. Every Indian has to perform his duties (dharwas) is prescribed by his caste and asrama. But the performance of his duties is not as end in itself. They are performed with an ulterior ain, the realization of the Universal Sell in min One point may have to be admitred. When Buddhism, wlich confined itselt 10 monasteries, worked out the monastic ideal, its ethics did not touch social duties as such, but laid all emphasis on self-control. The difference is perhaps best expressed by saying that self-control was more a psychological technique that a social virtute for Buddhism, whereas it was equally both for Brahmanism. Indeed, Brahmanism, after it introduced sanngasa as a fourth aroma, gradually converted this cinalization of urges into simple stoppage of activity. But this stage came last; and social ideals did not suffer. The scheme of asramas preserved them. Hindu ethical codes deal elaborately with the duties of 311 asramas and castes, But Buddhist Vinaya texts discuss 38. Katha, III, 4. 39. Special and regular rules of telf-control.

·33 judgment that they are imperfect attempts at harmony. On the ctter tised, they were some of the perfect attempts of harmonis. ing without destroying, and sublizzating without insulting several forms of cult and worship. For iostapce, in Chidamba. 610, we fios innumerable images of gods, goddesses etc, as decorative detail on the temple; but mihin, as the Holy of the ilolies, lies perc alaid lether, space), which is siraply nothing or eroptiness. Whether the temple be of Siva as ether or as Any other element, or of Vishnu in any of his aspects, the same prioriple i followed To trace in the Puranas how the gods suferseded one another would form an interesting study; but the sufersedel gods are given some place bear or over the temple. Similarly in painting and statue construction also we mu disorm the embodimeat of the same spiritual ideal. The charm. los Beace animating and radiatia; from Buddha's images is quite well kcows. It is cot naturalism, Talism, human charm and accuracy, but idealism, sublimation, and spiritual transformation al carn that are placed before the artist as the highest ideals. Icel, aesthetic effects are aimed at, but they are transformed into spiritul efects, which are the cornpletion of the merely arsthetic. It is usual to characterize Italian art as seligious and may stres? Perhaps these two words do tot Convey its important parchalogical and rriol aspects. The wors spiritual seems to by less toysrading crea bere." We may say with a fair amount of justification that the iarular:1 192113 of Irdian culture showed themselves through Gullaber by the 4th century B. C, and were fairly well-articu. 12:r by alys! the 4th ceatary O. This cukutt Tetaiard tunt cf 13 angical forms upto the advent of the West as West. 1.2 as Chrislacity: for the essence of Christianity, its purely rentral elrent of findies joy ig lle erion with the Divine, is early lattern if sot Jedin. As poisted 0-1 alieady, the a crima cla'l teg:084, not excluirg (s!3m, Christianity, det' ikeat afl ke tlatahl. Intum Sulfare and Print- ***The Ideals of Indus Art, arcenarcs**07. Salicnal ilin sz) Tranilynuli of Selzle 1st ars A $ ·32 to do the duties of the other.* Self-control for the realization of spiritual values alone without reference 10 social values, as in Buidhism, may result ultimately in psychological prevention of the activity of our urges useful for society; and sell-control for the realization of social values alone may result in literal obedience to the prevailios lairs of society and so in social stagnation and, where the social laws of groups difler, in social conflicts. Social values in any concrete form do not possess absoluteness, which spiritual values have. So in the life of both the individual and society, both values should be alloired to play their role. How the greatest s. ritual heights reached by Indian culture have been reflected in arts, literature and political and social life of the people has already been indicated. Indiaa music has an intensity and deptó surpassed by no other music. It should not, however, be thougot that it does not aim at pleasure. Pleasure (sukha, ananda, rasa) is a reflection of the nature of the Brahman in its aspect as Logos. The nature of the Brahman is ananda, rasa. It is made to rellect itself in our mind (buduhet through music. The ideal of music is thus to grip our being through pleasure. Music as a fine art is connected very intia mately with our psychical life. Even in other fine arts, which are less intimately connected, the same ideal is upheld. In architecture, particularly of temples, we canot understand the motive behind their construction if we forget that the discovery of the highest spiritual ideal did not prompt the Hindu to discard and destroy the earlier forms of cult and worship, but to treat them as symbols of the liighest and of the processes of its realization. So lower gods and forms of worship occupy the exterior of the shrine, while the inside is the abode of the Iloly of the Holes. If the dragons and other gous are viewed merely as decorations, we would be missing the deeper meaning of temple construction, ignoring history and passing naturally the 41. This confict was present not only in India but also in f'orspe waruns the tiddle Ages when Calho: Curspaniy astracted the power ol bumabits to its monasteries, ·35 This spiritual element, on which Hinduism bas never lost its hols, is the universal as essential element of all apcient religions and cultures. By Lasing the primary emphasis upon it and making it the wcifying priccipe for cultural stability and pewness, Iliaduism has retained its clajin to university. But ta she claim la universality, as I remarled above, Buddhism as a religion renteveo bigher, it suited itself to all climes and societies. It bever arried a set of social laws to be enforced apon its converts ; and in this respect, it differs from other proirlytizios religions like Islam and Christianity. Both the latter religions, in their institutionalized forms, may be traced to Judusm, which is tribal in origin The God of the Jews was a tribulgal, who was partial to one tribe and inimical to the rest. Though Christiotty claimed to be universal and ceased to be inbal, it retained its particuiarity tas opposed to universality) by insistirs that salvation was possible only through Christ. Islim also endavoured to become a universal religion and spread outside Arabu. But still it retained its tribal features by conferring special privileges upon converts istoits fold and refusing the samo to others Bat Hinduism had its origin in the worship of matural forces and in psychological discipline; and for this reasoa t. exly Aryans had to seed even of temples much less of 1:31-32 interes fact for the history of religions, la (hus sespect, strir selgion was more apicopic than Islam, Nos, region of eiture, when derelored, leads, as Marria says, ** to Kirace and rationalism. And really Ilipdu religion became thoroughly rationalised 3d systematised its psychological technique. Jostas teicus co scientific practice without scieglific theory, there Is flodia religion without a philosophical theory. The unique. ter of Isa seligioa lies in the developmeat pari sassu of both they 133 practice; where, is the case of Islam 21 Christianity otte tole, thediy, mostly borrowed from Greek Philosophy, is As asenda Hinduism dos 200 cbim that the perception of 1ruh: the conopoly ol 267 person or religion and proclaims * Hareil dagen fut 14 JW, . 117. *, Pulary e C. p. 79.

·34 and, according to some authors, even Taoisin, can be traced to Indian religion. We have referred to the possible spread of Hindu religion to South America several thousands of years agº even before the afohenjo Daro civilisation. Even now, ercept Aluslims ani Christians, almost all people of Asia look to India as their spiritual home. Thought of course, it is difficult to decide, as indicated earlier, whether religion as inner worship was introduced into India by the Aryans or whether it was adopted by them from the pre-Aryan Indians or whether it was known throughout the ancient world as evidenced by the Orphic cult of Greece, it was in India that yagic discipline and inner worship were first rationally analysed, their technique systematized and the spiritual principle fornul ted and made the unifying principle of the country's culture. This principle is a live one, formless but active in both giving and taking forms, "omnivorous" as it was alled, and so the stabilising force in Indian life, whatever be the new forms, religious, social, political, artistic and literary, that may be introduced It would be wrong to say that Indian culture belongs to any particular group, caste or province in Indin In fact, when the absoluteness of the Inner Truth was recognized, all cults were shown methods of in sardization. All castes were taught methods of psychologial discipline, though some were prohibited from rending the Vedas : but the prohibition amor ed only to the restriction to officiate at sacrifices, and did not apply to the practice of spiritual discipline. Even the cult of the Mother was developed into a wonderful system of philosoply and spiritual tecanique, from the macice of which w.ta the Sisik uste It is said that Sankara practised it; and one of the standard works of the Sakta School, Prapanchasara Tantra, is attributed to him. All were allowed to study Puranas and Sanscrit literature, to practise music and dance, and take to sculpture etc., though some of these fine arts were assigped as hereditary professions to come sub-aastes. was excluded, *3 43. See the works of \'ccdrcffe (and Aralan) ·35 This spiritual element, on which Hinduisan bus never lost its hald, is the universal and essential element of all agcient religions and cultures. By using the primary eruphasis upon it and making it the cailying principle for cultural stability and progress, Hinduism has retained its clajsu to vaiversality. But ia the claim to universality, as I remarked above, Budetbism as a religion went esen bigber, it suited itsell to all climes and socielies. It never arried a set of social laws to be enforced spon its converts; and in this respect, it differs from other proselytizing religions like Islam and Christianity. Both the latter religions, in their institutionalized forms, may be traced to Judaism, which is tribal in origin The God of the Jews sas tabil god, who is partial to ons tribe and indical to the rest. Though Christianity claimed to be universal and ceased to be tribal, 1 retained its particularity 'as opposed to universality) by insisties that salvation was possible only through Christ. Islam also codeavoured to become a universal religion and spread outside Arabis. Bet still it retained its tribal features by coaferring special privileges upga converts into its fold and relusing the same to others. But Hinduism had its origin in the worship of natural forces and in psychological discipline; and lor this reason the early Aryans had no need even of temples much less of idols interesting fact for the bistory of religions. In this respect, their religion was more aniconic than Islam. Now, rehgion of cature, when developed, leads, as Marvin says, ** to Kiesce ad rationalism. And really Hisds religion became thoroughly rationalized and systematized its psychological technique. Jast as there is so scientific practice without scientific theory, there is no lodian religion without a philosopbial theory. The unique. ress of lodi in religion lies in the developmeat cari fassu of both ttears sad practic; whereas, is the case of Islam. 21 Christianity on the whole, theory, mostly borrowed from Greek Philosophy, is an appendix. Hinduis does not chim that the perception of rath is the monopoly of any person or religion and proclaim, 4 Hare!!! A1537 Full Rini, p117, 43. klasters of Phytosofky, p.13.

·34 WOTand, according to some authors, even Taoism, cau be traced to Indian religion. We have referred to the possible spread of Hindu religion to South America several thousands of years ago even before the Mohenjo Daro civilisation. Even now, ercept Muslims and Christians, almost all people of Asia look to India as their spiritual home. Though of course, it is difficult to decide, as indicated earlier, whether religion as inner ship was introduced into India by the Aryans or whether it was adopted by thein from the pre-Aryan Indians or whether it was known throughout the ancient world as evidenced by the Orphic cult of Greece, it was in India that yogic discipline aad inner worship were first rationally analysed, their technique systematized and the spiritual principle formula. ted and made the unifying principle of the country's culture. This principle is a live one, formless but active in both giving and taking forms, "omnivorous" as it was called, and so the stabilising force in Indian life, whatever be the new forms, religious, social, political, artistic and literary, that may be introduced. It would be wrong to say shat Indian culture belongs to any particular group, aste or province in India In fact, when the absoluteness of the Inner Truth was recognized, all cults were shown methods of in wardization. All castes were taught methods of psychological discipline, though some were prohibited from reading the Vedas : but the prohibition amounted only to the restriction to officiate at sacrifices, and did not apply to the practice of spiritual discipline. Even the cult of the Mother was developed into a wondestol system of philosophy and spiritual technique, from the practice of which not even the fifth caste was excluded. <3 It is said that Sankara practised it; and one of the standard works of the Sakta School, Prapanchasara Tantra, is attributed to him. All wese allowed to study Puranas and Sanscrit literature, to practise music and dance, and take to sculpture etc., though some of these fine arts were assigned as hereditary professions to some sub-castes, 43, See the works of lifccdrcffc fand Avalon) ·37 Arza people played the most important role. The Aryann, wherever they fired, Fere intellectualists and ratiopalizers, la India, tdc inner spiritual experience, which otherwise would have surrived as mere eller vescence and superstition, mas rationalized, articulated into distinct principles, and made scientific. Afterwards these pricciples were applied to every branch of cul. tural activity. To a large extent, the geographical isolation of the Indian Aryans in the south by the sea and in the sorth by the Himalayag provided them for a time with comparative peaceful conditions to develop their culture. Few elements belonging to Hindu religion were borrowed from outside. So far as spirituality and philosophy are concerned, Islam and Christianity contributed tothing to Hinduism. But certain reforms in society and modes of worship like the rejection of idolatry were due to their inlluence. And they were introduced with the clear recognition that those truths were originally ackoowledged by Hinduisn. Almost every relorm bad a procedent in the past. Only those who ignore the history of Hinduista would say that mocotheism rd des otion, for instance, belong originally to Islam and Christianity. The Pancaratra and the Bhagavata cults, which developed the highest technique of devotion, are older than Christyny. The cortnbution of Indian culture to the cultures of the world is great soderd. It supplied the spiritual factor, the desire for God for God's sake, the joy one finds in his presence and ution with him, to all world religions. It tamed and softened the ferocly of human nature. We cannot show greater eridence Itt ibis teza pointing to the theories that sringard (love) and karuna (coa passion) are the two rases that are closest to the matute of the Divice. Bboja, be greatest of the toya) authors, whose name tas become the standard for cultural patronage, says that tbe very mature of the sell (alan, egol is sningard, which is the only resa laesthetic pleasue). For the Buddhists, grund is the primuy rak, "bich is epea personified and worshipped." For the orthodox writers in general, like 47. St. Sudhurimala, ·36 that it un be seen by every person who kankers after it and is prepared to go through the necessary discipline. It has therefore a truly universal element and no dogmas of creed and cult. Its astes were originally social groups, which were allowed to retain their individualities, at the same time spiritualizing their gods and cults. Both Hinduism and Buddhism and also Jainism were not revealed religions, which contend that God was reveal. ed once for all to some historical person in the past. All say that God or Truth may be revealed to all. No religion that does not say that Truth can be the common possession of mankind, Ha claim rightly to be universal. The importance of the principles of Indian culture for world culture is now obvious. Unless religion is rationalized and its spiritual factor freed from entanglement in some historic social forms, religious conflicts cannot be avoided. In this Hinduism has shown the way, though it may still be questioned whether it applied the principle coosistently throughout. But it did attempt to apply the principle to every branch of culture, and thereby was able to achieve, to a marked degree, not only the ideal of peace and mutual toleration between social groups, but also the ideal of their unification under the supreme guidance of the spiritual principle. Here is an example out of which we may extract a principle for removing social conflicts and evolving a unified culture for the world. Human and humanistic values should not be disparaged ; and we have to 60, at least for two reasons, beyond them in order to preserve and protect them: first, human values are relative to the group and the individual; Becondly, if by inductive process we are to pick up those which are common to all, the process would result ia presenting lower ideals to higher cultures and deprive them of the incentive for further progress. We should not forget that in no social study on the question of ideals be divorced from a purely inductive or psychological study.'& And no ideal can be more universal than the spiritual. In the spiritualization of Indian culture, the genius of the See Morply : Ciferimento! Skiai Pozchologs, ·39 and applied to religione social uplift, political adjustments, literature and fine acts The ideal of the 'Vhite Man's Burden, in the light of the world conflagrations started by the European mations in their rivalry to share it appears hypocritical and ironical aod is comparison with Asoka's ideal of conquest by Dwarna pales into insignificance. The aim of any world organization might well be the working out of a plan for a consistent application of this ideal, which would solve interna tional, inter provincial and inter-communal conflicts. that Hipdpism did on a smaller scale and with some defects, worldorganizations might do on a larger scale and more successfully. It has been said that no political constitution, bowever, high its aim, can work well if the moral nature of the people is not changed. So long as individuals, communities, groups and societies remain selfish, aiming at more and more appropriation of arth's fruits, we ca hardly expect that the best representa. tives will be sent either to the national or international councils. The individual's education, not merely intellectual but also Thoral, which would prompt bita to exercise self-control ia cipressing his opinion and casting his vote, should be the first step la political reform for any inter-national body. This kind of Telorm would be cultural reform with the best of ideals in view, Humna values Fete divided into four kids: artha (wealth), kama ilove), dharma (uly), and mokska (salvationl. Of the for each succeeding ope is prior to the preceding one. Oce may acquire scalth, but for what purpose? It is for enjoyment and so lose is higher than tealth. We may gen talize and say that *Calib 1 meant for errative satisfaction. But emotivt satisfaction should not be disorderly: it should be according to certain rules A! LW9, and so duty controls lave. But duty for duty's sake would result ia blind eas literal obedience to establis sed laws, and so molsha or salvatica is placed bigber than duty. Correspondink to the four values of lite, 20 Allemapt was made to develop four types of koorlelje ar science (vijnana): arthasastra or the science of economics and politics, kamasastra or the voience of erotics, dharntasasira or the science of duty, and ·38 $ Bharata, saoli (peace) is the primary rasa. Thus the highest ideals in all cultural enjoyments is the enjoyment of santi (peace), of karuna (compassion), and of sringara (love) No higher ideal can be imagined. The Divine is by nature pure santi, sirvana, not as pure pothing, the peace of the grave, but as the undisturbed fulness of Being. We should not forget what Bharata said, namely, that the origia (prakrits) or all the other rasas is sants and that they emerge out of it when the occasion arises and merge in it when the occasion vapishes. Critics of this Indian conception wrongly picture santi in an objective attitude before their minds: they should, on the other hand, feel it in the fulness of their being at its depths According to a}} systems of Indian thought, the highest reality is experieaced within us and not without us. Srincars and karuna are, though some claim them to be the highest, at least the nearest to santi, in that they liquify, if not liquidate, the hardened knot of egoism. Indiza culture, particularly in the Buddhist forps, spread the same ideal over all earth and the ideal is still a living force in znany Asian countries. The pecuharity of this costsibusson may not be appreciated for two reasons: it is difficult for many to imagine that peace can be an emotion, for it is generally understood to be absence of all emotion; and secondly, when it is imagiced to be absence of all emotion, it would be defhcult to appreciate how it can be enjoyed. Indian psychology bas here a completely new conception to offer the world. In support of this conception. We may pose acother question: If peace is emptiness, absence of all activity, and therefore a negative concept, how can we advocate Peace in the world, as we should then be advoating stoppage of all activity? Peace therefore cannot be a negative coprept either in the economic, political or psychological fields, From the human and the humanistic side, the best elemacet contributed by Indian culture to civilization is the idea that for every cultural activity the ideal is the enjoyment of sonli and also of karuna and sjugara. This ideal should be generalized 43, Katha, VI, S.

·INDIA'S CULTURE AND HER PROBLEMS. LECTURE III. The Period of Cultural Conflicts and Transformation, Iben tre speak of the period of cultural coaflicts, it should cot be understood that there were no similar coaflicts before this period when the Aryans coctacted the pre-Aryans, when the ortbodor aod the heterodox had to settle betreen each other social and political issges, and when the Buddhists, the Jainas aud the followers of the Brahmapical religion contested for Teligious supremacy and for royal and imperial preference, there were conflicts. But these conliicts only helped to give a final shape to Hinduism, as it is now alled. No Hindu called him self a Hindu before tho Musli!n conquests. By religion he was a follower of Arya Dharma or the Way of Lile of the Aryans; when asked for furtber details, he would say that he was a follower of Buddha, Jica or the Vedas; by caste he was a Brah. mio, Kshatriya, Vaisya or Sudra and by sect he was a Saiva, Varshanvi or Smarta. Bat no member of any of these groups thought that he was living with aliegs, who might exterminate him any moment. The peculiar unification produced by the Poragic culture, which tried to place onc sect or god over every orher sector cod, and yet treated the other gods as inferior mamiestatoas of the same divinity but worthy of worship, Froduced in every person & sense ol social and so of cultura) afinity and waity. (be weakness of which was betrayed only during the conflict with Islam A3 Pre-Islamic cultural conflicts in Indin served to broulea the conception of religion as a spisi valuest, and mule the Hindu saciety more and moore compte. hensive by creating more and more phoes for estes and sub-castes. I'or instance, the conflict between Beddhism and Brakınanism yrodzor the con-theistic spiritual monism of Garda pada and Saakara and sessie in the introduction of a new god into the Buda pantheon, nagels, Buddha as an incarnɔtion at Vishru. Site.clarly, the conflict betreed Jainism ant Brahmanism fesulted in the jetroduction of vegetarianism and a new emphasis on the 6 ·40 mokslasastra or the science of salvation. What is usually called Indian Philosophy, including the philosophical systems of Buddhism, Jainism and the orthodox schools, deals with problems concerned with the highest value, namely, mokshs. All the darsonasastras or sciences of the views of reality) are also tokshasastras or sciences of the problems of) moksha or salvation. The scope for the development of philosophy at the level of the highest value was given by the peculiar nature of the Indian religious attitude, which was rational and psychological, but not dogmatic and authoritarian. Hence the problems of reason (fogicand psychology had to be raised in that peculiar religious context and attempts were made to solve them again in the same context. The Greeks, for instance, raised the same problems in the context of social investigations; whilo the tendency of many contemporary philosophers is to raise the same problems with a materialistic, positivistic or naturalistic attitude. That is why Western critics in the beginning of the twentieth century found no ethics as such in Indian Philosophy. They forgot that the interest of Indian Philosophy was not in founding a stable society, but in pointing to man luis truest nature and highest ideal of life, which is salvation. It is useless to criticize Indian Philosophy for not being what it never aimed to be. On the contrary, it was true to its aim. The right criticism of the critics could have been that the so ces of duty or dharmasas. tras did not develop info philosophies but remained at the level of codes. Had they developed into systems of ethical philosophy, then the question of the relation of their theories with the theories of maksha would not have been ignored. In fact, the sciences dealing with the first three ideals of life did not develop into philosophies, except for stray theorizings; and hence tise question of inter relating those theories with those that asose in connexion with discussions relevant to the problems of moksler did t arise. Otherwise, Indias philosophers could have produces encyclopeadic surveys of the sciences of life, fundane supra mundane. Still, the figliest possible pliilosophiai edifices were built, so far 23 the fourth kcal of life was concerned.

·INDIA'S CULTURE AND HER PROBLEMES. LECTURE 131. Tko Period al Cultural Conflicts and Transformation, When the speak of the period al cultural conflicts, it should pot be onderstood that there were no sicilar copflicts before this Deriod when the Asyuas contacted the pre-Aryans, when the orthodor acd the heterodox bad to settle between each other scial and political issues, and when the Buddhists, the lainas and the followers of the Brahmanical religion contested for religious supremacy apt for royal and imperial preference, there were conflicts. But these contiicts only helped to give a final shape to Hinduism, as it is pow called. No Hindu mlled him. sell a kiadu before the Muslim conquests. By religion be was a follower of Arya Dharma or the Way of Life of the Aryads; when asked for further details, he would say that he was a follower of Buddhs, Jina or the Vedas; by caste he was a Brah. mis, Ksitsiya, Varsya or Sudra and by sect he was * Saiva, Vaishnya or Smarta. But no member of any of these groups thought shat be w29 living with aliens, who might exterminate him any moment. The peculiar ucification produced by the Terapic culrate, which tried to place ont sect or god over every other sect or god, and yet treated the other gods as inlerior Cacifestations of the same dividsty but worthy of worship, Froduced in every person a sense of social and so of cultural afinity and unity, the weakness of which was bets3yed only during the conflict with Islan All pre-Islamic cultural conflicts in ledu served to brordes the conception of religiba as a spiri. Ical quest, and we the lindu society more and more compte. bensive by cating more and more places for castes and sub-castes, For instance, the conflict between Buddhism and Brahmanism fralaced the con-theistic spiritual monism of Gauda pada and Sapkan end resultat is the introduction of a new god into the Hinda patheon. parcely, Buddha as an incarnation of Vishcu. Sitaibris, the conflict betstes Jainism and Brahmanism resulted in the introductios of vegetarissism and a new emphasis on the 6 ·40 mokshasestra or the science of salvation. What is usually alled Indian Philosophy, including the philosophical systems of Buddhism, Jainism and the orthodox schools, deals with problems concerned with the highest value, mely, mokshs. All the darsalasastras or sciences of the views (of reality) are also mokshasastras or sciences of the problems of) moksha or salvation- The scope for the development of philosophy at the level of the highest value was given by the peculiar osture of the Indian religious attitude, which was rational and psychological, but not dogmatic and authoritarian. Hence the problems of reasoa (logic) and psychology had to be raised in that peculiar religious content and attempts were made to solve them again in the same context. The Greeks, for instance, raised the same problems in the context of social investigations; while the tendency of many contemporary philosophers is to raise the same problems with a materialistic, positivistic or naturalistic attitude. That is why Western critics in the beginning of the twentieth century fouad no ethics as such in Indian Philosophy. They forgot that the interest of Indian Philosophy was not in founding a stable society, but in pointing to man his truest nature and highest ideal of life, which is salvation. It is useless to criticize Indian Philosophy for not being what it never aimed to be. On the contrary, it was true to its aim. The right criticisin of the critics could have been that the sciences af duty or dharmasas. tras did not develop into philosophies but remained at tho level of codes. Had they developed into systems of ethical philoso. phy, then the question of the relation of their theories with the theories of mokshe would not have been ignored. In fact, the sciences dealing with the first three ideals of life did not develop into philosophies, except for stray theorizings, and hence the question of inter-relating those theories with those that arose in connexion with discussions relevant to the problems of moksha did not arise. Otherwise, Indian philosophers could have produce: encyclopeadic surveys of the sciesces of life, mundano supra mundane. Still, the highest possible philosophical edifices were built, so far as the fourth ideal of lile was concerned.

·INDIA'S CULTURE AND HER PROBLEMS. LECTURE 111. The Period of Cultural Conflicts and Transformation. When the speak of the period of cultural conflicts, it should not be understood that there were no similar conflicts before this period When the Aryans contacted the pre-Aryaps, when the orinodor and the beterodox had to settle betteen each other social and political issues, and when the Buddhists, the Jainas and the followers of the Brahmanital religion contested for Teligious supremacy apr for royal and imperial preference, there Were conflicts. But these contiicts only helped to give a final shape to Hinduism, as it is ROW called. No Hindu called him. self a Hindu before the Muslim conquests. By religion he was a follower of Arya Dharms or the Way of Lite of the Atyans, when asked for further details, he would say that he was a lollower of Buddha, Jina or the Vedas; by caste he was a Brah. min, Kshatriya. Vaisya or Sudra and by sect he was a Saiva, Vaishnava or Smarta. But no member of any of these groups thought that he was living with aliens, who might exterginate kim any moment. The peculiar wification produced by the Puranic culture, which tried to place cat sect or god over every other sect of god, and yet treated the other gods as inferior manifestations of the same divinity but worthy of worship. Froduced in every person a sense of social and so of cultura) affinity and unity, the weaksess of which was betrayed only during the conflict with Islam All pre-Islamic cultural conflicts in India served to brorden the coception of religiba as a spiritual quest, and made the Hindu society more and more compre. hensive by creating more and more places for castes and sub-astes. For instance, the conflict between Buddhism and Brahmanism produced the coa-theistic spintaal modison of Gaudapada and Sachara and sesulied is the introductiod of a new god into the Midda pantheon, namely, Buddha as an incarnation of Vishnu. Similuly, the conflict between Jainism and Brakmanism resulted in the introduction of vegetarisgisan and a new emphasis on the 6 ·42 ideal of alimsa (non-injury). Hindu culture and its ideals remained plastic and expansive and put on more and more news' forms. So the conflicts had to be described as inner and not as outer, Invaders from Central Asia did not enter India with tiçid religious dogmas and with a sense of cultural superiority. Those were the times when culture was centred in religion and religion identified itself with all kinds of cultural forms in most societies; And so religious superiority was eguated to cultural superiority. Yet as the religions of India and Central Asia did not crystallize into rigid dogmas and creeds, they were still plastic, receptive and considerate. But with the advent of Islamn, cultural conflicts assumed a new form in india. Tire Gupta Empire ended towards the close of the 6th century, though the Guptas continued to rule small kingdans up to the 80s, when the first Muslim invasion of India occurred and hrs politiml degeneration started The Heroic Age of India began to decline and the Age of Communalism to dawn; or rather, the latter was superimposed on the former. The Iliade conducted the battles with the heroic ideal in view. Peoples were not exterminated: and defeated kings, according to the Ara Dharma, were reinstated if they acknowledged the conquerors. That is why Mohammad Ghori, though defeated and captured, was set at liberty by Prithvi Rnj. But the Musliin ideals in war and politics were different. In Islam the religious and sochlar head was one. Hence political conguest had to be religious conquest and therefore cultural conquest. In practice, the conquerred scultures like the corruerred religions were to be exterminated, as culture and religion were much more closely associated then than now. Though it is possible to interpret the Koran differently as it is done by progressive aluslims by cmphasizing more reasonable passages, again in practice Muslim sccular heads found it more convenient to ignore them and proclaiin every war with aon Muslims a holy war Jihad). 1909 the spread of Musliin political power meint als the spread of Islam and the disappearance of pon.Islamic religions and cul. tures, wherever they were well. The extermination of Kafir ·43 (non-Muslim) populations and the appropriation of their wealth and wamen were followed with religious zeal. Some Christian observers like Havell write. "In theory, at least, a men within the fold of Ishm were equal. The reward of the faithiul wag aa vobovaded enjoyment of the present life and Paradise hereafter, and a part of this reward was the right to rule over all who were not of the fold so that they too might increase the happiness and wealth of the elect. The rules of conduct which regulated Musalmaa society did sot necessarily apply to the treatment of non-Muslims. Such rights as the latter, individual. ly or collectively, migbo pesses were of the nature of bepevalences contingent upon thrir good behaviour and the will of God, represented by the sword of Islam"." Islataic society has the strongest communal bias, based indeed on religion and not on race. The conflict between Islam and Hinduism farms very Sateresting study for the student of society. First, Islam, like the other Semitic religion, Judaism, had a tribal origin and importance. Thought, unlike the other, it broke its tribal barriers in the attempt to become universal, it became peculiarly communalistic. Bat Hinduism had its origins in the worship of the natural lorces and the Inoer Spint ol man, which resulted is a peculiar type of rationalism and psychalogical discipline for spiritual sublimation in the securd place, the secular and religious bead was the sa ne for Islam; and public support to the king was the stronger the more the recognition he got as a spiritual head also But for Hinduism, the two were different. It was a disqualification for the spiritual head to take interest in Seculas affairs. Evea lamaka and Ajafasatru, who reached the greatest heights in spiritual developmebt, beves claimed aod aspire3 for spiritual headskio, and gave that honour and responsibility to their preceptors, whom they worshipped. In the third plaze, because of the identicatiod of temporal and spiritual heads in Islam, the alusling would interpret his serving a non. Xipslion culet following a non-Islamic spiritual head; and be ). Argon Rult in 16h. P 404 ·had a bias, fostered by his religion, against being a subject of a non-Muslim state, though, it has to be added, there is a change in this attitude among some of contemporary educated Muslims. But it was very strong in the ininds of the aluslims who first came into contact with the Hindus, and can still successfully be appealed to if sufficient temptations are offered. But the Hindu had no objection to being a subject of any religious state, provided he and his family were agt molested for their religion. This attitude of his was again a consequence of the separation of the secular and spiritual headships in Hinduism. Though the whole of India was Hindu at that time, its being a political unity was not so clearly conceived as its being a social and cultural unity. The ideal of the samral or the king of kings was present before the minds of many great monarchs ; but it was followed more for fieroic recognition tha for imposios political unity on the country. Further, effective political usity, in those days of lack of proper communications, was impossible. Hindu social structure was given a religious sanction; but politics did not enter it. The Hindu was prepared to serve whichever ruler allowed him to follow his religios. The person who had the right to outcaste and impose ostracization was the religious head and not the secular. In the fourth place, war between a Muslim king and a Hindu was, for the Mushms, a war between two commucities, and the object of the war, according to them, was the citermination of the rival religion and culture not merely its king. The end was achieved both by killing the members of the rival community and by converting them. But for the Hindu, the object of the war was the extermination of the rival king, not the rival communits'. Because of the polymorphous patuse of his own society, he would admit the Muslims to live as another mate within the Hindu fald for all practical purposes. In the fifth place, Islami had a definite creed and set of dogmas; while llisduism was rational and psychological and had no special creed and dogmas, The former was rigid, unaccomodating, and inexpansive, so far as its spiritual concepts were concerned; but the latter was ·45 plastic, accomodating and expansist ca its spiritual side. This is the sesalt agaia ol islam having a book and Hinduisan kaving potbing contespording to it. It could never bave said that Caliph Omar is alleged to have said: All the other books say either what our book sıys of what our book does pot $2y; in the former case, they are uncecessary and, in the latter, Dotrue: and so in either cise, they may saíely be destroyed. Is the sixth place, Islata is proselytiziog and expansive socially and physically, tbat is, as an institution with a physiqi form; while Hinduism, whatever be the reasons, became non prosletyring and physically inexpensive. Converts from Hinduism to Islam were lost by Hinduism for ever. Quite often, this aspect of making and taking converts into its fold is extolled as a religion's being universal. But almost every proselytizing religion has been intolerant of other religions and, in this sense, particularist and not universal. The result of the condict between Hinduism and Islam kece not favourable to the former. Hinduistis did pot take converts, nor could it be intolerant. Conflicts at the philosophical and psychological level, at which Hinduistu could have shows its strength and produced beneficial effects on Islam, were generally meaningless for the latter, which consistently discouraged bern; and for Hinduisan, similar discussions were meaningless at the political and social level, though they were forced upon it. Hinduism was unprepared for them and so was throwa isto delense. Islam did not encourage logical and psychological discussions of religious problems and dogmas 292 looked upon such discussions with suspicioa: and it was aggressive on the social and political side. Hinduism encouraged discussions of religious problemas, but discouraged a logical and psychological approach to social and political problems and could not be aggressive DA either side. Thus Hiaduisa shared.. its weakecss and lost at the physical, social and political level. The social solidarity sbowa by Islam as a communal unit was Lucking in Hlinduism, as its castes Rete koit together loosely, The lowest astes, who were igitiated into the spiritual truths ·of Hinduism only symbolically and were therefore not fully arvare of their importance, were the earliest and the easiest to be converted. As against a determinate particularist religion, Hjaduisai could present ooly its determinate social structure by strengthening and making its caste system mors rigid. It was thus thrown on the defensive. It tried to entrench and assert itself in the South during the period of the Viziangar Kingdom (13th to the 16th century), and again during the rise of the Maratha power, which spread over the whole of India. But it asserted itself in the old forms except for some new tactics adopted from the enemy. However, by the time the Maratha Enpire could be consolidated, the British and West entered the scene. for 22 As Islam did not give any chance for conflict at the philoso. phical level but always took a dogmatic authoritarian attitude, its influence on Indian philosophical and religious thought has been Ittle or nothing. On the other hand, the Persian Suh trends of Islam found a sympathetic echo in the Upanishadic philosophy: and Sufism would have become popular with the Indian Muslims but for the fanaticis:n of the Sunnis 13ad Sufism and Shiasm succeeded in India, there would perhaps have been chance harmonious integration of Indian society, including both the Hindus and the Muslims. However, the three important Sufi sects of India, the Chisti, the Naqshbundi and the Quaditiyya, show some affinity with Hindu religious culture and emphisize some logical and psychological aspects of religious discipline According to the first, the state of mind in which the finite soul is at one with God can be produced by music; but according to the second, the feeling of divine love cngot be and should not be produced by music, which is prohibited by Islam; the third takes a middle course and probibits only such musi: as stirs the lower animal passions in mas. ** 50. Zuhuruddia Alwed: Mysti: Tendencies in lalum, 130, ·47 Music bas remained an eternal and unremovable source of conflict between Islam and Hinduism. The Islamic conception of music and other fine arts is that they are a pastime and a source of low pleasure. Music is supposed to appeal to our lower nature alone; and as divine reality cannot be imagined, it would be a sacrilege to depict it in painting and sculpture. But the Indian classical conception of fine arts was different. Almost every art and science was a vedanga or a subsidiary of the Vedas. Correspondingly, the subject matter and practice prescribed by each work were meant to enhance spiritual inwardness aimed at by the Upanishads. Music was regarded as the worship of the Nadabrahman or the Brahman (Absolutel in the form of Nada (wound, ford), in other words, the Logos. It is the elaboration of the affective emotire aspect of the Logos as Sound, which resides deep within every man. Indias musicians are pot gaaraat of laty types of music, but all admit that the highest music should be the same as the worship of the Nadibrahman, and some of them, particularly in South India, where Hinda music is sul preserved in its purest forms, even reluse to sing low types of music. It is with this idea that music and dance were eacouraged within temples, though quite often the spirit bebind the practice has been forgotten Thus when the Histu was forbidden to play music in his tensple, tb, prohibiriou amounted for him to prevention of spiritual realization. For the Muslim it was just the opposite; and he was not prepared to argue about the philosophical and psychological aspects of the question. Here the conflict remained insoluble and had to be solved often only with the help of the police and the military Sumlarly, is the case of idol worship, the Muslim 129 uncompro nising and dogmatic He was not prepared to see that for the Hindu the idol ras only a symbol and that if one symbol was destroyed, another could replace it, and therefore to realize that the Hinda did not deliberately Korship wool and stone For the Hindu, 2}} forms of worship and all forms of sculpture and other fine arts see different ·48 techniques for the sublimation and inwardization of personality, so that it could become pure and reflect the divinity within.. There are indeed a few unsuccessfui exceptions, on the Muslim side, who wanted a rational reconciliation. The first is the immature example of Akbar, the second the tragic attempt of Dara, and the third the attempt of some Nababs of Golcondi almost towards the end of their reign, which was put an end to by the fanatical Aurangazeb. Though Islam contributed nothing to Indian thought and spirituality, it had its effects on external cult and society, Alany of the Hiadus, particularly in North India, adopted the veiling of women and the purdah system from the Muslims. Some Saivas of South India, called Vira-srivas or Heroic Saivas, adopted the aggressive practice of religious persecution from Islam and slaughtered some Jainas. The Muslim creed of exterminating the unbelievers is diametrically opposed to the Jaina creed of ahimsa or non-injury; and like wise the Jaia: doctrine of syadvada or conditionat predication of existence to the Muslim religious particularism. But curiously enough, the Vira-saivas, while adapting religious aggressiveness and particularity from the Muslims, remained most of them vegetarian. The Sthanikavasis also, who form a branch of the Svetarnbara sect of Jainism, gave up idol worship but did not adopt the aggressive communal practices of Islam. The sferoic Saivism in its turn gave rise to Heroic Vaishnavism (Vira vasslinavism) again in the South ; for in that part of India the Saivas were not only the rivals of the Jainis but also of the Vaishnavas, In the North again, Sikhism, the religion of Guru Nanak, was a synthesis of Hindu and Islamic mano theismis. Though Sikkism was at first a pacifist religion, constant persecution by Islam turned its followers into a militaristic and heroic group. The speaker, though hinisell is not well-acquainted with Urdu literature, has been told by authorities on the subject that ia almost all Muslim courts, poetry as a diversion, pistsgie, And pleasure, like other fine arts. The high ideals of ladian portsy and fine arts therefore degtocrated into acknowledged low idols of sensu.

·49 cuss pleasure in the courts of Muslims rulers. The poetry of the Sufi mystics and of syncretists like Kabir did not belong to royal courts. And as it tras the courts that set the fashion, especially in those times, it has to be said that literature and other fine arts fost theis spiritual depth. Architectureal patterns and music, particularly in the North, underwcat certain modifications through the influence of Persian forms, which the Muslims introduced. Bat the dominant patterns remaided Hindu or Aryan Havell says that taslim architecture is a “graft upon the old Hindu stock and not an cxolic transplantation from Arabia to Indian soil »?. The Advent of Islam showed the weakcess of the Hindu social and political organization. Whatever be the spiritual ideals that tacitly or overtly guided its formation and bowever high they be, social and political conflicts occur at the physical level, and the amount of social solidarity needed for with starding such external attacks and absorbing their shock tras lacking in India. The result was that Islam introduced a dow riſt within Indian society. Earlier the diferent groups were kving Peaceially together as castes and sub castes, acknowledging the spiritual supremacy of the Brahmin and the temporal supremacy of the ruling class. But the Muslim would not acknowledge either. Hepte the earlier communal unity was disturbed. Thought in the early stages of contact most of the Muslims took to the profession of arms, which belonged to the Hindu Kshatriya, later many ha' to take to professions over. lappies the traditional professions of other castes and sub-castes Thus two societies with overlapping ivactions had to rup their lile. The sesolt naturally would be the rise and intensification of the daubt about the necessity of the relation between castes and their traditional professions The Muslim period of Indian history is, on the whole, a period of constant communal conflicts, *355 and unrest. Except for some 31 Auton Rule in (*/.

·huge edifices built by kings and emperors, there was very little cultural progress. The emperors of Vizianagar did much for Indian culture (1300 to 1600), but mostly in defense. They invited many scholars who fled from the North. Because of the systematic destruction of libraries, universities and temples by Muslims, scholars had to bury their books underground and leave them to the mercy of white ants and other insects. Quite often they were themselves killed and their books forgotten. By about the 13th century, the meaning of the Vedas was almost forgotten like the meaning of Sanscrit works in the island of Bali; and Sayana and Madhava, the famous ministers of Vizianagar, had to collect pandits from different parts of ihe couatry and prepare explanatory commentaries of the Vedas But Vizianagar itself was a city that was for many purposes a military camp, constantly threatened by Muslim attacks from outside and disruption from within, the latter due to the old idea, that government and rule belonged to the ruling class only and got to the people, still swaying the minds of men and giving scope for the ruling classes to fight among themselves for power, uamindful of the consequ. ences to their constantly threatened society. That it was no longer the Heroic Age of the early Aryans but the Age of Coramunalism was not fully recognized by the ruling Hindus, while the Muslim conquerors realized it fully and made the fullest possible use of their realization. They placed before their soldiers the ideal of the extermination of the largest possible aumber of infidols, by prochaining every was to be a holy From the economic and people's point of vier, these wars could have brought nothing but distress and misery to the Hindus and Muslims on both sides; and only a fet persons at the top might have been benefited. But we should pot forget that those wars were fought by the dluslims in the name of Islam, that while the soldier was tempted by loot, his cothusiasm was roused by appeals to communalism and the promise of hearon for destroying the unbeliever. That these sentiments are strong living forces eren NOW is shown by the recent communal riots and orgies in Bengal and the Punjab. war ·51 While the Hindus did not realize the new set up of the Com. mugal Age, the Muslims as a community regarded themselves as the rulers, whoever be the people ruled. The ruled did not enter their thought except as means to their ends. Tbe rulers were a moving force: if they could not rule here, they would rule sorte. where else. Stability involved the danger of constant attacks and wearing out. Alter the fall of the Vizianagar Empire, the Marathas understood the situation and established moving armies of cavalry, which would not give open pitched battles and which did por depend on a single main stronghold like Vizianagar, Then the tables were turned and the Hindas began to make repeated attacks oa established kingdoms of Muslims. But the saferers in this case also were the people. And as the Marathas were always on the march, they had little time to devote to the delence or advancement of culture. In fact, we are told that Pesbwa Madhorao was given a definite advice in that direction. That is why, though the Vizianagar Empire was smaaller than the Maratha Empire, it could do much more for Hindu culture than the latter. A consequince of the constaatiy moving armies, battles and mars was that ladia had no respite to think. Peace followed the adıcat of the British; the chronic com supal conflicts were forcibly put 30 end to; and India again obtained an opportunity to reflect and tako stock of its achievements and failures. Buddhistu safered more terribly than Hinduism at the bands of the Muslims, who destroyed its ssiversities and slaughtered its peaceful mooks. Jainis obtained protection from the rulers of Rajasthan and the kings of l{ysore; bat Buddhism was not similarly fortunate, and after the fall of the Vizianagar Empire, disappeared tran ladsz as a living religios, except for a few remmnis in Bengal and the Himalayan regions. In face of the communal problems imposed on the Indian society by Islam, the problem of Hindu orthodoxy tersus heterodoxy became vaimportant ·50 huge edifices built by kings and emperors, there was very little cultural progress. The emperors of Vizianagar did much for Indian culture (1300 to 1600), but mostly in defense. They invited many scholars who fled from the North. Because of the systematic destruction of libraries, universities and temples by Muslims, scholars had to bury their books underground and leave them to the mercy of white ants and other insects. Quite often they were themselves killed and their books forgotten. By about the 13th century, the meaning of the Vedas was almost forgotten like the meaning of Sanscrit works in the island of Bali; and Sayaga and Madhava, the famous ministers of Vizianagar, had to collect pasdits from different parts of ihe country and prepare explanatory commentaries on the Vedas But Vizianagar itself was a city that was for many purposes a military amp, constantly threatened by Muslim attacks from outside and disruption from withia, the latter due to the old iden, that government and rule belonged to the ruling class only and not to the people, still swaying the minds of men and giving scope for the ruling classes to fight among themselves for power, uomindful of the consequ. caces to their constantly threatened society. That it was no longer the Heroic Age of the early Aryans but the Age of Communalism was not fully recognized by the ruling Hindus, while the Muslim conquerors realized it fully and made the fullest possihle use of their realization. They placed before their soldiers the ideal of the extermination of the largest possible oumber of infidols, by proclaining every war to be a holy From the economic and people's poiat of view, these wars could have brought gothing but distress and misery to the Hindus and Muslims on both sides; and only a few persons at the top might hare been beachted. But we should not forget that those wars were fought by the Muslims in the name of Islam, that thile the soldier wa4 tempted by foot, his enthusiasm was roused by appeals to communalism and the promise of heaion for destroying the unbeliever. That these sentiments are strong fising forces eren now is shown by the recent communal riots and orgies in Bengal and the Punjab. War ·53 Though the British as rulers did not interfere with the local religioas, they found it advantageous not to kill commallis. by force, which they could have done, not in the name of Christ. sanity, bat is the same of science and reason; and kept it alive, a following the maxim, "divide and rule", as consisteatly as possible, so far as it did not weaken their effective grip on the country by making either community too strong for them. And where communal antagonists were not strong as in Jadras, they introduced caste riralries. This practice not only findled old animosities but also created netv Opes, with the result that Indian society was made to appear as more and more disinteg. rated, creating serious problems for solution, which the British, in the name of religious ceutrality, abstained from solving. For had they, by force and persuasion imposed unity on indian society, they would have lost their chances as rulers long ago. Political unity was achieved; but even the apcient Hindu social unity was furtber weakened. At the same time Christian missionary activities were indirectly encouraged; for psychologically it was advantageous to the rulers to produce admiration for their religion and culture in the minds of their subjects. As forcible conversions were not permitted, the missionaries had to have secourse to persuasion and argument. And there tbey came into unexpected logical contest with Indizo Philosophy; which they found necessary to study in order to relute. The maid larget of attack for the Christian missionaries was the Iliadu aste system, idol worship, the position of women ia both Hindu and Muslim societies, and certain traditional practias like child marriages, compulsary widowhood, sitter and lack of divorce. Educational backwardness of the lower classes and absence of medical relief throughout the country which was due to the lack of settled conditions-also gare good scope for the humanitarian activities of the missions, which could get sa fiicat ficancial assistacce from their mother countries and which interpreted all the above defects as due to the absence of ·52 It will be difficult for us to maintain that just as Islam tried to put an end to the Ileroic Age of ancient India, politically and socially, and started the age of Communalism, the British tried to put an end to the Age of Communalism and started the Eco. nomic age: for such an interpretation of India's cultural history would be contradicted by the recent communal killings on larse scale. The Hindu is on the whole eager to leave the sige of Communalism behind; but the Muslims have shown that they are not over-anxious about it. We shall therefore be nearer the truth iſ we say that the Economic Age was super-imposed upon the Heroic and the Communal and that as the second is disappearing, we Te still passics through both the other two, hough there is hoge that the Indian Union, by consistently work. ing out its secular political ideal, night be able to sled communalism. The Europeans came to India neither for converts nor for conquest, but for trade and profit. It was the peculiar politici conditions in India that made them her rulers. But with them came Christianity also The Portuguese at first tried forcible conversion. But the Hindu had had too much of it and the Muslims were intolerant of it; hence the Portuguese failed to achieve their object even as traders. But the British were prudent oberservers of the situation, and therefore promised not to interfer: with local religioas. Yet Christianity was a prosely. tizing religion, and with the British came Christian missionaries, So while cconomic exploitation was arried on by the rulers, the missionaries did their work of conversion by peacelul sirang and persuasion. Then, again, along with Christianity, not indeed as its necessary accompaniment, catered "l'estero scientific, political and social educatson. The advent of the British thus meant a compliated challenge to Indian society, which had not set solved its own communal conflicts either socially or polit. cally. It was a meeting of self.conscious East and self-conscious West, each with its own defects and mcrits.

·55 Islam, due to the vasettled conditions and precarious existence of kingdoms, the rulers were not in a position to make those grants. However, wbep Christianity entered Jodia, it could present its humanitarian form as humanism in opposition to the existing local religiops. It interpreted and represented the status of Indian women and the conditions of lower castes etc., As due to the Indian religions being unhumanistic and Indian Philosophy being unethical. Ir may not be undecessary to remind ourselves that Hinduism baffles all attempts at definition. Unlike Christianity, it is pot founded by a single person. It is & natural growth of the expression of the spiritual and retaias most of the features of that growth. Its basic doctrine is the spirituality of man, and it upholds the realization of the loner Spirit as the biggest aita of life. It encourages every form of cult and worsbip, provided that form aligns itself with the basic spiritual truth. Hence it Deed not apd does not destroy any other religion. Hence also its declaration that all religions are one and its proverbial and incomprehensible tolercoce. This attitude resulted in retaining several forms of worship, though they are reiaterpreted is terms of the spiritual by treating the idol as a symbol of the Divine and the lora of its worship as symbolizing God-realization. Thus inwardness was conferred upon the most crude cults. But the external forms remained and their significance was missed by many of its followers. It should be said that most of the forms that were indecent and cruel were condemged and prohibited, and Sankars in the 8th century gave a list of prohibited forms. Eveu RON people are legally outcasted los followidg them, thougb the general tendency is not to bother about them so far as they are not too unsocial. Anyway, Hinduism can accomodate all sxci3l and religious forms, provided they do not deny the truth of the loner Spirit and do not attempt to destroy llindaism itself. Hence the Hindu did not close his ears to the preachings ol the Chistian missions; and as be thought about thes, be could not see why their ideas and the reforms which they suggested should not be introduced into ·54 humanism in Indian Philosophy and religioa, claiming that the needed humanism was present in Christianity. They started educational iastitutions and established hospitals, thereby im. pressing on the people the new aspect of their monastic orders, which were more directly useful to society than the pure spiritual ideals of Eastern monasticism in general. In the missionry criticisms and activities are involved a number of problems of interest for philosophy of life and culture. Islam did not permit ang argument about its religious and social traditions. But the Hindu svelcomed them. So far as the lower mastes, which did not have the benefit of the higher Hindu philosophie culture, were concerned, many of them adopted Islam as in Bengal. But the highes casles pot only welcomed discussion of philosophical problems but also took full advantage of the educational institutions started by the missions. Thus the missions helped the spread of 120W rational and humanistic ideas among the higher castes, which were the first to recognize the artificiality of mste distinctions when the original colour distinctions were waning; and though the missions did not get inany converts to their faith, the Christian teachers for many for their ideas, the importance of which was fully appreciated particularly by the Hindus who were the first to take to English education. Though Christianity is 13 other worldly as Ilinduism, its peculiar origin in the atmosphere of Judaism, which was a triba) religion, and its spread and development in the atmosphere of Greek religion and philosophy both in the ancient times and after the Renaissance, save it a humanistic and mtional tura. It is too well-known that Western science Jid not grow under the auspices and because of Christiansty, but in spite of it. Islam too has an element of humanism in its communalism. 11 the Christian missions in Europe took over education and medial work by obtaining tithe from the kings, ancient Indian Ewe demanded that one sixth of the revenucs should be spent by kings on similar activities; though after the adreat of ·57 themselves to their ancient piilossphy ani literature, which misy sith westera education were about to ignore at that time. The result was a revival of ancient learning in the light of Western criticisms. This was the period of the Indian Renais. Szace, which was a product of East-ll'est cultural conflict. The leading thinkers of India were able to realize, in comparison with Westera culture is gegeral, the great spiritual depths ladian culture and philosophy reached; but the same comparison made some of them realize also the one-sidedaess of that development, and also that certain of its aspects had only local and temporal significance and could not be valid for all times, though the deepest truths of the same culture might be of vaiversal and eternal validity In other words, Luman and bumanistic interests were unduly under-emphasized and, in popular philosophy, yet not only disregarded but also conderanea. The realization that our agcicat culture was one-sided is some of its emphases led to a number of reform movements. kipowledge of past glories inade the Indiaa sell-couscious; and he began to feel that at least in spiritual achievements he, as a Trpresentative of the Indian pation, could justly feel superior to some of the representative of the West, with whom he had to deal as a subordinate and a subject. India's national consciousness began to evolvс But national leaders at first found that the latense inwardness attained by the ladiag miad prevented the ladda from being adequately responsive to the nationalist appeal. In other words, the sesponse to humanistic appeal was not strong enough It would be stronz enough if, for the sake of this kle and society, it were universally spontaneous to appeals to action. B.G. Tilak therefore sought to remedy the one-sided 18*'USA:55. After the rise, fall and assimilation of Buddhism, primary ecaphasis was laid on requestin (sannyas:) associated with jnanzmarg? (Kay of susisi. Bist tha early Aryans, it may le suit with justification, lud the same emphasis on katmamarkt (way of action) both befort and after they came 8 ·56 Hinduism, without at the same time himself giving it up and turning Christian. Besides, there was one thing which an other religion in the world could give him better, namely, the intense jay which the rcalization of God or the union with the Ioner Spirit would produce, which other religions promised bim in the next world but Hinduism promised him in this world and in this body, provided he underwent the necessary spiritual discipline. This he felt was an actuality in experience which ao argument and no insinuatiaa or gibe could dissuade hits from believing in Wordsworth's Ode to losemariarity had a special appeal to him, by reflecting his own feelings on the question In order not to lose the precious discovery of his ancients, the Hindu wanted to retain his llinduisin and make up its defects by introducirs into it social and religious reforms The Hindu therefore appreciated the cultural challenge offered by Christianity and in right carnest took to Western education given by the missions The rulers also were interested in giving English education to the Indians, first in order to have good clerks and subordinate officers and then to train them in methods of democracy. Further, Lord Macaulay had a low opinion of the traditional Indian methods of education and became the author of the compulsory introduction of Western methods, with the result that the lodiaps got acqainted not only with English literature but also with English political ideas and parliamentary forms, As a result India's pontical and national consciousness avoke For India's cultural and intellectual progress, contact with the British has beca more important than with Islam. In pursuance of their policy not to interfere with the local religions of the people and with their social practices, the rulers found it necessary to understand them The Asiatic Society of Bengal was founded by Sir William Joxes in the year 1784. our moral codes and later our literary and philosophical work were translated. The high prise deslowed on India's philoso. phical and literary genius by Goethe, the Schlegels, Jax Muller, Deussen and several others furaed the minds of the Indiaas ·57 themselves to their wacient p'lilazophy ani literature, whic'ı mapy with westero education were about to igoare at that time. The result freas a revival of ancient learning is the light of Weslena miticisms. This was the period of the Indian Rentis. suost, which was a product of East-l'est cultural conflict. The derding thinkers of India were able to realize, in comparison with Westera culture in general, the great spiritual depths Indiaa culture and philosophy reached; brat the same comparison taide some of the rellize also the one-sidedaess of that development, and also that certain of its aspects had only local and temporal significance and could not be valid for all times, though the deepest truths of the same culture might be of universal and eternal validity la otbet words, Luman and bumanistic interests were unduly under-emphasized and, ic popular pbilosophy, were not only disregarded but also condemned. The realization that our ancient cultute was one-sided in some of its emphases led to a number of reform molescents, Koowledge of past glories trade the Indian self-conscious; and be begag to feel that at least in spiritual achievements he, as a representative of the Indian aition, cauld justly feel superior to some of the representative of the West, &ith whom he had to deal as a subordinate and a subject. 1odia's national conscious. ness began to evolve But national leaders at first found that the intense 15wardnesa attained by the Indian mind prevented che Indian from being adequately responsive to the gationalist appeal. In other words, the response to humanistic appeal was Lot sirong enough It would be stronz enough jf. for the sake of this life and society, it were universally spontaneous to appeals to acti?. B.G. Tilak therefore sought to remedy the one-sided 17 varda:54. After the rise, fal} and assimilation of Buddhism prumuy empuasis was kid sa Teajaziativa (singasal associated with Hand888? (way of 693515). But the early Asyans, it may to suit with justificatios, laid the sume emphasis oa urmamurga (way of action) both before and after they ame & ·Ś8 m3. to realize that the highest Truth was withio and not without In the Brahmanial reaction against Buddhism in the 8th century, one of the leaders, Kumarila, denounced sannus altogether and advocated return to the pure forms of Vedic karma (action), which meant sacrifices and a life of action. The values of this world were not to be spurned but to be earnestly sought after. When Sankara wanted to convince Kumaril that he was wrong in denouncing sannyasa, the story goes, the latter was about to die and directed the former to go to Mandana, his disciple. Sannyasins were so much despised by the Vedic follow. ers then that they were not allowed to be present at ancestral ceremonies; and Saakara's appearance at such moment in Mandana's house threw the gathering into confusion. However, Sankara deleated Mandana in discussion and made him his dis. ciple This incident, even if it is not historically true, is highly indicative of the difference between the early Brahmanic and the Buddhist outlooks, Sankara, in spite of his incessant criticisms of Buddhism, was called by his rivals a Buddhist in disguise (prsc:h 3139.5 bauddha). Yet his was the oaly way of incorpora ating and assimilating all that was best in Buddhism and deprire it of any raison de' etre for separate existence. And Sankara was treated as the smarta (orthodox, according to the smiritis) interpreter of the Upasishads, the Brahmaputras and the Bhaga. vadgita, which constitute the basic triad of the Vedanta philoso. phy; whereas cven Ramanuja and Madhya were treated as Sectarian; the difference between the two being that the Swarta interpreters accept only the Vedas as the final authority, while the others give the same and even a higher place to their respec. tive Agamas. This recognition of Sankara shows how oven orthodoxy could finally be made to yield an interprclation in accor, 'ance with the ideal of Buddhist monasticises. According to Ramiauja, Madhva and some other sectarian Vedantios, blaktittarga or the way of devotion to God was the highest of the paths. But whether it 53 bhallimarga or jnanamarga, the tendency to run down Ir mamarga gained strength. But altes the rise of nationalism, when Igdia felt she ·59 Deed for strong and sigere political activity, its leaders realized that they were handicapped by the attitude to the world the tra. ditional religion and philosopby of life engendered in the minds of muay, Tilk therefore wrote & Bew commentary on the Gite, #hich is the Bible for India's millions, in order to resive karmimarga. Indeed, it Krishn2 exborted Arjuca, who was dejected and wanted to lay down arms and retire to the forest, to act but not to renounce action, the Gite should be interpreted as laying the primary essphasis on karmanarge and not on the other two. Tilak is thus the earliest of the rodern Indian thinkers to give a new turn to the general Indian philosophical atitude to the world; or in other words, to lay a new emphasis on the ancient humanistic and activistic trend of Indian thought. The spirit behind Tilat's thought can be discerned in all the leading philosophers of contemporary India like Radhakrishnan, Tagore, Bhagvan Das and Aurabindo Ghosh, The Gsta holds a peculiar position in India's religious and philosophical literature. It is not only one of the orthodox triad (prastlanatrayal, but alss coatains a peculiar combinstiac of metaphysics and philosophy of life. As it is a part of the epie, Malabarata, even the lower castes are allowed to resd it and derive through it the l'edic teachings, the tests of which they are traditionally prevented from reading. This sitpation does not biaip now. It is the common scripture, for metaphysics and philosophy of life, of all irrespective of caste, the common philo. sophallink of all groups that constitute the Hindu fold. So most of the lodua leaders have made it a point to write commentaries on it. Mahatma Gzodhi sote one to preach his ohtua (non. 10ay); and Radhakrishnaa bas sitten another in English to presch the way of detached action for the welfare of the world, lob 15.3nprald, wbich is is conson3nce tvith the ideals of the Ucesco Even in ancient times, the weakening influence of one-sided idwardoets on tuman tatate was lell. Adew type of cult alled mitusadhunu (the cult of the berol was inrented and the worship of Salti or Mother goddess was tatilized generally in its ·60 practice. Bengal was a home, for a long time, of te dintric worship of Sakti, the feminine aspect of Divinity, which, curiously enough, was identified olten with the terrible destruc. tive aspects of the universe. The worship therefore was attended with the slaughter of animals Vegetarianism and the consequent abhorence of bloodslied and sensitivity to it had no place in the cult. Further, the sadhana (practice) of the saklas (worshippers of Sukti) included visiting burial and cremation grounds and battle helds at the dead of sight and similar practices condemned outright by orhodox Hindusim, this is one of the Sects outlawed by Sankar, which naturally harden inan mentally. Moreover, it was a practice of the warrior caste to worship some god or goddess in his or her terrible aspects in order to obtain the necessary psychological set up lor battle. For inatance, Sivaji worshipped the goddess Bhavani, and the Kakatiyas of (Varrangal are said to have worshipped the goddess Kakati. The revolutionaries of Bengal, who wanted to drive away the British by force, revived and adopted this form of worship. Sri Jurabindo once belonged to this group of revol. tionaries; and even after his severance from pmctical politics, he did not give up the worship of the Mother. As a result of contact with Western culture through the British, a number of sigaiticant changes and reloriss took place in India, the leaders of which, however, were practically unanimous in accepting that ancient Indian culture and religion contained the highest spiritual truths, for which one aced not go to other religions. "These changes and reforms may bo classified into political, religious, social and philosophical, The germs of nationalism, though not precise, may be traced to early times. But nationalism in the definite modern form took shape duc to, and la spite of British influence. It was due to the British, because they were the first to write the whole of India for effective political administration and orgrazition, without reference to socul, communal, linguistic and other cultural considerations; that India should be a politica) unit was ·61 aniden given by thera. And it took shape in spite of them, Deguse the British barelucrrey was not eager that people should be united by that ideal. Along with the glorification of the country as a balioa and a sort of ter worship as that of persoaiſed Bharatamata or fother India, the idea that Igdia shool3 be governed for the sake of the Indians aod not the British took on përticuhr importance. The principle that India is to be an economic unit 25 not at first so well visualized as that it should be goverged for its own people and by her own people Even this priaciple was complicated by another, mwely, that India was to be a seligious unit, which was the basis of the ideology of the Maslim League. However, in spite of these complications, that the lot of the Indian citizen as a humia being has to be improved, that he should be made confortable and happy here, and that he has therefore himsell to fight against his political and economic subjection were accepled as the political aims of the Congress and the Muslim Leigu, either implicitly or explicitly, and brought to the forelront a new philosophical ideal implicit in the general political outlook, amely, the importance of the human individual as both the end and means of political action. The law of karma, particularly as preached by the most orthodor of the orthodox systems, Mimarisa, presupposes the essential reality of the human bet 29 the end and means of karma (action); and this idea was re-emphasized by Tilak in bis philosophy of action, which be presented as a kind of Vedantic thought; for the Gita has become one of the authoritative triad of the Vedantic philosophers. Mahatma Gandhi did not claim to be a scholar and an academician, Apel did not present his ideas in terms of bumanism or absolutism. Yet des philosophy of satyagraho, which involves an unyielding sticking to truth as ore understands it, in spite of what society thanks or dons gives primacy to the individuality of man; and his philosophy of political action and uplift of the masses and the p20s in the spirit of the worsbip of God appeting as the needy Jandrsnarasins) equally involves the recogaition of the value of the boman individual. It is the human individual as such who is cf value, tot merely the Universal Spirit that resides in hing.

·62 Afahatma Gandhi formulated his political ideology in terms of religion, though he did not mean by religion ady jastitutionalized religion, but only spirituality. By the time he contributed his essay to Contenporary Indian Philosophis, he equated his God to Truth, which he said was really the God all religions. But the word religion revived ancient memories of communalism and so fanaticism and, in spite of Gandhi, what ought to have been a secular but spiritual nationalism, comprehending both Islam and Hinduism in a rationalized universal form, turned into the communal nationalism of the Muslim League with a theocratic ideology, and threatened to turn into a similar Hindu nationalism of the Hindu Mahasablia, which would have become an actuality had it not been for the strong action taken against the movement by the Congress in power. The Congress consistently followed the ideal of a secular but spiritual nationalism, in spite of constant provocations, imputations and insinuations by the Aluslim League. By being secular in outlook, the Congress implicitly attaches greater value to the human individual as such than the Muslim League, which attaches the same to him so far as he is a member of the Muslim community and therefore subordinates him and his rights as a man by birth to the Islamic community and the theocratic state. And so the subordination of the individual to the state and so a kind of theocratic dictatorship have an emphasis in the ideology of the Muslim League, which is absent from the ideaology of the Congress. However, the secular but rationally and psychologically spi ritual ideology of the Indian National Congress-this organitt. tion has been called the fadian National Congress and not the Hindu Congress right from its inception by Hume, though the Muslim League culled it a Hudu organization -- consplinted more in the Indian Union by cominnist and socialist ideals flun in the theocratic Saslim State of Pakistan. Asarninst the complete Secularism and materizljsın of consmunism, Pakistan offers the ideology of theocracy: but the politiet sections of India, as in many other countries, offers some common kaminis. tic grouod to communism and socialism. On the other harul, ·Thea once the hard rind of theocratic irrationalism is broken by the socialist or communist rationalism, there would be Dothing left to tone down the materialism of ibe latter and to tragsform it into something better and spiritual; while the spiri. tual basis of the secular nationalism of India, through its psy. chological and rational appeal, would transform communism or socialism into something spiritual and therefore very different. For spirituilty is essentially individualistic: what is spiritual in m3o A be realized by himself alone. And the true founda. lion of democracy is respect for the individual and therefore the recognition that the individuality of the ipdividual is pot exhausted by his social relationships. Both communist and democracy claim to be humanistic, and crticize each other for not being truly humanistic. The former claims that deraocracy, while professiog to respect the dignity of the human individual, does not make it economically and so na practice possible for him to realize his tu?? potentialities and humsa values. The latter points out that communism subordi. mates the individual to the community and in practice to the group is power, which iadeatiftes the interests of the community with its own, that dictatorship is inherent in communisen acd that therefore there can be no place in communist ideology for the value of the individual and individual initiative, As Sudy has pot s ttled down, is spite of a constitution, to the acceptance of any bard crusted political ideology, its ideological forms are less rigid than those of Pakistan, which has accepted a precisely lormed ideology of the Islamic theocratic stale, in which, ti a change is to come, it would come with violence and ventance. Contact with Christianits resulted in a number of religious reforma movements. It is often difficult to dissociate social reform from the religious, because in most countries of the world ocial Laws have sli! to have religious szaction. Unless they ato orders or acts by the government, social seforens have beca trexitiabiy blended with the religious. Of the movendcats ·62 Mahatma Gandhi formulated his political ideology in terms of religion, though he did not mean by religion ady institutionalized religios, but only spirituality. By the time he contributed his essay to Contemporary Indian Philosoplag, he equated his God to Truth, which he said was really the God all religions. But the word religion revived ancient memories of communalism and so fanaticism and, in spite of Gandhi, what ought to have been 3 secular but spiritual nationalism, comprehending both Islam and Hinduism in a rationalized universal form, tumed into the communal nationalism of the Muslim League with a theocratic ideology, and threatened to turn into a similar Hindu aatiopalism of the Hindu Mahasabha, which would have become an Actuality had it not beca for the strong action taken against the movement by the Congress in power. The Congress consistently followed the ideal of a secular but spiritual nationalism, in spite of constant provocations, imputations and insinuations by the Muslim League. By being secvlar in outlook, the Congress implicitly attaches greater value to the human individual as such than the Muslim League, which attaches the same to him so far as he is A member of the Muslim community acd therefore subordinates him and his rights as a man by birth to the Islamic community and the theocrtic state. And so the subordination of the individual to the state and so a kind of thcocratic dictatorship have an emphasis in the ideology of the Muslim League, which is absent from the ideology of the Congress. However, the secular but ratiomily and psychologically si ritual idcology of the Indian National Congress-this organizt tion has been called the Indian National Congress and not the Bindu Congreep right froin its inception by Juar, shough the Muslim League called it a Hirdu organization--is complicate more in the Indian Union by communist and socialise idcals than in the Bicocratic Muslim State of Pakistan. As against the complete secularism anil mitrrialism of communism, Pakistan offers the ideolozy ol thescracy: but the political Semlanım or India, 18 in many other countries, offers sonde comisos humanis tic groved to communism and socialism. On the oldes sand ·63 Wher once the hard riad of theocratic irrationalism is broken by the socialist or communist rationalista, there would be nothing left to tosa dosa the materialism of the latter and to tragstart it into something better and spiritual; while the spiri. tual basis of the secular natiunalism of India, through its psy. chologiai aad rational appeal, would transform communisa or socialism into something spiritnal and therefore very different. For spirituality is essentially individualistic : what is spiritual in maa co be realized by himself alone. And the true foundation of democracy is respect for the individual and therefore the Tecognition that the isdividuality of the individual is not exhaus ted by his social relationships. Bata commusison and democracy claim to be humanistic, and crticize each other for bot being truly humanistic. The former claims that democracy, while professing to respect the dignity of the human individual, does not make it economically and so in practice possible for him to realize his full potentialities and human values. The latter points out that communism subordicates the iadividual to the community and in practice to the group is power, which indentifies the interests of the compataity with its own, that dictatorship is inherent in communism and that therefore there can be no place in communist ideology for the value of the iodividual and individual initiative. As India has got 3 ttled down, in spite of a constitution, to the acceptance of any bard crusted political ideology, its ideological forms are less rigid than those of Pakistas, which bas accepted a precisely formed ideology of the Islamic theocratic state, in which, if a change is to come, it would come with violence and Vengeana. Contact with Christucity resulted ia a number of roligious Telorna moiements. It is oites dificult to dissociate social reform from the religious, because in most couatries of sbe world bocal laws tart still to have religious sanction. Unless they are others or acts by the government, social reforms have been extricably denied with the religious. Of the movements ·that are rather religious than social, the most important is the Ramakrishna Mission, started by the great Swami Vivekanandi, a disciple of the saint, Ramakristina. It should be said to the credit of Swami Vivekananda that, though he was a Sudn, le dis. approved of tileaningless sucial reforans, some of the leaders of which ignored the spirit behind the caste system. The high idler's of Brahminhood, though not consistently followed hy the members of that caste, were indeed true and noble. So though Vivekanandı admitted into the monastic order men and women of all castes and races, he claimed himsell to be a follower of Sankara tfe could see no use for diager to Hinda spirituality if the tradi. tional social structure was changes and there were inter-marriages between different castes and communities Such relarmis could be introduced without creating acw castes and divisions. Another great reform, from tbe humanistic point of view, which he intro duced into the monastic order was compulsory social service, skich he called the worship of daridranari sana (God in the guise of the needy). Though the communists and socialists would call this philanthrophy and bot humanism, at the time when Vivekananda introduced it, it was a new idea for the ladians, because the Indian sannyassa (monks), according to traditional rules, were prohibited from taking interest in society: 11 sannyesin is one who senounces everything, family, wealth and society. It should indeed be noted that one of the greatest mnen India produced, Swami Vrdyaranya, cook great interest in the Kingdom of Vizianagar and Swami Ramadıs likewise in the activities of Sivaji. Bpt they were rare exceptions and belonged to some of the most troublous tunes. While subtly influencing Hinduism, Christianity itsell, like Islam, underwent some transformation. Christianity, as preach. ed by Westera missionaries in India, did not satisfy the Indian thirst for spiritual realszation, for it looked like nothing more than social service. The essence of spirituality dyes not lic in any social ethic, however good it may be, but in union with God and the bliss of that union. Sidhu Sundar Singhs and the Christian Astamas, particularly in the South, sive n clue as to the form the Indian would like Christianity to assume.

·65 Me. Agaihotri founded Devasamaj in Lahore. It was at hrst theistic, but later became a kind of spiritual atheism. It was more influenced by Western scientifc ideas than by Christianity. The Satsang of the Radhaswamis was fourded by Sri Tulsi Ram és 1963. Spiritually, it was a re-empbasis on a psychological technique of ancient yoga; add socially, it took up industrializa. sion as part of its programme. The latter was a novelty to Todiso religion. It aimed at pointing out that interest in worldly a fairs was not detrimental to spiritual progress The Theosophical Society started by Mrs. Annie Besant did Dot aim directly af social seforsn, though Mrs. Besant took part in political activity and was incarcerated by the British. The Society took seriously the Hindu idea that all religions are essentially ope and created an institution to embody it. This encouraged liberal outlook and inter-caste, inter-communal and inles-macial marriages The society did much for education also. And the greatest service which Mrs. Besant did to India was to make the lodian proud of his spiritual heritage. She pointed out 10 him that there was nothiag spiritual ia ather religions which Hinduism did cot contaia. The resulting self-consciouscess helped the Indaa Recaissance and strengtheoed upsurging rationalism. of the movements that aimed more as social reform than the Tehgrous, the Brahmosamaj, tha Aryasamaj and the Prarthana. *LKA) should be mentioned The Brahmosimaj was founded by itaji Rammohan Roy, who is influenced back by Islam and Christianity sad preached against polytheism and idalarty. But the greatest service he did to lodia 123 on the social side. To bin icon owes the abolition of statke 300 tbe te introduction, more the higher casies, of the re-mariage of widows. After Sim, the idea that tricman is not mere appeadis to 30 but a personality by betself gained strength and is now stronger Amore some of the elucted classes of ledia thaa even in Emland. 9 ·66 The Aryasamaj vas founded by Swami Dayanand. He also rejected idolatry. He further preached: "Back to the Vedis". The early Aryans either directly worshipped natural forces or the Spirit within man. He would say therefore that they dot only did not worship idols but also bad no need of temples or mosques. And the Arsag society at the time of the Vedas bad neither sutice nor compulsory life-long widowhood por a rigid caste system. It was left to the choice of the womaa concerned to marry or not to marry after the husband's death. Similarly the individual was assigaed to a aste by merit and not by birth. The present social injustices, deformities and malpractices, he said, were later accretions, which ought to be discarded. rlynin, he argued, if Hinduism of the Vedic times took converts, why should it not do so now. So he started conversion. He thus re-emphasized the value of the human individual as against the supremacy of caste and tradition. The Prarthanasamaj was founded by Dr. Atmaram Pandurang in Bombay. Its aim and programme were practically the same as those of the Brahmasamaj. No social, religious or politial forasent would leave the philoso. phy of a country unaffected. This phenomenon is happening in India, though it is not clearly discerped. First, as a result of the introduction of Western education,. Do student of philosophy in India is ignorant of Western plulosophy, which has become practically the standard of rationalty for him. Secondly, the Indian Renaissance has produced in him an admiration for the ancscot Indian philosophers, whom he has tried to interpret to himself and to others in terms of westera philosop. hical concepts. In the third place, westera oricotal scholarship, through both criticism and praise, bas male kim sludy his ancient philosophy seriously and answer the critics in thics own terms and understand rationally where its superiority fies. This reinterpretation 1:24 enabled him to detect where the links in the chain of argument and the steps in the desrlonincnt of the philosophy are missing fourthly, seslere scientific thought, ·67 elaboration its own logic, has begun inluencing Indiza prilosop. ders Fifthly, westera scientific concepts, particularly evolution, have been found irrefutable by many. Sixibly, the citicism of western religious leaders that Indiac thought is not sufficiently hum.zoistic and this worldly but too absolutistic and other. voruly has led utany to re-estimate Ladisa thought. In the screath place, the communist and socialist ideologies, though their success in drawing the attention of the lodian philosophers is not appreciable, have created a new philosophical ferment, emphasizing that man should be the centre of philosophy. We an discern one or more of these influeaces in the writings of the leading philosophers of contemporay Indua, like Radhakrisha1a Tagore, Aurabiado Ghosh, and Bhagavas Das. Radhakrisbang relers is same places of his writiags to the dawnics of a new humanism in the world, wbich be has not yet analysed systematically and incorporated into his own philosophy. Even apart from this signihoot observation of his, there is an Importsat liae of his thought admitting the inevitable humaniza. rigg of the 1bsolute. God for him is the Absolute humanized, fressed into the moulds of human thought. Nothing can thus escape being pressed into human thought and logic. Even for Tagore. God, as the Supreme Personality, is the absoluta humanized; and as we cannot think of the Absolute without homa sizing it and understanding it according to our thought forms, He as have no interest 15 tbe pute Absolute, which we cannot understand. Our interest lies more in the painting than is the blink cara3 Og which it is done. Both Aurabindo Al Bhagavan Das want to include the world of human values Rod mutter la taeit Absolute. Though absolutism 14 the common philosophy of all, 3 cek emphasis is being laid ou the world of man and matter and a des affirmative attitude is beisz wlopted to it. These philosophers, thougs absolutists, dimar the way for a ony kind of bo minism in India, which Rathaksishnan observes dawning throughout the world.

·65 If wed to these philosophical transformations the humanisn underlying the communist and socialist ideologies and if both would intluence each other, as such currents often do in both theoreticland practical spheres, we have to interpret all these movements together as the humanistic trasformation of the basic ideology of our culture. If this translor mation is rightly guided, our traditional values would be preserved intact and the condition of man on earth in India kould be improved as a result. Philosophy of the future will not be merely religious or spiritual, concerned only with the psychological theories of God-realisation, tbe metaphysical theories of the proofs for the existence of God and of the nature of God and his relation to the world of matter and individuals, but also with the nature of the mutual relations between the individuals and botteen the individuals on the one side and the different forms of the material world on the other. It would include the philosophy of all the four values, artha, dainu.dharma and moksha (wealth, love, duty and salvatson) in one comprchensive system of thought and would therefore be wider sn scope, being obliged to include a larger number of topics than our ancient philosophers did by convention or by following the traditional division of values into the four classes and giving the last alone their attention and thought. We shall then get a complete scheme of life and its plulosophy, in which no important human value would duly be either under-emplasized or over-emphasized.

·INDIA'S CULTURE AND HER PROBLEMS LECTURE IV Our Present Problems To the problems we have inherited from the beginning of our culture are now added problems that arose as a result of conflict with the Islamic culture and contact with the West. The contact with Islam was a real conflict, because it was violest, pof peaceful. The fight was carried on with the stvord and not with the intellect; but with Christianity, it was rational, social and psychological, not with blood and sivord. Christianity therefore lsad a purifying influence on the Hindu society, while Islam made Hinduisma close its social ranks, stiffer its caste systems and adopt an artificial particularism or determinateness with which it sought to oppose the particularism of Islam. But the particularism of Islama belongs to its esset, it is its dogma and creed; but with Hinduista, it is artificial, evasive, lacks definition, and failed at critical moments Christianity too is a particularist religioa; but the methods it adopted in india far propagating its creed oude all the diference for the linda between Christianity and Islan We may remind ourselves here of the true sense in which a religion is particularist or usisersal. A religios may be universal either physically of Psychologically and rationally. In the former sose, every proselytizing religion would be a universal religios Christianity presches that if one is baptized, adopts the Christian social code, and belieses that faith in Christ alone brings salvation, ose is spiritually sile and admits ode into its commurity, The teschirs of Islam also is similar and it demsods sinilar faith in Mehemmed. Both claim to be uciversal for the reason that they 2btan ererbody into tbeis communal told on the above terms. Tor the same reason they are intoleraat of other religions and arty wars in the pine of religioa. Again, for the same reason, ities prchologically and ctionally, they are particularist and t toiveral. Real universality is rational and psychological, ·70 not physical, and lies in the recogaition that spirituality is found universally in every man and that it an be realized by him irrespective of his faith in Christ or Mohammad. To which corumunity he belongs is only a question about his community and not about his spirituality. It is a plain fact that a psychologically universal religion can accomodate a psycholo. gially particularist religion, because the latter would be one of the so maoy units that tan come under the universal; bura psychologically particularist religion cannot accomodato a psychologically universal religion, because, if it does so, it lojes its own particularity and would be absorbed. Though Indian culture was rationally and psychologically universal, and, on the social side, attained a unity through the very same universality, for the same reason the social unity it attained tras loose-knit. Its very spirit of tolerance was its weakness, because the integration of groups brought together was not strong enough for concerted effective action in face of tival cultural onslaughts, In other words, our social unity or solidarity was pot dynamic, but weak and static. The Muslims first come to convert and suit; and most of the convests at first became members of the ruling bod fighting chas. But later as their numbers swelled, and particularly after the alrent of the British, they also had to take to productive prolessions and civil lile and thus created complication in the traditional principle of division of professions, Hindu society was a cultural unity, not political; but the Muslim society was both a cultum) and political unity, though this ideal was not often schicred by the Maslims, in spite of being appealed to in linics of Crisis. To the lindu ideal of the separation of spiritual and secular headship Islam presented in opposition that unification. And to the Hindu heroic ideal of war and conquest for heroic recognition, Islam presented in contrast the communal idolo con version and extermination of unbelievers. gain, in contrast to th-Ilmu spiritual ideal of fine aris and literaturc, Islam presnim tlim secular ideal of pleasure and masline. The ideal of II.r er fleste ·71 prosperity of the people in general was subservient to the spiri. husd ideal in Hindu culture and to the communał ideal in Musling culture It w39 the British and other European nations who came to India for trade that brought the economic ideal to the forefront; or rather super-imposed it oo the two earlier ideals, which had not died out. Neither the Hindu por the Muslim society recog. nized the rights of the individual apart from his maste or community, that is, ibe individual's social action was primarily dictated by his caste il be was a Hindu and by his community if he was a Muslim. But contact with western scientific, social and politial thought made the individual self-conscious; and the idea at human rights apart from caste and communal rights entered the minds of the ladiaas. The sesult was not really due to Christianity, as it is sometimes cuined; or raibes it was due to Christianity only so far as the observation of diferent social todes, aided by the scitmiſt, social and political education teceived in Christian coucational institutions, made one reflect and arrive at rational conclusions. But the change was really due to the rationa) arguments which the missionaries advanced against wrong practices. And if reason is the standard, why accept Christianity anu pot reason itself? And this liberation of the tulisidual from tradition is uiuch more noticeable in the Hindu society thaa ia the Muslim; because the Hindu culture is rationally and psycholos.cally egiversal and so plastic, while the Muslim culture is particulatist and determinate and so rigid and unreceptive, though it is otherwise with a minority of educated Maslıms. The words diversal and particularst are not used in order to extol or deprtale any religioa: they are mere descriptive tetcas. Wben llisduissa, Islam at Christianity is analysed, it is not the alection of the speaker to speak all or sell of that religion. When we are sono problems to solve. we bast to understand clearly the causes that gave tise to those problems. An objective uuruse to facts is all that is adopted test. During those days ·70 not physical, and lies in the recognition that spirituality is found universally in every man and that it can be realized by him irrespective of his faith in Christ or Mohammad. To which community he belongs is only a question about his community and not about his spirituality. It is a plain fact that a psychologically universal religion can accomodito a psycholo. gially particularist religion, because the latter would be one of the so many units that can come under the universal; but a psychologically particularist religion cannot accuinodate a psychologically universal religion, because, if it does so, it loses its own particularity and would be absorbed. Though Indian culture was sationally and psychologically universal, and, on the social side, attained a unity through the very sane universality, for the same reason the social unity it attained was loose-koit. Its very spirit of tolerance sms its weak. ness, because the integration of groups brought together was not strong cnough for concerted effective action in face of rival cultural onslaughts. In other words, our social unity or solidarity was not dynamic, but weak and static. The Muslims first came to convert and rule; and most of the converts at first became members of the ruling soil fighting chas. But later as their numbers swelled, and purticularly after the advent of the British, they also had to take to productive prolessions and civil life and thus created complication in the traditional principle of division of professions. llindu society was a cultural unity, not politial; but the Muslim society as both a cultural and political unity, though this ideal was got often achieved by the Muslims, in spite of being appealed to in timce of crisis. To the Hindu ideal of the separation of spiritual and secular headship Islım presented in opposition their unification. And to the Ilindu heroic ideal of war and conquest for brroic frcognstion. Islam presented in contrast the communal ideal of contrrsion and extermination of unbelievers. ilgain, y contrast to the Ilında spiritual ideal of fine arts and literature, {s!am presented thro secular ideal of pleasure and pastime. The ideal of the resmic ·73 their sepercussions on those in the others, and all have ira portance lor the diy to day life of the Indian. Vbile in the early period of cultural formation, the problems cxisted due to friction between orthodoxy and heterodoxy, colour and colour, aste and ate, the pro. Dems towards the end of the period were not so serious as to cause the shedding of blood, though in the early period of the contact of the Aryans with the pre-Aryaa settlers, the conflict between colour and colour might have been bloody as it was due to desire for conquest. But those conflicts were almost forgotten by the time the different groups settled down as custes and sub-castes of the same social structure. Later wars were tars of a definitely conceived heroic age. Foreiga iavasions were not of cultural importance. Indian culture was neither affected by them por influenced iteit outcome very much. But the invasions after the advent of Islam assumed a dificrent aspect. The social side of the pretxistent Iodian culture betrayed its weakness, and the outcome was untascurable to it It then tried to apply its rational and Psychological universality by introducing a few social reforms; but such universality was rejected by Islan, which did not wish to lose its dehuitc particularity and itself in the outcome. For las acce, though Sikhism attempted a reconcihation, it was cruelly persecuted by Aurangazeb. Had Sikhism been recogniz. ed by the Music as te presenting the essential truths of both Islina 294 Hinduism, Islam as such would have disappeared from Todua For no particularist religion can justify its existence, if Ils particularity is rationalized and turned into a universal. Had pot the Vaisshikas enunciated this as a logical principle? How. 14, Islam pot only added its own community but also created new reform group, for which Indian society had to find place. Ancient Indian culture 43 a culture containing many sub.cul. The tex Bditions destroyed its original integral form, t.owever, ill-defined its Contact mith western culture and Christianity has not only added re* ficup bat also lesaled is produoc a new rationalized laieftation, bich is politially and economically free from a theological Luis is therlore secular is outlock. But this 10 ·72 when the Hindu-lluslim unity was supposed to be an accomplis. hed fact is India, some one wrote that Aurangazebe treated the Hindus better than he did the Muslims. A reviewer abserved that it would have been better and safer to depict facts as they were in history if we arc to face the problems and solve them than to falsify. liistory itself. It is always dangerous to falsify facts and imagine that there are no problems. It would be wishful thinking, if not self-deception. It may be that in the near or distant future all institutionalized religions would disappear, all religions would be rationalized and all cultures would be made spiritual, when we shall be neither proud of Hinduism, Islani or Christianity nor spologetic for any. But when we have to face our present cultural problems, we have to know the facts 29 they are and describe tbem as they are. And these problems are Presented now to a}} cultural groups that live in India, including the Muslim and the Hindu. There would have been no cultural problems for India, had one culture supplanicil another from the beginning. Justead, cnc xvas superimposed on another. sd further, the culture of ladra does not merely consist of layer upon layer: the layers penetrate each other is sodie places; and Indian culture as a whole therefore presents both contrasts and complexitics, contrasts braust the layers are still discernible and complexities because they pecetrate cach other. Far instance, Sikhism created a complexity by tefssics to te a part of Islam and yet cadcarouring to maintain some distinctess from Hinduism. The Israhmoxinaj tended to do so at one time, but later acknowledged its being a part of Hinduism. The educited modern Hindu, who shows a great amount of reformist zeal, hare given up a pomber of traditional practices, and the question is asked: Is bo s Ijodu or not? India is often called a land of contrasts; and we find contrasts in all spheres of culture, social, politial, religious and philosophical, though alles she division of India Inlo Pakistan and lol, Retempts at uniformity in the political sphere arc being made in India by tusping, the old semi-independent states into se}.Foresring parts of the whole. However, the problems in each spiere have ·75 (3) Intersily and depth are sought after by the Hindu exlture and mere width and shallowness are stunned. Depth gives inwardness tc culture and meaning to life, which otherwise would be mud and aimless activity. (4) The universality and rationality, lying at the basis of Indian culture, have enable] Buddhism to proclaim that Dharma llam) is natural and so is stot an artefact. The Law of Life is the Law of Nature well and it should be the ideal of life. The advantage in adopting this attitude is that the spiritual and the ethical could thereby be liberated from historical entanglements, dogmas and other irrational factors, and made natural. But in practice both Hinduism And Buddhism confined this law to the realm of the spiritual alone and accepted current external codes mich littla criticism. However, the practics led to their tolerance, because the spiritual law only was to be universal according to them, and the ethical could be relative and so diferent in different social groups. (5) All the olker calmes are subordinated by Hinduisnis to the spiritual. The economic larths), the emotional (lama), and the ethical (dharm1) are made subservient to the spiritual (moksha). The attention of the systematic philosophers was given to the last and not to the other three. Or to be more exact, the concepts pertaining to the other values are pot as systematically developed as the concepts pertainics to moksha, The classical philosophers Gare little thought to the former. Only Mimarosa or the Dharmasutras ol Jaimiri may be pointed to as an ciceptios Bat it stopped short of developing into a philosophical system of social ethics ; ad the Jharmasastras semaiced at the level of ethical codes and did not become etbial philosophies. The other ·secular form is less eagerly welcomed by the Muslims than by the Hindus. So secularization has failed in part and Pakistan come into existence. But India's problem is not solved, because she is not a Hindu state and has millions of sfuslims. Thea how are the social groups in India to be integrated now, so that she an react as a unit to groups outside India ? The political unity and strength of a country depend on its having a healthy social units as well. To these problema are again added the problems created by the division into economic classes, a division which cuts across the traditional divisions. The economic age that was being slowly ushered into the world was given a definite concept. ual form by Marx, who worked out its basic ideas systematically in all their cultural aspects, however one-sided his attempt may be. And these ideas, as in cvery other part of the world, have become part of the leaven of our present cultumi ferozent. We may now summarize the problems and attempt tentative 2015wers. The following rain traits of our culture, which leave htuman and social importance, may be boted.... (1) The foundations of ancient Indian religions, that is, of Hinduss519, are natural, rational and psychological The emphasis as a consequence is laid on spirituality, which is psychological and inward, and not upon sis of dogmas or creeds. (2) For laying the emphasis on the spiritual factor of religion, which is common to al mes, Hindu. ism is truly universal. Or if we wish to express the site sa oiker tords, Ike unicersalits al Hinduism & philosophical and psychological, but so! physical. Buddhist setained ibis pure spirituali. ly much more conspicuously, by having little to do with the social and political forms of the countries to which it spread. Hinduism, though it did not spread outside India is much as Buddhiam, did the same with regard to the different social groups that entered its fold.

·75 (3) Intensity and deplk are sought after by the Hindu culture agd mere width and shallowness are shurned. Depth gives intoard sss fc culture and meaning to lits, which othervise would be mad and aimless activity. (4) The universality and radioazlity, lying at the basis of Indian culture, have crabled Buddhismn to proclaim that Dharms (lat) is natural and so is eat an artefact. Tbe Law of Life is the Law of Nature as well and it should be the ideal of life The advantage is adopting this attitude is that the spiritual and the ethical could thereby be liberated from historial entanglements, dogmas aod other irrational factors, and made natural. But in practice both Hinduism and Buddhism confined this law to the realm of the spiritual alone and accepted current external codes with httle criticism However, the practice led to their tolerance, because the spiritual law only was to be universal according to them, and the ethical could be relative and so different in different social groups. (5) All the other values are subordinated by Hinduisen to the spiritus!, The economic (arths), the emotion. al (lams), and the exhical (dharms) are made subservicat to the spiritual (moksha). The attention of the systematic philosophers was given to the last and got to the other three. Or to be more exact, the concepts pertaining to the other values the rol as systematically developed as the concepts pertaining 10 moksha. The classical philosophers gave little thought to the former. Only Mipamsa or the Dharmasutras of faizini may be pointed to as an exception But it stopped short of developing into a pasiosophical system of social ethics; and the barmasastres semaiped at the kvel of ethical codes ad did not become ethical philosophies. The other ·secular form is less eagerly welcomed by the Muslims than by the Ilindus. So secularization has failed in part and Pakistan come into existence. But India's problem is not solved, because she is not a Hindu state and has millions of Muslims. Then hoor are the social groups in India to be integrated now, so that she can react as a unit to groups outside India ? The political unity and strength of 3 country depend on its having a healthy social unity as well. To these problems are again added the problems created by the division into economic classes, a division which cuts across the traditional divisions. The economic ago that was bcing slowly ushered into the world was given a definite concept. ual form by Marx, who worked out its basic ideas systematically in all their cultural aspects, however one-sided his attempt may be. And these ideas, as in curry other part of the world, have become part of the leaven of our present cultural ferment. We may now summarize the problems and attempt tentative Answers The following main traits of our culture, which have human and social importance, may be noted: (1) The foundations as ancient Indian religion, that is, od Hinduism, arc natural, rational and psychological Tlie emphasis as a consequence is hid on spirituality, which is psychological and inward, and not upon sets of dogmas or crecds. (2) For laying the emplasis on the spiritual factor of religion, which is common to all men, Hindu. ism is truly universal Ur We wish to express the state o other words, the unitersality of Hinduim 15 philosophical and schological, but mo! Alysical. Buddhisar retained this pure spirtual. ty much more conspicuously, by having little to do with the social and poistical forms of the countries to which it spread. Hinduism, though it did not speed wutside Indiz 23 uuch as Buddhism, did the marre with regard to the different simul group that offered its fold.

·77 generalized this principle of right to life and made it applicable to all moving creatures; so much so that a vegetarijs is om more respected by society than a Q0a-vegetarian; and the Hindu mind has becone very sensitive to the shedding of blood. The recogni. tian of the right to life is every lising creature and particularly in every human being has become part of The dalore of almost every Hindu. (9) Hindu religion, like many other religions, recognises the spiritual equality of all men. That all men should de socially and economically equal has got been 50 well Visualized Here it is caasistent with its ideal of sbo essentially rational and psychological spirituality of all religions and be essential spirituality of all men. (1) The enjoyment of santi (dsace), sringara (love), and karuna (compassion) is the highest ideal placed before us by the Hindu culture as a while. We may remind ourselves that santi is not the peace of emptiness, sok $ Sringar& the love of the flesh. According to Bharata, all emotions issue from the original mation tants, according to Bhoja, sringara is the matrix of all emotions and is of the nature of the Self; and in Bhavabhul : contention that karuna is the source of all other emotions, scholars see the Buddhist ideal. They are ideals to be psychologically tealized; and they ahuence man's activisy is all spheres. ut The Hindu cultural outlook developed a peculiar insulants, which became all the more patent in its Later forms. There was a sense of self-sufficiency and sell completeness, a feeling that nothing could be imported from outside and incorporated, which finally resulted in a kind of ice pasistdess in social and political spheres. At one time Hipduiso spread quinde the mas; but later to cross the was became sortkodai. Similarly, at one time DET Groups were ·76 schools just accepted the ethical codes iad did not are to develop the philosophical principles underlying. them, And this pr.ctice Chicouraged the sparation of spiritual values from the more tangibly human. (6) Because of the separation of the spiritual factor of religion from the social an: other entanglettients, which are explicitly recognized to be incidental and not essential, Hinduisus became deliberately tolerant *** is proverbially so. It would look even upon the doginis of other religions as excusable externals, so long as they do not interfere with itself. (7) Commission (karuna) and spiritual uplift of thos: who are spiritually low are the contri #lion of Buddhism to th: message which Indian culture gires. (8! The recognition of the night to lile, not only of eter3 ksman bring but also of every living being is the contribution of both Buddhists and Jainises to the Hoop its outlood Alimsa, which is common to all Indian-born religions, 139 received a particularly strons cmphasis from jainism. It is important to note the social and freunistic sigaitcance of this principle. According to Inbal mornkty, mrmbuis of other irbes have no right to life, except by contention or tienty. .Sccording to communal religions, the members of other religions have no nghe tohle just by being men : their right to hſe is a concession of mercy, not a natural right Some of the white face treated the coloured saces in the same way, as for instance the Spunuards the intabulanty of South Ameria. l'utttzig a Negro in the 200 in Germany during Ilirler's time is another exipc. Itut ilm erly Aryans in India did not treat the original urlers in the same way, but estretat that night to life by prostire them to live is the pura'r troupt as C3%A4nstb castes Jainisti, a Ni Creed vi ghisa, ·77 generalized this principle of right to life and made it appliable to all moving creatures ; so much so that A vegetarian is now more respected by society than a 000-vegetarian; and the Hindu mind has become very sensitive to the shedding of blood. The recogni. tion of the right to life in every living creature and particularly in every human being has become part of the nature of almost every Hindu. (9) Hird" stligion, like many other religions, recognises the spiritual equally of all nen, That all men should be socially and economically equal has not been so we!! visualized Here it is consistent with its ideal of the essentially rational and psychological spirituality of all religions and the essential spirituality of an mea. 11.99 The enjoyment of santi Peace), sriagara (love), und kiruos (compassion! is the highest ideal placed before ** by the Hinds csiltisse as trhule. We may remind ourselves that sant is not the peace of emptiness, for 18 sringura the love of the flesh. Accordiog to Bharata, ali einotions issue from the original emotion $1911; according to Bhoja, sringara is the matrix al all emotions and is of the nature of the Self; and in Ishavabhuti's contention that karuna is the source of all other emotions, scholars see the Buddhist ideal. They are ideals to be psychologically realized ; and they influence man's activity in all spheres. 111? The Hindu cultural outlook developed a peculiar $1$$laisty, which became all the more patent in its baler forras. There was a sense of self sufficiency and self-completeness, a feeling that nothing could be imported from outside and incorporated, which finally resulted in a kind of inespaasiveness in social asd pohtial spheres. Atose time Hinduism spread 03e the s2s; but liler to cross the sess became ponibodou. Similarly, at one time de TV groups were ·78 admitted as proselytes, but later proselytization 128 forbidden. The sune sense of self-sufficiency might have been responsible for the non-importation of the Confucian humanistic outlook from Chins in return for giving her the Buddhist way of life. (12) Because the spirituai principle of religion was viewed as distinct from the social and political forms, not only was the spiritual lead separated from the political head, but also tras cach social group allowed lo hare its ouer kind of social forms. For instance, the marital forms of the different astes are different; and among tribes of semole bill districts, marriage by Apture is still common. Yet all are Hindus. That is there is no domogeocity of social fortus. The feeling of socialaffinity is therefore not so strong in thc llindu society as in the fuslimn. In this respect, the Auslim culture takes quite an opposite attitude not only by identifying the spiritual and secular licadship but also by not permitting the groups that enter its fold to have their ows ways of social life. (13) Cultural unity is nowhere the same na political unity. The Nond was not accustomed to think of wars belusen dingdoms as wars Ocludes communities. lle would therefore regard cultural unity as pot essential for political unity, Dør the Muslim thinks along quite opposite lines. (14) According to his rcligion, the $uslim could no! serve a non-uslim monarch 10 f.35 as possible, but Ilse Hindu does not mind being the subject of non. Hindu state. This attitude also helped cohesion of the luslims (15) The Hindu culture is +154sfully waitic. It is thro locically and pichologically indeterminate an aan the any numbers of us determinuions et forms with ·79 out being destroyed in the process. We may intro. duce any number of social reforms and any number of novelties in celt and svorship; yet it remains Hiddu. It is espansive and progressive in this respect. It has been its weakness so far, because is confict with Islart, which stubborniy kept ro its original derermi. oate forms, it lacked that force and vigour which only a determinate form cu have; but in view of the spreading rationalism and of new social and political forms, this weakness co be turned into our strength, if properly utilized and guided. 116) This plastic indeterminacy of Hindu cultura preventedir, in luca of rival cullares, from having a defi. mite creed and programme, so far as ils social side was concerned. If the new social group was willing to settle down as a new caste or sub-caste, Hinduism could find a place for it. But when it refused to do so, linduism did aot kook what to do, as it had pothing concrete and tapgible to which it could compel the new group to submit It would tolerate the tew BTOUP; but if the new group was intolerant. the Hindu society could fight only to make it tolerant Add for nothing more. Bat there was nothing in Ilinduism to make the dew group incapable of interfering even in the future. So Hinduism, by its very Datuit, was made to fight only in defense. And no culture ao live, if it is to figh for ever in defense Life is progressive or regressive; it is never static. (17) The second most important social group in India is the Muslim community and represents many cultur. o wears ibit ars of borcudia (ilgse represented by {ke fiindu community. Isa recognizka po caste had 20 diesecces. But is that non tecostition itself is igralsed the spitit of intolerance of differences doi cider ailures. But while caste differences ·78 admitted as proselytes; but fater proselytization was forbidden. The same sense of self-suficiency might have been responsible for the non-importation of the Confucian humanistic outlook from Chias in return for giving her the Buddhist way of life. (12) Because the spiritual principle of religion 75 viewed as distinct from the social and political forms, sol Only is the spiritual head separated from the political head, dus #!so was cach social group allowed lo hare its otru kind of social forms. For instancr. the marital forms of the different castes are different; and among tribes of remote hill districts, marriage by apture is still commion. Yet all arc Hindus. That is, There is no homogeneity of social formas. The feeling of socialaffinity is therefore got so strong in the Hindu society as in the Muslim. In this respect, the Muslim culture takes quite an opposite atntude not only by identifying the spiritual and secular headship but also by not permitting the groups that enter its folit to have their own ways of social life. (13) Cultural unity is nowhere the same as political unity. The Hand was not sccustomed to think of nuts bettecen king.loms as wars between communities. 11c would therefore regard cultural unity as pot essential for politial unity. But the Muslim thinks along quite opposite likes. (19) scoording to his vligion, the Aluslim would not Ten' o nom-Jusling monarch ro is as possible ; but Itse lindu dors not mind being the ambject of non. Iliadu slute. This attitude also belsted colesion of the Muslims (19) The Hindu culture is essentially flastic. It us thro loxically and prichologically indersiratrast can wir any numbs of per determintiops y form with ·out being destroyed in the process. We may intro. duce any number of social reforms and any number of Bareities in cult and worship; get it remains Hindu. It is expansive and progressive in this respect. It has bees its weakness so far, because in conflict with Islam, which stubbomly kept to its origical determi. mate forms, it lacked that force and vigour which coly a delerminate form can have; but in viety of the spreading rationalism and of netv social and political forms, this weakness can be turned into our strength, properly utilized and guided. 116) T'is plastic indeterminacy of Hesidu culture prevent. ed it, in face of rival cultures, from having a defi. mile creed and programme, so far as its social side was concerned. If the new social group was williog to settle down as a few caste or sub-caste, Hinduism could find a place for it. But when it refused to do $0, Hinduism did not know that to do, as it had cothing concrete aod tangible to which it could compel the new group to submit It would tolerate 1 the new group; but if the Dew group was intolerant, the Hinda society could fight only to make it tolerant and for nothing more. But there was nothing in Hinduism to make tbe new group incapable of inter- (ering even in the future. So Hinduism, by its very mature, was made to fight only in defense Add to culture Ma lise, if it is to fight for ever in defense Life is progressive or regressive; it is never static (17) The second most important sacial group is India 13 the duslins community and represents many culture al factors thst art oppose lo trase representsd by the Hindu community. Islam recognizes do caste and race diferences. But in that non recognition Iiwil is joyoyed the spirit of intolerance of differences sol biber cultures. But while waste differences ·are an evil, intolerance is a greater evil. While Hinduism separates spiritual and secular hendship, Islam identifies them, and the Muslim would rather live in a Muslim state than in a non-Muslin one. Again, while Islam permits its spiritul brut to be the secular head and possess worldly luxuries, it treats fine arts as profauc and unspiritual; but llinduism adopts quite the opposite attitude. la origin, while Islaris is tribal, Hinduism is natural and psychological and sw does not possess that social, communi and worldly interest which Islam shows. And further, Islam adds more and more members to its fold through conversion and is happy to increase its numbers but Hiruluista ndopts an attitude of sukkenonty and does not wish to take any converts, though resenting any loss of its own members to other religions. Contemporary Indian culture on the whole contains these conflicting forms and arritvdes, which, wless ralionally approach ed and reconciled, would be a potential dance to our social life and culture Culture is essentially mental. liut toward or outward, it tas its repercussions on the redssidual and suciety and effects their mellare in all spheres. It determines inhtecily the individual's ways of thinking and actirs and, through the induiduals, the ways of society. There are prople who say that Iradu culture is spiritual, that spirituality is not affected bt coral strength or neakness and that those who attribute Irdia's wealces to has one-sided spiritualty are confusing the sssues. It may Ly con ceded that though a man is physically very weak, he may be spiritually sorg freat, this point is rct quatesird. Dat lise spiritual conot disc ia abstraction; inalt a body tody has to be maintained by society; and so society tas lo exist. II it is to cris, it has to dcleod itself from attack, whaleset be their form, by other socielles; and so it las to be sssorkHer society carnot tr strors, if the inxlisi!ual It got traily art strere. So in uitle: to be silfratsy Freal, berk society and the ·81 individual base to be physically healthy and strong. Again, sxiety has to be healthy and strong internally; that is, the structure of saacty should be healthy and balanced, capable of integrated and uaitary action, without one part pulling one way and the other in the opposite. Society has to be strong exter. wly 3!so, that is, in its relations to other societies. Just as the passialogical structure of the individual's body should be bealthy 22.1 bis actions with relerence to other individuals should not be suicial; the structure of society should be healthy and its relations to other societies shonld not be suicidal. No individual of society an live long simply through the mercy of others: its exlstence would be precarious and may not be even worth having. This is bare logic of facts; and no sentimeat about our pist spirítani glories should be allowed to confuse the issues, though 1:conlusion is likely to be encouraged from outside by interes. led people and from inside by people who are unable to appre. Lend clearly the context in which se are living Culture does not belong merely to the realm of imagination; it belongs to the rexlm of life, which thinks, feels and acts in the physical world Cultural ideals influence our thoughts, feelings and actions. Some say that our bighly spiritual culture is a product of our prcular political, social and geographical conditions. But others like Ds Schweitzer syy thai, though sach interpretation holds true of Greek Stoicism and Epicurianism, it does not hold true of indan thought. Do the speaker's opinion, Dr. Schweitzer is nght. For lcdian Philosophy Seacbed its heights when the A1733 West at the zenith ol their power; and connate thoughts developed is Other countries in different political and geographical conditioes. dod shaleyer be the factors that produced our culture, when asce it acquired definite shape, it began to influence Oje hoorde il cios It is said that one of the descendants of na paxlsin..at Dharm3 ssuld conquer the tsemy, even whes te ** actually issading his kingdom He hypostatized the shart facciple of Dharmı an efpecled the abstractioa to fight the concrete cesty. But Dharmas sever fights by itself, bat brough It ·82 its physical embodiment. And if its plysical embodiment is go! strong, it would be deleated. One may say that Dharma is never defeated: yes, as an abstract principle it is never deleated and the world does not want that it should ever be defeated; but as embodied, it is defeated whenever its embodiment is not strong and healthy. It is therefore necessary that the physical embodiment should be strong and healthy; and Dharma should be such as to be capable of taking on a strong embodimeat. Dharma should sot expect to live on eartii, if its embodiment manot be strong and healthy. The speaker speaks as a philosopher and not as a practical politician: but he speaks as a philosopher who is aware of the significance of philosophy for life and of thought for action. The problems that Indian culture has face now are many and we find them complicated when we try to work out their solution. (1) The first set of problems are those given rise to by the Deculiar universality of the Hinda culture We have observed many times that it is rational and psychologial and not social and physical In cementing several groups, it is the common universal element that becomes the principle of unity; and this principle docs not posses, socially and physically, en sugh con. crclegess in Hinduisn. That is why our social unity las not been tangible and effective, that is, it has not beca drauamic. It is not questioned whether rational and psychological val. versality is pot good and great in itself. It has already been said that true universality is ration) and poychological. To volvertalic is to generalize and rationalire. But the question is about its usefulness to us in the particuhr social and political circum. stances in thich we are living purely spiritual universal scceeds only in producirs 3 spiritual units, when applied *# # forlacinle of unification And the socist unity st prolurs may be exse, vpliferent and intacsibe For instance, Buddhinn spread over almost the whole of Asia, and we may bay that it unified midy Lads spiritually for a long time. But it did not attempt to produce a skrical usily : and it did not suecent in ·83 producing a social unity esen, not even that much which Chris. Lisaity produced. The Christian nations show concern whenever a son-Christian nation in yades a Christian country, however much they may qurrel among themselves. Such corers is shown by Aleslim a3tions also. But we have not heard so far of a similar concern among Buddhist nations. The principle of the liberation of the spiritual from the social and political, which Hinduism attempted, was carried to the extreme by Buddhism. Unlike Christianity Buddhism did not carry with a cole of even social ethics, nothing to speak of a code for politial action. The Tibetan theocracy is an accident and does not belong to the substance of Buddhism, The principle of spiritual unity is realizable, as most people say, caly by phtlosophers and saists. The comson man wants something more tangible for social unity. The Hindus have many social and religious practices in coms. But in face of a common rival, history bas shown, they are not effective enough We have therefore to conclude that the differences that divide the social groups should be much less than they are in order to make the common points efective. It ke take the army as an example for effective group organiztion, we may see the importalos of llas, uniforms etc, which are tangible signs of that Enity. That is, any principle of social vity, in order to be rflective, mast be socially tangible and concrete. For instance, forms of marriage did not unite the Hindu xwciety, because touch sie had its own forms : similarly, beither dees DOT fool w15 comMOR. I am not referring merely to inler martuiges ard inter-discg; I am referring to the ceremonia) forms Ilere is the social adv2g136e of those religions that testified themsises with a particular set of coacrete social 4ws. We may give this proces, the common name social mandardization, which produos eflectire unity and integration. iaine! 15 sow sariation as accomplished by Islara in the line of religios. Jolas it was not based upon rationa), Kkstils principles, we all It com analnm. And this stan tard.

·62 its passici embodiment. And if its plıysical embodiment is azt stroag, it would be deleated. One may say that Daarma is never defcated: J'es, as an abstract principle it is never defeated and the world does not want that it should ever be defeated; but as embodied, it is defcated whenever its embodiment is not strong and healthy, it is therefore necessary that the physia! embodiment should be strong and healthy : and Dharma should be such as to be capable of taking oa a strong embodiment. Dharma should not expect to live on carti, if its embaliment annot be strong and healthy. The speaker speaks as a pbilosopher and not as a practical politician: but he speaks as a philosopher who is aware of the significance of philosophy for life and of thought for action. The problems that Indian culture has to face non are many and ve find them complicated when we try to work out their solution. (1) The first set of problems are those given rise to by the peculiar universality of the Hindu culture We have observed many times that it is rational and psychological and not social and physical In cementing several groups, it is the common universal element that becomes the principle of unity, and this principle does not possess, socially and physically, en sugli con crcle css in Hinduisn. That is why our social unity has not been langible and ellective, that is, it has not been dynamic. It is not questioned whether rational and psychological upi. versality is not good and great in itself. It hatalmdy been said that true universality is rational and poschological. To uciversalire is to generalize apd rationalize. But the question is about its usefulness to us in the particular scial and political circum. stances in which we are livits A purely spiritul universal succeeds oply in producing a spiritual unity, when anpied AIS pelaciple of unification And the social woity it protuari may be locse, icdifcrrat aral inlargible For instacar, Buddhism spread over algos: the whole of Asia, and we may my that it usifel miay bands spiritgally for a long time. But it did not attempt to froluce a political unity; and it did no! succeed in ·85 dia of social istegration. We want that it should be besliby uz stopy i agd för that porpose we went it to be rational and scientific. We do not want desocialization of the individual. bez the moorings of an individual, however undesirable they mir b, are cut off from a particular society, we have to supply big cocrings to some otber society. For inan is essentially syial. (2) As a consequence of the liberation of the spiritual from social and political entanglements, we have become Prorexbially la etzat. But our tolerance itse) has set new problemas for us. We speak about the greatness of tolesance, but forget about the cases that produced it and the problems raised by those Muses. We are very sentimental about the principle of tolerance and have become therefore psychologically bligd to its problems. Tolerance is undoubtedly noble; but it bus diflerias importatice ia a Serent circumstances. Il for instance two tolerant cultures or religious come into contact, the result would be peaceful and mitt would be benefited by the other. But if one of tben is tolerant and be orker intolerant, what would be the result? Paul Dhalke asserts that is the peculias natust of the Semitic religions to be tolerant, though he does not give reasons for their torolcrane. Ishte has beep all alons intoleragt, be the erphination cultural or economic backwardoess; and intolerzace Ser in to be part al is dogma and creed, if we understand it ja the light of the happenings immediately before the partitiga. Tlalevlersup of the communal riots is attributed to educated Marlem, and sincere tronılıs Aluslims with advanced and ***Tenise vers were asculted dy lanatial members of their Os community. Savestigations into the muses of the riots usloa that they see yot due to economic reasons. These facts should wat be aultralued tegues both the Muslims and other cum audities shoall co-operate with each other is sokids ite prublems alter eglerstaxiing the cus: arisht 1. fam fuc* <31 yaxted by Wido, 300 for preaching iz volt legale ler escoengas Stallio 15TreSSITE ** USIELD Le Breast Kft decade, ·84 ization was the most efectively done by islın, because it not caly removed colour an.] 13cc dislipctions within it community, but also fairly successfully identified its temporal and spiriturl lacasship, neither of which was achieved by Christianity,wint so far as possible liquidated all dissident elements. This standardimlion, which is the chief characteristic of modern political totalitarianism, covered all aspects of cultural lile in Islamic society. Buddhism affords the opposite example. It nerer deliberately attenipled such standardization. Islam and Buddhism thus belong to the opposite pules of this cultural process Should we then asteppt such standardination on religious principles? First, it is too late to make the attempt. Seconlly, we can go only forward, but not backward. We annot 60 back to the l'edic times and change the Vedic conoptiont Thesa were formed more than three thousand years ago, and it is impossible for us to fu back to those times and relive fristory in a different form, so that wo wo now have different typ of social traditions. In the third place, both our achievements and failures are due to those conceptions, which were certainly the best uader those conditions. And we have to retain our achievements, though forestall and prevent further failures The unifyirx principle of car spiritini culture was rationalan psycholo, ial: then why cot again follow a nilional and puycholo. kial principle for a closer integration of our scirly. Wrarr living in a scientific acc; and so our social standardization should be based upon scienti crocial princippet Tre citirect of India not brlors to almost all important religion of the morld. We should rot impuse the communal principle of some of them cn the rest. The principle should be derived from a sipy of the nature of man and raciety. It is the Astro rational and scientific spirit th:7 ir which India's Lecomtra a teruinc stale. Our first curorin tould Ilen luttir discovery of A Fx1 ani scientif c princip fut xial integration. Our next codorin shoul) tless he t'u th- principle krise from this patru Cf der cialist the rilinliviliat; ler it *cum eo ftalar ·ဦး” Tiptoleraat'. Without establishing to some degree the priaciple of tolerance, of equality of rights, in every culture, the 'intolerant' caltase %!! always be endangering a detaocratic world organiza. tion latolerance against intolerant cultures is therefore a prerecisite to any organization of peranadest peacel". Ect now in the 2. De cf what are we to be intolerant? To be ictolerant in the name of tolerance is an amorphous ideal, which history has shown to be igellectual. Even if the intolerapte of a particular group is once checked, there is nothing to Preveat it from being inrolerast again if an opportunity is found. So the principle that is to be imposed on the intolerant group for acceptance should be ope derived from the reason behind the tolerance to be preached. It should not be an irrational dogma, brata rational principle obtaided Itom a scientific study of mag and society and not from communal codes and theological speculations It would therefore be secular The intolerant STOUP spould adopt it in the interests of true and positive Tolerance. The intolerance of the intolerant cannot be shown in the care of this or that community, but in the came of man 4:33 Society. Such practice would be truly humanistic. For izstance, aby law that is to be passed should not aim at the selorm of this or 123 ore munity but should be imposed on all commodities if tbe mouse behind the enactment is the icterest of mia and society. The wording itself bas to be carefully chorea with this aim. (3) The Dext problem would be: How are me to obtain the Psychologial and social motive power for the above ideal? The state may base police sad military for enforcing this ideal. let only when that forct represects the will of the people can 1 *ak lectively. This is a problem for the educational policy of the state Aby ides!, in order to be effective, should briose fazt of the value of the people. Virtue, said Aristotle, 11 babit. Tte electiveness olas ideal is proportions to the 1. Restes Cullut al Con636, p. %.

·86 Hinduism admitted several social groups into its fold, allowed them to have their own ways of socirl lilc, reinterpretios them in terms of rational and spiritual ideas It woull glidly have done the sime to the Islamic group also, and would not have even forced it to accept the sacerdotal superiority of the Brahmin ciste, as it did to some groups like the Buddhist and the Jaina, who did not accept the authority of the Vedas. It does not sound reasonable to say that, liad tho Suslims agreed to live like the Buddhists and the Jainas as part of the Indian society, thes would have been given an inferior social status No Buddhist or Jaini accepts a social sintus inferior to that of the Hindu, just because he does not recognize aste distinctions; nor is the Christian now doing so. Each group thinks that it is superior to the others and might be allowed to do so, so long as that altitude does not lead to physical conflicts, though when it deve lopes beyond certain Waits, it would affect social integration However, Islam refused to be a group within the Indian society. Islar would admit the llindus, as it wmits other non.Islarsic groups, provided they give up overy basic principle of their culture; bur Hindussm would admit Islam mio is fold, even though it does not give up any element of its culture except its Creed of destroying non Islamic cultures, Naturally the conflict was disadvantageous to the ffindu society and advanla cous to the Islamic This result was due to the Hindu principle of tolerance, which is not active tolerance linduism had nothing to gain for its society by dcleating Islan. That is, Ilinds tolerance is not an active principle and is without a definite cerute Whereas Islamic intolerance is an active principle and its neattise part of the destruction of other cultures is meant for the positive part of spreading arul sitengthening its own culture. Speaking of the fascist cultures, hurt Irwin writes democratic world order does not suite or even favour cultural unsformity all over the world, Thir prallel for d-mxratic freedom for the icdividual is cultural pluralista for froups any slensktalic society has to sound Asyir: the 2193* o! individual freedon by the farester os politically sealisml.s ·fietskrat'. tl'ithout establishing to some degree the principle of tolerance, of equality of rights, in every cultore, the 'intolerant' callure will 31*ays be endingering a democratic world organizitigs. latolerance saiast intolerant cultures is tterefore a pre. requisite to any orgtrization of permanent peace. But cow in the states what are re to be intolerant? To be intolertat in the same of tolerance is an amorphous ideal, which history has shown to be iceflectual. Even if the intolerasce of a particular group is once checked, there is nothing to Preveat it from being in olerant again it an opportunity is found. So the prisciple that is to be imposed on the intolerant group for acceptance should be ose derived from the reason behind the tolerance to be preached. It should not be an irrational dogma, brata rational principle obtained from a scientific study of maa and society and not from communal codes and theological speculations I would therefore be secular The intolerant ETOSD yould adopt it is the interests of true and positive tolerance. The molecance of the latoleract cannot be shown in the name of this or that community, but in the rame of man o society. Such practice would be truly humanistic. For sastance. Any Liw that is to be passed should not aim at the reloron of this er staat in mumty but should be imposed on all communities the motive schied the enactment is the interess of als and society. The wording itsell has to be carefully chosea with this tim. (3) The best problem would be: Hots are the to obtain the royeboiogical and social motive power for the above ideal? The sulle way bare police and military for edforace this ideal. *ly when that force represents the will of the people can it work eestitels. This is a problem for the educational by of ihe 13t dot ideal, ia order to be eilectise, should become part of the batute of the people. Virtue, said Aristotle, tutabat. The electiesess of an ideal is proportional to the }, Frrate Cultural CC#77.15, BH, ·86 Hinduism admitted several social groups into its fold, allowed them to have their own ways of social life, reinterpreting them in terms of rational and spiritual ideas It woull sluts have done the same to the Islamic group also, and would not have even forced it to accept the sacerdotal superiority of the Brahmia aste, as it did to some groups like the Buddhist and the Jaina, who did not accept the authority the Vedas. It does not sound reasonable to say that, had the Muslims agreed to live like the Buddhists and the Jainas as part of the Indian society, they would have been given an inferior social status No Buddhist or Jaiti accepts & social status inferior to that of the Ilindu, just bemuse he does not recognize waste distinctions; por is the Christian now doing so. Ench group thinks that it is superior to the others and might be allowed to do so, so long as that athtude does not had to physical conflicts, though when it dere. Bapes beyond certain lumits, st vould alloct social integration However, Islam refused to be a group within the Indian society. Islam would admit the I{indus, as it nemits other non-Islamic groups, provided they give up every basic principle of their culture; but llinduism would admit Islam into its fold, even though it does not give up any element of its culturc crccpt inn creed of destroying non-Islamic cultures. Naturally the conilict **s disadvantageous to the Iliadla society and advantxeous fu the Islamic This result was due to the Hindu principle of tolerance, which is not active folence. llinituism had nothirs to gain for its society by defeating Islam. That is, Ilinda tolerance is not an active principle and it without a definite creed, whereas lalamic intolerance is an active principle and its negalite part of die destruction of other cultures is meant for the positive part of spreiding and strengthening its onn culture, Spraking of the Fasast cutuses, Kurt Lewin writes democratic world order does cot requise or even favour cultural uniformity all over the world. The mallel for tryistie freelam for the individual ts cultural pluralism for ftuurs any lemmtanic society bias 10 salauztil apainst the minime of individual freedom by the gangster or politically spahire-11:

·si tietoleraat'. Without establishing to some degree the principle of tolerance, of equality of rights, in every culture, the 'intolerant' cultcre will always be endingering a democratic World organiza. tion latolerance against intolerant cultures is therefore a pre. requisite to any organization of permanent peace?". Bet now in the name cf what are me to be intolerant? To be intolerant in the part of tolerance is an amorphous ideal, which history has shown to be iceflectual. Even if the intoler- 200t of a particular group is once checked, there is nothing to Prevent it from being in oleract again if an opportunity is found. So the principle that is to be imposed on the intolerant group for acorptace should be one derived from the reason behind the toleracce to be preached. It should not be an irrational dogma, 6:* rational priacipic obtained from a scientific study of two n] society and pot from communal codes and theological speculations It would therefore be secular The intolerant froup should adope it in the interests of true and positive tolerance. The intolerance of the intolerant caonot be shown in the name of this or that community, but in the name of man and society. Such practice would be truly humanistic. For to.stance, ky law that is to be passed should not aim at the telorm of this of that community but should be imposed on all Comunities if the motive behind the chaciment is the interest of man zod samels. The wording itself has to be carefully choses with this 31m. (3) The best problem would be: How are we to obtain the fychological and social motive power for the above ideal ? The sale mar tare police and military for enforcing this ideala Het caly *lea that force represents the will of the people ca *** testirely. This is a problets for the educational policy of the atte Any ideas, in arder to be fective, houa bres sort of sbe palgte of the people. Virtue, said Aristotle, #mtb, The Rectiveness of as ideal is proportion to the 1. Resetnia Cultural Confila, ·SS degree to which it has become inmto to 2020. The action of both the individual and society is hampered, if they are to frame for themselves A problem at each situation and discuter a solution which trould accord with that ideal. Taking reluction ja (no wider sense of jwparting knowledge and developing character in arder to make the individual a uselul member of Society, the ideal should be inculated right from the childhood of the citizen. Kurt Lewin again irrites: "A pattern like democracy is not limited to political problems but is isterwoven with every aspect of the culture. How the mother handles her child of one, two, or three years of age; low business is conducted; whal group as status. how status differences are reacted tomall these habitudes air mental elements of the cultural pattern Every major change, therefore, kas to be carried through against such a highly interwoven background It annot be limited to a change in officially recognized values ; it has to be a change in actual life.".0 11118 is not a few but a very important truth. l! We have a secular, rational anul scientisic ideal in politics, it has got to be supported by our socal structure, our social reactions, and the relations of indivi duals to each other. If it is really what suits our society..* have observed that it does, it should be enforced and work! out in all its details If the member of a theocratic state is and is prepared to give up hus life for the theocratic ideal, the member of a secular state should the equally finally for it sccular del, whether he tracrs luss desent to a sulim, Ilinlu or Christian parentak. Ilts character should be built up and hars psychological urges should be catalized accordingly. Ose important question se huse to put to curselves aor 11; Dors this rew ideal accord with our deeper cultural charactesis. tics? Lekin writex : The fact stal supericial althouch valent cullusal salmenta might charge quickly is a multus does not, however, disprove those historians who calm that gothice can be changed so lantle as the deaths cultural characteris. tics of a prop!s. It is these deeres cultural trains that we have ·89 ta wasider whes thinking of the cultural aspects of pera neat Denze. In Germany, in spite of the pacifist sentiment after the First World Wlx and long before Hitler, every child was again playing war with toy soldiers. And soon in line with the longstanding tradition, militarists were again winning out. On the cher hand, Mussolisi has tried for more than a decade to build up ia the Italians those soldierly characteristics which were obviously lacking in the First World War. in spite of a very thorough attempt which reached every age level down to early childhood te svertis to have failed to alter these cultural characteristics". There was too great disparity between the dceplying traits of the Italian national character and the ideals placed before the Italians by Mussolipi. The result was disaster. We have to ask ourselves therefore the question whether we ad work out the secular ideal in all spheres of life ard achieve the required social solidarity. ll the ideal is rational and scientific, knused upon a Arelal study of human nature, we should be successful in workios it out. The secular ideal oot only cuts Across the different communal Adrologies, but also suits the Hadu character. It is not antireligious, though secular: and so it is not sati-spiritual. We have observed that the basis of Hiodu culture is indeterminate, pluc ad spiritual Because it is plastic, it ma lake any form yet be llitdu. There are now lew Christian theocratic lates, and Christins are accustomed to secular political life. Arat brause ol the steal advance of science, technology, and Iblastra alion in Christess countries, its people are sccustomed 10 tak la terms of reason 3 Sence, except perhaps on a few Sebas. So the per ideal will suit then also. But will it be A-reptible to the Moslitas as well, who gon form an important ut of the India sciei? Everythinsa depends on how tbe Missct to this ldcal aid oa bow willing they are to work 11 gita We have bera tsiting for lors of religious education: ter in practice torped out to be commandl mlucation and inlinitis is cina sections Then we thought of moral ·6S degree to which it has become innate to 2.38. The action of both the indiridual and society is kumfered, il they are to frame for themselves a problem at each situation and discover x solution which would accord with thar ideal. Taking fuction in the wider scare of rmpacting knowledge and excloping character in order to make the individual a useful member of society, the ideal should be inculcled right from the childhood of the citizen, Kurt Lewin again writes: "Aptiemn like democracy is not limited to political problems but is faterwoven with every aspect of the culture. flow tbo mother handles her child of one, two, or three years of age; low business is conducted; what group has status, how status differeners arr reacted to these babes are essential elements of the cultural pattern Every major change, therefore, has to be crned through perinst such a kroghly interwoven bachground It wonot be limiied to a change is officially recognized values: it has to be a change in actual life."* 3 fais is not a pen but a very important fruth. If we have a secular, rational and scientitic ideal in politics, a las sul to be supported by ous social structura, our social reactions, and the relations of indivi duals to each other. llit i really what suits our society, have observed that it does it should be enforced and worked aut in all its details If the member of a theocratic state (ges and is prepared to fise up 114 life for the throcralic ideal, the member of a secular state should tight equally fanatically for the Sccular icmal, whether he trades his descept to a Muslim, Ilindu or Christian pareglage. ?lis character should bere built up and his psychological urges slould be amazed accordingly. Oce important question we have to put to Curmires por $$: Does this bei ideal accord with our deepes cultural characters tics? Lewin writer;" The fact ! Lupescial although violeat cultural Scolmecis might charge quickly in nation does not, however, dispose those historiast who dalm t.at toshics can be charged so little as the dreses cultural characterís. ticola prople. It is the deepene cultural traits that we lave ·91 It is a great experimect that Indir is making. We are by mire too idealistic and are often even ashamed of facing relia ties, so much so that sometimes we not only wish that they had pot existed but also act as if they did not. There is perhaps some truth in the remark that the Indians have no historical Worse. It is not enough to say that we produced great professors of tistory. Our actigas taust show that we take history to be Yrke. Take for instance the number of moral, socal and political programmes we have annovaced and with relerenor to which we shall be judged. None would say that those programmes are *FOCS: they are poble and useful. But Pakistan has showa 3 more realistic and historical sease. She knows her weakness and Ler sirength and uses Do tone of unnecessary moral edification. It is ofteo sale to be realistic in our programes The differen. ct between ideals and practice should not be allowed to look hxo opposirion and contrast Our idealism should not blind us to realities and the problems they raise for tastance, Pakistan would say that her reople chose the traditional Islamic deal. She shows no selt reformist zeal and dos rot claim to impose anything act on her peoople. She is therefore sale in the eyes of the world. But the strength of In hes in the sucess with which she imposes her new ideal on terall, that is, on how far she succeeds in making her people, Irrespective of caste, aced id rice, accept the secular ideal, and faht for it if cecessary. She should be able in obtais recogni- 1:03 for the strength of her dail, both intercally and externally. Hier luture depends on the degree of her success in achieving this ral. A bet success depends upon the amount of co.aperation s'reverses from the Muslimas of India, who should be prepared 12 the same aspects of their culture as conflict with the sciar politicaluland with the ideals at Doa Muslim commu. Dirs. That i, s citosm by the dluslims is as great Deed as molt entiasa by other communities. Re3308 should be their conimoa patism, but tot irrationality, loweser authoritative. Acast frogram that shows lack of appreciatioa of the hinciaal as which is sct so much spopsured by the Congress as ·eduction: but the teachers of morality had themselves to be examples of moral perfection. lad further, what moral cale are we to teach? Is it to be with the Islamic communi backgrour.. with the Christian communal background or with the Hindu communal background, anch with its hatred of others and contempt for them? It would have been better had me thought of pro. ducing true civic sense is the child and severely punishing any teaching of communal hatred. This des secular character-building and civic sens shoul? therefore be an ideal in all educational institutions. But will the Muslims say that the cnlorcement of that deal amounts 10 endingering their religion? Ind if they say so, whar is the state to do? When Nr. Prakaszin, as the premies, Annountri in Madras that cvery indivdual was to get tivo yards of ratioard cloths, the Justerns objected saying that it is apiinst thrir rchgion, according to which every Sushim woman was 1o wrır seven yards of cloth. llere & case in which religion was made to conflict with a responsibility. It man gud that a concrssion was made to the Muslim communsty. Surpunimin some Muslim throcratic state feels cuncerned about the seculis ation of Muslim education, what would the stale do' The former state may say that much smcularisation calissal genocide in such circumstances, it is the co opiration of the Muslims of India that can solve the problem. Thiry whould be prepared to sel nside their theocranic leanings. Il otherwin the siat makes concessions $ secularization would become 1:!!. kearted ankl werk; and its unity would be affectal There woul3 be disparity bunlarcs ils ideals 22praction li practice Jors not support in dat in one sphere, 1t *}} bed to draw sa Support 69 dic other splirrer at kell The trtalt would be that the *cial sinucife of this country dori cst conform to its poisto calid-al Art our cly annot enact as a unit to impacts from outside. The sert ol istua defects on how reintely ani thoroughly thr scular arch is world to!otte cita-tra! Every 07 of 113 citizens, ·91 It is a greit erperindent that India is making. We are by Mure too idealistic and are often erea ashamed of facing reali. tres, 50 much so that sometimes we not odly wish that they had not existed but also act as if they did not. There is perhaps sorte ruth in the femark that tbe Indians hare po historical frase. It is pot enough to say that we produced great professors of history. Our actions must show that we take history to be true Take for instance the number of moral, social and political programmes we have abounced and with refereace to which are shall be judged. None would say that those programmes are #TOLG. they are doble and useful. But Pakistan has shown a more realistic and historical sense. She knows her weakness and her strength and uses no tope of unnecessary moral edification. It is often safe to be realistic in programmes The differect between idrals and practice should not be allowed to look Iike opposition and coatrast Our idealism should not blind us to realities and the problems they raise For las ladce, Pakistaa would say that her people chose the tradul Islamic deal. She show's no sell.ceformist zeal and doen tot cum to impose anything acw on her peoaple. She is therelore sale in the eyes of the world. But the strength of Robin her in the sucess with which she imposes her new ideal on terself, that is, on how far she succeeds ia tazking her people, irrespective of caste, crted and race, accept the secular ideal, and Igbo for it tl tecesagry. She should do able to obtain fecogai. 1100 for the strength of her idal, both internally and externally, Fler tuture de prodit on the degree of her success in achieving this Goal. And her sucers depends upon the amount of cooperation tha sezires from the Muslims of ladia, who should be prepared 19 ember sac aspects of their culture as conflict with the mesur paltai nest and with the ideals of non-fuslim cocamu. ta Tast 15, seli arinciso by the Slaslims is as great a need ** w'l citas by other communities. Reason should be their tomos paslerm, but got itationality, however authoritative, Ars:let proptsiame that shows lack of appreciatioa of the Histerial ist weich is act so much spotosci by the Congress as ·90 education: bot the teachers of morality had themselves to be cuamples of moral perlection. Inil further, what moral calcare wc to teach? Is it to be with the Islamic communal background. with the Christian communal background or with the Hliada communi background, auch with its hatred of others and coatempi for them? It would farve been better had we thought of roo. ducing true civic senso ia the child and scterels paaiskins any teaching of communal hatred. This new secular character building and civic sens shos!! therefore be an ideal in all educational institution. But will the Sluslims say that the enforcement of that deal arvounts to endingering their scligion? Ind if they say s3, what is the state 10 Ho? Wheo Nr. I'rakasim, as the psemler, announced in Madras that every individual 25 to 6e! nye part of ration! cloth. the Muslims objected tuving that it was against their religion, according to which evesy Muslim woman wit lo rir Seven yards of cloth. Ilere is a on which religion as made to conflict with Civic responsibility. It was $14 that a coacrssion w34 mile to the Pu&is comunity. Support some Muslim cheocratic state lects unterird about the scalırız ation of Muslim educalion, what would the state ww? The former stale my $18 thnt such focularization in ciliran Genocida In such csscumstance, R19 th corsaliwn of there Muslims of Irxlia that can solve the problem. They should tm prepared to taxide their theocratic learnings. Il otherwin the stale makes concmasione it fculisszation would becom. l:all. hearted and weak; arusts unity would be alecie be disparity betwera 113 istral and practor 3 pact10 dorint support its tel 3 in one sphere, it will begin to withdraw #1 support in the other sports at vel the isl sitout of this country dors pot conform 17 iin not lidmalam ! swirly cannot react at a uns to impett kruin 0:34. The stooft! ol Tod dese' tow ortively *rx! thoro-lily tlir secular aric ideal is worked into the car3-1+1 u! ***yor ol its estreret, ·93 furnity or homogencity in the same group is not only desirable but also possible. We shall then have enough social unity to oppose aor attempt at disintegration fron outside, which yet *sull oot lose its spiritual ideotity because of the plastic spiritual (5) The impasition ol cultural unilormity is not the same As the destruction of the differing cultures that together constilute what is bow Indian culture. The ancient Indian method of Sorial unification was to permit the social usits that constituted the Hindu society to develop each in its own way and to have cach its own way of life: the caly uniformity given to them was he spiritual interpretation of their practices. The method berathes of tolerance and the spirit of 'live and let live'. But the thethol should have aimed at not merely permitting each group to live in its ond may but also at enabling cach group to develop in the best way so far kaona. The achievemest of the Lattes aim was not possible in the conditions obtaining then. But there was Do Provision to make that attempt even when the roadtions changed. Had the attempt been made, it would have led inru izably to final homogeneity and social solidarity. Even Dow we my that all cultures should be enabled to realize all the Hustest values so fur koowa to nn. Supposing this aim is fraltar, soice wgnil.coot homogeneity would be inevitable in the word The ideal of cultural diversity and plurality should not the trade to imply that inferior aped backward cultures should continue these tradiciona! Ble. Othernise, we shall then have a air ystem on a world * Insis If social movement from caste csit is essental and it aste system is defective for not geres sich more:nent, then a similar criticism would apply levis missction of moremea! from culture to cultuse. Ard masepeat in eithet esse is ont meaningless movement, just going la sol coming tack from another aste or culture for the sale al fofiti. Bil marching towark an aim that is recognized by al! highers. This waxtims sultoni progress of the world.

·92 by some communal ornniations is that of uniting all Bolthis countries with India 15 against the Pan-Islamic movement of Pakistan. Pan Islarism is a historical fact; it apparel and worked in the form of Jihad and of the Caliphate. It is logically implied in the throcratic ideal; it is only person and onioar! jalousirs that prevented its effective realization. liut nothing corresponding to 11 is historially truc in Ilirxzism and Halle Ilinduism reser identitied secular and religious kalerarig: and Buddhism never cared to have a particular wocial structurr evt. Therefore such a unification of lada kad the Bullhist countries, cven if it happens, will not lappen for religious misons. For both these cultures, both in Indir an outside esort In Tilet, Geligious uorty' *as differeat front socul or political unity: A As genuioc creative spirit is needed in social ospaintion to support our seculas polnim sdcat which will not, lowrser, custari freedom for spirtual development The indeterminatearst of the spiritul baris of the llunin culture relected itself in the indleltinatrist of its xial attitudes that is, in its not imposing a particular act of smal furns upon all group That is, tot spussturillo 15 a ulter of snifference as to what social forms a particular garip alepih I was this indiference, which was once it firatness, thuat prosesi Latrs to be the weakres of the luxlu culture. But this *eak. $$$ an hour turned into 4$ strength and prestesvet-mm Inxh the fullest use of the spiritual and forener 10 mxin forms try imposing a uniform determate social structure corsletve is #scial solidarity. If our spirituality was indiferent to a pori. ty of sets of sxial formuest will be equally irriterent ta ifrir urity, Cultural uauty, uniformity cr homsoferrily 18 or olim pintisk con lition to 0131 zirity and stability. Willa 1!. am scely cultural urit 39 prefrrable to cultural 198'its, To speak of culiard salty, satelt, richt-s1, colourfelsrite, in the same wish FTOUP *ou!! ky ta igoals that prioreaza neu!! roku wiesz bag raccur l'arcus teadra ics and is $171-11 An truukit, malu ·95 {) We have obsessed that cultural usity is agt decessarily palilial unity. And ia ladis cultural unity has not resulted in tłectise social solidarity' cren. Though cultural vnily is not political waits, it should support the latter. If it contains any factors opposed to poli-ical ucify, they may have to be translor, med into concordigt elements, (3) Our culture is spiritual and so mward. The spiritual has bees isolated from the social and so turned individualistit. It bas cirea depth to our life, but produced a sense of iosuhrity, self. containedcess. Though our spirituality spread outside Jodia, Duticularly through the efforts of Buddhist, our methods of Spirisvilizing different aspects of he did not spread. We gave Our spiritul discoveries to orbers, and in the spiritual realm we and much to give and little to take. We did not care to five our social forms to others. And as others did not care to Pale them and we did not care to give them, we expericaced no conflit: we had hulle opponudiry therefore to reflect on them Brd costs of realize where we were defective. The idea that there was nothing spiritually pek to receive from other cultures work) en 13 to think that there was nothing socially 200 politically new in them which we could incorporate with Santac We should lase produced liuen Tsangs and Fahicas for ruiving other social sai palitical forms. If this beglect was a make several centures 160, 16 rould be a gover mistake t7w the press context. We haic not to question ourselves seriously why we must to others and did not care much to ceteise from them a cultural commerce. (9) li our culture should now aim, along with other objects, at siegtied 33053) SCHOD, AS GO kaal action is possible without nastopola igd13133) ac, 355chological charge has to bu pon the forsvarlty of t'e individual The question **$35 bether the 11739 dis paracted actica de soactica, to better the reswally of the inde idant is set with te de article for acuch Our prosesbial inactivity nay tot teine. Ut it may be due to frographia! La polical condi.

·94 (6) The ideal of all our fine arts, music, literature, painting. dancing cic., has been spiritual unity, and the spiritual it the $313.c in cvery individual The ideal should now be saci.! unity as well. There is much truth in what Whiteheni saya namely, that religion is what one does in his loneliness, Tlust is, spiritual life is essentially individualistic. Put social unity is of a different type. The realization of social unity is not individualistic unlike the realization of spiritual unity. The deals of our line arts, sustineice, Iringsru floreland Israena icmp3.on), have been pychologically indrarealistis, and to unties they aim at arc spintual. We have now to place before them to arts the love of sucul unity also. Exzxrts shoull of course decide how this is to be done. The Muslim culture hus no problems in this connexion : bearuse tine Arts are a princ for it and are condemced by Islam But in the Ilinita culture, they have been developed into techniqure of spiritual tehention, which is essentially individualistic (fut now aesthetic ideals should be formulated for the sake of c sralization of social unities. Social unity is meant for interns peace and catorral action. whereis spiritual units is meant for intesna nalization, szkisfia: tion 23 confenfoirne, and consequent intarilor 7. Acollier consequence 15 catronal inrctivity, wuchs & tecult of kitchon. Nanss stsird when the end nachlered, and there will knu action issuing from him for that eod. Yow nanti, 118.49 ksena are the highest rinotive sdral, brcauhi spiritually thes Hxquify our pro and mie i transpirent for Irrevers ultimate reality, But the most the ego is lquiled in less ll.mn possibility for action. But at the sxial imsel ve argire fully for interrasmi action. It ir arts are to let go ineretain! *0"} action. Their ideals are to be discuserID CUT LIST flat ir ulcis such action. Just as the traditional trclinques me k nisunti, stingai ant larun, technignu.ould malerier the ideal cl mal action, Art bot!) .. jdrale m.1h terdictitat s'0':! bom local cukraniti. #PJAIT : + folu antifcially inmer14 impre!

·ÝŠ He have observed that cultural unity is not necessarily political usily. And in ledía cultural unity has not resulted in estive social solidarity even Though cultural unity is not postia! unity, it should support the latter. ll it contains any factors opposed to pali ical unity, they may have to be trasfor muy into concordant elements. (s) Our culture is spirituzi acd so inward. The spiritual has been isolated from the social and 50 turned individualstic it kas given depth to our life, but produced a sense of insularity, selfcostinedress. Thougla our spirituality spread outside India, puticularly through the efforts of Buddhisio, our methods of spiritualizing different aspects of life did not spread. We gare Our spiritual descaveries to others; and in the spiritual realm we had toch to give and little to take. We did not are to five our social forms to others. And as others did not care to ule them and we did not care to give them, we experienced ro Cosilact: We had little opportunity therefore to reflect on them Ard could not realite there we were defective. The idea that there was nothing spirituilly Dew to receive from other cultures worfly led us to think that there was nothing socially and poftcally new in them which we could incorporate with 1!ızalage We should have produced liker Tasgs and Fabiens ke Butying other social and political forms. If this peflect was a cistake severs! Infurirs ago, would be a graver mistake *7** the present com est. We have now to question ourselves kriously why we got to others and did not care much so toeive from them in cultural commerce. 19) If our culture should sons ains, along with other objects, : il-grated his action, as to social action is possible without moitasgardi jadindust sction, a psycho ogical charge kas to be potued is the personalty of the sodividual The question Hettet lie thuripodzita preached action of imction, b. whether te persports of the indusidual is set with the Grinbestede for action Our prouerbizl iractivity may cot ht. Ur is may be due to beographical had pohtical condi.

·(6) The ideal of all our fine arts, music, literature, paipting, dancing etc., bas been spiritual unity, and the spiritual is the Since in erery individual The ideal should not be social unity as well. There is much truth in what Whitehead says, namely, that religion is what one does in his loaeliness. That is, spiritual life is essentially individualistic. But social unity is of a different type. The realiation of social unity is not individualistic unlike the realization of spiritual unity. The ideals of our fine arts, santi (perce), sringara (love) and karuna Icompassion), have been psychologically individualistic and tie unities they aim at are spintual. We have now to place belore these fins arts the ideals of social unity alsa. Experts should of course decide how this is to be done. The Justice culture has do problems in this connexion; because fine arts are a pastima for it and are condemned by Islam. But in the Ilindu culture, they have been developed into techniques of spiritual realiation, which is essentially individualistic. But nor aesthetic ideals should be formulared for the sake of the realization of social uaities, Social unity is meant for internal peace and external action. whereas spiritual unity is meant for internal realization, satisfaction and contentment, and consequent inwardness. Another consequence is external inactivity, which is a result of satisfaction, Man is satisfied when the end is achieved ; and there will be no action issuing from him for that end. Now sani, singura and karunu are the highest cmotive ideals, because spiritually they liquify our ego and make it innspureol for receiving the ultimate reality. But the more the cgo is liquified the less the possibility for action. But at the social level se acsire possibility for initgrated action. It ne arts are to lead to integrated social action, their ideals are to be discovered in our urges that result in such action. Just as the traditional techniques make us rnjoy santi, sritgard and lsrund, 20* techniques should make t* etjoy the ideals ci socal action. And both the ideals and tirer techniques shoull be loumled on human nature, scd are not to be Arificially formulated and imposed.

·95 (i) Wie sve observed that cultural uaity is not necessarily political upity. And in India culteral unity bas pot resulted in pective social solidarity even Though cultural unity is not partial unity, it should support the latter. If it contains any Actors opposed to pali ical unity, they say have to be translor. od isto concordant elemegts. (3) Our culture is spiritual and 50 insard. The spiritual has been isolated from the social and so turned individualistic. lt Las given depth to our life, but produced a sense of insularity, selfcombinedcess. Though our spirituality spread outside India, purriculrly through the efforts of Buddhisın, our nethods of spiritalizing different aspects of life did not spread. We gave Our spirital discoveries to others; and in the spiritual realm we had much to give and little to take We did not care to give our social farms to others. And as others did not care to ule them and we did not care to give them, we experienced no caz:lict : ne had little opportunity therefore to reflect on them Ar could not realize where we were defective. The idea that there *31 nothing spiritually new to receive from other cultures Wongly bead us to think that there was nothias socially and litically new in them which we could incorporate with ratlace. We should have produced liuen I sangs and Fahiens Loying other social and political forms. If this beglect was a Like sestral centuries ago, it would be a graver poistake w in the present context. We have now to question ourselves wiosły shy » 6c to others and did not care much co tire from them in cultural commerce 191 ll our culture should nok aim, along with other objects, 21afegraled sxual actiea, 24 Go Social action is possible without cettes podie individual activa, a psycho:ogical change bas to De prusis the personality of the individual The question "* hetkeribe t'hagarad213 preached action of baction. Wat zibes the personality of the tada idual is set with the 4.5kastische lor action Our proserbual isactivity may not boxy list. Or it mig be due to geographical and political condi.

·96 tions, which are of course remediable. If we wish that the individual should be active and ready for action naturally and Spontaneously, we hare to invest methods by which checks od ichibitions on be removed and counteracted. It is true that though the individual is ready for action, society as a wait ( not be ready. But if the individual is not ready for action, Society annot be ready for it. So a transformation of the individual's personality and its attitude to life is also an inpor. tant need (10) There is then a problem for the Muslim citizens also of India They have now become part of the Indian society, and its wellare and prosperity is as much these concern as it is the concern of the other comauna) groups in it. They have 10 orient chemiselves not only to the don conditions in India but also to the rapid changes the world is going through. If India is to be strong, they have to forget and give up the theocratic ideal implicit in Islam, just as the Afus}s:335 all over the world forgot about the Caliphate and save up the sdca They should be prepared to use the rationally interpreted experience of the world as a standard for self-analysis and evaluation and in its light give up what was of incidental value in their past Renson is commca to all men; and so it is reason that an and should bring thera together and unreason that separates them And if men 1955 to come together, they should have the courage to accept what Teason dictates The world has now more important causes to fight for than communalism, The Indias Muslims then should Tecognise (n) that the identification of secular and spiritual leader ship is too latiquated and is neither possible sor desirable, (b) that no longer is it possible and advisible to think of a throcatic state for themselves, fed that the list of the primary human Tights, the right to liſc, is directly opposed to extermination of other cultures and their followers eren in the name of religioa, and that humanity should gire a highet place to the right to life than the right to a place in heaven, id) that, when other communities are asked and expected to alter their traittional ways of life is riex of the charged pattern of life we have to live, the ·97 Plastics also have to do the same, so that all sould ultimately have the site pretera and tradition which would be rational and scieatifis, (e) test still to think of crusades and jihads is to set the clock of human progress back; and (i) that it is their duty to contribute to the evolution of a rex solidly unihed ladian xxiety, which will no longer retain the defects of the past. (11) The plagging of society for istegrased social action taises a humanistic problem, which is of world-wide importance. We observed that wars between llindu and .Iuslim states in the But were, for the Muslims, wars between communities and, for the Hindu, wars caly between the ruling and wghting classes. The ju avıl population felt unconcerned; but for the Muslim, 11 was a cialitarizs war bet teen societies Thus the Muslim modely on the whole was 3 sort of military camp, always in retless to give right; be liado society on the whole was a avil society, gives to civil pursuits, having had to osganize a fighting group whenever threatened. Underszanding the situa. 110 10 a certain calent, Vizianagar made the experiment of a city that was almost a military camp. In the circumstances obtzia. is then, the experiment could not last long scd failed, because the Susiems sere always a tighting and moving group, living op 15c acons al the table established group, which was Miodu. With deeper insight into the situation, the Blararbas organized Deviseshling groups. The result was chaos and iasecurity throughout the country, so much 10 that people did not on water the invaders and pluslerers riere Hindu Marathay or Slastins. is the Amitra cously, the destructiop of temples, voformation of scals and Suivalle slone balls etc, are attributed italy 10 Matarba asmes for patient when they are toks that the Sarathas Kece listus. The questioa now wosk tr; will not pleased integration of Wudy, avea ca secake iber, leal lo lotalitarian wartare, acting the brrats destructiva of ciril populatica, which arciece trelitorallid Woology avoided? This again is a complicat. problems. If he way of come sale adapts toualisasiaa Jalthe priests of those temples ·OS methods of destructios against the society of another state that does not adopt them, then the latter wouid undoubtedly be at a disadvantage and will be the loser. In the last war, the allies tried to avoid destruction of civil population: but finally they were forced by circumstances to give up the attempt. This is a question not merely for a situation in which theocracy and secularism are involved. The logic of the idea of democracy, in which the seigning sovernment is supposed to represent the will of the people, when pushed alocs certain lines to the extreme, forces this problem on all countries of the world. Totalitariaa methods need not necessarily be Fascist or Vazi; they may be theocratic als). Where political tolahtarianism becomes reli. gious also, it becoines 2)) the more intensified and rigorous, and its methods may be more whole heartedly barbarous than those of Nazisin, which was los certain extent counter-acted by the separation of spiritual lenjership Gretler danger to the poor of the world is to be expected froin totalitarianism in which political and spiritual leadership are identified than from that in which they are separated And eliis danger will be particulurly Serious for countries thich are nui socially and religiously Fassist. Then either these societies have to adopt corresponding social integrations to defend themselves and counter communi Fascisin. or communally fascist societies have to be obliged to give up Fascist tendencies, though called by agullser une If those that suter from the disadvantage are not to be further weakened, then those that bave the advantage have to be transformed. Com muaalism, (heocracy and Fascism are isomorphic and are opposed to true humanism, which would recognise the rights and digits of the individual (12) We have observed that humanistic bis is the como: factor in all contemporary ideologies, communist, soculssi, 493 democratic, be they spiritual or materialstic. Al no philo sophy of life can be truly humanistic, if it igaorcs the economic nroessities of min. Even our ancient philosophers recogalerii economic alu: and suid that ariht or tealth is one of the for values of life, though the lowest of them But they cave listic ·place to it in their systematic prilosophies. Jay philosophy of Iisa philosophy of hans life, not a philosopby of she life of the Absaluls or Gal. Ecoad.pic values 25€ as important for mana sxcitiy as the other valsts, and lack of their ralization pievests din from realizisz 3 full life. Any social and political strvctust that i cores this delect, we have 1o say, is in need of com Whil, this is of international economic readjustment il #oralt be a mistake not to think of economic readjustment within the thrijn. How this Teadjustment is to be efected is a Gestion for priticul politics Bar the question has its cultural innertsce. the right to lile includes the right to the basic De Doss.1:es of life Emotional, ethical and spiritual realization, except in the case of the ascetic, is bound up with economic realization Seither cur ideology zor our social structure should the such as to either prevent the realization of all values of Iile or ignore the realization. The only would our culture be truly hop, (13) The previous discussion might lave made it abrious trat everything that is to be dono is to be done in the interests of an accurly. We are very proud of our great spiritualitadi kom in ionars; arz! Dus wars justed. But man is cot ' muality deed, Sundays are col to be set apart for rek 1,5127 we may treat the sky! as religious and moral 2gbyx; yet everyday aggot be a holiday for rest and con- 17110m2 ularly, philophy should aim at the clarific. td cl *5!! Det tar ut merely to the spiritual uplift din. 13 1 be ushitel ethicaly, emotionally and eco- The valori Dertaisis; lo crety sphere of life air !!valgos. Life cago: be taprosed is one aspect and ma! seit, (it node add icdivisible. day p'utaso. c! Ile went to inweapleir if it makes 05. sijed empha. 1.5 17 2: cor of the raling We ny that a man who pursues ***0. ** !vises is a mises asd a milerialist; 2 19 hrelli's gim thing but essional cajor meat is a 1.5. Jazalist; al mia av sole aim is rigos. canrel Cup'in "nur!", mmar that he is not ·96 methods of destruction against the society of another state that does pot adopt them, then the latter would undoubtedly ba at a disadvantage and will be the loser. In the last war, the allies tried to avoid destruction of civil population; but finally they were forced by circumstances to give up the attempt. This is a question not merely for a situation in which ileocracy and sccularism are involved. The logic of the idea of democracy, in which the reigning government is supposed to represent the will of the people, when pushed along certain lines to the extreint, forces this problem on al} countries of the world. Totulitarian methods nced not necessarily be Fascist or Nazi; they may be theocratic als). Where political totalitarianism becomes reli. gious also, it becomes all the more intensified and rigorous, and its methods may be more whole-leartedly barbarous than those of Nazism, which was to a certain extent counter-acted by the separation of spiritual le:1.dership Greiter danger to the peace of the world is to be expected froin totalitarianism in which political and spiritual leadership are identified than from that in which they are separated And this danger will be prrticularly serious for countries which are nui sucrally and religiously Fascist. Then either besc societies frase to adopt corresponding social integrations to defend themselves and counter communal Fasciai; or communally Fascist societies have to bo obliged to give up Fascist tendencies, though clied by another name 3 those that sulier from the distdvantage asc not to be further weakesed, then those that have the advantage have to be transformed. Com munalism, theocracy and Fascism are scomorphic aod are opposed to true humzoiam, which would recognise the rights and dignity of the individual. 1121 We have observed that humanistic biss is the common factor in all contemporary ideologies, communist, soculist, and democratic, be they spiritual or materialistic. And to philo. sophy of life can be truly humanístic, if it igpares the economis necessities of anan. Evca our ancient philosophers recognized economic values and said that artha ar wealth is one of the fuar values of life, though the lowest of them But they give litels ·99 place to it in their systematic philosophies. Any philosophy of life is s philosophy of humja life, not a philosophy of the life of the Absolute or God. Economic values are 25 important for mig and sciels as the other values, and lack of their realization preveats him from realizing a full life. Aby social and political structure that ignores this defect, we have to say, is in need of reform While thinking of interpational economic readjustment it would be a mistahe no: to think of ecosomic readjustment within the natio. How this readjustment is to be elected is a question for practical politics But the question has its cultural importance; the nght to life includes the right to the basic necessities of life Emotional, ethical acd spiritual realization, except in the ase of the ascetic, is bound up with economic realization. Neither our ideology por our social structure should be such as to either prevent the realization of all values of life or ignore their realization. The only would our culture be truis butaanistic. (1) The previous discussion might have made it obriaus tout every thics that is to be doos is to be done in the interests of kans and society. We are very proud of our great spiritual tradi. 1500 in phalosophy; and our pride is jus:ifed. But man is not 3} spreality. Icdeed, Sundays are cot to be set apart for religion, so that we mas treat the rest as religious and moral bolsays: yes everyday annot be a holiday for rest and contemplation Simlaris, philosophy should aim at the clarifia. 1193 cl concepts pertaining tot merely to the spiritual uplift o caa; ma 13 to be uplifted ethicaly, emotionally and eco. nomicalls also. The values pertaining to every sphere of life we te's raljes. Lile ngot be improved in one aspect and tie sa tte sess, for it is oat and todivisible. Any philoso Fhr of ble would be incomplete if it makes one-sided eapša. 315 ta day one of the values We say that a man who pursues #COD :: salvet cuclusively is a biser acd 2 materialist; a mla 3life's aim is cotting bat emotional cajoyment is a 17. de asta seksualist; ted a mis whose sole aim is rigor. teral discipline a "szara'ist", whish texas that he is por ·100 human or hunane enough. But we have the highest regard for the man who is preoccupied with the idea of salvation. From the humanistic point of view of man and society, the life of none is full. We indeed say that the saint's life is full, because his soul must be one of the oldest and mp3}}st have crperienced all the lower values in previous births But his ideals canaot be placed before all, inost of whose souls must be young and immature. So the philosophy meant for every soul should be a completo philosophy of life Apart from the fact that our ancient tradi. tional philosophies did pot are to develop a philosophy of the lower values, we may point to ourselves another fact, that we have no conceptual forms ia terms of which wo may interpret all values of life, in order to realize that our systematic philosophics are pot complete philosophies of life. For instance, we interpret aad translate the word Brahman as the absolute. But the word 'absolute' has a logici conpotation and is conveniently used in that connotation by Westera philosophers in their ethical, political and social philosophies also. But we manot use the word Brahman similarly. Corresponding to absolutism in politics to speak of rajanit is dramatvam or rajanitime brahmalvu would be meaningless. This is due to the fact that our philosa. phy, though a philosophy of life, did not cover all aspects of hle's ac ivity, and is so far incompletc. We did not develop a ategorcst scheme to cover all aspects of life. But no philosophy an cium to be truly humanistic, unless it covers the whole at human life. It'c love hence to give a huuzgistic bias to our philosophy. I humanistic transformation of our whol culture including our philosophy has to be consciously and carefully attempted. Other humanisms, either of the Eastern Europ or of the Western or of Ainetica, may not suit us. Humuum, whatever fornis it might have taken and is tal ing. is she spat or dle time. And with a really crinal attitude, se hire to a fup! the best values it 24 bult up in other cultured and work out our own humanistic transformation. Everything depends on the d-tec to which our understinding of man and humın valuri trur. Otliet culturm and our own ancient culture might have ·101 Laid an undue stress, which perhaps suited the time and place, on one or the other aspect of map. A critical attitude and courage of conviction should enable us to avoid the mistake and make up the short comings!. It may be repeated that this coascious and deliberate humanistic transformation should not be merely philosophical, but should comprehend all aspects of culture. Otherwise, again, philosophy would be divorced from ble or a greater part of life. 1. Both Pandit Nehra and Dr, Radhakrishad plead tbat our ancient philosoplay should be broogbe into closer contact with the coocrete pro bie as of our mundane lile.

·INDEX, > Absolutism 21, 22. Communzlism 52, 53, S3, 9S. Agamas $3. Communalısın, Age of 42, 50 fol. Age, Economic 52. Cottuunist 62. Age, Heroic 42, 50, 52. Confucian 73. Agnihotri 65. Congress, Thic Inulian National 6? Ahinsa 42, 59, 76. Construction, Temple 32 Ajatastru 43. Culture viii, 3. Akbar 48 Culture, Brahmanic 7. Andhras 18. Culture, Fascist 86. Architecture 32. Culture, Indian 7, 27 (ol. Aristotle 87. Art 23 lol., 27. Dance 27. Aryans 6 fol. Dard 48. Aryasamaj 65, 66. Das, Bhagaran 59 Asoka 1 25, 39, 81. Dayanand, Swami 66 Astamas 12. Democracy 63. Asvachosha 23. Deussen 56. Aurangaz.b 48, 72, 73, Desasamaj 65, Aztics 4, Dhalke, l'aul 8s. Dharna 29, 75. Bali, Island of 50. Dharma, Iryn vit, 3, 30, 13 22. Bengal, Isiatic Society of 56. Darm21, Bharta 22. Berr, flenty 26. Dharma, Vodic 3. Besant, Mrs. Annie 65. Dras dans 5, 9, 81, 82. Bhaktiurgu 58, Dubois, obbe 30. Bharat:: 23, 38, 77. Bharatanatya 27. East 1, 2 Bhartsshar: 19. Einstein vi. Bhavabrusi 77. 1 hoja 77 etc. Emotions Sublimation of 24. Bmhmanism 19, 30, 41. Equality 77. Brahmosi maj 65 fol., 72. Fascism 99. Budha 13 etc. Line Iris 47. Budhism 16 17, 19, 30, 41, 51, Forces, 11 orship of the natural 58, 76, Et. 6. Chandragupta 15, 25. Galileo v. Chandragupta 11 19. Ganejhr 2. 99, 61, 62, 85 Icl. Chidambaram 33. Gaudapula 19, +1. Chisti 46. Chori, Mohammad 42. Christianity 35, 52, 63, 69. Ghosh, Aurabindo 59, 67, Civilization, Mara 4. Goethe SG. Civilization. Volarnjo Daro 4,5,Golkonda, Vabzhi of 18. 6, 34. Guptas 19.

·Mauryas 17, 19. Harsha 19. Hlavell 16, 43, 49. Naya 4. Ilomsziss 2. 55,98 fol. McDougall 7. Humanism and Communalism Degesthenes 30. Jielodies 24. 54. Hinduism 3, 13, 14, 35, 41, 74 Mimansa 75. Mission, The Ramakris'ıra 64. to! Iliaduism and Christianity 55. Missiodatles, Christian 53. Bigduism and Islam 79. Mithraic cult 9. Mohenjo Daro 4. Ideal, Islamic 91. Morenent, Social 93. Ideal, Seculas k9. Moller, Ntax 56. Todeterminacy 79.92. Miusic, 23 tol., 32, 47. Icsularity 77 fol. 95. integration, social 84 fol. Nada 47. Iatalerance 85. Nadi-Brahman 24, 47, laxardaess 9, 31. Nagarjuna 18. Islam 35, 41, 42 fol. Naqshbundi 16. Islam and Hinduison +3.79. Nataraja 27. Nations, Caste 7 Jarmin 75. Nehru 102 factnote. Jalgsm 22, 41, 51, 76. Newton vi. Janaha 13. Jihad 12. Jones, Sir W.56. Omar, Caliph 4S. Indnamirga 57, 53. Organszation, Hindu social 49. Judaism 35, 48. Orphic cult 34. Outlook, Brahmanic 16 fol. Kabe 49. Kahdasa 19. Pancharatra 14. Kane, M P. V. 7,12. Pandurang, Dr. Ataaram 66. Kannas 58. Papini 8. Harmurga 57, 53, 59. Pan-islamism 92. Kautsiya 25. Particularity, Religious 35, 69. Komanis 59. Peace 38. Peruvians 4. League, Aluslsm 61, 62 Philosophy, Indiana 40. Lewia, kust 87, 83. Plansics, Social 97. Locos 34. 32. Plato 3). Macaulay 96. Plurality, Cultural 92. Pobtics 25. Madsava 50, $3. Madpyarik1 18. Power, Alaraiba 16. Wahıx15% 13 Prakasan, T. 90. Prarthanasamaj 65, 66, Nayana 13. Haitreyapatha IB. Prithvi Rai +2 Ptolemy 7. Xanthus 97. Quadriyya 46. Vandacz 53.

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·104 Radhakrishnan, S. 59. Suttee 65, 66. Radba5w3mis 65, 67. Sjadvada 48. Rajarshi 27. Systems 32. Ramdas, Swami 64, System, Caste 7 fol. Ramanuja 58. Ram, Sri Tulsi 65. Tagore 59, 67. Rasa 23, 37, 77. Taoism 34. Renaissance 54. Theocracy 62, 82.98. Renaissance, Indian 65, 66. Tilak, B.G 57, 59, 61, Right to Life 75. Tolerance 76, 85, Rishabha 22. Totalitarianism 84 fol. Roy, Raja Rammohan. 65 Unesco 2, 59. Sabda-Brahman 24 Uniformity, Cultural 93. Saivism 20, 22. Unity, Cajtural 92. Saivism, Tamil 14. Unity, Social 82 fol., 94. Szkta cult 12. Unity, Spritual 82 101, 94. Sakta school 34. Universality, Religious 35, 69. Sakti 60 etc. 74, 82 lol. Sankara 19, 26, 34, 41, 58, 64, Upanishads 7 etc. Satavahanas 18. Satsang 65. Vaishna vism 20. Satyagraha 61. Values 75. Sayana 50, Valucs, Economic 99. Schlegels, The 56. Values, Human 39. Schools 21. Vasubandhu 19. Schweitzer 81. Vedangas 23, 47. Sciences, Positive 26. Vegetarianism 41. Secularization 90. Vidyanaiba 2!. Sense, Isstorial 91 fol. Vidyamnya, Swami 64. Shizism 46. Vsn3 18. Sikhism 48, 72, 73. Vijnanarada 20. Singh, Sadhu Sunder 64. lira sadhana (Cult of the Hero) Slaadhi: upta 19. 59 fol Smarta 41. Vira Saivas 48. Socialism 62 Vira Vaishnavas 13. Society, Theosophical 65. Vivekananda, Swami 64. Spholas 6t. ? Vizianagar 19, 46, 50, 51, 97, Spirit, Worship of the inner 6. StandardimiosSocial 83 fol. West 1, 2, 33. Sthanika vasis 48. Iord, The 24. Sufism 46. Wordsworth 56. Suogas 17, 18. Sungis 46. Yog 29. Sunya 18. Yogachats 18.

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