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·INTRODUCTION TO THE
DEVANAGARI SCRIPT
FOR STUDENTS OF
SANSKRIT AND HINDI
BY
H. M. LAMBERT, M.A.Cantab.
Senior Lecturer in Jarathi (Maharaja Gaekwad's Lectureship)
in the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London
WITH A FOREWORD BY
PROFESSOR J. R. FIRTH, O.B.E., M.A.
Professor of General Linguistics in the University of London
INDIAN
URANCH
GEOFFREY CUMBERLEGE
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

·Oxford University Press, Amen House, London E.C. 4
GLASGOW NEW YORK TORONTO MELBOURNE WELLINGTON
BOMBAY CALCUTTA MADRAS KARACHI CAPE TOWN IBADAN
Geoffrey Cumberlege, Publisher to the University
First published 1953
PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN

·FOREWORD It is a comiranplace of linguistics to acknowledge the debt we owe to the ancient Indian grammarians and to couple with it the name of Sir William Jones. It was he who first set a proper value on the Devanagari and Arabic scripts in his dissertation as President of the Asiatic Society of Bengal on the Orthography of Asiatic Words in Roman Letters. His chart of suggested symbols for the transliteration of the Devanagari, with the addition of letters for Arabic and Persian, is the first presentation of what may be called a phonetic alphabet on such a scale. He finds the Arabic alphabet almost perfect for Arabic itself: 'Not a letter could be added or taken away without manifest inconvenience. The same may indubitably be said of the Dévanagari system, which, as it is more naturally arranged than any other, shall here be the standard of my particular observations on Asiatic letters. Our English alphabet and orthography are disgracefully and almost ridiculously imperfect.' He aims at using diacritics common in Europe rather than new letters and symbols from 'fluxions' or mathematics--so as to equal the Devanagari itself in precision and clearness. A system of writing and spelling is the foundation of a system of grammar. Meillet went so far as to say that the foundations of the science of grammar were laid by the Indians. For all languages employing forms of the Devanagari script, the writing system and the spelling carry implications of phonological analysis and statement. They are at once practice and theory and deserve the first attentions of all students. This is well illustrated in Miss Lambert's work on the Devanagari script, and it will be agreed that the presentation of the phonological patterns, such as “junctions' occurring in words or arising out of 'sandhi' in Sanskrit, and other characteristic patterns in the modern languages, is clear, systematic, and original, and particularly interesting in Bengali, which, with Marathi and Gujarati, is included in the larger volume. The treatment of conjunct characters in the third chapter of each section is new, and apart from its intrinsic interest may be taken as an indication of what is lost when the structure of the Devanagari system is superseded by the usual roman transliterations. In addition to this study of the writing system, attention is rightly given here to calligraphy, for the practice of the hand is an obligation no less compelling than that of the tongue and both are expressions not only of courteous relations but of disciplined knowledge. Miss Lambert has consistently applied the All-India Roman Alphabet to these languages in order to make comparison possible whether the languages are known to the student or not. This treatment could be extended to the Dravidian languages. By this ·vi FOREWORD means it has been found possible to make a systematic statement of the various conventions governing the use of the Sanskritic writing system for the modern languages. The Sanskrit and Hindi sections are published separately in one volume since they. tmploy ore script and will presumably be more generally required, but the appeal of the entire work is to those whose interests range from India through Further India to the Indonesian Isiands following the Sanskritic system of writing. I have been acquainted with Miss Lambert's work in Indian studies since 1937, first in Western India and later as a colleague in London. It gave me great pleasure to be asked to write this brief foreword to her work on a subject which I have always held to be of high importance and the results of which are now offered to students of Sanskrit and the four principal Sanskritic languages of India. J. R. FIRTH ·PREFACE Good writing, the understanding of the writing system and the formation of a good hand, is as important a part of the study of the written language as good pronunciation is of the study of the spoken language. Yet too little time is usually given to the teaching of writing to students of Sanskrit and of the modern Indian languages; writing is generally left for the student to teach himself as best he can. The result is that many students neither have an adequate understanding of the writing system and the difference between a syllabic and an alphabetic method of representation, nor know how the characters of the script are written and what features are important for the formation of a cultured literate hand. It is hoped that this book will provide not only a guide to students learning to write the scripts which are described in each section, but will also give them a fuller understanding of the special nature of the scripts and the adjustments which are made in the Sanskrit system in order to use it for writing the modern languages of northern India. The notation used for the transcription of the scripts in this work is the All-India Roman Alphabet devised by Professor J. R. Firth of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, and used already in several publications-A.H. Harley, Colloquial Hindustani, T. Grahame Bailey, Teach Yourself Hindustani, and my own Marathi Language Course. The use of this transcription necessitates the use of certain conventions, particularly that of the representation of the `inherent vowel', in final characters when listing the contents of each section of the work. The transcription of the Sanskrit terms in the Sanskrit section is entirely systematic; but owing to the varying realization of the characters of the script in certain positions in words in the modern languages, it has been necessary to use in the Contents of the Hindi section certain conventions which are discussed in the text. An example of such conventions occurs in the writing of such Sanskrit terms, used by grammarians in the modern languages, as ‘əntəsth' and 'uuşm', in which the realization of the `inherent vowel of the final character varies from a short glide-vowel to a full syllable. As it is beyond the scope of this work to make a fine analysis of the varying realization of such final characters, it is necessary to establish certain conventions with regard to the transcription of them. These conventions are of necessity anticipated in the Contents. Some degree of repetition has been inevitable in order to preserve the basic unity of the description of the Devanagari system of writing while allowing for specialization in ·visi PREFACE each of the languages. While this repetition may at times seem irksome to the reader, it has the advantage of facilitating comparison of one section with another. The words given in each section to illustrate the writing and reading of the various scripts have been selected in order to provide examples of every character or combinar tion of characters which occurs in the language under consideration. Some characters occur only in colloquial forms or in loanwords from other languages, including English. In order to illustrate the use of all the characters, examples are drawn, therefore, from the whole range of vocabulary, from colloquial forms occurring in modern speech to learned Sanskrit loanwords occurring only in literary texts. Any word which occurs in a standard dictionary is a word which the student may have to read and illustrates the use of the characters of the script. This study of the Devanagari script owes its inspiration to the suggestion and encouragement of Professor Firth, to whom my thanks are first due. But a work of this nature could not have been accomplished without reference to experts in the languages discussed, and I am greatly indebted to my colleagues of both the Department of India, Pakistan and Ceylon, and the Department of Phonetics and Linguistics, of the School, for their co-operation and guidance. The two scribes who have written the script portions of the book, Miss W. Westover and Mr. P. Pritchard, must also be given. recognition for their careful and accurate work. Finally I wish to express my appreciation of the great generosity of the School of Oriental and African Studies for their subvention towards the publication of this book; and of the help and advice given by the Oxford University Press on all matters concerning its production. H. M. L.

·CONTENTS page Foreword Preface vii Introduction: The Devanagari Script Notation Calligraphy 1 2 5 SANSKRIT SECTION Chapter 1. Arrangement of the Syllabary Sanskrit syllabary in roman notation Sanskrit phonetic terms 11 12 13 Chapter 2. Characters of the Syllabary 15 1. Cons onant Characters i. Characters of the vergiiya group ii. Characters of the antəhsthe group iii. Characters of the uuşmən group, and Vedic le 2. Vowel Characters and Vowel Signs i. Vowel characters ii. Vowel signs 3. Modifiers i. anus varah ii. Visərgah 4. The Complete Syllabary 5. Numerals 6. Punctuation 15 16 18 19 21 21 23 26 26 30 31 32 32 Chapter 3. Conjunct Characters 33 1. Construction of Conjunct Characters 33 2. Contexts of Conjunct Characters 35 3. Classification of Conjunct Characters 37 Class: 1. Two similar characters joined 38 Class 2. TWO vərgilya characters joined 39 Class 3. Characters joined with əntəhs the characters 43 i. with following yə 43 ii. with following və 14 iii. with preceding or following re 45 iv. with preceding or following la and le 47 Class 4. vergiiya characters joined with preceding or following uusmən characters 18 1. with sa, şə and 48 ii. with hə 50 sa Transcription of reading examples 51 ·CONTENTS HINDI SECTION Chapter 1. Arrangement of the Syllabary Hindi syllabary in roman notation page 57 59 Chapter 2. Characters of the Syllabary 61 1. Consonant Characters Realisation of akar consonant characters i. Characters of the vergiiy group ii. Characters of the antasth group iii. Characters of the uusm group 2. Vowel Characters and Vowel Signs i. Vowel Characters ii. Vowel Signs Realisation of characters in special contexts 3. Modifiers i. anus var and candr-bindu ii. visarg 4. The Complete Syllabary 5. Numerals 6. Punctuation 61 62 63 64 65 67 67 67 69 70 70 73 73 74 74. Chapter 3. Conjunct Characters 75 1. Contexts of Conjunct Characters in Hindi 2. Realisation of Conjunct Characters in Hindi 3. Classes of Conjunct Characters Class 1. Two similar characters joined Class 2. TWO vergiiy characters joined Class 3. Characters joined with antasth characters i. with following yə ii. with following ve iii. with preceding or following ro iv. with preceding or following lə Class 4. vergiiy characters joined with preceding or Lollowing uusm characters i. with sə, şə and SƏ ii. with 75 76 76 77 78 79 79 80 80 81 82 82 83 hə Hindi prose passage 84 Transcription of reading examples 85 ·INTRODUCTION The Devanagari Script The script traditionally referred to as the Devanagari Script is used in writing Sanskrit and, of the modern languages of northern India, Hindi, Marathi and Nepali. The script used in writing Gujarati is a slightly modified form of the Devanagari script, and the scripts used in writing Bengali and Panjabi are related to the Devanagari script, though this relation is apparent in only some of the characters. The writing system, based on the character representing the syllable, is the same for all these languages. However, in order to use this system for writing the modern languages, which have each developed in their own particular way from the original Sanskrit, a number conof conventions have become necessary in reading from the script, ventions which vary with the special features of each language. The realisation of the characters as they are used for writing Hindi, Bengali, Marathi and Gujarati, and the conventions which have become established in each language, are described in an enlarged volume of this work?. Though the Bengali script differs considerably from the Devanagari script in the form of most of the characters, the study of it is included in that work because the writing system is the same as the Sanskrit writing system, and the conventions by which 1. Introduction to the Devanagari Script, for students of Sanskrit, Hindi, Marathi, Gujarati and Bengali, Oxford University Press. B ·2 INTRODUCTION this system is sister or riting Bergeli heve much in common with toe conventions seä ir the other moderr languages. An examination. of these conventions makes possible ar interesting comparison both between the writing of these four languages and that of Sanskrit, and between the writing o the modern languages themselves. The origin of the name 'Devanagari! is obscure. The shorter form of the name is 'Nagari'(nagerii), which has been variously interpreted, It is thought by some to be the name given to the writing of 'the people of the city'(negerem, 'a city'); by others it is said to derive its name from the Nagar Brahmans of Gujarat. Xotation The system of roman notation used in this text for transcribing the Devanagari characters is the All-India Roman Notation). Three minor modifications have been introduced in this text in order to adapt the notation for transcribing both Sanskrit and the modern languages. These modifications are i. The use of the vowels i ('short' i) and ii ('long' ii) instead of the vowels у and i ; and of the vowels u ('short' u) and uu ('long' uu ) for the vowels W and u ii. The use of the letter IT] instead of for representing the mark of nasalisation known as the onus var. iii. The placing of a micron above the letter in the diphthong əy , and above the letter in the diphthong әү thus: aš aň 1. See Preface.

·INTRODUCTION This mark distinguishes the transcription of the diphthongs from the transcription of combinations of characters which are realised in sertain cortexts as ana 2-V not distinguishable in ordinary speech, in the modern languages, from the diphthongs. Besides these modifications, it is necessary to make certain additions to the notation in order to represent characters used in writing the modern languages but not used in Sanskrit, and certain modified characters used in Hindi and Bengali. The complete notation used in the Sanskrit syllabary is this: Vowels: 8 i ii Ամ әў р әй and r rr 1 il for the syllabic consonants. Modifiers: m (representing the anusvara) and h (representing the visərgə) Consonants : kh 60 gh C ch j jh n th a ah n t t th id an n P ph b bh r 1 S n 7, used in transcribing Vedic Sanskrit The additional letters used in the syllabaries of the modern languages are these : r and rh for transcribing the modified forms of the characters representing a and 4h , in Hindi and Bengali, and for 1. For the use of this term, see Sanskrit section, Chapter 1.

·INTRODUCTION indicating the intervocallic realisation, in certain words, of the Gujarati character representing 4 and ? , for transcribing certain modified Devanagari X Z characters used in Hindi in writing Persian and Arabic loanwords. and zh for transcribing characters of the 'palatal' class in Marathi, when they are realised with alveolar articulation. In modern spoken Gujarati and modern spoken Bengali, certain vowel sounds occur which are not separately represented in the script. For indicating the contexts in which such vowel sounds occur, the three symbols. E , o and are used. The sign of nasalisation, is used in transcribing the modifier representing nasalisation] when it is realised, in the modern languages, as the nasalisation of a vowel and not as a nasal consonant. This roman notation is used for writing all the Sanskrit grammátical terms referring to the syllabaries of Sanskrit and of the modern languages, the classification of the characters and the phonetic description of their realisation, Tae names of the languages, the scripts, and grammatical terms, such as 'sandhi'(səndhi), which are in regular use in English, are written in their conventional English Porn. The Sanskrit syllabary, as arranged by the Sanskrit grammarians, is given in the roman notation in the Sanskrit section, and serves as a standard with which the syllabaries of the modern languages can be compared. 1. See Sanskrit Section, Chapter 2,3.i.a. onusvara. 2. ibid., Chapter 1.

·INTRODUCTION 5 Calligraphy The writing of the Devanagari characters should be practised at first with a reed or bamboo pen. Such pens are still in use in many parts of India, and in many schools Indian children are taught first to write on a large scale with a broadly cut bamboo pen. Writing in this way will train the eye to recognise easily details of difference and will train the hand to write a standard form of the characters with the broad and thin strokes in the right place and proportion. These pens are cut in the same way as a quill pen, except that the point is cut to slant in the opposite direction from that of the quill used for English writing with the tilted axis. The English pen, when cut for the tilted axis, looks like this from the back: writing thus: AOC The pen cut for the Devanagari script looks like this from the back: writing thus: OK The pen should be held in such a way that the thin line, made by the cut edge, falls from left to right at an angle of 45 degrees from a line drawn horizontally across the page. The broad stroke then forms a right-angle with the thin stroke and crosses the horizontal line of the page at an angle of 45 degrees. Care must be taken not to change the angle of the pen during the writing of curved or rounded strokes, this will change the shape and balance of the character. as Some of the typical strokes of the script should be practised until good control of the pen, held at the right angle, is established, before the characters themselves are written. For example: A U O & S.

·6 INTRODUCTION The use of the broad per should be continued until a good style of handriting is formed; the introduction of writing with an ordinary pen, and without sufficient attention to the details of lino and form, often interferes with the formation of a good hand. In the illustrations given below, which may be used as writing exercises, the characters are grouped so as to show different combinations of strokes, and to draw attention to similarities and to, small but important dillerences. It will be seen that some of the characters have an upright stroke, others are curved or rounded, without an upright stroke; but all have the head-stroke, though it is not always written right across the top of the character. The alignment of the characters is made by this head-stroke, that is, by the top of the character, though there is an invisible alignment also by the bottom of the character. For this reason, it is well to practice writing at first between two lines; if one line is used, the characters should be written from the line downwards, not on the line. The general method of writing the characters is this: first, the characteristic part of the character, usually on the left side of the upright stroke; then the upright stroke, if there is one; and finally the head-stroke. The head-stroke binds the whole character together, as will be seen when yowel signs and other marks are added. The general direction of making the strokes is from the top downwards, and from left to right. But the order of the strokes in some characters, and their direction, differ from this general rule, and where this is so, the calligraphy of particular characters is illustrated when these are introduced in the chapters which follow.

·7
INTRODUCTION
Examples of Devanagari characters, showir.g the order in which the
strokes are written:
व-०ववाब- वब बाकावकक
ग-गगान-नन । म-मममाभ-भभ
र। स-र रूस सारख-रख रख
हात हह ह ह ह। ई.इ.ई.ई.
Exemples of similarity and difference between characters :
घ द्य ध
ट्रठदद टू ड इ

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·SANSKRIT SECTION

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·CHAPTER 1 ARRANGEMENT OF THE SYLLABARY When the characters of the Devanagari Script, daart are arranged in the traditional order, they constitute a series of syllables which may be regarded as the basis of the Sanskrit phonological system. Each character represents a syllable, and is called 7959 (əksərəm). The series of characters in the syllabary is called aflat (vernemala), and consists of:- Fourteer vowel characters, TWO modifiers and Thirtythree consonant characters. The syllabary used in writing Vedic Sanskrit includes one more consonant character. In reading aloud from the script, a vowel character is realised as a syllable consisting of a vowel, T: (sverəh), and a consonant character is realised as a syllable consisting of an initial consonant, USA (vyen jenem) followed by the vowel This vowel, when realised with a consonant, is generally referred to in English textbooks as the 'inherent. vowel. The term 'modifier' is used here to refer to the two signs which indicate some modification in the realisation of the character with which they are written. These two signs are usually referred to individually, as the 'anus varah' and the "visərgəh', as there is no Sanskrit term which is used to refer to them together.

·SANSKRIT SECTION
iii. The mornsr o? prciuction of the scurds by which the characters
are reelised is described in the following terms, and in each class
o c10sive conscrants the characters are arranged in this order:
voiceless, unaspirated 79 (afhosal), TUTU (əlpəprana2)
voiceless, aspirated
918 (aghosa), TETUTTI (məhapranə3)
voiced, unaspirated घोषवत् (ghosevat 4), अल्पप्राण (alpeprana)
voiced, aspirated
घोषवत् (ghosavet), महा प्राण (məhåprana)
nasal
अनुनासिक
(enunasikə 5),
1. 'without sound', or 'voiceless'.
2. 'with little breath', or 'unaspirated'.
31 with big breath! or 'aspirated'.
4. with sound! or 'voiced'.
5. nasal'.

·CHAPTER 2 CHARACTERS OF THE SYLLABARY The characters of the script are described in this chapter in the same order as that in which the syllables are placed in the roman syllabary: Consonant Characters, Vowel Characters and Vowel Signs, and Modifiers. The general style of the characters varies from period to period and from region to region. In the older editions of Sanskrit works some characters are found that are now supplanted by newer and more widely used forms; and there is sometimes a marked difference in the style used in printing books in Bombay, Calcutta and other parts of India. The most commonly used of the alternative forms of some of the characters are given below, among the characters of each group. The calligraphy of any characters which are not written according to the general order of strokes given in the Introduction is illustrated when the characters are introduced. 1. Consonant Characters. The consonant characters of the syllabary represent syllables consisting of an initial consonant followed by the vowel Consonant characters realised with the vowel are described as प्रकार (əkare) Il a character is to be realised as the consonant element only of the syllable, this is shown by writing the mark known as fath: (virameh) at the foot of the character. The writing of this mark with a character is illustrated below, after the first table.

·16 SANSKRIT SECTION Characters written with the viraman are described as 7 (hələnte), 'ending in a consonant'. 1. Characters of the vərgiiye group (auffa). The twentylive characters of this group are arranged, as in the roman table given above, in five classes, asf: (vərgah), representing the five positions of contact, af: (spersən), used in the articulation of the plosive consonants. Each class consists of five charact- - ers, arranged in order according to the manner of production of the consonant of the syllable which they represent. क-वर्ग: ke-vergeh क घ ड ke kha gə gha pe च-वर्ग: च छ ज ज ce-vergen ce chə je jhə ne ट-वर्ग: te-vergeb ट ड द ta the de dhe ne त-वर्ग: te-vergeh त थ द ध न ta the də dhe ne प-वर्ग: pe-vergeh प फ ब भ pe pha be bho me The Bombay form of the character for jhe 1 झ and the forms and 5 are found in older books printed in Calcutta. The Bombay .

·CHARACTERS OF THE SYLLABARY 17 form of the character for ne is OT The Bombay forms of these . characters are usei in Hindi writing, but the Hindi forms are not used in Marathi writing, or in Sanskrit books printed in Bombay. Calligraphy. All the characters in the above table are written in the way described in the introductory notes on calligraphy, except the 1 following three characters: ja 1 jha મ t भ ta त The writing of the viramen to indicate the realisation of a con sonant character as a consonant without the vowel 18 illustrated Ə by these characters : क च ट त tpe When writing words, which may be of one or more characters, each character is written and completed with the head-stroke before the next character is written. In the reading examples which are given below, words which are usually written with the modifier known as faf of: (visorgən)2 are written in the form in which they occur in various contexts without this modifier. The visargəh is written with reading examples after the modifiers have been discussed. Verbal roots, in the form in which they are given in grammars and dictionaries, are included in the examples in order to illustrate the writing of characters with the viramah. 1. The first stroke in these characters is written from right to left. 2. See below, under 3. Modifiers, ii. с ·18 SANSKRIT SECTION Reading examples? 1. One character words द त म प च ड 외 의 थ ख झ भ 2. Two character words भट पद धन कड मठ फरण घन खच दम दध घट पद झग जड फट पथ बत छग पद गण 3. Three character words गमक जगत् चणक घटक कपट भजक मथन घटक पठक दमथ पदक गणक कथम् खजक 4. Four and five character words प्रदनम् पणनम् नटनम गमनम् पठनम् धनमद कथनम् झणझणम भणनम जनपद झणझणम ii. Characters of the əntəhs the group ( अन्तःस्थ ) य र Bombay form ल व ल ye re 1e va 1e Calligraphy 1e : Hindi form 3 3 Bombay form ल ल ल These four characters are associated with four of the vergeh, as indicated in the roman syllabary, and with four of the vowels, thus: , ye, associated with the ce-vergeh, and the vowels i and. ii . , re, associated with the tə-vərgəh, and the syllabic r and rr4 ल 1 18, 88sociated with the ta-yargəh, and the syllabic , and 114 व və, associated with the pə-vərgən, and the vowels u and uu 1. Transcription of examples is given on p.51. 2. 'standing between.' 3. This stroke is written from right to left. 4. See below, under 2. Vowel Characters.

·CHARACTERS OF THE SYLLABARY 19 ve These characters are all described as alpeprana and ghoşəvət. व though associated with the labial class, is. realised with 1abio-dental articulation, and described as दन्तौष्टय (dan tovsthya). Reading examples 1. One character words ल थ ख त 2. Two character words लव जल वद बल वर रण वठ ल यव धर लय झर रट् रण फल रथ 3. Three character words तरल लवण भयम नवर लगड चपल धवल जठर चरण डमर भवत नयन वचर लटभ 4. Words of four or more characters यमवत् वयनम गरलम पदकमल कपटवचनम् iii. Characters of the uuşmən2 group (367) ष and he şə Sa ha Calligraphy sə : Hindi form २ श Bombay form ३ शश he 1. or ii. ई An older form of is श्र a form still used in joining this character to certain other characters. This form is illustrated later. under Conjunct Characters3. 1. Transcription of examples is given on p.51. 'heat' 3. See Chapter 3. 2.

·20 SANSKRIT SECTION The first three characters of this group represent syllables consisting oL a fricative consonant with the vowel a and are described as aghoşa and mehaprana. The fourth character is realised as an asrirate followed by the vowel and is described as ghoşəvət and mehaprane. The uusmən characters are associated with the classes thus: श Je with the ce-vergeh; ष , , with the te-vergeh; se स SƏ with the te-vergeh; and ह hə with the ke-vergeh. , , , , The character is the last consonant character in the syllabary used in writing classical Sanskrit. In writing Vedic Sanskrit one more character is used, ळ realised as a retroflex lateral 12. consonant followed by the vowel O Calligraphy of : Reading examples? 1. One character words ह श प ho 2. Two character words शर सह वश षट् खश शव हस शस वष् सत शठ कष हय झष भष 3. Three character words सरल कलश वयस् शपथ समय बहल शलभ जहत सफल यशस् शरट सरस हरक परश रमस हतक 4. Four, five and six character words दशरथ शकटम सवयस कलहम "शसनम शतशस जलचरस नवदशकम सहगमनम् कमलवदन दशशतम् 1. Transcription of examples is given on p.51.

·CHARACTERS OF THE SYLLABARY 21 2. Vowel Characters, with corresponding Vowel Signs. A vowel which constitutes & syllable is written with a vowel character; a vowel which is part of a syllable with an initial consonant is written with a vowel sign added to a consonant character. Vowel Characters. There are fourteen vowel characters in the vərnənala: अ आ इ ई ऋ ऋ a i ii u Ան उ ल लू प्रो Syllabic rr 1 11 ए ऐ e ० ev and the other characters based on the same The character form, मा 3 and 37 , and the characters ऋ ऋ ल and have these alternative forms: अ आ ओ औ ऋ ॠ ल ल a o ev r rr 1 11 Both forms of these vowel characters are used in Hindi writing; only the Bontbay forms are used in Marathi writing. An older form of प्रो is ॐ 1. The order of writing the strokes in vowel o (P e characters is illustrated by these examples: श्री श्रा ना 11 * ऋ 1 ey 9 W . RRC है,Rohe r . ऐ प्रो . 1. See below, under 3. Modifiers, i.note c.

·SANSKRIT SECTION > 9 The vowel characters are referred to as Fonts ə-kara, 510T a-kare, o i-kara, and so on. They are related to the five positions of articulation as shown in the table of the roman syllabary. - The vowel 11 does not occur in Sanskrit words, but the character is traditionally included in the syllabary for the sake of symmetry. The first ten vowel characters represent five pairs of 'simple' vowels, each pair consisting of a character realised as a short! vowel, हस्व (hrəsvə) and a character realised as a 'long' vowel, Go, (diirghə). The remaining four characters represent vowels which are described as 'compound' or 'conjunct', y (semyuktal). In the system of modification and combination of vowels known as sandhi', FET , (sendhin), as in the formation of compound words, derived words, and the joining of final and initial vowels in consecutive words in a phrase or sentence, the vowels are grouped thus: Simple vowels ә a i ii u uu r rr 1 Tu: (gunen) ə а e 0 ar əl ares: (vrdahin) 8 әў әў ar al Examples: nəgərəm नगरम् दिव भूति dive bhuuti नागरिक nagarike देव deve दैव्य değvya भौतिक bhəřtike कर kər Chief karyə कल्पना kelpana काल्पनिक kalpanika kr कूप klp 1. See above, Ch.1., and below,3.i. for the modifier represented by m. 2. See below, ii, for the vowel signs used in these examples, ·CHARACTERS OF THE SYLLABARY 23 Reading examples of words with vowel characters:] 1. One character words 3 tur प्रो ऐ श्रा औ ऋ. 2. Words of more than one character थ ऊह इष उत एध ईश अल औम् ऊहनम् एक इन औम् ओख ऋच ऋषभ प्रोत ऋण ऐण ऐरा ऋध ऊट इह उष उदड ऋणम ऐषमस उपकरणम अद ईषत् प्रौषधम् ii. Vowel Signs Each of the vowel characters, except O has a corresponding vowel sign which may be added to a consonant character to represent a syllable consisting of an initial consonant followed by one OI the vowels a र . As the vowel e is realised with every consonant character unless it is either marked with the viraməh or has one of the vowel signs added to it, there is no sign for this vowel. are: The vowel signs, added to the consonant character की कु कू (ke) ka ki kii ku kuu कि कृ कृ कू क kr krr k1 k114 2 के कै को कौ ke kəў ko kev 1. Trariscription of examples is given on p.51. 2. See note on the vowel 11 under Vowel Characters, above.

·SANSKRIT SECTION Calligraphy The order or writing the strokes when a vowel sign is added to a conscrant character is illustrated in the following examples: का का ku क कि कि kii क का की chi धि धि धि bhi भ भि भि के के ke ko क का को को. क - when the vowel signs are added to consonant characters which have an upright stroke, the superscribed signs are placed above the upright stroke, and the subscribed signs are written at the foot of that stroke. When vowel signs are subscribed to rounded characters, they are written below the mid-point of the lowest curve, thus: छु टू डु 196 दु here chu tuu qu զhuu du huu Special forms दृ शृ ह ru ruu ar sr hr is शु 1 An older form of शु and of हु is हु The vowel sign of ऋ is not written with र The character representing with 7 is written with the superscribed stroke used to represent when it is to be realised before another consonant character without an intervening vowel. This stroke is placed over the vowel character F as in निर्घति , nirrt12. , Mark of 'separation'. When an initial or - occurs after certain final Vowels in known as अवग्रहः (əvəgrəhəh) is the preceding word, the mark S 1. See Ch.2,1.iii. 2. See Ch.3,3.c1ass 3.iii.a. 3. 'separation'.

·CHARACTERS OF THE SYLLABARY 25 written after the vowel in which the final and initial vowels are COalesced, to indicate the presence of two words in the piece. The mark s written once when the initial vowel of the second word is and twice when the initial vowel is as in these examples: यो अयम् योऽयम ते अपि तेऽपि सदा अात्मन् सदाऽऽत्मन् atman seda--tment yo - eyem yo-yem te epi te-pi sada - Reading examples 1. One character words नी भू गै कृ छि नौ जि पै a pe दा भी गौ शी मे हि to ke श्रू ह चोर दोष 2. Two character words दूर भीत गैर कृश पौल पितृ मेरु दक्षि ओतु ईति एतौ कूप भीति ऋतु ति दृढ हृदि इति पुर गुरु शृत फेण वृथा ऋषि धृत मौल कृत् शिशु सेतु एणी ईळे 3. Three character words भूषित विशेष उपाय वैभव पितॄन पौरुष रुचिर भौमिक कुमारी झटिति ठालिनी रूषित औषधि कैकेयी झिरिका विधात ऐहिक ढालिन् सुरभि खडिका हेळते 4. Four, five and six character words एका किन् हृषिकेश इतिहास कौशलेय विषूचिका पौराणिक देवनागरी अनुनासिक ओपनिषद उपजीविका प्रौपदेशिक उपनिवेशिक औपनायनिक कोऽपि ऋतेऽपि यशोऽपयश 1.त्म. tmə the characters त and म combined. See Chapter 3, Class 2. iii. 2. Transcription of examples is given on p.51.

·26 SANSKRIT SECTION 3. Modifiers The two rodifiers, Known as अनुस्वारः (enusvareh) and विसर्गः (visergan), are signs which may be added to a character to indicate a modification in the realisation of the character. They are placed in the syllabary after the vowel characters, and, as they cannot be written alone, they are written with the character They may, however, be written with any character. 1 enusvareh, अनुस्वारः This modifier is written as a dot above the character of which it modifies the realisation, thus : अं प्रां इं chir उं ऊं एं ऐं प्रों əm am im 1im um uum em om नौं əým कौं kevm कं कां किं की कुं कू कें eym कैं keym कों kem kam kim kiim kum kuum kem kom Calligraphy The onusvarən is generally added to the character after the vowel sign has been written and before the headstroke is written to complete the character. It is placed above the middle of the character, or over the last upright stroke if there is one, and to the right side of any superscribed vowel sign, for example; kən क dam कं गां दं həm gam •harth दं गिं भिं માં धि gem gim bhim 144 AM MLM. dhim] धि धिं rom २॥ 1. tar ter-sound'.

·CHARACTERS OF THE SYLLABARY 2 The onusvarah is written with a character in various contexts, and is realised in various ways according to the context. a. When a word of which the final character represents the fornative particie a occurs in any position except at the end of a line a sentence, the character is omitted before an initial of verse or consonant character of a following word and the formative particle is represented by the ənus varən. This formative particle is usually writ. ten as only at the end of a line or a sentence. For example: येतां विभूतिं विभूति योगं च -- yetam vibhuutim yogem ce... येताम विभूतिम् योगम yetam vibhuutim yogam b. The ənusvarəh may be written with an initial or medial character followed by a vərgiiyə character. In this context it is realised as the nasal consonant of the class to which the following character belongs. Examples: m लिंग limgə (liŋgə) सिंज m - n m - n अंक पुरव emke (enke) punkhe (punkhe) पंच वांछ pemce (pance) vamch (vanch) कुंठ अंड kum the (kunthe) omde (enge) शांति इंदु Jamti (Janti) imdu (indu) कंप अंबु kənpə (kəmpe) əmbu (əmbu) simi (sinj) पिंड pimde (pinde) बंधु bemdhu (bendhu) m - n m m कुंभ kumbhə (kumbhə) Another, more usual, method of representing a homorganic nasal is that of combining the appropriate nasal consonant character with ·28 SANSKRIT SECTION the vərgiiyə character that follows it, that is, 5: with characters of the kə-vərgəh, T with characters of the cə-vərgah, and so on. This method is used also when the formative particle 7 occurs before · an initial vərgiiyə character in a sentence, where consecutive words are joined in sandhi. The calligraphy of such combined characters is illustrated lateri. Formative particles, such as fa , -ənti, and अन्ते -ənte, are usually written by this method and not with the ənusvarah. The anusvarah is sometimes written to represent un or -m in ; e.g. Ha compounds formed from the prefix FIT, səm-, and words beginning with न or म sənnətə, and संमति səməti. c. When the anusvareh is written with a character preceding a character of the əntəhs thə or the uuşmən group, the realisation of it varies according to the position of articulation of the character which follows it, and also with the custom of speakers in different parts of India, The onusvarən preceding an antəhs the character is realised as follows: Before य, уә , as > m, n or Ñ ; e.g. संयोग sənyogə, səmyogə, sənyogə or səſyoga Belore ra as nm , n 9 or Ñ ; e. 8. संराग sənragə, səmrage, sənraga or səñrage Before ल, la as m , n or ſ ; e.g. संलय senløye, semleye, senleye or səſləyə Before q, VƏ as m, or ş, Ť ; e.g. संवाद sənvadə, səmvada or səſvado 1. See Chapter 3, Conjunct Characters, Class 2.b.

·CHARACTERS OF THE SYLLABARY १ The anus varən preceding an uusinen character is realised thus: Before श , sa , as , or ; e.g. , n अंश ənsə, one, an sa or at se Before ष , as nasalisation of the vowel, or ; e.g. se. n हवींषि haviinşi, həviimsi, hevlisi or haviitsi Before स , SƏ as n , , or ; e.g. संसार sənsarə, səmsarə, sensarə or səsarə, or as nasalisation of the vowel, as in हिंसा hinsa, himsa, hiỹsa or hisa पुंसि punsi, pumsi, pusi or ñ; e. 8. सिंह sinhe, simhe, sinhe or sivhe or as nasalisation of the vowel in een सैंह , sayhe is sometimes written above a character preceding an Before hə , as m The sign əntəhs the or an uuşmən character to indicate realisation by nasalising the vowel of the syllable instead of by a nasal consonant following the vowel. This sign is called for (ənunasikəl), and it is usually written, in preference to the anus varən, in the 'sacred syllable: Šo , (om)2 3 Reading examples मां सुख हरिं मृत तर्नु अहं एवं ऋषी b. डिंब पांडु लैंगम् ढुंढि मुंभ झा किंचित् कौंतेय संयमन संवत् मांस शंयु संरूट संलीन अंहति तामहं हृदि संगतामनिशं भृशं रमयामि । किं वनेऽनुसरामि तामिह किं वृथा किं वृथा विलपामि ॥4 a. किं . 1. Inasal'. 2. See above, under 2.i. 3. For transcription of examples, see p.52. The lines a, b and c correspond to the not given above under 3.1. 4. GItagovindakavyam, sarga 3,v.6.

·30 SANSKRIT SECTION 14. visergeh , विसर्गः 1 The visergən is written as two dots; placed vertically, after a character. अः प्राः इ. ई : उः ऊः ऐ: श्रोः औः ah ah ih iih uh uuh rrh eh əýh oh əvh कः काः कि: कीः कु कू कृ के कै कोः कौः kən kah kih kiih kuh kuuh krh ken keyh koh kəvh Calligraphy The visərgəh is usually added to a character after every other stroke has been made, including the head-stroke. e.g. क को को कोः The realisation of the visərgah varies in different parts of India a. It may be realised as strong aspiration following the realisation of the character with which it is written, for example देवः मालाः कविः गुरुः कवेः गुणैः भानौः गौः kəveh gunogh bhanoh gaňh devən malah kavih guruh It is realised in this way when it occurs medially, as in दुःरवम duhkhem; or as the doubling of the following consonant, as in तपःसु , tepehsu, tepessu. b. It may be realised in final position as h following the vowel of the character with which it is written, and a very short repetition of the same vowel after h as illustrated by this transcription of the examples given above: devene malaha kavini guruhu kavehe gunayn bhanoho gevhu 1. emission of breath ·CHARACTERS OF THE SYLLABARY 31 मनःसु शुनःशेपः Reading examples I कः ठः ऐ: प्रोः ऋः नौः गुणाः धृतिः बाहुः निते. नृपैः विदुः সূচি: पुरुषः हविःषु धेनुभिः विशेषतः अंशतः अतःकरणम् समदुःरवसुरवः जगतोहिताः मतोऽधिकः तेजोंऽश: बहवोंऽबुवेगाः योगमायासमावृतः गंगातरंगहिमशीकरशीतलानि जयदेवपंडितकवेः । पंडितानां समाजेऽपंडिता मौनं भजेयुः । भूय एव महाबाहो शृणु मे परम वचः 12 सुवं दुःवं भवोऽभावो भयं चाभयमेव च ॥3 वहसि वपुषि विशदे वसनं वसनं जलदाभं हलहतिभीतिमिलितयमुनाभम् । केशव धृतहलधररूप जय जगदीश हरे 14 माधविकापरिमलललित नवमालतिजातिसुगंधौ । मुनिमनसामपि मोहनकारिणी तरुणीकारिणबंधौ ॥ 4. The Complete Syllabary The complete syllabary, arranged in the traditional order, is 5 given on the following page. The characters are further arranged in a table in which the vowel characters, and the two modifiers added to the character , are placed in order at the head of a series of columns consisting of every consonant character in the əkarə form, each consonant character with each of the vowel signs and each of the modifiers. 6 These two tables together show the order in which the characters are placed as initial characters of words in dictionaries. Characters with the anusvaroh are, however, placed before characters without the anus varəh but followed by another consonant character. 1. For transcription, see p.52. 2. Bhagavadgita,ch.10,v.1.a. 3. ibid., ch.10,v.4.b. 4. Gitagovindakavyam, sarga 1,v.8. 5. ibid., sarga 1.3,v.7. 6. CI. the series of characters with vowel signs given above under 2.ii. -- ·SANSKRIT SECTION ई उ ऊ इ ऋ ऋ ए अं प्रो औ क ख ग घ च भ ट ढ ड द ब ध न त थ प फ य भ म र ल व ह श 5. The Devanagari Numerals Hindi forms: १ २ 60 ७ ३ 3 ४ 4 12 6 IAS 5 6 7 8 9 10 oc ६ ७ Bombay forms : १ ૨ 12 ९ w Ro 4 6 7 89 10 6. Punctuation In prose writing, the end of a sentence is marked with a vertical stroke of the same height as the characters. In verse, the first line of a stanza or couplet is closed with one vertical stroke, ana the complete stanza or couplet is closed with two vertical strokes and numbered as illustrated in the verse examples given at the end of the next chapter.

·CHAPTER 3 CONJUNCT CHARACTERS Consonant characters may be combined to represent two or more consonants realised without any intervening vowel. A character formed by combining other characters is called a conjunct character, संयुक्ताक्षरम् (somyuktaksaram). 1. Construction of Conjunct Characters. Characters may be combined in various ways, according to the form of the characters to be joined. 1. The second character may be subscribed to the first: ङ्क दव -ke क् क क क द ट दृ दू k-ke kka ŋkə t- te tta d-ve dva ii. If the first character has an upright stroke, this stroke may be omitted, and the first part of the first character is joined to the second character by the head-stroke, thus: न्द ग ग ग्ग gga त प त्प न् म n- de nda g-ge t-pe tpe n- me nmə The characters of, and are usually joined with following characters in the forms क , म and फ. Some conjunct characters may be formed by either of these two methods, for example: च च च or च्च जज जor ज्ज J.je ce cca j- je D ·34 SANSKRIT SECTION Some conjunct characters are formed by a combination of methods i. and ii.; Por example: दूध द्भ G a- dha daha Q-bhə abhə iii. If the first character is a rounded character, with no upright stroke, it is usually written in full, and the second character is joined with it in a modified form, for example: द य ट्य t-yə टय tya द्य dya ह य हम d- yə hya hyə ha mə bme iv. Some characters are written in a special form when joined with other characters, for example: शव श्व Svə र थ ef ग र ग्र शर s- VƏ - tha rtha grə grə s-ra fre con- The characters Q (Hindi form) and T (Bombay form), representing k-şə, and the character FT , representing j-nə , have been included in the syllabic series from a very early date, though no junct characters are included in the syllabary. Calligraphically these three characters are not formed by joining two distinct characters, but they are considered in this work under the appropriate classes of conjunct characters because they represent syllables consisting of two consonants and the votel If any characters are not modifiable, and therefore cannot be combined, by any of these methods, the realisation of them without an intervening vowel is indicated by writing the first character with the viraməh, thus ट्क टक tke ड्द डद qdə द् ब्र GST abra t-ke q- de a brə ·CONJUNCT CHARACTERS 35 Characters combined with other characters in this way do not form conjunct characters in calligraphy, but they are included in this chapter because they complete certain series in the classes of conjunct characters. Three, four or five characters may be combined to form a conjunct character, for example: त ब ध व ध्व र ष ट य § - t - yə ष्टर्य rştya t m ye tmya b - dh ve bdhvə The general rules already given for the order of strokes in writing a character apply also to the conjunct characters. The Vowel क्त्यु signs are added to the character before the headstroke is written. Examples: ktyu + +c त्य क्त्यु stvi स्व स्त्वि स्त्वि rjyam यां ज्या ज्या 2. Contexts of Conjunct Characters. Conjunct characters occur in the following contexts: i. In words, such as इच्छा क्षिप्रः अनिः agnih ब्रह्मन् श्लोकः स्त्री iccha kşiprah brəhmən slokeh strii ii. In junctions arising from grammatical processes: a. In words formed by the addition of suffixes to verbal roots, such as भक्त गम-य गम्य भज-त bhej-te लभ-त्वा लब्ध्वा - bhəktə gem-ye gəmy ləbh-tva ləbahva ·36 SANSKRIT SECTION b. In derivatives of various kinds, such as दिव दैव्यम् शौर्यम diyə devyem Suure səýryem In words formed by the addition of prefixes or suffixes to other words, as in उत-तम उत्तम अभि-आसः अभ्यासः ut-teme uttama ebhi-aseh əbhyaseh उत-गमः उद्गमः ut-gemeh udgəmən वि-प्राधिः व्याधिः vi-adhih vyadhih दुर-गुण dur-guna दुर्गुण वाचन्मय वाङ्मय vanmeye durgune vac-məyə iii. In compound words, in which the final character of one part of the compound word, if it is a hələnta character, is joined with the initial character of the following part, as in ऋच-वेदः ऋग्वेदः rc - vedən rgveden षट्- मासः षरामासः şət masəh şənnasəh श्रीमत भगवत गीता Jr11met bhegevet giita श्रीमद्भगवद्गीता sriimadbhəgəvədgiita iv. In pieces consisting of two or more words, in which a conjunct character is written joining the final character of one word, if it is a həlante character, with the initial character of the following word. For example: श्रेयो हि ज्ञानमभ्यासाज्ज्ञानाद्ध्यानं विशिष्यते Sreyo hi Jnanamabhyasa jipanaddhyanəm viſişyəte, ध्यानात्कर्मफलत्यागस्त्यागाच्छान्तिरनन्तरम् ॥ १२ ॥ 1 dhyanatkərməphələtyagəstyagacchantirənəntərəm. 12. 1. Bhagavadgita, Ch.12.v.12.

·CONJUNCT CHARACTERS 37 The process of joining characters illustrated in ii. to v. above is known as sandhi' of consonants ? The examples in 11.a. and ii.b. illustrate the process of 'internal' sandhi, and those in ii.c. , iii. and iv. illustrate that of external' sandhi. 3. Classification of Conjunct Characters. The conjunct characters are arranged in this work in classes according to the combination of consonants which occurs when the conjunct character is realised in reading. The conjunct characters, when arranged in this way, fall into four classes. Class 1. TWO similar characters joined. Class 2. TWO vərgiiyə characters joined. Class 3. Characters joined with əntəhs the characters in various combinations : i. Characters joined with a ii. Characters joined with a iii. Characters joined with a. preceding ; or b. following T iv. Characters joined with 2 a. preceding ; or b. following Class 4. vərgiiyə characters joined with uusmən characters: i. Characters joined with a. preceding T, 4 or Ħ; or b. following , o or ii. Characters joined with a. preceding & ; or b. following 1. Compare reference to 'sandhi' of vowels, in Chapter 2, 2.1. 2. The Vedic character 12 , is included in this class. o, ·38 SANSKRIT SECTION class 1. Two similar characters joinedl. क क्रव ग्ग च्च च्छ -kkhe -aga -cce -cche -jje jjhe ग्घ ड -gghe -ne ड्ढ -14he -ine ट्ट ट्ठ ड्ड त्थ ६ -dde द्ध न -tte -tthə -ade -tte -tthe -daha -mne प्प म्म प्फ -pphe -ppe -bbe -bbhe -mme -sse -ece व्य ल्ल व्व श्श -yyə -11e -Vva 3 -fe -se Alternative forms च्च ज्ज ज्झ ण्ण ल्ल -jje -JJhe -nne -11 The characters ज, र and ह do not occur in this series. The second and fourth characters in each vərgəh are formed by combining the alpəprana characters with the corresponding mehaprane characters. Reading examples4. ठक्कुरः कक्वट दृग्गोचरः वाग्धि तिङतिङ् उच्चैः इच्छा उज्झति पट्टिका लट्ठ उड्डीन षड्ढा विषम विषण्ण उत्तम उत्थित . उद्देशः बुद्धिः भिन्न पिप्पलः फुप्फूस अब्बुः अब्भोगः सम्मतिः संमोहः शय्या उल्लेखः तच्छृणु सन्नद्ध दुश्शील [दुःशील] शतायुष्षु [शतायुःषु) जस्सराजः शुभाँल्लोकान् 1. Conjunct characters which do not occur initially are indicated by prefixing a hyphen in the roman transcription. 2. This character occurs only in the granmatical term given in the reading examples. 3. This character occurs only in combination with preceding 4. Transcription of examples is given .on p.52.

·CONJUNCT CHARACTERS 39 Class 2. Two vergiiyə characters joined. 1 i. eghose and ghosevet characters, excluding enunasike characters: vergah aghoşə ghosavet - क्च क्छ ग्भ ke - ce -kce -kche -gje -gjhə क -ट ke ta क्ट 위에 ग्ड for टक -tke टव -kthe -tkhe ड्य -kte -gda -dge -gahe -aghe - - त्क त tə क्य त्व ग्द द ग्ध ke - -kte -tke -kthe -tkhe -gde -dge -gdha -dghe - - क्प क ke प्क क्फ प्व ग्ब ब्ग ज्भ ब्ध - - pe -kpe -pka -kphe -pkhe -gbe -bge -gbhe -bghe च. ट्छ ce ta ट्च -tcə ज - ja झ -4jhe -tche च - प्च -- ब्ज बझ ce pe -pce -pche -bje -bjhe - त tə ट ट ta 이 - ट्त 2 -tte ट्य -tthe -tthe द -də दड ड्ध ट्ठ -adhe -dahe -tte -dqa ट - प te'- pe टप प्ट डब डभ टफ प्ठ -tphe -pthe -tpe -pte -qbe -bae -abhe -bahe I त्प प्थ त tə प pe दू ब्ध ब्द -tpe -pte -tphe -pthe -dbe -bde -dbhe -bdhe 1. Many of these conjunct characters occur only in external sandhi. 2. This combination occurs in the character combining ट, त and र ·40 SANSKRIT SECTION ii. Characters of each vərgəh joined with a preceding or following anunasika character of the same vargan. anunasika character preceding. नि foto ज्न ङ्क -rke ङ्ग -nge -nkhe -nghə -nce -nche -nje -njhe न्त न्य न्ध एट -nte एठ -nthe गड -nde एढ -ղdha न्द -nde -nte -n the -ndha म्प म्ब म्भ म्फ -mphe -mpe -mbe -mbhe Alternative forms ण्ट ण्ठ ण्ड ण्ड -nte -nthe -nde -ղdha These characters, representing a preceding homorganic nasal -njhe consonant, are usually written in preference to the anusverən placed on the preceding character, of which examples have been given abovel. The following examples illustrate the contexts in which the onusvareh may be written, and in which it is not written: पतन्ति petent12 विनंतिः विनन्तिः vinetih or vinentin3 लभन्ते 1ebhente2 अंते अन्ते emte or ente3 b. enunasike character following. -anet ज ज्ञ न छ श ढ़ ध प्म -cne jne -thne -dhne -tne -thne -dhne -pme -bhme The character is not calligraphically a conjunct character, and is found, from an early date, included in the syllabic series of characters5. In realisation, however, it belongs to this class of 1. See above, Ch.2,3.1.b. 2. Verbal forms. 3. Non-verbal forms. 4. The combination ã. - 7 more usually becomes 7 in sandhi." 5. See above, Ch.2,1.111.

·CONJUNCT CHARACTERS 41 conjunct characters. In the order of words in dictionaries, words beginning with 7 are placed between words beginning with o and those beginning with ज्य. iii. Characters joined with a preceding or following ənunasike character of a different vərgəh: ənunasikə character preceding. a. 부에 ङ्भ न्भ m- न न्ग न्च म्ज न्फ -nbhe -nke -nge -nced -n01 -nphe -nbha Most characters may occur joined with precedingt , on account of the frequent occurrence of formative particles ending in 7. ङ्, e , also may occur with many characters in external sandhi. b. enunasikə character following. . मण -rne भण -bhne -kna -gme -न -na क प्न भ्र kme -khne sna घ्न ghnə घम -pne -bne -bhne क्म ख्म ग्म ज्म -me ड्म -ame -kme -khma -gme -ghme -eme -jme न ध्म -tme -dme -dhma iv. Iwo anunasika characters of different vərgən. डन ङ्म रान राम न्म -pne -ymə -nme -me -nme -mne mna Alternative forms of the conjunct characters in iii. and iv. are formed with UT , e.g. ग्ण -gne LUT -bhne -mne ण्म -rme. 1. It is more usual to write T before characters of the ce-vərgəh.

·SANSKRIT SECTION अब्डिम्भ षड्भाग लब्ध संयुक्त Reading examples? वाक्चल वाक्छलम पृथग्जनः वाग्झटिति वाक्टीका षट्कोण षट् स्वेटकम् वाग्डम्बरः स्वगः -वाग्ढौकते- -द्विघोरा- भक्तिः उत्कट उक्थम् उत्वात हृद्रत सद्गुण दग्ध उद्धाटकः वाक्पटु वाक्फलम् -ककुप्रवालु- पृथग्भावः ककुब्गुरुः ककुब्योरा षट्चरण: षडविः षड्जः -षड्झटिति- अप्चरः ककुप्छविः कुब्ज -ककुब्झटिति- षडदेवाः षड्या षट्पटि टुप्टीका षटफरण षड्बाहु ककुप्ठक्कुरः षड्भाग ककुब्ढौकते उत्पन्न सत्फलः गुप्त उद्बोधक उद्भवः शब्दः भगवद्गीता अद्भुत मद्भक्त बुद्धियुक्त सच्छब्दः 11.६. अङ्कः शङ्खः लिङ्गम् सङ्घः सञ्चयः वाज्छा अजीरः झञ्झा धुएटः कण्ठः पण्डितः दुण्ठिः पन्थक सुन्दर इन्धः कम्पन गुम्फति सम्बन्धः आरम्भः पतिः अरुन्द्धा ज्ञानम् हेहाति हेट्नाति रत्नम् मना बुध्नाति पाप्मन तज्ज्ञेय सञ्ज्ञा संज्ञा विशेषज्ञ जिज्ञासु iii.a. उदभिः महान्कविः दृन्फूः दृन्भूः b. ऋण गृभ्णाति शक्नोति चरनुतुः अग्निः विघ्न मृड्नाति आप्नोति आप्नोति अनाभः रूक्मिणी वाग्मिन् वच्मिः कुडल प्रात्मन् ध्मात दृभ्मस दध्मौ iv. दिड्-नागः वाङ्मय वाङ्य द्विण्नालः जन्मन रम्गाति नात b. याचा पद्मा 2 षएमासः 1. For transcription of examples, see p.52. Examples illustrating characters which could occur in sandhi arising from the sequence of words in a sentence are placed between hyphens. 2. The first character represents dvi See Class 3.ii. .

·CONJUNCT CHARACTERS 43 class 3. Characters joined with antehs thə characters. i. Characters joined with following I क्य ख्य ग्य घ्य ड्य ghya -ye ज्य भय kye khya gy суә -chye jyə -jhye एय त्य थ्य द्य ध्य न्य टय ड्य ढय -tye -thye -ye -qhye nye tya thya dya dhye nye प्य फ्य ब्य भ्य pye -phye bya bhya myə र्य ल्य भ्य ष्य य्य (yye) हर 2 -ryə 1ye vye Гуә -şya sye hyə Examples of con junct characters of Classes 1. and 2. with 3.1. न्य त्य प्त्य भ्य ब्ज्य -nnye -ttye -tmye -ptye -gdhye -dbhye -bjye 3 भ्यासः Reading examples. वाक्यम् रव्यात वैराग्यम् श्लाघ्य उवड्-यशः च्युत वाञ्छय ज्योतिस उज्भयति कापटयम् शाठ्यम् जाडयम् अवाव्य पुण्यम् त्याज्य पथ्य विद्या ध्यानम् कन्या प्राप्य रिफ्यते अब्योनिः सौम्यम् धैर्यम् अमूल्य व्यूढ दश्य मनुष्यः रहस्य झस् सैन्यस्य सन्यासः संन्यासः चिन्त्य बुद्धया तज्ज्योतिस वैदग्ध्यम माहात्म्यम् भक्त्या कौब्ज्यम सुहृद्भ्यः भगवन्व्यक्तिः -- एवमेतद्यथाऽऽत्य-- --गुह्ममध्यात्मसंज्ञितम्-- । अज्ञः सुरवमाराध्यः सुरवतरमाराध्यते विशेषज्ञः15 1. See under Class 1. 2. The superscribed stroke in this character represents r preceding another consonant. 3. For transcription see p.33. 4. The first character represents sla . See below undet iv.b. 5. Nitisatakam, verse 3.a.

·44 SANSKRIT SECTION ii. Characters with following a क ख्व ग्व घ्व व च्व ज्व भव kva khvə gve ghvə -nve -cve -chve jve jhva ट्र छ ड्र ट्व राव त्व थ्व दू ध्व न्व -ahve -rve tvə -thvə dvə dhvə mve -tve प्व -thve -dve ब्व म्व -pve -bve -bhve -mve व र्व ल्व ष्व स्व ho 1 -rve श्व fve3 yve 1və (-vva)2 sva sve hvə UT and do not occur in this series. व preceding another character occurs in OY , -vre, प्न vra4 and व्र, -vme लू , vi05. Examples of conjunct characters of Classes 1. and 2. with 3.1. and ii. त्त्व व च्य क्तव य ग्ध्व -ttve -rvve -cchve -ktve -dvye -bahve -gdhye 6 Reading examples. माप्वा नल्यः क्वचित पक्वान्नम् सारख्वोः ऋग्वेदः लध्वी उच्छ्वासः उज्ज्वल उज्ज्वल उज्भव लट्वः यद्त्वा षड्विध दृट्वम् शृण्वन त्वरित पृथ्वी उद्विग्न ध्वनिः अन्वित अब्वाहनम् रिभ्वन् चम्वोः य्वागुली सर्व सर्व सर्व ईश्वस विश्व ष्वक्कते अनुस्वारः हे विहल विध्वंसः द्वन्दः तत्त्वम् दुग्ध्वा लब्ध्वा उक्त्वा दावा एतद्ध्वा विनाति ग्राणा' प्राङ्वशः त्यक्त्वाऽऽत्मशुद्धये । ---पुण्यकृताँल्लोकानुषित्वा शाश्वतीः समाः । .7 . 1. For the superscribed stroke in this character, see below, in iii.a. 2. See -vve in Class1. 3. For this form of Je see Ch.2,1.iii. 4. See below, under iii.b. 5. See below, under iv.b. 6. For transcription of examples, see p.53. 7. The initial characters in these words represent gre and pre . 8. From Bhagavadgita, Ch.6,v.4m.a.

·CONJUNCT CHARACTERS 45 111. Characters joined with preceding र or following र • a. र preceding another character. To represent preceding another character a stroke is superscribed on the character before which is to be realised. This stroke is called : , rephen, the name given to the character r rephah in this form may be written with any character, but it does not occur with ज or स . र्क र्च -rke -rce -rte ट त प र्य र्श tha -rte -rpe -rye -rje -rhe , Some of the characters, particularly ग, च , द, य and व are frequently doubled when written with repheh. This practice is found in Hindi writing, but is not usual ब. in Marathi writing. Examples: गर्ग ज प र्द्ध र्य व -rgge -rjJe -rtte -rdaha -rrama -ryye -rvve Characters written with vowel signs and rephon: कि र्की के कै -rka -rki -rkii -rku -rke -rkey र्का की कौ -rko -rkey and with rephen and anusvarah: का कि र्की -rkary -rkin -rkiim कै कै कै कौं -rkevm -rkur -rkem -rkey The rephoh is placed above the upright stroke of a character, or above the mid-point. It is always written to the right side of any other superscribed stroke, as shown in the examples given below. It is written also with the vowel character ऋ . as in the word निर्ऋतिः. 1. repha, 'rough'; rephan, 'a rough sound'.

·46 SANSKRIT SECTION Characters with repner are written as shown in these examples: rki कि कि कि कि rkii का की की की rke क के का के rko का को का र्को rkim कि कि कि कि rker को को कौं In Bombay writing the character representing -rha is sometimes written as, though the use of this stroke for rephǝh is more rarely used in writing Sanskrit than in writing Marathi. b. 1 following another character. To represent following another character, a diagonal stroke is placed against the upright stroke of those characters that have one , or beneath the mid-point of the lower part of a rounded character. - ग्र kra grə -ghre - rə -chra2 jrə - ट्र डू त्र श्र द्र ध्र -tres -are trə thra dra dhra -nre -- mrə vra sra प्र ब्र भ्र म्र व्र श्र or ह prə bra bhrə sro4 hra Examples of conjunct characters of Classes 1. to 3.ii. with 3.iii. क्त्र र्त्य द्रय वं धर्म्य. -Ktre -tpre -rtye -dryə -rahvə -rdrə -ntryə "-rdhnye For 1. See above, Ch.2,2. ii. Vowel signs. 2. This combination occurs in the character joining ses and : a andor are combined in the character representing one, tand? .

·CONJUNCT CHARACTERS 47 a. Reading examples तर्कः मूर्ख वर्गः वर्गः वर्गीय दीर्घ शाङ्ग चर्चा मूर्च्छित चर्चा मूर्छित अर्जुनः निर्भरः दायम् वर्ण: कर्तृ व्यर्थ दुर्दैवम् अर्ध मनुर्नाम अर्पणम् दुर्बल गर्मित ऊर्मिः कर्मन् धार्मिक पर्यन्त पर्यंत सूर्य्यः दुर्लभ पूर्व सर्व सर्व दर्शनम् हर्षः अर्हत कीर्तिः अहर्निशम् ऊर्ध्वम् वर्ण्य मूर्धि म्हाधायात्मनः नैर्ऋती दुर्बुद्धैर्युद्ध । श्वेतैर्हयैर्युक्ते । वेदयज्ञाध्यायनैर्न दानैर्न च --- विक्रमः शीघ्र प्राङ्गात्री कृच्छ वजम पौंड्रः शत्रुः द्रव्यम् ध्रुव प्रयत्नः प्रेम्णा ब्रुव भ्रातृ नम्र व्रजः शुश्रूषा स्त्रज्वा ह्रस्व हस्व है हिंस्र श्राद्ध आर्द्र आर्द्र दारिद्रयम् दारिद्रम दिग्वतम् षट्त्रिंश यत्प्रमाणम् जम्बाम्रले प्राग्रहः संहीण एतच्छुत्वा 2 iv. Characters combined with preceding 37 or following a a. •ल preceding another character.3 ल्ग -1ge ल्ब -1be ल्भ -1bhe -1ke -1pe -1phe -lmə ल्श -11 ल्ह -lhə Vedic ह -The -1se b. ल fo11owing another character. ल गू ड्ल klə glə -chlə -d1e पू plə बू भू blə bhlə मू वू श्ल or श्ल Sle ह्र mlə vie hla or . Most of these characters may be written either by method i. by method ii., described earlier in this chapter.4 1. For transcription, see p. 53. 2. For joined with əntəhs the characters, see i. to iii. above. 3. Vedic ळ is included in this class. 4. See above, l. Construction of Conjunct Characters..

·SANSKRIT SECTION Examples of conjunct characters of Classes 1. to 3.iii. with 3. iv. ग्लौ पूर्व त्यू च्छ -tole -tkla -cchie -1bhye Reading examples. I उल्का फल्गु स्वल्प अल्पप्राण गुल्फित उल्ब प्रगल्भ हल्शब्दः हल्सन्धिः वल्ह प्रागल्भ्यम् जळ्हु मिळ्हुषे क्लेशः पिप्लुः अब्लिंग ककुभ्लामः मेच्छः विनाति श्लोकः श्लेषः सिहः हादते उच्लख उत्क्लेशः उत्पूव परेषां चेतांसि प्रतिदिवसमाराध्य बहु हा प्रसादं किं नेतुं विशसि हृदय के शकलिलम् । प्रसने त्वय्यन्तः स्वयमुदितचिन्तामणिगुणे विमुक्तः सङ्कल्पः किमभिलषितं पुष्यति न ते ॥६२॥ Class 4. vərgiiya characters joined with preceding or following 2 uusmen characters. i. Characters joined with ष or स . T, 87 or Ę preceding another character. The following characters occur in this series, some occurring a. only in external sandhi. 3 श श्व पा श्र भ्प भ्म -Skə -Jce -Sche sne -fpe Smə ष्क ष्ट ष्ठ ष्फ -ske -ste sthe -Ene -epe -sphe --şmə स्क स्व स्ज स्त स्थ स्न स्फ स्म skə skha -sje sta sthə Sne epe sphe 왜 일, sme 1. For transcription, see p.54. 2. Vairāgyasa takem, v.62. 3. These characters may be written with either श or ·CONJUNCT CHARACTERS 49 b. श, ष or स .c110wing another character. The following characters occur in this series, some occurring only in external sandhi. क्श श ज्श टश न्श प्श fe -kje -Je -n.se -tie -ne -pfe 1 2 न or क्ष क्ष टक्ष न्ष se kşe -se -tsa -nşə -pse स क्स ट्स एस त्स प्स -kse -tse -nse -tse -pse The character has been included in the syllabic series from 3 an early date, and is not calligraphically a conjunct character. In the order of words in dictionaries, words beginning with न se -mse are placed after words beginning with . Con junct characters of Classes 1. 3. with Class 4. ष्ट्र ष्ट्व क्ष्ण ksne क्ष्म -kşmə स्त्व -stva स्थ त्स्न -tstha -tene stra -stre -stva स्त्र्य ष्टर्य स्यं stryə -tsmye -rstye -rtsnye ७ Calligraphy: kşe , Bombay form ६ क्ष क्ष Reading examples4 a. रा आश्चर्यम् प्रश्नः श्मश्रु पुष्कल बेष्कम् सृष्टिः कृष्ण ज्येष्ठ ष्ठयूत पुष्पम् निष्फल ऊष्मन श्लेष्मा संस्कृत स्खलित भ्रस्ज् स्तब्ध स्थितिः स्त्री अन्तःस्थ स्निग्ध स्पृष्ट स्फूतिः भस्म श्रेष्ठत्वम भ्युत दृष्ट्वा नमस्तेऽस्तु b. प्राक्शिरस प्रत्यशिरस ताशुका [तान्शुका) षट्शास्त्र रप्शते अक्षरम् अक्षरम तिर्यडषु षट्षष्टिः क्षेत्रज्ञ विक्सम लिट्सु वत्सः सुगणसरति [सुगण्ट्सरति क्षमा 1. Boray form. 2. This combination usually becomes ङ्क्ष 3. Cf.note on T C1.2.11.b. 4. For transcription, Bee p.54. दंष्ट्रा वार्ष्णेय E ·50 SANSKRIT SECTION a. hnə श्लक्ष्ण उत्क्षिप्त भक्ष्य मत्स्यः तत्स्थल क्ष्वेत अप्कृत्स्न कायम विभ्रष्टश्छन्न कर्मफलप्रेप्सुर्लब्धः नभःस्पृशम धाष्टर्यम् एतत्क्षेत्रम् ii. ənunasika characters joined with preceding or following & ह preceding ए , न and म. ह ह्र ह्म -hna -hme b. ह following ङ. and न. ङह न्ह --Ighə -nhe 1 Reading examples. गृह्णाति वह्निः हुते ब्राह्मण प्राहस्तः [प्रावस्तः इष्टान्भान्हि अग्निमीळे पुरोहितं यज्ञस्य देवमृत्विजम् । होतारं रत्नधातमम् ॥१॥2 अग्निः पूर्वाभर्ऋषिभिरीडयो न्तनैरुत । स देवाँ एह वक्षति ॥१॥3 तत्रापश्यस्थितान्पार्थः पितॄनथ पितामहान् । आचार्यान्मातुलान्भ्रान्तृपुत्रान्पौत्रान्सविंस्तथ ॥१६॥ सक्ताः कर्मण्यविद्वांसो यथा कुर्वन्ति भारत । कुर्याद्विस्तिथाऽसक्तश्चिकीर्षुलॊकसंग्रहम् ॥३९॥5 नैव किंचित्करोमीति युक्तो मन्येत तत्त्ववित् । पश्यन्शृण्वन्स्पृशन्जिघन्नश्नन्गच्छन्स्वपन्श्वसन आज्ञाकीर्तिः पालनं ब्राह्मणानां दानं भोगो मित्रसंरक्षणं च । येषामेते षद्गुणा न प्रवृत्ताः कोर्थस्तेषां पार्थिवोपाश्रयेण ॥४८॥ 4 ॥८॥ 1. For transcription, see p.54. 4. Bhagavadgita, ch.1,v.26. 6. 1bid., ch.5, 7.8. 2. Rigveda, 1. 3. 1bid., 2. 5. 1bid., ch.3,v.25. 7. Nitisatakam, v.48.

·enii 1 Гu otu 11le setu krrt ruudhe ІІ вҶ2. eland efas 1t rtu etəý duuşi bhiiti hrdi i tr NINO пn8 end еурор esop 14 1iti meru krs bhiita елеш еҙацр атя елеd еке emne ецоо ешва hi me hr duu həý bhii Srr 31 or nař chi da nii °ЕТ °2 IP ITS Led дез welejeztean seueste weupesee wels Gepn elige sn ец. euban ela шле чра esse pe eus дея пица eyqesi weueunn шле те eSTI р okh ucha ekə zestr pe үпn еце edhe р ot ut ST - - rr де 1 а Ке uu IT и е 2 e 1 2.1. wezesesep se sees euерелетешея шецешезецеg weueses шеҷетея зелелея шеңегерелец шеlеңел sejezetec ецелејер extezeu eseuqe ецqezer eteцeq esejed еледец esejes eteydes eleves seses elewes euzedes seles ецер егетех erejes ещец елец ses esex esex eules 4e8 esed eseus вец егед les eyes eves eseua eseuc едел Sea eपन е ер ed es es ец es •III • шешегелеlеdея етешехереd шетелех weuesea 3елешек eyqelet елешер еерел exezeә euekeu есец1ер 4елецq етелецp eredeo we eua ерезе elrедет есецдеи erejet ецех ulea Teud eues elrex елел 1ex e Tea jhərə jhərə екет рел елецp ееця yəvə jela uqet елет ta еци ец ea lə е уә ед 1.ii. шеlrецf elve epedeuef weueufeleuc шеuеuеца шецецҙея epeneueur weueuled weueleu weueled шецешез шецерецо ещереd еxеrеця шецех exeles ещерецq eledex ещеlецp ечешер еxец} ed exe1e48 ецецеш ezteleo Fedeļ еңешез elrеѕ еlеца чреd еdеца ezeq euzed eleyd ebec eleuc реца ешер чрер реця euey: eleyd euleu ebex енецp eped elega nə jha еця e ец? eu ецо ed eua eu e8 ec eq eyd ецq ецp ex ер tə 1.1. Chapter 2. Transcription.o1 Reeding Examples 5I TRANSCRIPTION ·52 SANSKRIT SECTION bhuusita vijese upaya vəğbhəva pitrrn patruşə rucirə bhəňmika kumarii jetiti thalinii ruusita avşadhi keykeyii jhirika vishatru əyhike dhalin surabhi khəqika helete ekakin hrsike je itihasa kəs əleyə vişuucika paranike devanagarii anunasikə ərpənişədə upajiivika əvpade ſikə upəniveſikə әйрәnayike ko-pi rte-pi уәJo-pəyəfə eva me 3.1. kim mam sukham hərim mrtam tənum əhəm evəm rşiinan qimdə parqu leýmgem humdhi jrmbh jhar jha kimcit kevnteya səmyəmənə səmvət mamsa ferjyu səmruu(hə samliina enhəti taməhəm hrdi sangetamani ſem bhr sem rəməyani kim vəne-nusarami temihe kim vrtha viləpami 3.1i. kah chəh theh jhah əýh oh uun rh nəvh sah gunah dhrtih behun niten nrpağh vidun srnih puruşəh mənəhsu hivihşu dhen ubhih vi seseteh en Sateh əmtəhkərenem səməduhkhesukhan sunen Sepah jegetohitan mato-dhikən tejom-səh bəhəvon-buvegah yogəmayasəmavrtah gemgaterengehime Siikere Siitelani jeyadevepemqitekaveh panditanam səmaje-pemdita məynəm bhəjeyuh bhuya mahabaho srnu pərəməm Vocah sukhem duhkher bhəvo-bhavo bhəyəm cabhəyəmevə cə vəhesi vəpuşi visade vəsənəm jələdabhəm hələhətibhiitimilitəyəmunabhəm kesave dhrtəhələdhərəruupə jəyə jagadiisə həre madhavikapərimələləlitə nəvəmalətijatisugendhet munimənəsaməpi mohənəkarinii teruniikarinavemahat Chapter 3. Class I. thekkuran kekkhətə drggocərah vagghi tiŋŋətin ucсəýh iccha rajjuh ujjhəti pəttika lətthe uđqinə şəddha vişənne vişanna uttəmə utthita uddesah buddhih bhinna pippalen phupphuusən əbbuh ebbhogan Səmmətih sərymohah Səyya ullekheh tacchrnu sənnədahə dus Siile (duh Siila) sətayuşşu (satayuh su) jəssərajen subhamllokan Class 2. 1. vakcələ vakchələm prthegjənən vagjhetiti vagjhetiti vaktiika setkone şetkhetəkəm vagqəmbərəh khedgeh vagdhavkete dviqghora bhaktih utkete uktham utkhatə hrdgate sədguna dəgahə udghateka vakpstu vakphələm kekupkhalu prthegbhavən kəkubguruh kekubghora şətcərənək şətchəvih şaqjah sədjhətiti əpcərəh kǝkupchəvih kubja kekubjhətiti şaqdevah şəqdha şətpəti tuptiika şətphene şaqbahu kəkupthekkurən ab imbhe seqbhagə kəkubqhařkate utpenne setphəleh gupte udbodhəkə udbrəvən sabdən ləbdhe bhəgəvədgiita Semyuktə edbhutə mədbhəktə budaniyuktə b'acchəbdən ·TRANSCRIPTION 53 ii.a. enkeh sankheh lingom sengheh senceyeh varcha anjiireh jhar jha ghunten kenthen panditen qhunqnin əntah pentheka sundera indhen kənpənə gumphati səmbəndheh arambhən pənktih arunddha yacna jnanam hethnati heqhnati retnəm məthna budhnati papmen te jneya senina sənina vi seşə inə ji inasu iii.a. udeņbhih məhankavih drunphuh drunbhun rkne rugne grbhnati Seknoti cekhnutuh agnih Vighne mr qnati apnotiabnabheh əbnabhən rukminii vagmin vəcmih @jməh kuąmələ a tmən padma dhmata drbhməs A eurupep iv. dinnagah vanməyə ye sbales yeTBULTAD ueuruef rəmnati e7BUM Class 3. vekyem khyata vəýragyəm slaghye udenye seh cyute vanchya jyotis ujjhyati kapatyam sathyem ja yam avadhye punyəm tyajya pe thye vidya dhyanan kənya apyə riphyete byonih əbyonin əbhyasən səýmyem dheỹryəm dhəýryəm əmuulyə vyuuqhe drsyə mənuşyah rəhəsyə hyəs sognyasya sennyasah səmnyaseh cintye buddhya tejjyotis vəğdegdhyam maha tmyəm bhəktya kəýb jyəm səhrabhyah bhegevenvyektih eveme tedyatha--ttha guhyamədhyatməsən iritəm ajpah sukhemaradhyah sukhətərəmaradhya te viseseinah 11. kvacit pəkkvannəm akhvoh rgveden leghvii ucсhvabeh ujjvelə ujjhvə tvorita prthvii udvignə ецpapeз влдепред цедет ueslis weaubip ҷцелцp целтеу еллаев eдes IIInавл£ цолшео целцата шенецвлqе влав елие euqe [.np qefinns eque sed equefied exfundByP uemdex upuan iisvərəh vijvə şvəkkəte ənusvaran hve vihvələ vidhvəmsəh dvəndveh təttvom dugdhva ləbdhva uktva davna etəddhva vlinati gravna pranvə sən tyektva--tmə Suddhye punyəkrtemilokanuşitva Sasvetiih sənah iii.a. tərkən muurkhə vərgəh vergiiyə diirghe Sarngə cerca muurchitə ar juneh nirjherah dardhyəm vərnah kərtr wyərtha durdəšvəm ərdhe menurname ərpenem durbələ gərbhite puurva Barvvə dər sənəm hərşən ərhət kiirtih əhərni sem uurdhvəm verjyə muurdhni murdhnyadhaya tmənən nəýrrtii durbuddhəğryudahə Sveteỹrheyaỹryukte vedeya jnadhyayeneyrna danağrnə cə b. vikrəməh agrehah Siighrə pranratrii krcchrə vejrem peřndreh fətruh drəvyem dhruvə prəyətnah premna bruva bhratr nəmrə vrəjən susruusa srə jva hrəsvə hrəsve hrət himsrə Sraddha ar drə ardro daridryəm daridryem senhriine etacchrutva digvretem şet trimsə - -- weliswejdzes әтедвлqшер ·54 SANSKRIT SECTION iv. ulka phelgu svəlpə əlpəprane gulphita ulba pragalbhə həlsəbdən həlsəndhih voln pragəlbhyəm je hu mi huse klesəh glər plavə pipluh əblingə kəkubhlabhən mlecchən vlinati slokah Sleşen sihlah hladate ucchləkhə utklesəh utpləvə pəreşam cetamsi prətidivəsəmaradhyə bəhu ha prasadəm kim netum visesi hrdəyə kle sekəliləm Prəsənne tvəyyəntən svəyəmuditəcintamanigune Vimuktan sənkəlpən kiməbhiləşitəm puşyəti na te Class 4. 1.a. ascəryəm prosnah Sməsru puskələ bleşkəm srştih krsno jyeşthe sthyuuta puşpəm nişphələ uşmən Sleşma səmskrtə skhalita bhrəsj stəbahə sthitih strii entəhsthe snigdhe sprste sphuurtih bhəsma sreşthətvən scyutə drstva damstra varsneyə nəmoste-stu b. prak ſires pratyəŋſires tan suka tan suka şət sastrə rəpsate əksərəm tiryənşu şətşeştih kşetrə inə diksəmə litsu vətsən sugənsərəti sugəntsərəti kşma Sleksno utkşipta bhəksyə mətsyən təts thələ kşvetə əpkrtsne kartsnyəm vibhrəstəschənnə kərməphələprepsurləbahən nəbhəhspr səm dharstyem etətksetrem ii. grhnati vəhnih hnute brahməna pranhəstəh pranghəstən istanbhanhi egnimiile purohitən yə irəsyə devamrtvijem, notarəm rətnədha təməm əgnih puurvobherrşibhiriidyo nuutənəšrutə isə devam ehə vəksəti tətrape ſyəts thitanpartheh pitrrnəthə pitaməhan acaryanmatulanbhrantrrputranpařtransekhims təthə saktan kərmənyəvidvamso yətha kurvanti bharətə kuryadvidvams tatha-sekta Scikiirşurlokəsəŋgrəhəm nəğvə kimcitkəromiiti yrkto mənyetə təttvəvit pe Syənfrnvənsprsənjighronne snengecchənsvepensvəsən a jpakiirtih palənam brahmanam danem bhogo mitresemreksənəm cə yeşame te sadguna në prəvrttah korthesteşam parthivopa frəyene ·NOILÕIS IANIH

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·CHAPTER 1 ARRANGEMENT OF THE SYLLABARY The Devanagari Script is used in writing Hindi (f) and the arrangement of the characters in the syllabary is the same as the Sanskrit arrangement.1 Some of the characters are used only in writing Sanskrit loanwords, but most of them may be found in literary texts. Some of the characters are modified for representing sounds occurring in Persian and Arabic loanwords. The script is usually referred to as anter (balabodh), 'that can be understood by a child'. Each character is called (ekser), and the syllabic series is called afhICT (vernemala, character-series'). The terms used by Hindi grammarians to refer to the script are similar to those used in Sanskrit, but as the realisation of the characters in Hindi differs somewhat from the Sanskrit system in respect of consonant characters realised with the vowel these terms are used in this section in the Hindi form, and are transcribed in accordance with the realisation of the characters in Hindi. .- The following examples illustrate the difference between the terms used in the Sanskrit section and the corresponding terms used in this section: Sanskrit अचरम (əksərəm), Hindi अक्षर (əksər) विराम: (viramen), विराम (viram) अन्तःस्थ (əntəhsthe), अन्तस्थ (en testh) The table given below in this chapter shows the arrangement of the Hindi syllabary in roman notation. The sounds occurring in Arabic 1. See Sanskrit, Ch.l.

·58 HINDI SECTION and Persian loanwords, and the intervocalic realisation of the characters realised initially as da and (hə are represented in the roman notation as follows: q for the voiceless uvular plosive, X for the voiceless velar fricative, 8 for the voiced velar fricative, T Z for the voiced dental fricative, . I for the voiceless labial fricative, P , rh for the retroflex flapped consonants 5 and 6 Nasalisation of vowels is shown by the superscript As the Devanagari system of writing is syllabic, and the characters in the syllabary represent syllables consisting either of a vowel or of a consonant followed by the vowel the roman table shows each consonant with this vowel. This vowel, when realised with a consonant character, is usually referred to in English texts as the 'inherent' vowell. The series of vowels includes 'short! i and 'long' ii *short! ג and 'long' VU These pairs of vowels occur in Hindi words, some . words being always written with the 'short! vowel and others with the 'long' vowel. There are certain pairs of words which are distinguished in meaning by the writing of the 'short' or the 'long' vowel, and other words in which the 'short! or the 'long' vowel is written, but no distinction is made in speech. In transcribing examples, these vowels are written as 'short' or 'long' in accordance with Hindi orthography, and not in relation to length' of spoken vowel sounds. 1. See Sanskrit, Ch.l.

·ARRANGEMENT OF THE SYLLABARY 59 Hindi Syllabary in Roman Notation 1 Velar 2 Palatal CONSONANTS with 3 Retroflex 4 Dertal 5 Labial Unaspirated kə 1 сә ta tə рә Voiceless Aspirated khe cha thə thə pha P1 OB i ve 8 Unaspirated gə je da2 də ba Voiced Aspirated gha jhe hə ahə bhə Nasal (na) 3 (na) 3 na4 na ma Semivowels 5 уә ve 5 ra 12 Voiceless xa6 Гә 884 8 126 Fricatives Voiced 8ə6 206 Aspirate ha VOWELS a i a ii 27 u uu әў e O eň N MODIFIERS Nasal and Aspirated - h Notes on the syllables marked 1 7 in the above table: 1. The character representing the syllable ka is modified to represent the uvular plosive, qe . 2. The characters representing these two syllables are modified to represent the medial and final realisation of these characters ·бо HINDI SECTION as flapped sounds, written as r and rh in the transcription. 3. The characters representing nə and he are not written as single characters in Hindi, but only in combination with other characters, illustrated below in Chapter 3. 4. The two characters representing ne and şa occur only in Sanskrit loanwords, and do not occur initially. 5. The character represented by is usually realised with.labiodental articulation; or, initially, as a bilabial plosive. va 6. These syllables are written by modifying other characters which represent sounds somewhat similar in articulation: ха with the character for khə; La with the character for phə; хә with the character for gə; Zə with the character for ja 7. This vowel, syllabic occurs only in a few Sanskrit loanwords.

·CHAPTER 2 CHARACTERS OF THE SYLLABARY The characters of the Devanagari Script used in writing Hindi are those given in the Sanskrit section, with the terms which are used by Hindi grammarians in referring to them and to the sornas which they represent. The method of writing the characters is that described in the Introduction, and in the notes on the calligraphy of special characters as they are given in the tables. The characters, and the realisation of them in reading Hindi, are discussed in this chapter under the same headings as in the Sanskrit section: Consonant Characters, Vowel Characters and vowel Signs, and Modifiersi. 1. Consonant Characters. ə The consonant characters are arranged in three groups: 'vergiiy! characters, Santesth' characters, and 'uuşmi characters. The consonant characters, as they are given in the syllabary, are realised as syllables consisting of an initial consonant, or semi-vowel, followed by the vowel Characters realised in this way are described as Tot (ekar). The realisation of a consonant character without this vowel, that is, as the consonant element of the syllable only, is indicated in the script by writing a diagonal stroke, known as the 1. See Sanskrit, Ch.l. for the use of this term. 2. See Sanskrit, Ch.2. References are given throughout this chapter to the divisions and sub-divisions with the corresponding numbers in Chapter 2. of the Sanskrit section.

·52 HINDI SECTION ke , FATTA (viram! at the foot on the character thus, oft The realisation of əkar consonant characters in reading Hindi o, tdiffers in some respects from the realisation of these characters in Sanskrit. The following notes may be regarded as general guiding principles to which reference may be made later, when the characters are discussed in detail. a. b. A final akar consonant character is usually realised with zerovowel, except in a few Sanskrit loanwords. 2 A final əkar character formed by combining two or more consonant characters, a final akar consonant character preceded by a character written with the enus var representing a nasal consonant4, is usually realised with an e-glide. A medial akar consonant character is realised with zero-vowel, Or C. or with an e-glide, in certain contexts, as, for instance, when such a character occurs as the second character of a word of three or more characters and the following character is written with one of the vowel signs 5. Other contexts are given later, when the characters are discussed in detail. å. When an akar consonant character is the final character of a verbal base, it is usually realised with zero-vowel, or with an ə-glide, before the addition of formative particles consisting of a consonant character with a vowel sign. In the transcription of examples of Hindi words, final əkar consonant characters realised with zero-vowel, or with an e-glide, و .ة 1. See Sanskrit, Ch.2.1. 2. əkar consonant characters realised with zero- vowel, as described below in notes a. are, however, not written with the viram, which is used mainly in writing certain Sanskrit loanwords. 3. See below, Ch.3. 4. See below, 3.1.ənusvar. 5. See below, 2.li.

·CHARACTERS OF THE SYLLABARY 63 are transcribed without a and medial ekar characters realised in this way are written thus, ko Por guidance in reading. Characters which do not occur in an initial position are indicated by a hyphen prefixed to the syllable in the roman transcription. 1. Characters of the vərgiiy group. The first group of consonant characters consists of twentyfive characters realised as syllables with an initial plosive consonant . followed by the vowel These characters are placed in five classaof (vərg), according to the position of articulation of the consonant in the syllable they represent. The characters are given in es, or the Sanskrit section. 1 of these characters, : pa and CT ,nə do not occur in Hindi words, and occur in Sanskrit loanwords only in combination with other characters. 2 The character , no, occurs only in Sanskrit loanwords in literary Hindi. The characters given as 'Bombay! forms are also used in Hindi writing, but less frequently than those given in the tables. Some of the characters are modified to represent certain sounds in Persian and Arabic loanwords and the intervocalic realisation of 5 and Ğ फ़ his G qə X хә Zə fa -ra -rha ढ़ are The characters ड and & occur only initially; and never initial, but may be medial or fina] Reading examples.3 a consonant with the vowel ə 1. One character words, realised as द त o 1. See Sanskrit, Ch.2,1.i. 2. See below, Ch.3. 3. For transcription, see page 85.

·64 HINDI SECTION 2. Two character words, the final character realised with zero-vowel. कब भट चख मट घट चढ़ खम फण थन जड़ गज़ गम कद डग कफ मठ 3. Three character words झगड़ फबन खड़क कदम धमक ग़ज़ब पढ़त भजन चाक पकड़ घटक कथन छमक खतम जखम 4. Four character words, second characters realised with zero-vowel or with an ə-glide, final characters with zero-vowel. धमकत बचपन पतझड़ जमघट फटकन झटपट ii. Characters of the antasth group. There are four characters in this group, representing syllables consisting of an initial semi-vowel with the vowel The characte ers are given in the Sanskrit sectioni. When the characters य , yə and , ve occur initially, or with one of the vowel signs, they are realised as consonants followed by & vowel. When they occur medially in a position in which they are realised with a following vowel, they are realised as consonants. When they occur medially in positions in which an əkar consonant character is realised with zero-vowel, or finally, they are realised as semivowels, forming a diphthong with the vowel of the preceding syllabile. Examples: यमन वक भय সন yemen vək bhey lav The character Q is often realised initially or medially as bə 1. See Sanskrit, Ch.2,1.11.

·CHARACTERS OF THE SYLLABARY 65 Reading examples. I 2 1. One character word. व 2. Two character words, the final character realised with zero-vowel. जल फल लड़ घर वन खल छय घर नव जर छल वय बल लव जय भर 3. Three character words, the final character realised with zero-vowel. बदल चलन गरज चपल वज़न क़बर लयन वरणं স तरफ़ यमल वचन यवन खबर यमक ग़ज़ल 4. Four and five character words; second characters in four character words and third character in five character words, realised with zero-vowel or with an e-glide, final characters with zero-vowel. मतलब लमछाड़ चढ़कर करवट दलकन कटफल चमरख खरवट परजवट पकड़कर मचलपन iii. Characters of the uuşm group. This group consists of three characters which are realised as fricative consonants followed by the vowel e and one which is . realised as an aspirate followed by These characters are given in the Sanskrit section]. The character ष , şə, occurs only in some Sanskrit loanwords used in literary Hindi. It is often realised in ordinary speech as so. The last character in the Hindi syllabary is ह he . 1. For transcription, see p. 85. 2. This is the only ontǝsth character which occurs as a word. 3. See Sanskrit, Ch.2,1.iii. F ·66 HINDI SECTION In words consisting of əkar consonant characters only, the realisation of ह , he varies according to its position in the word. When occurs medially preceded by an əkar character, and is followed by another consonant character, it is often realised in combination with the vowel of the preceding character as a. aspiration accompanying the vowel (e), as in शहर पहर रहन foher(Jahr) peher (pehr) rehen(rshn) लहसन 1ehesen(Tehsen) b. When & occurs as a final character following an akar consonant character it is generally realised in combination with the vowel of the preceding character as (a). Examples: तरह जगह Exceptions: यह वह सह teren(tera) jegen(Jega). yen(yeh) veh(von) səhə Reading examples.1 1. None of the uusm characters occurs as a word. 2. Two character words, the final character realised with zero-vowel. दस शठ हल कश हम सब हठ हक़ धस यश षट हद ग़श सर 3. Three character words, the final character realised with zero-vowel. शपथ समझ शरण हसद सरस शबर सफ़र हज़म सगढ़ समय हलफ़ शकल कलश तरस 4. Four character words, final characters realised with zero-vowel, second characters with zero-vowel or with an o-glide. मसनद कसरत हज़रत सरकश खसलत हटकन हरकत हलचल मसरफ़ सरढल 1. For transcription, see p.85.

·CHARACTERS OF THE SYLLABARY 67 2. Vowel Characters and Vowel Signs. 1. Vowel Characters. The vowel characters used in writing Hindi are the same as those given in the Sanskrit section?, omitting the characters representing syllabic and syllabic 1 and 11 The character occurs in Sanskrit loanwords used in literary Hindi. The vowel characters are rr usually placed first in the syllabary, and they are referred to as əkar, akar, ikar and so on. The Bombay Porns of the characters are sometimes written in Hindi, but the forms given in the table are more usual. The general rules concerning the realisation of ekar consonant characters should be applied in reading all examples given below, unless special notes are added. Reading examples. 2 1. Words consisting of vowel characters only. आई प्रायो आओ आई आए 2. Words consisting of vowel characters and ekar consonant characters. अब एक और इन प्रोढ़ ऊख आग ईख ऋण ईद ऐश ओर गई गए सई इधर ऊपर ऐज़न औषध अगर ओझर औरत ऐपन अोझ ऋण ii. Vowel Signs. The vowel signs used in writing Hindi, Corre responding with the vowel characters and written with the akar form of the character on, are given in the Sanskrit section.3 Each character represents a 1. See Sanskrit, Ch.2,2. i 3. See Sanskrit Ch.2,2.11. 2. For transcription, see p.85.

·68 HINDI SECTION syllable consisting of a consonant followed by one of the vowels a to ƏŤ The vowel signs are referred to as T (matra), as in ए की मात्रा ( e kii matra 'the sign of e'). Reading examples. 1 , 1. One character words. भी सौ का दे के पी धो जा ले या पै नौ जी दो जो से रवा सो वे थी जू मौज छेद दृढ2 2. Two character words. द्ध भात चीज़ बैठ होय नाव दिन गाय लिए पैसा धोबी खुल झूट खाना उषा भीति ऋतु कृपा 2 झील धोए बड़ी जाए ई 3. Three character words. मैदान किताब पृथिवी रुपैये केर कारण दीजिए फ़कीर तैयार देखाओ सुनाई सुअर बहुधा 4. Words of four or more characters. Numbers in brackets indicate the realisation of əkar consonant characters with zero-vowel, or with an ə-glide, if the words are not to be read according to the rules given above. Most words of more than four characters are compounds in which the final character of the first part, if əkar, is realised with zero-vowel. मज़दूर कमज़ोर अफ़सोस बेइनामी इसीलिए चतुराई बनावटी 30 मुसलमान नज़दिक बैलगाड़ी दरवाज़ा घड़ियाल सौदागर रोज़गारी खिदमतगार (2,47 खबरदार 1. For transcription of examples, see p.85. 2. A Sanskrit loanword, with final 4hə ·CHARACTERS OF THE SYLLABARY 69 The Icllowing rules concerning the realisation of əkar consonant characters in words which have vowel characters and signs provide some guidance for reading from the script, though the only reliable guide is a knowledge of the spoken language. a. When a medial əkar consonant character, in a three character word, is followed by a final character with a vowel sign, it is usually realised with zero-vowel, or with an e-glide, e.g. रेशमी पना लड़का लकड़ा परदा सदरी res'mii lar'ka per'da sed'rii i. When a verbal base ends in an əkar consonant character, this ep'na 1ekira b. character is realised with zero-vowel, or with an a--glide, before formative particles which consist of a consonant character with a vowel sign e.g. सक सकना सकती बोल बोलता बोलते seksək-na sek-ti1 bol bol-ta bol-te ii. When a verbal base consists of three or more characters, the final and pre-final characters being akar consonant characters, the realisation of these characters varies according to the form of the formative particles which are added. This variation is illustrated in the following examples: C. . समझ समझा समझता समझकर समझाना səmə jh səm' jha səmə jh-ta seme jh-ker səm' jhana Media1 ह hə हि hi and हु , hu are realised as follows: 'i. Medial & , preceded by a consonant character with a vowel sign is realised as aspiration of the vowel of the preceding syllable. चाहना मिहनत तुहमत बेहतर सोहबत cahna minnət tuhmət behtər sohbet e.g.

·70 HINDI SECTION , e.g. ii. Medial हि preceded by an əkar character, may be realised in coalescence with the vowel of a preceding əkar character as eyh. e.g. पहिला बहिरा बहिन pohila or paỹhla bahira or bəýhra behin or bəýhn iii. Medial हु preceded by an əkar character, may be realised in coalescence with the vowel of a preceding əkar character as eva. बहुत पहुड़ना bəhut or bəvht pəhur-na or pařhr-na Reading examples, illustrating the above notes, and notes a. and b. under 1.111 (uusm characters).1 खिड़की दूसरा दूसरा इतना आदमी कपड़ा लोमड़ी बावली फायदा देरवना बैठती लिरवता पकड़ाना थबराती पकड़ना ढलकना तेरह चौदह सुबह बगेरह गहिरा पहचान ठहरना कचहरी c. 3. Modifiers. The modifiers, 57 (ənusvar) and fastof (vibərg) are both 2 used in writing Hindi. These are given in the Sanskrit section. ənusvar. Both forms of this modifier are used in Hindi, the first form, as in अं , being ca11ed the anusvar, and the second form, as in अँ, the cendrebindu? The anus var is usually written, in preference to the cendrebindu, with characters that have any superscribed stroke.. अँ आँ ऊँ ॐ ऐं मों श्रौं am am im iim um uum em eym om əřn इँ ई एँ 1. For transcription of examples, see p. 86. 2. See Sanskrit, Ch.2,3.i. and ii. 3. 'moon and dot'.

·CHARACTERS OF THE SYLLABARY 71 The anus var and condrabindu are realised in Hindi as follows: a. As the nasalisation of the vowel of the character with which it is written. The cəndrabindu is preferred for representing a nasalised stic mē vowel, except when the character has a superscribed stroke; e.g. हां or हाँ मुंह or मुँह थीं में hã mūh thii hēý 1 Reading examples. मैं ज मेंह नहीं गएँ पाँच गाँव गईं प्रोंस ईंट जाऊँ कुएं दोनों वहां आँखें स भैंस अँध भोंक भौंकना देशों दौंरी पोंछना भाईओं पँडुआ पाऊँगा जाएँगे सोह लहंगा मंहगा हँसना पहुँचना Ohes ऊँट b. As the nasal consonant of one oL the vərg. The anusvar written on a character preceding a vergiiy character is realised as the nasal consonant of the same class as the following character, or as when the following character is of the ca-verg. The condrabindu is not usually written to represent a nasal consonant. When the anus var is realised as a nasal consonant before a final akar 2 character, the final character is realised with an a-glide . हिंदी. पंव कंठ परंतु संबंध कंजूस penkh kanth parentu hindii. səmbəndh ken juus In writing Sanskrit loanwords, there is an alternative and more frequently used method of representing nasal consonants in this context, by combining characters2. when the anusvar is realised as a nasal consonant before a Pinal əkar character, the final character is realised with an a-glide3. 1. For transcription, see p.86. 3. See above, 1. note b. 2. See Sanskrit, Ch.3,3.Class 2.11.

·HINDI SECTION In some words, this modifier may be realised as in a. or as in b. The realisation as in b. is more usual when the character with the anusvar is akar. रंग e.g. अँक ək or ank rõg or rəng eading Examples. पंडित आरंभ संगत कंपना पंजाब पंजाब जंगल शंरव संघ पंचमी ਠੰs अंजीर पसंद बंधन बंडी सिंग डिंब अंदर खंभा अंत कुटुंब संघट अंगुल मनोरंजक When the ənusvar is written on a character preceding one of the əntasth or uusm characters, as in Sanskrit loanwords and learned words used in the literary language, it is realised in various ways. Among the several ways of realising the onusvar in this context used by speakers in different parts of India, the usual Hindi practice is illustrated by the following examples: or enusvar before य श, स and ह realised as as the nasalisation of the vowel of the syllable, e.g. संयोग संराग संलग्न संशय अहिंसा सिंह sənyog sənrag sənləgn senjoy ahinsa sinhə or sõyog sērag sõləgən sã say əhisa sihe enusvar before व , realised as m the character o being, usually realised as b in this context, e.g. संवाद semvad (sembad) वारंवार एaremvar (bar embar) कुंवारी but küvarii . For transcription, see p. 86. 2. See Sanskrit, Ch.2.3.1. note c. The last character in this word represents T, combined with To ·CHARACTERS OF THE SYLLABARY 73 ii. Visərg. This modifier is rarely used in writing Hindi. It occurs in some Sanskrit loanwords used mainly in the literary language, and in a few Hindi words. When written with a medial character, it is usually realised either as strong aspiration after the syllable represented by the character with which it is written, as in reading learned words from a literary text; or, in less formal reading, as the . or doubling of the consonant of the following character; for example: 5:19, duhkhe dukkh अंतःकरण , entenkeren or entekkərən When the visərg is written with a final character, it is realised as strong aspiration following the final syllable, for instance, in learned words such as ga: , puneh, fa staa: , viseş'təh ; or it may be disregarded, as in cha. 4. The Complete Syllabary. The arrangement of the characters of the Hindi syllabary in the traditional order is similar to that given in the Sanskrit section, and . I The table in which omitting the vowel characters are all the vowel characters, except and the modifiers added to the character are placed at the head of a series of columns consisting of every consonant in the əkar form, with each of the vowel signs and each of the modifiers, is called in Hindi the areast , barəhkharii, the 'twelve characters'. This table is often recited in schools by children learning to read. 1. See Sanskrit, Ch.2, 4.

·74 HINDI SECTION These two tables show the order in which the characters are placed as the initial characters of words in dictionaries, which is the same as the order in Sanskrit. Words beginning with the modified characters are placed in the series of words beginning with the corresponding unmodified characters. 5. Numerals. The numerals used in Hindi are given in the Sanskrit section. I Both the 'Hindi' forms and the 'Bombay' forms are used in modern Hindi printing. 6. Punctuation. In prose writing, the end of a sentence is marked with an upright stroke of the same height as the upright stroke of a character. Other punctuation marks are used as in English. This system is illustrated in the Hindi prose passage at the end of this section2. The system of punctuation used in verse is the m as that used in Sanskrit3. 1. See Sanskrit, Ch.2,5. 2. See end of Ch.3. 3. See Sanskrit, Ch.2, 3. ii. Reading examples.

·CHAPTER 3 CONJUNCT CHARACTERS Two or more consonant characters may be combined in writing Hindi to represent consonants which are realised without an intervening vowel. Characters formed by combining other characters are called yThat (senyuktakşer?) by Hindi grammarians. The construction and calligraphy of conjunct characters are described in the Sanskrit section2 The con junct characters used in writing Hindi are classified in this chapter in the same way as the Sanskrit conjunct characters3. 1. Contexts of Conjunct Characters in Hindi. Conjunct characters occur in Hindi in these contexts: i. In Hindi words, that is, words not borrowed from Sanskrit or from other languages; e. 8 बच्चा bəcca क्योंकि मक्खी kyoki məkkhii ii. In Sanskrit loanwords, either words commonly used in Hindi, or learned loanwords used in the literary language; e.8. पुस्तक rat शब्द pustak strii Seba iii, In loanwords from other languages; e.8. दरख्त dərəxt हफ़्ता hətta स्टेशन steſen 1. 'joined character'. 2. See Sanskrit, Ch.3,1. 3. ibid. Ch.3,3.

·6 HINDI SECTION 2. Realisation of conjunct characters in Hindi. Conjunct characters are realised in reading as syllables consisting of two or more consonants followed by a vowel. When an akar conjunct character occurs as the final character of a word, it is usually realised with an ə-glide, as in I, gupt', 17 , Sastr'. 1 The realisation in modern Hindi of əkar characters with zerovowel in certain positions in words 2 gives rise to a problem of spellirg. For instance, when a formative particle beginning with a consonant character is added to a verbal base ending in a final əkar consonant character, the final character of the base is usually realised with zero-vowel. This realisation of the consecutive characters is similar to the realisation of a conjunct character. Similar problems arise in other instances, where an əkar consonant character is realised with zero-vowel before a following consonant character, and in compound words in which the first part ends in an akar consonant character, and the second part begins with a consonant character. 3 3. Classes of Conjunct Characters in Hindi.4 All the classes of conjunct characters given in the Sanskrit section occur in Hindi, but in some of the classes only a few of the characters are used. Those used in writing Hindi are 11lustrated by the examples given in each class, which include some Sanskrit loanwords which are commonly used in Hindi. More rarely used loanwords, some of which may occur in literary Hindi, are included among the examples given with each class in the Sanskrit section. 1. In the transcription of examples, this glide is not indicated in words to which this rule applies. 2. See above, Ch.2,1. notes a. to d. 3. Examples of such words are given below, with each class of conjunct characters. 4. See Sanskrit, Ch.3, 3.

·CONJUNCT CHARACTERS 77 Class 1. Two similar characters joined. The series of characters in this class occurring in Sanskrit is given in that section?. Most of the consonant characters of the Hindi -rra क syllabary occur in this class, but some occur only in Sanskrit loanwords used in the literary language. The character representing is written as the superscribed stroke representing when preceding another consonant. The modified characters ढ़ do not occur in this class, but क़्क़, qge , फ़्फ़ Pla and ज़्ज़ 3 and ZZƏ are written in Persian and Arabic loanwords. A character representing an aspirated consonant is not written in Sanskrit as the first part of a conjunct character in this class, but in writing Hindi the characters खरव , khkha and ठ्ठ , ththe sometimes used. The combination may be alternatively represented by writing an ənus var with the character preceding in उम्मीद or उमीद ummid are -mme as The following examples illustrate Hindi words in which two consecutive consonant characters, the first being ekar, are realised in - - Sənn ordinary speech in the same way as conjunct characters: बनना गुस्से उससे bən-na3 ४usse us-se4 Reading examples5. पका हुक्का मक्रवन लग्गी घुग्घू बच्ची इच्छा लज्जा इज़्ज़त झज्झर पट्टा चिट्ठी अड्डा बुड्ढा पत्ता पत्थर बद्दल शुद्ध अन्न छप्पर फुप्फूस डिब्बी भब्भड़ किम्मत स्य्यत किल्ली नव्वे हिस्सा हरी 1. See Sanskrit, Ch.3, Class.l. 3. Verbal form. 5. For transcription, see p. 86. 2. See below, Class 3.iii.a. 4. Pronoun with suffix.

·78 HINDI SECTION Class 2. TWO vərgiiy characters joined. The conjunct characters in this class which occur in Sanskrit are given in the Sanskrit section]. Some of the more common conjunct characters of this class occurring in Hindi, mostly in Sanskrit loanwords, are given below, with the addition of some conjunct characters occurring in Persian and Arabic loanwords. Some of the examples given in the Sanskrit section may be found in Hindi texts, in learned loanwords in the literary language. 1.2 Th -ktə cah -tka TG -gdə द -dge प्त -pta त्प -tpə दू -bdə -abə रुत -xtə UT bja OUT -bzə FT -qtə कब -qbə ah -qə FT -Ita ort -btə ii. Most of the characters given under ii.a. in the Sanskrit section are written in literary Hindi, this method of representing a homorganic nasal consonant preceding one of the vergiiy characters being generally preferred to the use of the onusvar, in writing Sanskrit loanwords3. Among the characters given in the Sanskrit section under ii.b., only ज्ञ inə and -tna occur in Hindi. The character is not calligraphically a conjunct character, and it is often included in the syllabic series. It is usually realised as gyə with nasalisation of the following vowe14. In Hindi dictionaries, words beginning with this character are placed after words beginning with Git iii. These characters occur in Sanskrit loanwords: off -kme 9 . ndma प - gna -ghnə tmə -pnə 1. See Sanskrit, Ch.3, Class 2. 2. The numbers 1. iv. correspond to the arrangement of these characters in the Sanskrit section. 3. See above, Ch.2,i.b. 4. CL. gyə in Class 3.1. below.

·CONJUNCT CHARACTERS 79 iv. or the characters in this group, only डम , -yme and -mme occur in Hindi, in Sanskrit loanwords. The following examples illustrate Hindi words in which consecutive consonant characters, the first being əkar, are realised in ordinary speech in the same way as conjunct characters: शक्ति सकती रब्त दबता पन्ना आदमी Sakti sek-tiil rabt deb-tal pedma ad'mi1 Reading examples. 2 भक्ति वक़्त सत्कार दरख्त सद्गुण वक़फ़ एक्बीस कुब्ज सब्ज़ गुप्त उत्पन्न हफ़्ता शब्द लफ़्ज़ लत्फ़ पञ्चमी मझा घएटा ठपड शान्ति लम्पट प्रारम्भ परन्तु उपरान्त ज्ञान जिज्ञासु आत्मा खत्म लग्न उम्दा जन्म वाङ्मय Class3. Characters joined with əntes th characters. लिङ्ग सङ्घ रुक्मिणी हुकम 1. Characters joined with following a The series of characters in this class occurring in Sanskrit is given in that section.3 Most of the consonant characters of the Kindi syllabary can be combined with following a though some of these conjunct characters occur only in Sanskrit loanwords in the literary language. Some of the examples given in the Sanskrit section may occur in a Hindi literary text. or the modified characters, ख and ज़ occür combined with following u in Persian and Arabic loanwords. 1. Verbal form. 2. For transcription, see p.86. 3. See Sanskrit, Ch.3, 3. Class 3. iii.b.

·So HINDI SECTION Reading Examples. 1 क्यों ख्याल ग्यारह ज्यों त्यों पथ्य उद्योग मध्य न्याय कार्य अमूल्य व्याख्यान अवश्य मुख्य ज्यादा ड्योढ़ी पुण्य प्यारी ब्यथा सभ्य मनुष्य स्याल व्यथा ii. Characters joined with following व The series of characters in this class occurring in Sanskrit is given in that section.2 Only a few of the characters of the Hindi are syllabary occur combined with following a and those that occur mainly in Sanskrit loanwords. of the modified characters, only is combined with व Reading examples. 3 ज्वार तत्त्व ध्वनि विश्व पक्कान्न ख्वाब स्वामी सर्व ग्वार सर्व ईश्वर द्वारा कचित कारा श्वास स्वप्न r iii. Characters joined with preceding र or with following a. र preceding. Characters realised with preceding , represented by the stroke called $ (ref), are illustrated, with notes on calligraphy, in the 4 Sanskrit section. These characters occur in Hindi words, in Sanskrit loanwords, and in loanwords from other languages. The examples given below illustrate the characters of this class which occur in Hindi. The characters ग, त, ब, म य and are often , doubled when written with ref 1. For transcription, see p. 86. 2. See Sanskrit, Ch.3, Class 3.ii. 3. For transcription, see p. 86. 4. See Sanskrit, Ch.3, Class 3, iii.a.

·CONJUNCT CHARACTERS 81 The following examples illustrate Hindi words in which consecutive consonant characters, the first being akar, are realised in ordinary speech in the same way as conjunct characters: कर्ता करता सर्व दरवाज़ा धर्म दरमाहा karta ker-tal serv dər'vaza dhərm dər 'maha A few words may be written either with T followed by a consonant character or with a character with superscribed ref ; e.g. दरबार दर्बार परदा पर्दा दरजी दर्जी dar'bar dərbar per'da pərda dər'jii derjii b. ₹ fo11owing. Characters realised with following, represented by a short stroke placed either against the upright stroke of the character or 2 beneath the character, are given in the Sanskrit section. The m examples given below illustrate the characters of this class which occur in Hindi. The majority of such words are loanwords from Sanskrit and English. Reading examples.3 तर्क फ़र्क मूर्ख सुर्ख वर्ग दीर्घ मुर्गी खर्च मूर्छित अर्ज अर्ज कोर्ट गार्ड वर्णमाला कीर्ति अर्थ उर्दू अर्द्ध ऊर्फ अर्पण अर्ब गर्भ धर्म आर्य सर्व दर्शन वर्ष कुर्सी अर्हित क्रम क्रम ग्राम अग्रेज़ ट्राम रात्री पत्र छिद्र समुद्र प्रिय फ्राक नम्र अब्रु श्रम तीव्र मन्त्र iv. 'Characters joined with preceding or with following a. ल preceding. The characters of this class which occur in Sanskrit are given in that section. 4 The characters occurring in Hindi are illustrated by 1. Verbal form. 2. See Sanskrit, Ch.3,3.01.3.1ii.b. 3. For transcription, see p. 86. 4. See Sanskrit, Ch.3.3.01.3.iv.a. G ·82 HINDI SECTION the examples given below. Some words may be written either with followed by a consonant character, or with a conjunct character of this class%3 e.g. बिलकुल बिल्कुल bilkul. or b. ल following. The characters of this class which occur in Sanskrit are given in that section. 1 The examples given below illustrate the characters which occur in Hindi, in Sanskrit and English loanwords. 2 Reading examples. बल्कि मुल्क फाल्गुण फाल्गुण इल्तिज़ा इल्मी कुल्हाड़ा इल्ज़ाम उल्था अक्ल (अक़ल) फ़स्ल (फ़सल) फ़स्ल (फ़सल) इख्लास वस्ल शुक्ल क्लास उल्मुस्व Class 4. vərgiiy characters joined with preceding or following uusm characters. श Đor H preceding or following vergiiy characters. श, ष or स् preceding. The conjunct characters in this class which occur in Sanskrit are given in the Sanskrit section. 3. Those which are written in Hindi, including those occurring in Sanskrit and other loanwords, are indicated by the examples given below. The following conjunct characters which are not included in the Sanskrit section occur in Hindi, in loanwords from other languages: श्त स्ट स्ब -ge -Ste -ste -sbe Hindi words in which consecutive consonant characters, the first character being akar, are realised in ordinary speech in the same way 1. See Sanskrit, Ca.4.3,01.3.iv.b. 2. See Sanskrit, Ch.4.3,C1.4.i.a. 2. For transcription, see p.87.

·CONJUNCT CHARACTERS 83 as conjunct characters are illustrated by these examples: रस्ता बसता क़िस्मत उसमें rasta bes-tal qismət us-mẽ 2 श, ष following. p. or The conjunct characters of this class which occur in Sanskrit are given in the Sanskrit section 3. Only a few of these characters occur in Hindi. The characters which occur are illustrated by the reading examples given below. Some additional characters of this class, not included in the Sanskrit series, occur in loanwords from XSƏ १ a. other languages: रुस , रुश फ़स , rse. Reading examples.4 मुश्किल प्रश्न पश्चात आश्चर्य चश्मा पुष्कल कृष्ण राष्ट्र पुस्तक वास्ते वस्त्र स्त्री रास्ता हिन्दुस्थान स्नान स्पष्ट स्फूर्ति स्वस्ति स्वस्थ उस्ताद शास्त्र पश्चिम किश्ती इश्तिहा निस्बत इश्क़ स्कूल स्टेशन पोस्ट b. अक्षर अक्षर परीक्षा क्षमा लक्ष्मी वत्स प्रत्यक्ष बरूश शररुस अफ़सोस ii. & preceding or following an ənunasik character5. Only three characters of this class occur in Hindi, illustrated by these examples:- a. as in unhe preceding, ब्राह्मण , brahmen . b. following 7, or as in न्हान , nhan उन्हें, उन्हारी unhari1 ; म्हारी , mharii कुम्हड़ा , kumhara , तुम्हें , tumha १ 1. Verbal form. 2. Pronoun with suffix. 3. See Sanskrit, Ch.3.3.01.4.1.b. 4. For transcription, see p.87. 5. See Sanskrit, Ch.3.3.01.4.ii.a. and b.

·S4 HINDI SECTION Hirdi prose passagei किसी जाति के जीवन में उसके द्वारा प्रयुक्त शब्दों का अत्यंत महत्त्व- पूर्ण स्थान है । आवश्यकता तथा स्थिति के अनुसार इन प्रयुक्त शब्दों का आगम अथवा लोप तथा वाच्य , लक्ष्य एवं द्योत्य भावों में परिवर्तन होता रहता है। अतएव और सामग्री के अभाव में इन शब्दों के द्वारा किसी जाति के जीवन की भिन्न भिन्न स्थितियों का इतिहास उपस्थित किया जा सकता है। इसी आधार पर आर्य जाति का प्राचीनतम इतिहास प्रस्तुत किया गया है और ज्यों ज्यों सामग्री उपलब्ध होती जा रही है .त्यों त्यों यह इतिहास ठीक किया जा रहा है। इस अवस्था में यह बात स्पष्ट समझ में आ सकती है कि जातीय जीवन में शब्दों का स्थान कितने महत्त्व का है। जातीय साहित्य को रक्षित करने तथा उसके भविष्य को सुचारु और समुज्वल बनाने के अतिरिक्त वह किसी भाषा की सम्पन्नता या शब्द- बहुलता का सूचक और उस भाषा के साहित्य का अध्ययन करनेवालों का सब से बड़ा सहायक भी होता है । विशेषतः अन्य भाषा-भाषियों और विदेशियों के लिये तो उसका और भी अधिक उपयोग होता है। इन सब दृष्टियों से शब्द-कोश किसी भाषा के साहित्य की मूल्यवान् संपत्ति और उस भाषा के भांडार का सब से बड़ा नि- दर्शक होता है। 1. Hindi Shabdasagar, p.1, ed. Shāmsundardas, pub. 1916, by Kashi- Nagari-Sabha.

·TRANSCRIPTION 85 Transcription of Reading Examples Chapter 2. 1.i. ецо dhe ta tha eu leua ka phan teur ueut udeo ueya zes les qeub wel chət qad cəkh dag jhat kal 10ų: uleu wex məgən bhajan deseu. eleux ueqeyd weped ueuzex ҳешечр Yeweyo parhat ghafek qezel We z ex canak pəkər ZƏXƏm dhəm'kət bac'pən pət'jhər jom' ghet uexi feud jhət'pat 1.ii. ел kər jal ROV teyd Teyghar үər jer lər vəy Jeup цел лет bal tər jay khəl уәи Кецо Jeua bədəl xərəz cələn tərər gərə yəməl capel VƏcən uezea целей qəbər xəbər ləyən yemək Iedea Tezel mət'ləb cəm'rax deys. wet 1ел , неця ker'vet dex.udes 1ел feaed dəl'kən məcəl'pən Teud. lex paker'kar Tey 1.iii. dəs haq hər ahəs səth yas bəs ras kəЛ şət шец рец səb yos həth Sər hər uredes шеzец səmə jh segerh lejes Lemes həsəd hələr setes Textes səbər kələs səfər taras məsinəd hət'kən kəs'rət hər'kət həz'rət həl'cəl sər'kas məs'rəf xəs'lat sər'dal 2.1. a ai ao ae ao ai ae udo qe ugo ek rn idher uupər uuth rn ağzen əýr un is iia əvşədh əgər in әў ojhər uukh ag gəii gəe ayrət әйрәn iikh saii JO 2.it. de bhii ke жәй pii ka aho раў nəý jii do le juu ya həš jo se kha 80 ve thii ja duudh hoy lie bhat nav Suruu ciiz din рәўва bəğth gay ahobii khul jhuut Xana meř j uşa bhiiti ched rtu krpa drah huii bərii jhiil dhoe jae meydan prtbivii huzuur rupəyye qitab keuur karan suar fəqiir dekhao təyyar sunaii diijie bəhudha ·36 HINDI SECTION ?22'duur Seinarii sənay'tii kəmizor isiiliye musəl'man af'sos az'dik dər'vaza coturaii bəği'gadii səviagər xəbər'dar xidmətigar ghəriyal roz'garii 1.13. khir'kii duus'ra itina ad'mii kəpira lom'rii bavilii phay'da iekh-na bəšth-tii likh-ta pəktrana ghəb'ratii pəkər-na dhəlak-na Cerən cəvaan suban bəyerəh gahira pəhəcan thəhər-na kəcəhərii ēdua ..i.a. məў jõ h៥ mēn nənii gəě ūut pãc gãv gəſi is Iit jaữu kuē dono vəhã äkně ghũus bhõýs iah bhõk bhôvk-na de so dövrii põch-na bhaiið เนีugg jaẽge sõh ləhəga məhõga hős-na pəhức-na b. pandit arambh senget thenq ənjiir pəsənd bəndhən səŋghət CƏmp-na pənjab jəngəl bəriqii sing qimb əndər əngul 'enkh sangh pənc 'mii khəmbha ent kutumb mənorənjak Chapter 3. lass 1. jakka hugga makkhan laggii ghugghuu bəccii iccha ajja izzət jhəjjher patta citthii əqda buddha patta atthər bəddəl sudah ann chəppər phupphuus qibbii bhabbhar kimmat rəyyət harra killii nəvve hissa lass 2. bhakti vəqt sətkar daraxt sadgun vəql ekbiis kub j səbz gupt utpənn həfta səba Vəfa late ii. ling səngh pəncəmii mar jha ghanta thand santi lempət arambh pərəntu upərant jpan (gyan) jinasu ratn səmbənan iii. rukminii huqm atma xatm lagn umda Lv. janm vanməy lass 3.i. puny cyõ tyo caryy mukhy xyal gyarən jyõ zyada dyevahii pathy udyog mədhy nyay pyarii byətha səbhy əmuuly vyakhyan əvəsy mənusy syal vyə tha Class 3. ii. bekvann svamii xvab sory gvar sarvy jvar iisvər təttv kvara dvara kvacit ahvoni ſvas visve Svəpna Class 3. iii. a. tark fərq muurkh surx vər88 diirgh murgii Xərc muurchit erz erj kort gara vərrəmala kiirti ərth urduu ardan uurl. ərpən erb gərbh dharmm aryy Sərvy dərsən vers kursii ərhit chidr səmudr krəm krəm gram priy Prak namr angrez tram obru Srəm ratrii tiivr pətr məntr ·TRANSCRIPTION 87 Class 3. iv. bəlki mulk əqi (əqal) phalgun iltiza ilmii kulnara ilzan ultha fəsl (rəsəl) ixlas vasi suki Hlas ulmukh Class 4. i.a. uſkil prasm pescat агсәry cəsma puskel krşı rastr pustak vaste vestr strii rasta ninius than San spast sphuurti svasti Syəsth ustad Sastr pacim kutii istiha nisbət isa skuul steen nost b. ekşər əksər pariiksa kşəma ləkşmii vəts pratysks bəxs səxs afsos Hindi prose passage kisii jati ke jivən mě us'ke dvara prəyukt Səbač ka a tyǝnt məhəttvəpuurn sthan həj. avə Syək'ta tətha sthiti ke anusar in prayukt səbdõ ka agəm əth'va lop tetha vacy, leksy evəm dyoty bhavõ mẽ pərivərtən hota rəh-ta həỹ. ət'evə əyr samegrii ke ebhav mă in səbdo ke dvara kisii jati ke jiivən kii bhinn bhinn sthitiyõ ka itihas upəs thit kiya ja sək-ta həỹ. isii adhar pər ary jati ka praciin'təm itihas prestut kiya gaya həğ əër jyð jyð samegrii upələbdh hotii ja rehii hej, tyõ tyõ yən itihas thiik kiya ja raha həý. is əvəs tha më yeh bat spest some jh mẽ a sek-tii heý ki jatiiy jiiven mẽ səbdõ ka sthan kiti ne mehəttv ka həý. jatiiy sahity ko rəksit kər-ne tetha us-ke bhəvişy ko sucaru atr səmujvəl banane ke etirikt vən kisii bhaşa kii sərpənr.'ta ya saba'bahul'ta ka suucək əyr us bhasa ke sahity ka adhyəyən kərvalõ ka səb se bara səhayək bhii hota həý. viseş'ten əny bhasabhaşiyo əýr vide ſiyo ke liye to us-ka əýr bhii ədnik upayog nota həỹ. in səb drstiyõ se səbd-kos kisii bhaşa ke sahity kii muulyavan sənpətti əyr us bhaşa ke bhandar ka səb se bara nider sək hota həỹ. -ne-

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