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·NOBEL
LAUREATES
IN PHYSIOLOGY OR MEDICINE (1901 TO 1991)

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·NOBEL
LAUREATES
IN PHYSIOLOGY OR MEDICINE (1901 TO 1991)
P T Rajasekharan
Panther Publishers
Bangalore, India
in collaboration with
Biological E Limited, Hyderabad

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·Foi eword S 1901 ince the first lime the Nobel Prize was incepled in 1901, Alfred Nobel s Will has been carried out almost every scar Bartıng unavoidable interferences like the world wars, this prize for scientific and literary excellence and world peace has brought into limelight and recognition eminent humanists and persuasive thinkers and researchers who have pionccred the shaping of the world in the past over 100 y cars The members of the jury selecting the prize winners have repeatedly distinguished themselves by their professional and impartial judgement Should we wish today, after this considerable lapse of time once again to nominate the most important figures from the vanous scientific fields, the greater part of the list could hardly be any different--with just a fex names missing and a few added The unbiased attitude of the committee which selects the laureates in different spheres and their commitment to strictly cnforce Nobel's last wishes that it is his will That thie mward of the prize shall be made without regard to nalionality ·so that he who has the greatest merit, shall receive it, bu lie a Scandinavian or not, has rarely, if ever, been senously con tested The Will of Alfred Nobel The Nobel Foundation was established under the terms of the will of Alfred Bernhard Nobel, Ph Dhc, dated Pans, November 27, 1895, which in its relevant parts runs as follows The whole of my remaining realizable estate shall be dealt with in the following way the capital, invested in safe securities by my executors shall constitute a fund, the interest on which shall be annually distributed in the form of prizes to those who, during the preceding year shall have conferred the greatest benefit on mankind The said interest shall be divided into five equal parts which shall be apportioned as follows one part to the person who shall have made the most important discovery or invention within the field of plıysics, one part to the person who shall have made the most important chemical discovery within the dontain of physiology or medicine, one part to the person who shall have produced in the field of literature the most outstanding work of an idealistic tendency, and one part to the person who shall have done the most or the best work for fraternity between nations, for the abolition or reduction of standing armies and for the holding and promotion of peace congresses The prizes for płysics and chemistry shall be awarded by the Swedish Academy of Sciences, that for physiological or medical works by the Caroline Institute in Stockholm that for literature by the Academy in Stockholm and that for champions of peace by a committee of five persons to be elected by the Norwegian Storting It is my express wish that in awarding the prizes no consideration whatever shall be given to the nationality of the candidates but that the most worthy shall receive the prize whether he be a Saandinavian or not ·The Nobel Phenomenon Since the first award was given in 1901, the Nobel prize has always been regarded by laymen, scholars and scientists alike as the ultimate symbol of excellence in achievements The Nobelists, undoubtedly, occupy the topmost hierarchy in their area of work and are considered peers In the late 19th century when Nobel contemplated the awards, there was no substantial support for scholars or researchers As an inventor and scientist with over 350 patents under his belt, Nobel was anare that the cost of most research, though modest, were beyond an independent scientist's means Tor example, even as late as 1920, the research grant for the entire Cavendish Laboratory was only about 10,000 dollars or 2,000 pounds for a year One of the major przes available at that time, the Royal Society's Rumford medal by comparison camed an honoranum of approximately $150 The first year Nobel award in 1901 was $42,000 each For the general public and the laureates themselves, Nobel's princely sum constituted a symbolic message asserting, in a way, that these people really mattered The value of the prize has vaned between $30,000 and $1 000,000 (1991 price value) over the years The division of Nobel prizes into two or three portions further diminishes its monetary value Although the purchase value (adjusted for inflation) still lags behind the onginal sum given in 1901 and no longer provides anything like the liberating endowment that Nobel envisaged for independent research the prestige of the award has increased incomparably in ninety one years of its evolution The extraordinanly deserving roster of recipients is the most distinctive aspect of this pnze of all ·The Nobel prize has so far been awarded to an exalted group of over 600 individuals and institutions of these nearly a quarter at 153, have been awarded to those who have excelled in the field of physiology or medicine One significant point that is striking, while understanding the Nobel phenomenon, is the tremendous influence the at mosphere provides to a scholar in science Association with laureates and apprenticeship under them involves not merely education and training as is ordinanly understood, but also the acquisition of the norms and standards, the values and attitudes as well as the knowledge, skills and behavioural patterns associated with particular statures and roles Hans Krebs, the 1953 Nobel laureate in Physiology or Medicine and a student of the 1931 laureate Otto Warburg explains thus 'If I ask myself how it came about that one day I found myself in Stockholm, I have not the slightest doubt that love this good fortune to the circumstance that I had an outstanding teacher at the crtical stage in my scientific career Otto Warburg set an example in the methods and quality of first rate research Without him, I am sure I would never have reached the standards which are prerequisites for being considered by the Nobel Com mittee As another laureate put it I knew the technique ofre search, I knew a lot of physics I had the words, the libretto, but not quite the music in other words, I had not been in contact with men who were deeply embedded in the tradı tion of physics men of high quality This was my first real contact with first rate minds at the high point of their power" ·This book is a tnbute to all those people, to their unstinting efforts at surpissing themselves to extend the frontiers of knowledge and learning, and to the untiring pursuit of perfection tradition that we seek to aspire to and establish, within our own corporate ranks Dr Vijay Kumar Datla Chairman & Managing Director Biological E Limited

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·Introduction The dawn of the twentieth century, the year 1900 was an exciting year for life sciences The dramatic triple discovery of the work of Mendel by a Dutch, a German and an Austrian scientist and their simultaneous confirmation of his brilliant findings in 1900 had at long last satisfied one of man's oldest desires, to know how the distinctiveness and the very form of living things are passed along from parents to progeny Genetics has come a long way since then, so has man s understanding of the machines and the mechanics that makes a life tick. Cells with their intricate organelles and chemical functions providing the functional platforms for the chromosomes, DNA the genetic material synthesising proteins and continuing the propagation of life nervous system with its masterly specialisations that communicate impulses different blood groups and an extremely sophisticated immuno system that nounshes and balances the body, the enzymes and hormones that chemically conduct the show of life, the microbial world with bactena and vinises and the fascinating mysteries of the living world have unfolded one by one in the century that was X ·1900 was also the year of the beginning of the Nobel Prizes The Nobel Assembly at the Karolinska Institute at Stock holm that chooses the Nobel Prize winners for Physiology or Medicine have carried out their unenviable job with deepest understanding and farsight in the past ninety years The Nobel award in Physiology or Medicine in the first few years since its inception is indicative of the diverse areas of investigation that man was making into himself to under stand him The very first award in 1901 went to Behring for discovering the diphtheria antitoxin followed by Ross in 1902 for discovering the transmittance of malaria and Fin sen (1903) for treatment of diseases with concentrated light rays Pavlov was the first physiologist to get Nobel recognition (1904) and Golgi (1906) was the pioneer of many of his successors who were recognised for their contribution to the understanding of nervous tissue-Adrian and Sher nngton (1932), Dale and Loewi (1936), Erlanger and Gasser (1944), Hess and Moniz (1949) Eccles, Hodgkin and Hux ley (1963), Axelrod, Katz and Von Euler (1970), Sperry, Hubel and Wiesel (1981) and more recently Cohen and Levi-Montalcını (1986) some areas that Studies on cell structure and chemistry (first award to Kos sel in 1910), blood groups and immunochemistry (begin ning with Landsteiner 1930), and heredity and chromosomes (Morgan 1933) are dominated the Nobel awards for many years Chemists and more especially biochemists have actively participated in the quest for Physiology or Medicine and the 1962 recog nition of Watson, Cnck and Wilkins for their outstanding deduction of the double helix structure of the genetic material DNA established the dominance of molecular biology The link of Morgans chromosomes beaded X11 ·through Beadle, Tatum and Lederberg (1958), Delbruck, Hershey and Luria (1969) are the first few of the elite list of Nobelists who changed the shape of molecular understanding of how gene functions The base that they so strongly built brought further insight into this fascinating field of research The mechanisms by which viruses affect the genes of cancer cells (1975), molecular genetics (1978), genetic regulation of the body's immune system (1980) jumping genes' (1983), immunochemistry (1984), gene action in antigen antibody reaction (1987) and genes that cause cancer (1988) are subsequent important works in this are that led to the Nobel au nrds The extended period of investigation in one area and the lasting recognition that the Nobel Committee gives it is only illustrative of its untiring involvement in understanding of the essence of life Every speciality of life sciences that has contributed to the betterment of mins knowledge and welfare has received the careful and con tinuous attention and recognition of the Committee The past ninety years have been exciting for life sciences and we have been able to penetrate deep into the heart of life s mystery As would be evident from the pages that follow contributions of the Nobelists in this great search has been almost total X111

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·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine 1901 VON BEHRING, EMIL ADOLF Nationality German b March 15 1854, Mansdorf, Prussia, now in Germany d March 31, 1917, Marburg Germany For his work on serum therapy, especially its application against diphthena by which he has opened a new road in the domain of medical science and thereby placed in the hands of the plıysician a victorious weapon against illness and deaths As an assistant to Robert Koch in Berlin, Von Behrings main field of research was the struggle against diphtheria On his discovery that rats are immune to anthrax and that rat serum is able to destroy the anthrax bacillus, he injected guinea pigs «ith the bacilli and kept them alive by treating them with iodine trichlonde On further injection with the bacillus the animals did not show any signs of the disease ·Nobel Larireales in Physiology or Medicine By further experiments, he developed and demonstrated senım therapy, the theory that the serum of an animal that had been cured could be used for curing other animals Be hnng developed this technique further and as the quantita tive requirements for the serum grew with increased indents from hospitals, he developed horse serum as a substitute for the limited quantity of guinea pig serum He suc ceeded finally in 1917, a few months before his death, in establishing a method for the immunization of human beings against diphthena and producing the vaccine T A 1902 ROSS, SIR RONALD Nationality British b May 13, 1857 Almora India d September 16, 1932, London 2 ·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine For his work on malaria, by which he has shown how it enters the organism and thereby has laid the foundation for successful research on this disease and methods of combating it During the years from 1881 to 1894, Ross served with the army in Madras and Burma In 1889 he married Rosa Bessie, daughter of Alfred Bradley Bloxam, they had two sons and two daughters He was on leave in England in 1894 when he met Patrick Manson and became interested in the cause of malaria Two years after his return to India (1897), he found traces of the malana parasite in the anopheles mosquito and, a year later, discovered that a parasite in the blood of birds closely resembled the parasite of human malaria He realized that since this was transmitted by the anopheles, it was likely that human malaria was transmitted by the same agent In 1899 Ross became a lecturer in the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine and from 1902 to 1912 was a Professor His activities were now mainly concentrated on the elimination of the anopheles mosquito, as a means of preventing malana Ross always acknowledged his debt to Manson Although he did not work out the details of the cycle in human malaria, he definitely disproved the view that malaria was contracted from air or water and, in the latter part of his life, added materially to the knowledge of malarial epidemiology His publications include Prevention of Malaria (1910) and his Memoirs (1923) In 1933, the Ross Institute and Hospital for Tropical Diseases was founded in his honour and he became its first Director-in Chief 3

·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine
1903
FINSEN, NIELS RYBERG
Nationality Danish
b December 15 1860 Thorshavn Faeroe Islands, Den
mark d September 24, 1904, Copenhagen
In recognition of his contribution to the treatment of diseases,
especially lupus vulgans, with concentrated light radiation,
whereby he luas opened a new avenue for medical science
Niels Ryberg Finsen the Danish physician worked at the
Institute of Light Therapy, Copenhagen His discovery that
sunlight and electric rays contain properties that can be
used to cure skin diseases and blemishes revolutionized
treatment in these areas Finsen light takes its name from
its discoverer The Finsen lamp is a high power device to
emit concentrated or converged and filtered
rays
which
4

·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine have bactericidal properties Ultraviolet sections of sunlight have strong bactericidal power Finsen authored several books on light therapy and is considered as the founder of modern phototherapy Modem treatments like radiation and drug therapy owe a lot to Finsen's pioneering works with light therapy 1904 PAVLOV IVAN Nationality Russian b September 26 1849, Ryazam, Russia d February 27, 1936, Moscow In recognition of his work on the physiology of digestion through which knowledge on vital aspects of the subject has been transformed and enlarged ·Nobel Laurcafes in Physiology or Medicine Pavlov studied chemistry and physiology, receiving his doctorate in 1879 He then spent two years in Germany, studying the blood system and the physiology of digestion It was these two aspects of bodily function which inter ested him most, in particular, the way they were controlled by the brain He found that if a dog was given food and simultaneously a bell was rung at several minutes' intervals, the dog even tually salivated at the sound of the bell, even if no food was present The dog's nervous system had learnt to associate the sound of the bell with food Pavloy called this behaviour the "conditioned reflex and the process of learn ing it'conditioning The conditioned reflex differs from an innate reflex such as the rapid withdrawal of a limb from a painful stimulus in that it has to be learnt A dog salivating when eating meat is exhibiting an unconditioned reflex If it salivates at the sight of meat, on the other hand, the reflex is conditioned As Pavlov demonstrated, a dog reared without ever seeing meat will show no response to at, not having learned to associate it with food tion Continuing his studies into the psychology of learning, Pavlov found that learning the reflex would be hindered by interruptions The' external inhibition, as it is now called, is similar to the need for peace and quiet when studying or leaming any process He also discovered internal inhibi which occurred af, after a conditioned reflex such as response to the bell had been learned the food stopped ap pearing when the bell was rung The dog eventually stopped salivating The response was not forgotten but suppressed One of Pavlov s most important discoveries in this field 6 ·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine was that the area of the brain responsible for this reflex is one found only in animals higher up on the evolutionary scale He thus tned to apply his theories to human behaviour in an attempt to explain psychobic and neurotic conditions He considered that psychotic people, who shut out the rest of the world, behave in that way because they associate all excitation with possible injury or threat Pavlov's work has often been confused with brainwashing, but in fact many everyday responses are conditioned reflexes, from the blink of surprise to stopping a car at a red light 1905 KOCH, ROBERT Nationality German b December 11, 1843, Klausthal, Prussia, d May 27, 1910, Baden Baden 7 ·Nobel Lauratcs in Physiology or Medicine For his investigations and discoveries in relation to tuberculosis Koch, the greatest of all pure bacteriologists, studied mathematics and science at Gottingen, but soon transferred to Medicine and graduated in 1866 The anthrax bacillus, had been identified as the cause for large scale mortality of cat tle in France and Germany, but was still a great hazard as no progress had been made in treatment or prevention Koch tackled this problem in his primitive laboratory Shortly before, Ferdinand Cohn had first observed the for mation of spores by a bacillus Koch now found that in cer tain conditions, which he studied exhaustively, the anthrax bacıllus forms spores that can survive on earth for years He passed anthrax bacıllı, from the blood of an infected animal, from one mouse to another through twenty genera tions, and found that they bred true He showed con clusively that the anthrax bacillus is the cause and the only cause of anthrax, and he worked out its life-history Koch next investigated the causes of infective diseases fol. lowing wounds He showed that the injection of putrid material into animals could produce various septic diseases differing clinically In 1878 aniline dyes were first used to stain bacteria by Carl Weigert (1845-1904) Koch greatly im proved Weigert s methods, and his masterly these researches was published in 1878 After he went to Berlin, Koch introduced his new methods for obtaining pure cultures, utilizing gelatin, agar-agar, and other substances as solid media® This step (1881 1883) revolutionized bactenology in 1882 he announced his greatest discovery the tubercle bacıllus, and almost imme diately Paul Ehrlich described his definitive method of memoir on 8 ·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine staining that organism In 1883 Koch was a member of the German Cholera Commission to Egypt, and there and in India he discovered the causative organism, the cholera vibrio In 1890 he announced that he had prepared form cultures of the tubercle bacillus a substance, tuberculin, which could be used for diagnosis and treatment As a pure bacteriologist Koch remains unequalled, and his techniques form the foundation of modern methods 1906 GOLGI, CAMILLO RAMON Y CAJAL, SANTIAGO Nationality Italian Nationality, Spanish b July 7,1843, Corteno, Italy, d January 21 1926, Pavia b May 1, 1852, Pyrenees, d October 18, 1934, Madnd 9 ·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine In recognition of their work on the structure of the nervous system Golgi devised hiš silver impregnation method of staining nervous tissue (1873) This method revolutionized the histology of the nervous system In 1880 he first descnbed the neurotendinous spindle ('organ of Golgı') found near the junction of a tendon with a muscle He classified nerve cells, and descnbed that type in which the main process (axon) does not become a nerve fibre, but divides repeated ly to form an arborescence (Golgi cells) These researches were published in 1885 in his book on the histology of the nervous system Golgis method of staining enabled in dividual nerve fibres to be followed through much of their course In 1898 he described a peculiar reticular formation in the cytoplasm of cells ('the Golgi apparatus ) In 1885 Golg differentiated between the parasites of the tertian and the quartan types of malana, and he showed that the beginning of a bout of fever was synchronous with that stage of the life-cycle of the parasite when numerous young parasites burst out of their containing erythrocytes into the blood stream In 1892 he showed that, whereas in intermittent types of malaria (tertian and quartan fever) the parasite passes through its life-cycle in the blood in the pernicious type of malana the parasites develop mainly in the organs of the body, and especially in the brain Golgi's work on the nervous system inspired that of Ramon Y Cajal lit gave When Cajal graduated all stains for nervous tissue tle differentiation between the nervous elements proper and the supporting tissue (neuroglia) Tracking of 10 ·Nobel Laurcates in Physiology or Medicine individual nerve fibres was therefore difficult In 1873 Golgi discovered his silver impregnation method of staining nervous tissue, which stained nerve cells and their fibres black, while leaving the neuroglia faintly stained Capal worked intensively on the histology of the grey matter, and improved Golgi's method He disproved the current theory that the grey matter is a network of anastomosing nerve fibres, and he was able to trace long nerve fibres which never fused with any others during their course He put forward the theory that fibres that appeared to join nerve cells ended in terminal buttons, which, however closely they might approach the nerve cells, never actually touched them There was thus no anatomical fusion of the substance of one nerve cell with that of another Cajal also discovered the collateral branches of the ахол. Wilhelm had suggested that the fundamental unit of the nervous system is the nerve cell with its branching processes and its axon Cajal s histological work was establishing this view when W Von Waldeyer in 1891 coined the word 'neurone' for the cell and its processes Waldeyer did no experimental or other work in this field, to which Cajal devoted the rest of his life Cajal postulated that the nerve impulse passed from the axon of one neurone to the dendrites of the next neurone, and so to its nerve cell and axon. This postulate that conduction is in one direction only, was formalized by A Van Gehuchten (1861-1914) as the law of dynamic polarity In 1906 Cajal attacked the difficult problem of the degeneration of nerve tracts and the method of regeneration of nerve fibres after they had been cut Two opposing 11 ·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine solutions to the problem of regeneration had long been held, but Cajal proved that the proximal cut end of the nerve grows out to meet the degenerated distal end Cajal next turned to the neuroglia, the supporting tissue of the nerve fibres in the central nervous system, and he was able to distinguish in it three different types of cells He also studied vision in the faceted eyes of insects 1907 LAVERAN, CHARLES LOUIS ALPHONSE Nationality French b June 18 1845 Paris d May 18 1922, Paris In recognition of his work on the role played by protozoa in cus ing diseases Laveran, the French physician, was an army surgeon in Algiers when he discovered the parasite that causes human 12

·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine
malana He graduated in military medicine at Strasbour
(1867) and ind addition to his military career taught at Val
de-Grace College Pans Besides his work on malaria
Laveran worked on the causes of sleeping sickness (leish
mantosis), and other protozoal diseases lik
trypanosomiasis At the Pasteur Institute, which he joined
in 1897 and where he worked until his death, he estab
lished the Laboratory of Tropical Diseases
1908
EHRLICH, PAUL
Nationality German
MECHINKOV,
ILYA ILICH
Nationality Russian
b March 14, 1854 Sterheln
(now Stryelın in Poland),
d August 20, 1915, Bad
Homburg Vor Der Wohe,
Germany
b May 15, 1845, near
Kharkov, Ukraine, d July
16, 1916, Pans

·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine In recognition of their work on immunity The German bacteriologist Paul Ehrlich pioneered the tech nique of chemotherapy in medicine from his discovery that certain tissues have a specific affinity for chemicals, he reasoned that organisms causing disease could be selective ly killed with chemical drugs This led him to produce arsphenamine, the first synthetic drug, which is highly ef fective against syphilis His interest in this aspect of medicine had been stimulated by reading an account of the way tissues are affected by lead It had been shown that the cells of those organs most affected during lead poisoning also absorb lead in test tube solutions That is, certain cells had an affinity for substances His impressed microbiologist, Robert Koch, who offered him a post at his Institute for Infectious Diseases with a laboratory at hus disposal, Ehrlich turned his attention to diphtheria Another German physician, Emil von Behring, had shown that the toxins produced by certain bacteria such as tetanus and diphtheria stimulate the cells of the body to produce antitoxins which then neutralize the poison On the basis of these discoveries large amounts of antitoxin could be produced in animals and the serum used for therapeutic purposes Ehrlich participated in these researches and pioneered the large-scale production of diphtheria antı toxins in horses inorganic German work the to cure He wis particularly interested in finding a drug syphilis then a prevalent and crippling disease Ehrlich read reports of the successful use of arsenic against the African sleeping sickness trypanosome, an compounds 14 ·Novel Laurcates in Physiology or Medicine organism resembling the syphilis spirochaete (so-called be cause of its spiral shape) Because arsenic compounds are generally poisonous to man, Ehrlich began to look for one which, while innocuous to man, would destroy the spirochaete In 1910, after testing over 600 compounds, Ehrlich found one which fitted the bill The name of the drug was arsphenamine and it proved to be a remarkable success Marketed under the name of Salvarsan' it sold all over the world and made a fortune for Ehrlich, a matter of indifference to him It also provided the starting point for the development of the synthetic drugs industry, in which the German chemical plants became leaders Mechinhov, the Russian French biologist, was educated in Russia and Germany In Messina Italy, where he had gone on a research visit, he studied the transparent larvae of starfish and noticed that some of their cells could engulf and digest foreign particles These cell eaters he called phagocytes Furthering his work on phagocytic action at the Paris Pasteur Institute, he found that in human blood a large proportion of the leucocytes (white cells) are phagocytic and attack invading bacteria This in turn results in increased numbers of leucocytes in the infected areas followed by the inflamed area becoming hot, red, swollen and painful due to dead phagocytes forming pus The last two decades of his life were spent on the study of human aging since he believed that phagocytes eventually begin to digest the host cells aided by the effects of intestinal bacteria and that effectively combating them would significantly increase the normal human life span 15 ·syphilis, then a prevalent and crippling disease Ehrlich Nobel Laurcates in Physiology or Medicine In recognition of their work on immunity The German bacteriologist Paul Ehrlich pioneered the tech nique of chemotherapy in medicine from his discovery that certain tissues have a specific affinity for chemicals, he reasoned that organisms causing disease could be selective ly killed with chemical drugs This led him to produce arsphenamine, the first synthetic drug, which is highly ef fective against syphilis His interest in this aspect of medicine had been stimulated by reading an account of the way tissues are affected by lead It had been shown that the cells of those organs most affected during lead poisoning also absorb lead in test tube solutions That is, certain cells had an affinity for inorganic substances His impressed microbiologist, Robert Koch who offered him a post at his Institute for Infectious Diseases with a laboratory at his disposal Ehrlich turned hıs attention to diphtheria Another German physician Emil von Behring, had shown that the toxins produced by certain bacteria such as tetanus and diphtheria stimulate the cells of the body to produce antitoxins which then neutralize the poison On the basis of these discoveries large amounts of antitoxın could be produced in animals and the serum used for therapeutic purposes Ehrlich participated in these researches and pioneered the large-scale production of diphtheria He was particularly interested in finding a drug to cure work the German antı toxins in horses read reports of the successful use of arsenic against the African sleeping sickness trypanosome, an compounds 14 ·Nobel Laurates in Pliysiology or Medicine organism resembling the syphilis spirochaete (so-called be cause of its spiral shape) Because arsenic compounds are generally poisonous to man, Ehrlich began to look for one which, while innocuous to man, would destroy the spirochaete In 1910, after testing over 600 compounds, Chrlich found one which fitted the bul The name of the drug was arsphenamine and it proved to be a remarkable success Marketed under the name of Salsarsan" it sold all over the world and made a fortune for Ehrlich, a matter of indifference to him It also prosided the starting point for the development of the synthetic drugs industry, in which the German chemical plants became leaders Mechinkov, the Russian French biologist, was educated in Russia and Germiny In Messina, Italy, where he had gone on a research visit, he studied the transparent larvae of starfish and noticed that some of their cells could engulf and digest foreign particles These cell enters he called phagocytes' Furthering his work on phagocytic action at the Paris Pasteur Institute, he found that in human blood a large proportion of the leucocytes (white culls) are phagocytic and attack snvading bactena This in turn results in increased numbers of leucocytes in the infected areas followed by the inflamed area becoming hot, red swollen and painful due to dead phagocytes forming pus The last tu o decades of his life were spent on the study of human aging, since he believed that phagocytes eventually begin to digest the host cells arded by the effects of intestinal bacteria and that effectively combating them would significantly increase the normal human life span 15 ·Nobel Laureales in Physiology or Medicine 1909 KOCHER, EMIL THEODOR Nationality Swiss b August 25, 1841, Berne Switzerland d July 27, 1917, Berne For his work on the physiology pathology and surgery of the thyroid gland Kocher made innumerable contributions to techniques in a wide range of surgical operations such as those on the lungs the stomach and the gall bladder Especially impor tant was his pioneering of ovariotomy and the application of the antiseptic surgery of Joseph Lister His surgical success also depended a great deal on the many improvements he made in appliances and instruments Kocher's most celebrated work, however were his studies 16 ·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine on the thyroid gland His studies arose out of his operationsof which he performed over 5,000 during his career for removing the thyroid Pror to Kocher, this operation had frequently been fatal, but his application of Lister's antiseptic surgery brought him great success In 1883 Kocher announced that the complete removal of the thyroid gland led to a characteristic disease pattern but that, where a portion of the gland had been left and had grown, the disease pattern was modified The disease symptoms descnbed by Kocher (operative myxoedema) were recognized as being analogous to those of the natural ly occurring myxoedema, and Kocher's work did a great deal to co-ordinate and relate studies on malfunctions of the thyroid For instance, the fact became significant that for centuries there had been descriptions of cretinism, a form of idiocy and dwarfism, accompanied by the general symptoms of myxoedema Kocher also made other important observations, such as the fact that hypothyroidism also resulted from such condi tions as goitre He gave a tremendous general stimulus to studies on the thyroid, particularly in the search for therapeutic treatment This led to the introduction of such valuable drugs as thyroid and thyroxın His surgical skill made a marked impact on his contemporaries particularly of course, his many students and assistants Further, Kocher published numerous studies including a celebrated Textbook of Operative Surgery which was translated into many languages 17 ·Nobel Laurcates in Physiology or Medicine 1910 KOSSEL, ALBRECHT Nationality German b September 6 1853, Rostock d July 5, 1927, Heidelberg In recognition of the contributions to our knowledge of cull chemistry made through his work on proteins, including the nucleic substances A biochemist, Kossel was one of the pioneers who worked for the recognition of biochemistry as an important course material for University students as it has created an independent sphere of its own, touching on the fundamental principles of biology Kossel came from Rostock in the North German countryside and studied medicine at the University of Strasbourg Even the Nobel Committee which gave him the award did not foresee how significant hus work on the four basic elements of nucleic acids 18 ·Nobel Laurates in Pliysiology or Medicine guamine, adenine, thymine and cytosin - was to prove for the foundation of molecular biology These four basic elements - nitrogenous bases along with uracil, are the alphabets of the genetic code, the language of the genes 1911 GULLSTRAND, ALVAR Nationality Swedish b June 5, 1862, Landskrona, Sweden, d July 28, 1930 Stockholm For his work on the dioptrics of the eye Gullstrand, the Swedish ophthalmologist, studied at the Universities of Uppsala, Vienna and Stockholm As a Professor of Ophthalmology at Uppsala, he was the first scientist to apply the methods of physical mathematics to the study of optical images and of the refraction of light in 19

·Nobel Laurentcs in Physiology or Medicine
the
eye He worked on astigmatism, improved the ophth
moscope and invented corrective lenses for use af
removal of a cataract from the eye The Gullstrands
lamp, a valuable diagnostic tool for the detailed study
the eye, was devised by him
Gullstrand published several papers on dioptrcs (dealı
with the refraction of light in the eye)
1912
CARREL, ALEXIS
Nationality American
b June 28 1873 Lyons, France d November 5, 194
Paris
In recognition of his work on vascular suture and the transpla
tation of blood vessels and organs
20

·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine Earlier attempts to transplant organs (in order to replace diseased organs or amputated limbs etc) had failed through among other reasons, the lack of method for reestablishing a normal blood circulation through the transplanted organs An invariable cause of failure was the development of thrombosis or stenosis Carrel, who began studying the anastomosing of vessels in 1902, systematically analysed all possible complications and developed techniques to overcome these causes of failure for example the enforcement of rigid asepsis and careful attention to details about the use of instruments, needles and suturing Using his new techniques, he was able to remove entire organs such as the kidney and to replace them in their original location or, occasionally, in different parts of the body where they still functioned His studies were farreaching and paved the way for innumerable advances in vascular surgery His techniques also found application in transfusing blood from donor to recipient, a technique used before methods of preventing blood coagulation had been found Carrel is also renowned for his work on tissue culture With his associates, he made significant contributions to its development, and first demonstrated his tissue fragments in 1910 He was also celebrated for his methods, during the First World War, of treating deep wounds by constant irngation with a mild antiseptic and for the development of a mechanical heart which was announced in 1935 Many advances in biology and medicine grew out of his work. 21

·Nobel Laurcates in Phiysiology or Medicine
1913
RICHET, CHARLES ROBERT
Nationality French
b August 26, 1850, Paris, d December 4 1935, Paris
In recognition of hus work on anaphylaxis
Richet, the many faceted doctor, was educated in Pans and
was the Professor at the faculty of Medicine at Paris A dis
tinguished man of letters, he won great literary reputation
as a wnter on scientific subjects and international peace
under the pen name of Charles Epheyre
He was awarded the Nobel Prize for his works on
anaphylaxis , a term he used to describe a phenomenon
noted earlier by Theobald Smith je, a hypersensitive reac
tion (similar to allergy) to injections of foreign proteins His
work on the physiology of respiration and digestion is
22

·For his work on the physiolons Do Ite test
Barany joined the departing Oilogy in Vienna
a prisoner by the Russians 1915, v hile ser
obtaining his MD from the set.Esity He was.
doctor in World War 120 m2 released in 1916
Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine
significant Richet discovered that hydrochlonc acid is the
main component of gastric juice He worked also on serum
therapy, animal heat and the nervous system
1914
sਣ
BARANY, ROBERTSCJG 276,
पुस्तकात
Nationality Hungarian
b Apnl 22, 1876 Vienna, d.o., 195, Uppsala
Sweden
7
apparatus
the intervention of the Shecked Cross
23

·Nobel Laureales in Physiology or Medicine
Barany did extensive investigations on the physiology and
pathology of the inner ear and cerebellum He developed a
method for accurate diagnosis of one-sided deafness He
headed the ear, nose and throat clinic of his University,
Uppsala, for about two decades until his death
1915, 1916, 1917 and 1918
Not awarded
1919
1
BORDET, JULES
Nationality Belgian
b June 13 1870, Soignies Belgium d April 6, 1961,
Brussels
For his docoveries relating to immunity
24

·Nobel Laurentes 111 Physiology or Medicine Bordet's work on blood corpuscles and the destruction of bacteria in the blood serum constituted the founding of Serology Bordet graduated in Medicine in Brussels in 1892 and taught there from 1901 At the Pasteur Institute in Pars, he found that when blood serum is heated to 55 C, it loses its ability to destroy bacteria, but its antibodies are not destroyed He nghtly deduced that some heat-sensitive component of serum, which Ehrlich called complement , is necessary Bordet demonstrated subsequently, in 1901, that this is used up when an antibody reacts with an antigen, a process called "complement fixation' and of importance to immunology It is now known that the immune system contains nine varieties of complement each an enzyme system which is responsible for the destruction of a range of pathogens 1920 KROGH, SCHACK AUGUST STEENBERGEN Nationality Danish 25 ·Nobel Laurcales in Physiology or Medicine b November 15, 1874, Grenna, Denmark, d September 13 1949, Copenhagen For las discovery of the capillary motor regulating mechanism It is in the realm of human physiology - the physiology of respiration and the distribution of blood to the tissues - that Kroghs work is very important In 1904 Christian Bohr (1855-1911) had shown that the oxygen dissociation curte of haemoglobin differs in its shape from that of blood In the same year, with K A Hasselbalch and Krogh, he made the important discovery that the dissociation curve of haemoglobin is greatly influenced by the partial pressure of carbon dioxide present As the blood takes up carbon dioxide in the capillanes, there is an increased liberation of oxygen from oxyhaemoglobin About 1908 Krogh developed his micro-aerotonometer, 50 that the gaseous exchange between a single bubble of air and blood flowing round it could be easily determined Using his aerotonometer Krogh, with his wife, showed that the arterial oxygen pressures were always below the oxygen pressures in the alveolar air and he concluded that gaseous exchange in the lungs is always due to diffusion Part of the argument for secretion had been based on the sequence of events in the swim-bladders of fishes In 1911 Krogh working on lower marine forms which also main tained their relative positions despite changes in water pressure, showed that there is no secretion of oxygen into their air sacs which In man, Krogh calculated the quantity of oxygen should theoretically diffuse across the walls of the pul monary alveoli and he showed that this amount was equal 26 ·Nobel Laurentes in Physiology or Medicine to the exchange of gas actually found, and that this correspondence applied even when there was an extreme demand for oxygen These results were effectively the death blow to the secretion theory In 1912 Krogh, in collaboration with Johannes Lindhard (1870-1947), worked out the nitrous oxide method of measuring the arculation rate in man Krogh next turned his attention to the capillaries By ingenious calculations he showed that the oxygen tension in muscle is only slightly below that in the capillaries, even when the muscle is intensely active He then confirmed hus theories by experiments on the frog's tongue and in other ways He found that when a muscle is at rest the number of capillares seen on examination is relatively small But as soon as the muscle is stimulated many hitherto unseen capillaries open up become filled with blood, and then disappear on the cessation of activity He showed that such effects are not due to increased pressure in the vessel supplying the capillary field on the contrary, the capıllaries are in a constant state of tonus, which keeps them constricted But as soon as there is a demand for more blood to a part, such as on the stimulation of a muscle the tonus is relaxed the capillary opens up and is filled with blood 1921 Not awarded 27 ·b September 26, 1886, Bristol, England, d June 3, 1977, did pioneering work on energy exchanges during nerve and muscular activity After a brief period of theoretical Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine 1922 HILL, ARCHIBALD VIVIAN Nationality British Cambridge For his discovery relating to the production of heat in the muscle Hill was a physiologist engaged in biophysical studies and and experimental work on drug and enzyme kinetics, Hill began to develop methods for the study of mechanical and thermal energy exchanges during muscular contraction and their relation to the chemical process in muscle tissue This work was interrupted by the First World War, during which Hill served in the Army as a Major, founding and directing an Antı aircraft Experimental Section 28 ·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine Hill was one of the scientific leaders of his generation Heis remembered by many colleagues and pupils not only for his scientific discoveries but for bringing physiochemical ideas and high precision measurements to bear on biological problems and above all for inspiring and encouraging his young colleagues and for the lead he took during the Nazı period in helping those who had been driven from their laboratones by political or racial persecution MEYERHOF, OTTO FRITZ Nationalty German b Apnl 13 1884, Hanover, Germany d October 6, 1951, Philadelphia For his discovery of the fixed relationship between the consumption of oxygen and the metabolism of lactic acid in the muscle Meyerhof received his MD in medicine from Heidelberg 29 ·Novel Laurcalcs in Physiology or Medicine in 1909, and began to specialize in psychiatry, but switched to biochemistry and studied techniques to examine the chemical changes linked with muscular action He fol lowed up the work of Hopkins, who had demonstrated that lactic acid is formed in a working muscle and showed how this is formed, and how it is removed when the muscle rests The ratio of anaerobic decomposition 10 aerobic recombination is today known as the 'Meyerhof quotient' In 1938 he moved to France since he was unhap py with Nazi Germany and later escaped to the U.S 1923 BANTING, SIR FREDERICK GRANT MACLEOD, JOHN JAMES RICHARD Nationality Canadian Nationality Canadian b November 14, 1891, Alliston Ontario d February 21, 1941 Newfoundland d b September 6, 1876, Perthshire Scotland March 16 1935 Aberdeen 30 ·Nobel Laureales in Physiology or Medicine For the discovery of insulm Banting, the Canadian physiologist, studied in Toronto and was a private in the army before he completed his Medicine and was commissioned A youth of robust health, he won an MC for gallantry in achon in 1918 After his practice failed to take off, he took up research at Ontario University where Macleod, the Professor of the Physiology faculty, gave him facilities and a recently qualified assistant, Best, to further his interests on studies on diabetics Macleod studied Medicine in Aberdeen and after graduating in 1898, travelled extensively in Europe and America He held positions in physiology and biochemistry at the London Hospital, Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio He joined the University of Toronto subsequently as Director Physiological Laboratory In addition to his coni zbution to the understanding of diabetics he had worked in various areas like purine bases carbamates tuberculosis bacterium, electric shock and air sickness A brilliant teacher, author and an excellent research worker, it was Macleod who had suggested the name of Best as a research associate to Banting Diabetes mellitus is a disease where excess glucose appears in the blood and unne and until Bantings work (1922), it was always fatal Although it was known that diabetics was linked to the pancreas ind probably to the cells in it known as the islets of Langerhans it was Banting who developed methods to isolate the unknown hormones (insulin) and demonstrated that glucose levels in blood could be regulated with insulin ·The discovery of insulin was one of the greatest moments Nobel Laurcates in Physiology or Medicine Macleod was on sabbatical leave during the time when Banting assisted by Best, worked on this problem The hor monal extracts were purified with the help of a chemist, Collip, to be injected for treatment of patients in the annals of medical history and millions of diabetic patients have been saved with the help of insulin The 1923 Nobel award jointly to Banting and Macleod created some controversy, since the role of Macleod in the discovery of insulin, independent of his tall status as a me searcher and academic was not significant Banting was disturbed enough at the omission of Best's name that he shared half the prize amount with him Macleod, himself, shared his part of the prize amount with Collip Banting joined the army again during World War II and was killed in an air crash He was working on war gases Insulin was isolated in pure form in 1926 and much later, in 1966, Sanger deducted its chemical structure, it is a protein molecule, built of 51 amino acids 32 ·1924 r 7 CINTHOVEN, WILLEM Nationality Dutch 6 May 21, 1860, Semarang Java, now in Indonesia, d September 29, 1927, Leiden, Netherlands For his discovery of the mechanism of the electrocardiogram Einthoven s first papers were on the physiology of the eye on the bronchial musculature, and on the physics of the capillary electrometer Thereafter he constructed a string galvanometer and applied it to record the electrical activity of the contracting heart muscle (electrocardiography), as well as for graphic registration of the heart sounds (phonocardiography) The electromotive changes accompanying the heart beats' had been demonstrated in 1887 by Waller, but the inertia of 33

·Electrocardiography is second only to the discovery of X
rays by Roentgen in importance among the physical
Nobel Laurcales in Physiology or Medicine
the capillary clectrometer did not allow more than 3
demonstration that there was a truc clectrical vonation of
the human heart Einthoven recorded clectrocardiograms
not from the chest wall but from two hmbs of the subject in
three different combinations and these have remained the
standard recordings He also descnbed the main deftec
lions of the tracing and devised a nomenclature
methods used in clinical medicine
1925
Not awarded
1926
FIBIGER JOHANNES ANDREAS GRIB
Nationality Danish
34

·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine b Apr 23, 1867, Sikeborg, Denmark, d January 30, 1928, Copenhagen 42 For his discovery of the spiroptera carcinoma - Fibiger, the Danish pathologist, studied Medicine in Berlin and later graduated from the University of Copenhagen in 1895 He afterwards became Professor of Anatomy at the Institute of Pathology Fibiger pioneered the concept of induced cancer by producing tumors in the stomachs of rats by feeding them cockroaches infested with a certain species of West Indian nematode parasites He contributed significantly to the theory that cancer is due to constant irritation of the stomach tissue Yamagima Katsusaburo, the Japanese pathologist followed this work by inducing cancer in laboratory animals by painting coal tar derivatives on their skin Although the theories and interpretations of Fibiger were classic and trend setting in cancer research, his claims of cancer induction was found to be, unfortunately, false at a later date 35 ·Nobul Laurcales in Physiology or Medicine 1927 WAGNER-JAUREGG, JULIUS Nationality Austrian b March 7, 1857, Wels, Austria d September 27, 1940, Vienna For his discoveries of the therapeutic value of malara inoculation in the treatment of dementia paralytica Wagner Jauregg the Austrian neurologist and psychiatrist, was a pioneer of shock therapy and other treatments of mental disorders He was a Professor at the University of Vienna from 1893 to 1928 Avicenna (980-1031) had observed that certain cases of mental disorders like syphilitic insanity can be controlled by inducing febrile illness in the patient Wagner-Jauregg established that malarial fever, which could be easily induced and then regulated by quinine therapy could be effectively used for treatment of 36

·Nobel Laurcates in Physiology or Medicine
syphilitic meningoencephalitis, or general paresis of the
insane
Antibiotics have considerably replaced these methods now
But Wagner-Jauregg's place as the first researcher to use
shock therapy for treatment of mental patients is
permanent
1928
NICOLLE, CHARLES JULES HENRI
Nationality French
b September 21, 1866, Rouen France d February 28
1936, Tunis
For his work on typhus
Nicolle, the French physician and microbiologist, was the
Director of the Pasteur Institute in Tunis (1903-1932) and

·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine had worked with Roux in Pans He had worked on several diseases including whooping cough, measles, trachoma and influenza His study of the epidemic typhus fever got him the Nobel Prize Typhus fevers are caused by the pathogens nickeltsia and the worldwide mortality rates due to this fever ranged be tween 10-70 percent The smaller size of these pathogens (between bacteria and viruses) helped them escape deduc tion until Nicolle noted that the victims infected others before they entered hospital, but stopped doing so immedi ately after He deduced, tightly, that the path of infection was broken when the patient s clothing was removed and cleaned and guessed that the body louse was the vector Further experiments with monkeys demonstrated that the house is only infective after taking blood from a victim, and that the infection was spread through its frecal matter This classic work in 1909 resulted in massive control efforts of the lice and through that of typhus Nicolle subsequently demonstrated that recovered patients of typhus influenza and measles had developed antibodies in them He also discovered the carrier" state, important in immunology 38 ·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine 1929 EIJKMAN, CHRISTIAAN Nationality Dutch b August 11, 1858, Nijkerk Gelderlands, Holland, d November 5 1930, Utrecht For hus discovery of the antineuntıc vitamin A student of the Nobel laureate Robert Koch, Eijkman, started investigations on beriberi, the mortal disease that affected chicken when the infection broke out among his laboratory chicken The condition was characterized by an ascending paralysis ultimately affecting the respiratory muscles There was no evidence that the disease was due to an infection Eijkman discovered that the laboritory attendant had, for a short penod, fed the birds on cooked nce obtained from the hospital kitchen Then a new cook at. nived and refused to allow nce from the military hospital to 39 ·Novel Launales in Physiology or Medicine be given to the civilian laboratory This latter event COLT cided with the disappcirance of the discase in the chicken Eijkman then showed that the discuse could be produced at will by feeding chicken on polished nice instead of on un milled nice, and that the bran removed by polishing would cure the disease if administered with the polished nce Eijkmans work soon led to experiments by others on the feeding of prisoners in the Far East, and to the prevention and cure of human berben Eykman mısınterpreted his results, he thought that the bran contuned a special protein or silt or, alternatively, a protective substance against some poison Later workers in Batavia and in British India demonstrated that the bran contained an essential food factor, now known as Vitamin B1 (thiamine) HOPKINS, SIR FREDERIC GOWLAND Nationality British 40 ·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine 'b June 20, 1861, East Sussex,d May 16, 1947, Cambridge | For his discovery of the growth stimulatmg vitamins 1 -- Hopkins's first publication (1878) was a note in an entomological journal This interest led him to a study of the pigments of butterflies' wings, which he believed to be related chemically to unic and an intuition which was not confirmed for many years He soon distinguished himself at Cambridge by devising a method for obtaining crystalline proteins and by his classic paper (with Morley Fletcher, 1907) on the chemistry of muscle contraction A student's failure to obtain the Adamkiewicz colour reaction for proteins led Hopkins to identify glyoxylic acid as the impurity in commercial acetic acid which caused the test to succeed, and to isolate (with SW Cole, 1910) the important amino acid tryptophan from protein hydrolysates, as the fragment reacting with glyoxylic acid Already, by 1906, studies of the relationship between growth and diet had brought Hopkins to the concept of accessory food factors (now called vitamins) He based his ideas on experiments in which addition of small quantities of milk to'synthetic" diets restored normal growth in rats Attempts to isolate these substances were both laborious and fruitless, and were followed by a nervous breakdown in 1910, caused by disappointment and overwork For his part in the development of the concept of vitamins, Hopkins shared the Nobel Prize with Eijkman His greatest contnbution to biochemistry was his insistence that biological problems could be solved in chemical terms, as against the ideas in vogue at that time 41

·Karl Landsteiner began work on his life long interest, the
mystery of blood at an early age after graduating from
France Italy and England had passed laws prohibiting
such expenments Landsteiner collected blood samples, al
together like a bunch of grapes His momentous conclusion
Nobel Laurcates in Physiology or Medicine
1930
LANDSTEINER, KARL
Nationality Austrian
b June 14, 1868, Vienna, d June 26, 1943, New York
For his discovery of human blood groups
medical school and training as a chemist for four years
Blood transfusions until then had been so disastrous that
lowed them to clot then separated clot from the serum om
mixing the red cells of one individual to those of another,
he could observe these cells agglutinating
that all blood cells were not alike and that they
clumping
can be
42

·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine
categorized into A, B and nought o revolutionized
medical research later (Landsteiner missed the AB group
sine none of his volunteers had this rare group in them, but
two of his colleagues identified it) The pioneering work
was long in waiting before being recognized as a milestone
in medical sciences Singlehandedly, he had founded the
field of immunochemistry
Landsteiner was such a giant of science that, in the range of
hus achievements he has few equals He laid the
groundwork for today's polio protective vaccines He
delineated the mechanism of skin allergies His work on
Rickettsia opened the way for vaccines to prevent typhus
and Rocky Mountain spotted fever
1931
WARBURG, OTTO HEINRICH
Nationality German
43

·catalytic metals such as iron, and the activity of cancerous Nobel Laurcates in Physiology or Medicine b October 8, 1883, Freiburg-in-Breisgau, d August 1, 1970, West Berlin For his discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme Warburg, the German biochemist, was a student of Emil Ficher, and graduated in Medicine from Heidelberg in 1911 An enormously influential biochemist, he had such great names as Meyerhof and Krebs as his students He headed the Max Planck Institute of Cell Physiology until he retired at the age of 86 During World War I, he served in the Prussian Horse Guards Warburg's major work was on intracellular respiration and he devised the Warburg manometer (or respirometer) un 1923 In this device very thin tissue slices are incubated with a buffered nutrient and their uptake of oxygen 15 measured by the fall in pressure He used this to study both normal cellular respiration and model systems as also the action of enzyme poisons (such as cyanide) and cells The contnbution of Warburg and his students to the understanding of enzyme action, co-enzymes and the func tion of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD), can and photosynthesis is invaluable cerous cells enormous and A bachelor till death, Warburg tended, towards the end, to be too individualistic and intolerant of others' ideas and eventually became isolated ·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine 1932 ADRIAN, LORD EDGAR DOUGLAS SHERRINGTON, SIR CHARLES SCOT Nationality British Nationality British b November 30, 1889, London d August 4, 1977, London b November 27, 1857, London à March 4, 1952, Eastbourne, England For their discoveries regarding the functions of netirons Adrian, the English physiologist, took his MD at Trinity College (1915), Cambridge and was associated with the in stitution for nearly 10 years He did much to advance neurophysiology His major work was the use of thermionic valve amplifiers to reliably record nerve impulses in a single nerve fibre, and to show that they do not change with the nature or strength of the stimulus 45 ·Sherrington, the English neurophysicist, studied Medicine Professor of Physiology at the University of Liverpool and he did work on cholera and diphthena His contribution Nobel Laurentcs in Physiology or Medicine He further demonstrated that a nerve transmits informu tion to the brain on the intensity of a stimulus by frequence modulation, 1c, as the intensity rises, the number of des charges per second in the nerve also nses Working o? electrical activity of the brain, his contribution to the study of "Berger Rhythm" (after Hans Berger, 1924) opened up new areas of research in epilepsy and the location of cerebral tumors He himself (1934) studied these brainwase rhythms which result from the discharge of thousands of neurons and which can be displayed as an electroen cephalogram (EEG) An extremely active and popular figure at Tnnity College, he was an excellent fencer, sailor and rock climber Hus works include The Basis of Sensation (1928), Mechanissa ef Nervous Action (1932) and Determining Human Behavious (1937) He was awarded a barony in 1955 in Cambndge, as also in Germany under Koch He was a London His major work was on reflex motor activity ?! vertebrates and he demonstrated the effect of reflex action in facilitating the nervous system to function as a unit Hip wo expanded the field of brain surgery As a physician to a whole range of concepts and terminologies in neuro! ogy earned him the nickname of the William Harvey the nervous system' The terms synapse, proprioceptor motor unit, neuron pool, etc were coined by him. Shemngton turned to philosophic wntings and poetry after retirement and his work, Man on his Nature (1940), 156 classic His book, The Integratwe Action of the Nervou 46

·Nobel Laureates in Plrysiology or Medicine
Systems (1906), became a standard reference source book
1933
MORGAN, THOMAS HUNT
Nationality American
b September 25, 1866, Lexington, Virgina, d December 4,
1945, Corona del Mar, California
For his discoveries concerning the role played by the chromosome
in heredity
Morgan s first studies were in embryology, it was he who
showed by a very simple experiment with frogs' eggs that
the Roux Weismann theory of differentiation was untrue
A visit to H de Vnes in Amsterdam, where mutant forms
of the evening primrose were growing, drew him to the
subject of variation
47

·XY, female = XX) His second mutant ( rudimentary”, ie, rudimentary wings) was also confined to the males But when he bred a race of the double mutant pected if there were completely independent hereditary preted as due to their being determined by genes on the heritance, according to which the extent of recombination Novel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine In 1908 he started breeding mice himself, followed by rats and the fruit fly Drosophila At first he tried the effect of various mutagens on Drosophila, but without apparent sue, cess His hybridization of these flies, however, instead of invalidating Mendel's laws, confirmed them At the same time he found deviations from the law of independent as sortment of characters Thus his first mutant ("white eye") was almost completely confined to male flies, which led him to conclude that it is the male which is heterogametre (e, male = he obtained in their offspring all assortments of characters, as Mendel s law states, but not quite in the proportions ex transmission of wing and eye characters The initial limitation of these mutants to one sex he inter same chromosome The recombination between them sug gested to him that chromosomes had exchanged segments in the manner suggested by Janssens in 1909 The depar. ture from Mendelian expectation was not sufficient in this case to clinch the matter In 1911, he discovered a considerable departure low percentage of recombination and yellow body" In a short communication to Science that year he put forward the chromosome theory of in obtained between genes on the same chromosome sa measure of their spatial separation Sturtevant was still an undergraduate in 1911 when, in conversation with Morgan he realized that vanations in the strength of linkage very between 'white eye' 48 ·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine between characters gave an index to their linear sequence on the chromosome The same night he drew up the first chromosome map, which showed five sex-linked genes Morgan and his co workers, Sturtevant, Bridges, and Muller, developed this simple theory with astonishing success, with the result that they were able to interpret the whole range of Mendelian phenomena in terms of it Morgan was a very active research worker and prolific writer In his latter years he retumed to his embryological studies 1934 MINOT, GEORGE RICHARDS Nationality American b December 2, 1885, Boston, d February 25, 1950, Brooklyn 49 ·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine MURPHY, WILLIAM PARRY WHIPPLE, GEORGE HOYT Nationality American Nationality American b February 6 1892 Stoughton Wisconsin, d 1987 York For their discoveries concerning liver therapy in cases of anaemin b August 28, 1878, As: land, New Hampshire February 2, 1976, Ne The American physiologist Minot and his fellow America Murphy reported the results of their successful treatme of pernicious anaemia in 1926 Minot's earlier works blood disorders was continued at the Peter Bent Brigha Hospital, Boston, where he worked on the lethal diseas pernicious anaemia He retired as the Director of u Thorndike Memoral Laboratory in Boston 50 ·Noll Laureates in Physiology or Medicine Following on the work of Whipple, who had demonstrated the control of excessive bleeding in dogs due to anaemia, Minot and Murphy injected raw liver into patients and effectively reversed aniemia They developed an effective liver extract for oral consumption by patients and in 1948 isolated vitamin B12 (cyanocobolamine), a therapeutic antianaemic factor, from liver extract Subsequent research has revealed that pernicious anaemic patients lack a particular substance that helps absorb B12, in their gastric juice Murphy took his MD from Harvard University (1920) and was assocaled with Peter Bent Bngham Hospital in Boston from 1922 He made special studies on diabetics and discases of the blood, particularly with reference to liver treatment for pernicious anaemii Following graduation (1905) Whipple trained in Pathology for two years He first described a rare condition characterized by the deposition of fat in the intestinal and mesentenc lymphatic tissues subsequently known as Whipple's Discase After a year in the Canal Zone study ing many tropical disease such as amoebic dysentery, filariasis, and blackwater fever, he returned to Johns Hopkins where, from 1908 to 1914, his researches centred on the liver, jaundice, and abnormal blood coagulation In 1914 Whipple became Director of the Hooper Foundation for Medical Research and Professor of Research Medicine at the University of California in San Francisco Despite the difficulties of fitting out a new laboratory in a war-ume atmosphere, he continued his studies on bile formation in dogs, gradually extending this to include haemoglobin production and, consequently, experimental anaemia, on which he published over 200 papers 51 ·1926 to systematically investigate the use of liver and other the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1934 The tron and to the pathology of a genetic disorder which leads to anaemia and other sequelae found in people of Nobel Laurcates in Physiology or Medicine He developed, with Ineda Robbins, an expenmental model whereby fixed quantities of blood were removed from dogs, and the influence of various diets in the regeneration of blood cells was studied They found that liver, kidney, and meat were (in that order) particularly ef fective in stimulating the bone marrow to produce new red blood cells Liver extract had already been suggested by Hooperis 1918 as particularly effective in the treatment of PŁ STICIOUS anaemia in human beings Hooper's findings neglected, but following Whipple's reports, two Harvard physicians, George Minot and William Murphy, began in foodstuffs in the treatment of pernicious anaemia For these researches, Whipple, Msnot and Murphy shared relationship between pernicious anaemia and vitamurun B12 deficiency was subsequently elucidated by other Were workers The bile pigments were always of interest to Whipple, but he also made important contributions to our knowledge of the blood proteins to the mechanism of blood clot forma Mediterranean extraction it was first named thalassemia by Whipple in his classic (1932) description of its pathology 52 ·Nolel Laurales in Physiology of Medicine > 1935 mes SPEMANN, HANS Nationality German b June 27, 1869, Stuttgart, Baden Wuerttenberg d September 12, 1941, Freiburg-in-Breisgau, Germany For his discovery of organizer effect in embryonic development Spemann began his experiments with eggs of newts since the eggs of these small lizard-like animals closely followed that of the other vertebrates, including man, in their developments The basic problem that he was trying to tackle was about how cells and tissues differentiate during growth He demonstrated that, by grafting tissues from one area of the developing embryo to another the transplanted section can transfer its organising power to its host's embryo 53

·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine
Spemann named this “inducing” bit of tissue "the or
ganizer" This discovery led to the conclusion that the
specialisation of the cells could be explained as an actionet
a special group of cells
The brilliant work and deduction of Spemann is especually
significant since he did not know when he was operating
so delicately on newts and salamanders that each cell car
ries a complete master plan for the whole individual and
for all the specialised proteins needed to produce a newta
salamander, or a human
1936
DALE, SIR HENRY
HALLETT
LOCWI, OTTO
Nationality Bntish
June 3, 1873, Frankfurt
am Main d December 25,
1961, New York City
b Junc 9 1875 London d
July 23 1968 Cambridge
5-1

·Nobel Laurcates in Physiology or Medicine For their discoveries relating to chemical transmission of nerve impulses Dale, the English physiologist and pharmacologist, was educated in Medicmeat Cambndge, London and Frankfurt and joined the Wellcome Laboratories in 1904 Along with G Barger, he studied the physiological action of ergot (a potent extract from a fungal infection of rye) and their work led to two research areas which are linked with their names These are histamme a compound released by injured cells or in reaction to foreign protein, and acetylcholme the neurotransmitter Dale's work on acetylcholine as agent in the chemical transmission of nerve impulses won him the Nobel Prize His work also led to the fuller understanding of allergy and anaphylectic shock. Dale was the Director of the National Institute of Medicine (1928-42) and was a major spokesman for science in the UK His writings include Adventures in Physiology (1953) and Autumn Gleanings (1954) He was knighted in 1932. Loewi, the American physiologist and pharmacologist, was a professor of pharmacology at the University of Graz, Austria He graduated in Medicine from the University of Strassburg He was in exile during the German occupation and migrated to America in 1940, where be became Profes sor of Pharmacology at the College of Medicine, New York Loewi is known for his discovery of chemical transmission of nerve impulses Working on frogs, he demonstrated the presence of an invisible reactive substance, subsequently named acetylcholine that could transmit nerve impulses 55

·For his discovenes in connection with the biological combustion
Szent-Gyorgi graduated in Medicine from Budapest
b September 16 1893, Budapest d October 10, 1936,
Nobel Laurcates in Physiology or Medicine
Loewi also worked on the metabolism of heart, kidneys
and nerve system "Loewi's test" was devised by his for
detection of acute haemorrhagic pancreatitis His discovery
of a chemical means of conduction of nerve impulses, how
ever, is his greatest contrbution to science
1937
SZENT-GYORGI VON NAGYRAPOLT, ALBERT
Nationality Hungarian
Massachusetts
processes with special reference to Vitamin C and the catalysis es
fumancacid
56

·Nobel Laurentes in Physiology or Medicine University (1917) and completed his PhD from Cambridge (1927), under Hopkins, on vitamins On his return to Hungary (1930), he demonstrated that vitamin C (the anti-scorbutic vitamin, ascorbic acid) was in fact the same compound he had isolated earlier in Cambridge in 1928 His studies on biological oxidations and discovery of ascorbic acid in adrenal glands got him the Nobel Prize He identified the Hungarian papriku as a rich source of ascorbic acid By 1935 he was working on the biochemistry of muscle and his work was later developed by Krebs on the metabolism of muscles Gyorgi also isolated two proteins from muscles (myesin and actin), which combine to form actomysin Addition of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) contracts actomysın and Gyorgi descnbed the sight of the contraction of these artificial fibres as the most exciting moment of my scientific career Gyorgi s discovenes, leading to new understanding of the physiology of the heart are significant He was offered the presidency of Hungary in 1947, but declined the offer and migrated to the US His works include, Chemistry of Muscular Contraction (1947), Bioenergetics (1957) and Introduction to Submolecular Biology (1960) 57

·b March 28, 1892 Ghent, Belgium d July 18, 1968
For the discovery of the role played by the sinus and arolik
tems led him to the discovery of pressor receptors', a set
an enlarged portion of the carotid artery near its bifurca
Nolt! Lourcates in Playsiology or Mediare
1938
HEYMANS, CORNEILLE JEAN FRANCOIS
Nationality Belgian
Knokke
mechanisms in the regulation of respiration
Belgian physiologist Heymans was educated at the Univer
sity of Ghent and studied physiology further in.
USA In 1925, he succeeded his father, JF Heymans, as
Professor of Pharmacology at Ghent
His investigations into the circulatory and respiratory sys
of sensory organs in the wall of the Carotic Sinus which is
Europe and
58

·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine tion He also discovered a set of "chemoreceptors or 'glomera' at the base of the aorta, near the pressor receptors Glomera monitor the oxygen content of the blood They also help in regulating breathing through the respiratory centre at the base of the brain 1939 DOMAGK, GERHARD Nationality German b October 30, 1895, Lagow, Brandenburg, d April 24, 1964, Elberfeld, Germany For the discovery of the anti-bacterial effects of prontosil Domagk embarked upon a systematic search for chemical agents capable of destroying bacteria within the human body in 1932 he made the outstanding discovery that 59 ·activity was specifically associated with the sulphonamde This discovery opened the way to the cheap and effective Domagk s own daughter, who accidentally infected herself Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine Prontosil Red, a dye containing a sulphonamide groupe could control streptococcal infections in mice This result was not, however, published until 1935, possia ly because of difficulty in repeating the results Sub sequently, it was found elsewhere that the antibactenal grouping and not with the dye stuff itself treatment of a variety of highly pathogenic infections Dramatically, one of those whose life was saved vas in the laboratory The Nazis forbade him to accept the Nobel Prize in 1939 eventually (1947) he received the medal but not the Prize 1940, 1941 and 1942 Not awarded 60 ·Nobul Laurcates in Physiology or Medicine 1943 DAM, HENRIK CARL PETER Nationality Danish b February 21, 1895, Copenhagen, d Copenhagen. April 1975, For his discovery of vitamin K Dam graduated from the Polytechnic Institute of Copenhagen (1920) and took his PhD in Biochemistry from the University of Copenhagen (1934) After working with Nobel laureates Pregl and Karrer, he went to America in 1940 and was mainly at the University of Rochester, New York until he returned to Copenhagen as Professor of Biochemistry at the Polytechnic Institute Dam s major contribution was his discovery of vitamin K (koagulations-vitamin) Working with alfalfa hay, he and 61 ·Nobel Laurcates in Physiology or Medicine Doisy, independent of each other, reported the isolation of this vitamin Dam was working on a deficiency disease in chicks which led to excessive bleeding, delayed coagula tion and thus decreased blood clotting He demonstrated that this was due to the lack of a fat-soluble antı haemor rhagic vitamin, which he isolated and named vitamin K DOISY, EDWARD ADELBERT Nationality American b November 13, 1893, Hume, Illinois d October 23, 1986, St Louis For his discovery of the chemical nature of vitamin K 62 ·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine The American biochemist Doisy, was educated in Illinois I and took his PhD from Harvard University in 1920 He worked with the embryologist, Edgar Allen, and spent I most of his life at St Louis University Medical School, | Missoun Dorsy's earlier works were on sex hormones and in 1923 he devised a bioassay for the female sex hormone and secured potent extracts Butenandt isolated the first oestrone Doisy's major work was based on the study of vitamin K the deficiency of which results in failing blood coagulation He isolated the K factor (K for Koagulation) from alfalfa grass and a related but different k factor from putrefied fish meal He also demonstrated these two anti-haemor rhagic vitamins Ki and K2 as denvatives of 1,4-napthogninone Vitamin Ki and K2 are valuable in therapy, for example, in reducing bleeding in a patient with an obstructed bile duct Doisy's books include Sex and Internal Secretions (1930) and Sex Hormones (1936) His contribution to the knowledge of vitamins antibiotics hormones and blood buffers is enormous and in 1955 the University honoured him by naming his department after him 63

·Nobel Laurcates in Ploysiology or Medicine
1944
b July 5, 1888, Platteville,
May 11,
ERLANGER, JOSEPH
GASSER, HERBERT
SPENCER
Nationality American
NationalityAmerican
b January 5, 1874 San
Francisco, d December 5,
1965, St Louis, Missouri Wisconsin, d
1963, New York City
For their discoveries relating
to the highly differentiated functions of single nerve fibres
Erlanger graduated in Chemistry from the University of
California and took his MD from Johns Hopkins Univer
sity in 1899 He was Professor of Physiology at Washington
University when he began his collaborative work with hus
student Gasser on the application of modern electronics in
the study of the electrophysiology of nerves They used a
low voltage cathode ray oscillograph and observed the
characteristic wave pattern of the nerve impulses of the
64

·Nobel Laurcales in Pliysiology or Medicine nerve fibres on the screen Different nerve fibres have different conductivity ntios, depending on the thickness of the fibre Each nerve fibre also requires a stimulus of varying intensity (threshold) to create an impulse Different fibres transmit different kinds of impulses, represented by different types of waves in the oscillograph Gasser graduated from the University of Wisconsin in 1910 and obtained his MD from Johns Hopkins Medical School in 1915 He worked with Erlanger earlier and rejoined him at Washington University, where he became a Professor of Pharmocology in 1921 Neurophysiology, the world over, has tremendously benefitted from these studies Researches on reflex action and the mechanism of pain have advanced considerably due to their contrbutions 1945 CHAIN, SIR ERNST BORIS Nationality British 65 ·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine b June 19, 1906, Berlin, d August 12, 1979, Ireland FLEMING, SIR ALEXANDER FLOREY, HOWARD WALTER Nationality British Nationality British b August 6, 1881 Lochfild near Darvel, Ayrshire, Scotland, d March 11 1955 London September 24, 1898, Australia, d February 21, 1968 Oxford b Adelaide For the discovery of penicillin and its curative effect 111 marious infectious disease The German British biochemist Chain, studied physiology and chemistry in his native Berlin and worked under Hop kins in Cambndge University He moved subsequently to 66 ·Novel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine Oxford, where he joined Florey's staff working on penicil Iin Their work, along with that of NG Heatley, on the production, isolation and testing of the mould product perucıllın proved tht it is a valuable antibacterial In 1948 he moved to Rome and in 1961 to the Imperial College, London. Florey's work on penicillin led him to discover the enzyme that destroys it (penicillinase) He later worked on developing strains of penicillın resistant to penallınase Fleming was associated with two major discoveries lysozyme and penicillin The discovery of lysozyme was made in 1922, when he showed that the nasal secretion has the power of dissolving (or lysing) certain kinds of bacteria Subsequently, he showed that the active enzyme lysozyme, was present in many tissues of the body but, unfortunately, its activity was limited so far as the pathogenic organisms that cause disease are concerned Nevertheless, lysozyme did strikingly demonstrate the possibility of the existence of susbstances harmless to the cells of the body but lethal to bacteria the magic bullets' sought with only limited success from the time of Paul Ehrlich Fleming noticed in 1928 that a culture of staphylococcus had become accidentally infected with a mould, subsequently identified as Penicillium notatum Around the mould colony, the staphylococci had disappeared, and Fleming correctly attributed this to the production of an anti bacterial substance by the mould 67 ·put the broth to practical use in separating pure stains of In his early work, Florey made important contnbutions to knowledge of the lymphatic system and of Brunner's the vascular system and explored the changes invovled in After 1958 he made extensive use of the electron microscope to study the way in which susbtances pass through travascular spaces His views and achievements gave a to present the discovery of the chemotherapeutic properties of penicillin in its right perspective and to give credit to all Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine Carefully, he isolated the mould and grew it in pure ture in broth, he found that after a few days the broth had acquired a high antibacterial activity He tested the ser sitivity to the broth of a wide range of pathogenic bacteris, and noted that many of them were quickly destroyed by it He also showed that white blood corpuscles were little, at all, sensitive to penicıllın broth this was a far indication that body cells generally would not be affected by at Me bactera, and in treating local infections glands in the duodenum Later, he returned to research on atherosclerosis the endothelial barrier between the intravascular and ex new outlook to experimental pathology Florey was man without vanity He went out of his way those who had played essential parts in the work 68 ·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine 1946 MULLER, HERMAN JOSEPH Nationality American b December 2 1890, New York City d April 5, 1967 Bloomington, Indiana For the discovery of the production of mutations by means ray irraduation of X- Muller was one of the greatest biologists of this century Remembered primarily for his work demonstrating that lonizing radiation caused mutation Muller had numerous other scientific accomplishments of great significance to his Credit Fe was the first to locate a gene on the fourth and last romosome of Drosophila He had the first demonstration, 1916 of a balanced lethal system He demonstrated 69 ·technology Muller knew tht the overwhelming majonly of tion is change and most changes to a well adapted watch and smash it down on the table top, demonstrating machinery or, by analogy, what a mutation might do to an Nobel Laursales in Physiology or Medicine multiple crossing over in fruit flies And he demonstrated that much of the evolutionary change in organisms due to modifier genes Throughout his research career, the role of mutation in gene expression and the nature of the gene itself were the major foci of his rescarch In his work with radiation, Muller came to realize that we were increasing our rate of mutations by nuclear weapors testing and medical and industrial applications of radiation mutations were deleterious to living things He forcefully, and shockingly, used to point this out in hus evolution course which he taught at Indiana University Prior to class, he would purchase a very inexpensive pack et watch During his lecture he would point out that muita be deleterious with that, he would take out his pocket what a 'random change would do to a fine of machinery, would piece of complete organism No biology education at Indiana was without Professor Muller's course 70

·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine
1947
1
CORI, CARL
FERDINAND
CORI, GERTY THERESA
Nationality American
Nationality American
b December 5, 1896,
Prague Czechoslovakia, d
1984
b August 15, 1896, Prague
d October 26, 1957, St
Louis, Missouri USA
For their discovery of the course of the catalytic conversion of
glycogen
Ferdinand Cori was born in Czechoslovakia and graduated
in Medicine from Prague in 1920 He married his classmate,
Gerty Radnitz, the same year They moved to the US in
1922 and formed a team until Gerty's death in 1957
71

·1850, shown that glycogen forms an energy reserve held in sugar phosphates for the first time The details of thus Cori was Professor of Pharmacology and of Biochemistry al Washington University Medical School until his retirement Gerty Radnitz Con graduated from the Medical School of Prague University in 1920, and moved with her husbard to America in 1922, where she took up an assignment at New York State University In 1931 she, along with her husband Cori, moved to Washington University, where she became Nobel Lammales in Physiology or Mediane At Washington University, where the Coris had taken ap pointment in 1931, they did their best known joint research on the conversion of glucose to glycogen in the ancial body and the reverse breakdown Clem de Bernad, the French physiologist, had, as early.com the liver and muscles, which is converted to the simple sugar, glucose, when the body needs further energy The Coris discovered the precise steps involved in this the sential biochemical process, and revealed the role of the process were further worked out by Fnty Lipmann in 1966 a Professor of Biochemistry in 1947 72

·No text on this page.

·of duced by excision of the pancreas, he showed that removal Houssay was the founder-Director of the Institute of Biol ogy and Experimental Medicine, Buenos Aires An activist medical practice The state endowment for the Nobel award was also denied to him, but he refused promising Nobel Laurcatcs in Pliysiology or Medicine injections of the pituitary extract induces symptoms diabetes Working on dogs in which diabetics had been en of adenobyophysis made the animal extremely sensitive to insulın, thereby relieving the symptoms of the disease against the dictatonal junta regime of General Juan Peron he was dismissed form service and had to survive on his opportunities abroad and stayed on in his motherland 1948 MULLER, PAUL HERMANN Nationality Swiss 74 ·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine b January 12, 1899, Olten, Switzerland, d October 12, 1965, Basel For his discovery of the high efficiency of DDT as a contact poison against several arthropois 3 Muller, the Swiss chemist, was educated in Basle He spent his career from 1925 with the Swiss chemical company of JR. Geigy His search from 1935, for a cheap and easily producible insecticide which would also be rapid persistent and harmless to plants and warm blooded animals, ended in his patenting an insecticide, dichloro diphenyl trichloro methane, or the commonly known DDT, in 1940 DDT was first synthesized by the German chemist Zeidler in 1873 DDT was successfully field tested against the Colorado potato beetle by the Swiss government and the US Agricultural Department It was also highly effective in eliminating the lice carriers of typhus fever and thereby preventing epidemics at the end of World War II The insecticide resistance developed by insects, as also the damage caused to the ecology by DDŤ, however resulted in adverse criticism of the product after two decades By 1970, many advanced countries banned the use of DDT 75 ·Nobel Laurcates in Pliysiology or Medicine injections of the pituitary extract induces symptoms of diabetes Working on dogs in which diabetics had been in duced by excision of the pancreas, he showed that removal of adenobyophysis made the animal extremely sensitive to insulin, thereby relieving the symptoms of the disease Houssay was the Founder Director of the Institute of Biol ogy and Experimental Medicine, Buenos Aires An activist against the dictatorial junta regime of General Juan Peron, he was dismissed form service and had to survive on bus state endowment for the Nobel award was also denied to him, but he refused promising opportunities abroad and stayed on in his motherland medical practice 1948 MULLER, PAUL HERMANN Nationality Swiss 74 ·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine b January 12, 1899, Olten, Switzerland, d October 12, 1965, Basel For his discovery of the high efficiency of DDT as a contact poison against several arthropods Muller, the Swiss chemist, was educated in Basle He spent his career from 1925 with the Swiss chemical company of JR Geigy His search, from 1935, for a cheap and easily producible insecticide which would also be rapid persistent and harmless to plants and warm blooded animals, ended in his patenting an insecticide, dichloro diphenyl trichloro methane or the commonly known DDT, in 1940 DDT was first synthesized by the German chemist Zeidler in 1873 DDT was successfully field tested against the Colorado potato-beetle by the Swiss government and the US Agricultural Department It was also highly effective in eliminating the lice carriers of typhus fever and thereby preventing epidemics at the end of World War II The insecticide resistance developed by insects, as also the damage caused to the ecology by DDT, however, resulted in adverse criticism of the product after two decades By 1970, many advanced countries banned the use of DDT 75 ·subject of Physiology at the University of Bonn and headed Nobel Laurcalcs in Physiology or Medicine 1949 HESS, WALTER RUDOLF Nationality Swiss b March 17, 1881, Frauenfeld, Switzerland, d August 12 1973, Locarno For his discovery of the functional organisation of the interbrain as a coordinator of the actuities of the internal organs The Swiss neurophysiologist, Hess, studied Medicine in five Universities in Switzerland and Germany before be coming an ophthalmologist However, he switched to the the department at the University of Zurich from 1917-51 He pursued his interests in the autonomous nervous sys tem with the help of precision surgery he had picked up as an ophthalmologist The autonomous nervous system ·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine controls involuntary functions such as breathing, blood pressure, temperature and digestion A fine insulated wire with a bare end was inserted in cats, which were under anaesthetic, in such a way that the bare end was at a defined point in the midbrain As the animal regained consciousness, he could, by passing a small current, induce different reactions such as sleep, rage, evacuation and changes in blood pressure and respiration in the animal He located the seat of autonomic function at the base of the brain, in the medulla oblongata and the diencephalon, and particularly at the hypothalamus The work led to the detailed mapping of the brain and the relating of physiology to psychiatry MONIZ, ANTONIO CAETANO DE ABREV FREIRE EGAS Nationality Portuguese 77 ·of first "prefrontal lobotomy' operation This reasoned that Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine b November 29, 1874, Avanca, Portugal, d December 13, 1955, Lisbon For his discovery of the therapeutic value of leucotomy in certain psychoses Moniz was the professor of neurology at the University Lisbon and is considered to be the founder of psychosurgery His work on the development of cerebral angio graphy in the late 1920s revolutionaized the diagnostic aspects of intracranial diseases In 1936, Moniz along with Almeida Lima performed the severance of nerve fibres between the apex of the frontal lobes, known to be associated with psychological respon ses, and the thalamus in cases like schizophrenia and paranoia, would cause a transformation into normal men tal activity The side effects of lobotomy also made him cautious that it be done only in extreme cases where every other treatment had failed Monız, who was politically active Minister several times was a Protuguese 78

·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine
1950
1
TE
HENCH, PHILIP SHOWALTER
Nationality American
b February 28, 1896, Pittsburg, Pennsylvanıı d March 30
1965 Ocho Rios, Jamaica
KENDALL, EDWARD
CALVIN
Nationality American
b March 8, 1886, South
Norwalk Connecticut d
May 4, 1972 Princeton
New Jersey
79

·Minnesota Working on arthritis, he noticed that patients Kendal studied Chemisty at Columbia University, Nen Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine REICHSTEIN, TADEUS Nationality Swiss b July 20 1897, Wloclawek, Poland For their discoveries relating to the hormones of the adrenal cor ter their structure and brological effects Hench graduated in Medicine from the University Pittsburg in 1920 and joined the faculty of Mayo Chinc un with paundice or pregnant women suffered less from arthn tal pains His ini estigations, along with Kendall, led to the use of cortisone and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) York and thereafter worked mainly at the Mayo Found: tion in Rochester, Minnesota Thyroxin, a new amino acid. 90 ·Nobel Laurcates in Physiology or Medicine was isolated by him from the thyroid gland Thyroxin contains iodine, and it is a component of the thyroid hormone (thyroglobulin) that plays a regulating role in body metabolism in the 1930s he isolated a series of steroids from thyroid glands and one of them, Cortisone', was shown to Telieve the symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis by his coworker Hench By 1943, over 23 cortisteroids had been isolated in the US and Switzerland and Kendall and others had devised synthetic routes to make related compounds Reichstein was a student of Staudinger He graduated from Zurich in 1922. He collaborated with Kendall and Hench in their work on the hormones of the adrenal cortex which culminated in the isolation of cortisone as also its therapeutic application in treatment 1951 THEILER, MAX Nationality South African 81 ·At the Rockefeller Institute, Thesler and his associates Nobel Laurcnics in Physiology or Medicine b January 30 1899, Pretona, South Africa d August 18, 1972, New Haven, Connecticut For lus discoveries concerning yellow fever and low to combatt Theiler, a South African research physician was educated at the University of Capelown and in Switzerland After training at the Si Thomas Hospital, London, he graduated from the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Mediante in 1922. His research at the Harvard Medical School (1922-1930) and at the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, News York City (1930-1964), included encephalomyelitis and other viruses associated with tropical diseases His work on yellow fever fetched him the Nobel Prize His discovery that mice are susceptible to yellow fever facilitated an ideal laboratory animal for the study of the disease and eventually led to the development of the var cine against the disease His studies led to the development of the first attenuated strain of the virus developed the improved (17-D) vaccine, widely used for human immunization against yellow fever, the deadly viral disease carned by the Aedes mosquito, especially Aedes aegypti ·Nobel Laurcates in Physiology or Medicine 1952 WAKSMAN, SELMAN ABRAHAM Nationality American b July 22 1888, Priluka, now Ukraine, d August 16, 1973, Hyannis Massachusetts For his discovery of streptomycin, the first antibiotic effective against tuberculosis Waksman, one of the foremost authorities in soil microbiology, started his life in difficulty as a young Jewish boy in Ukraine In 1910, he migrated to the US and did his PhD in California in Biochemistry He spent most of his career at Rutgers University, New Jersey, and was a Professor of Soil Biology His systematic search for soil antibiotics since 1939 resulted in the isolation of the new antibiotic, streptomycin, from 83 ·b August 25, 1900 Hildesheim, Germany, d November Nobel ? cureates in Physiology or Medicine the soil organism Streptomyces grisens, in 1943 Streptomycin destroys the human tubercle bacillus and became a major and effective drug for combating tuberculosis Waksman isolated a number of antibiotics from soul bac teria hike actinomycm, which though toxic to some animals, is used in the treatment of cancer Several other antibiotics like neomycin are also the work of Waksman and his team The term "antibiotics' was first coined by him in 1941 His works include his autobiograph, My life unth the Microtes (1951), and a most exhaustive and authoritative book, Print ciples of Soil Microbiology (1927) 1953 KREBS, HANS ADOLF Nationality British 22 1981, London 84 ·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine or his discovery of the citnc acid cycle LIPMANN, FRITZ ALBERT Nationality American b June 12, 1899, Koenisburg Germany, d 1986 For his discovery of co enzyme A and its importance for intermediary metabolism In the early years of the twentieth century the German chemist Frany Knoop had suggested that the fatty acids the products into which the ordinary fats of foods are are bumed' by the removal of two carbon atoms at a time in a four-step process of oxidation The Nobel laureate Otto Warburg, at about the same time had found that an iron-containing catalyst is necessary to activate ordinanly inert oxygen and bring it into the broken down 85 ·Nobel Laurcates in Physiology or Medicine combustion process A third scientist, Hennch Wieland, also a Nobel laureate came forth with proof that the critica? step in the whole combustion process is not the oxidato but the removal of hydrogen from the foodstuffs In the latter part of the 1920 s Daud Kelin of the University of Cambridge proved that all these three men were party night In combustion hydrogen has to be removed to energy Exactly how this was accomplished remained un known and laboratories all around the world were seeking to become a Professor of Biochemistry at the University of Sheffield in England worked out exactly what happensstarches is broken down into carbon dioxide and water, The key intermediary in the intraconversion of these acids was citric acid Acetyl coenzyme A produced during glycolysts reacts with a four carbon compound oxaloacetic acid to yield the six carbon citric acid The atnc acid is then transformed in a seres of reactions to other six fite and four carbon carboxylic acids Two molecules of carbon dioxide, the gaseous waste product of cell metabolism, are released in the series Hydrogen atoms are also removed from certain acid molecules and are transferred to another complex series of reactions known as the electron transport chain There they combine with molecular oxygen to produce water and more energy At the conclusion of the sugars atoms at a time but to make this possible oxygen has to be used and it must first be activated by a catalyst The true essence of the system the production and transfer of a solution In the late 1940 s Krebs who had left Germany, the five steps known as the citric acid cycle pyruvic acid the breakdown product of the and energy is steadily released in which and citric and transformations oxaloacetic acid is regenerated 86 ·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine and the cycle is ready to be repeated with the introduction of another molecule of acetyl coenzyme A The cycle sequence of reactions outlined here is now referred to as the Krebs cycle (in honor of its discoverer), the citric acid cycle (because of the special role of that compound), or the tricarboxylic acid cycle During the same years Lipmann, who had also left Germany and was then Professor of Biochemistry at Harvard, discovered another substance that played a cratical role in the power production of the cell He named it coenzyme A, and it was isolated a few years later, in 1951, by Feoder Lynen of Germany 1954 ENDERS, JOHN FRANKLIN Nationality Amencan 87

·favourite area He was, in turn, a flying instructor, an estate
ing of viruses revolutionized the field of virology, fuda
change of several careers before finally setting down to his
Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine
b February 10, 1897, Connecticut, d September 8, 1935
ROBBINS, FREDERICK
CHAPMAN
WELLER, THOMAS
HUCKLE
Nationality American
b August 25, 1916,
Nationality Amencan
Auburn, Alabama
Arbor, Michigan
For their discovery of the ability of poliomyelitis viruses to grow
in cultures of various types of tissue
The American virologist Enders, whose
pioneering
June 15, 1915, Amt
cultur
88

·Nobel Laurcates in Pliysiology or Medicine agent, took a language course at Harvard for four years and, finally, made the change to microbiology at the Harvard Medical School and took a PhD in 1930 His interest switched to the culturing of viruses which was then being done on live chick embryos By the use of perıcıllın to stop the multiplication of bacteria, Enders theorised that viruses could be cultured in living cells In 1948, together with Robbins and Weller, he cultured the mumps virus using a homogenate of chick embryo cells and ox serum with added penicillin This was followed by culturing of the polio virus (1949), and the measles virus (1950) The vaccine the tno developed for measles (1951) came into widespread use in 1963 Robbins graduated from the Harvard Medical School (1940) and joined Enders in 1948 His main work was on the cultivation of the poliomyelitis virus in tissue culture His work on the viruses of mumps are also well known Weller, a student of Harvard Medical School, joined Enders in 1939 as a tutorial student and was introduced to the field of virology and tissue culture techniques After a stint in the army, he rejoined the Enders group in 1947 He isolated the viruses reponsible for Varicella and herpes Zoster and developed diagnostic tests for them He also demonstrated that a single virus caused both these diseases 89

·Theorell did his MD in Medicine at the Caroline Institute
in 1930 He joined the University of Uppsala as assistant
professor in biochemistry and became Professor in 1937
His major work was on the oxidation of enzymes He was
the first to isolate and punfy the crystalline myoglobin, an
oxygen-carrying protein found in red muscle At the Kaiser
Wilhelm Institute in Berlin he worked with Nobel laureate
non-protein co-enzyme and a protein apo-enzyme and that
Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine
1955
THEORELL, AXEL HUGO TEODOR
Nationality Swedish
b July 6 1903 Linkoping Sweden d August 18 1982
For his discoveries concerning nature and mode of action of
oxidation of enzymes
Warburg Theorell found that an enzyme is made
up
of a
90

·Nobel Laureates 111 Physiology or Medicine hydrogen atom at a specific site on the nboflavın molecule This proved the effect of an enzyme on the chemical activity of specificatoms and led to the study of enzymes that facilitate oxidation reactions in living cells and ways in which nutrients are utilized by organisms in the presence of oxygen to produce energy Theorell later worked on the oxidative enzyme cytochrome Cand its structure His work on alcohol-dehydrogenase paved the way for sensitive blood tests that are widely applied in the legal determinatron of drunkenness He became the head of the Nobel Institution at Stockholm towards the end of his career 1956 COURNAND, ANDRE FREDERIC Nationality American b September 24, 1895, Paris, d February 19, 1988, Great Bamngton Massachusetts 91 ·and graduated in 1929 when he joined the August Victoru developed at this hospital He worked as a Urologist at Bad Kruzmack (1950-1958) and the Evangelical Hospital at Dusseldorf (1958-1961) He joined Johannes Gutenberg Univer sity Mainz as a Professor of Urology and Surgery in 1961 Nobel Laurtates in Physiology or Medicine FORSSMANN, WERNER Nationality German (FRG) RICHARDS JR, DICKINSON W b August 29 1904, Berlin, d June 1 1979 Schopfheim February For their discoveries concerning heart catheterization and pathological changes in the circulatory system Forssmann studied medicine at the University of Berlin Home near Berlin His catheterization technique Nationality American b October 30, 1895, Orange, New Jersey, d 23 Lakeville, Connecticut 1973, W3S 92 ·Nobl Launnies in Pliysiology or Medicine Forssmann was interested in the problem of reducing or avoiding the likely dangerous consequences of damaging a coronary artery or the pleura during intracardial injections The vcnous system is so designed that blood vessels from any point always lead to the right heart Forssmann, working on cadavers, introduced a catheter into a vein in the arm and pissed it into the heart The tip of the probe without any difficulty, landed nght in the heart As a next step, he decided to experiment on himself even after his colleagues refused to collaborate After applying a local anaesthetic at the elbow, he opened a vein and passed in the catheter inch by inch until its tip reached his right ventricle With the aid of a mirror, he was able to see, in the X ray, the tip of the probe in his heart This work opened up tremendous possibilities like exploring the heart with a probe in order to detect abnormalitics, measuring the pressure in the different parts of the heart, and taking X-ray pictures of the heart by injecting opique substances The recognition due to this great doctor and humanitarian came twenty five years after his discovery Cournand graduated from the University of Paris in Medicine (1930) and moved to the Bellevue Hospital, New York City He was a Professor at Columbia Richards began his research at the College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia, where he had moved after his studies in England (1928) At Columbia, where he was a Professor Emeritus (1945-1961), he started his collaborative research with Courand on the use and perfection of cardiac cathetenzation', a technique to help measure the pressure and gaseous condition of the blood inside the heart, using the Forssmann method of introducing a flexible catheter into the elbow vein 93

·For his discoveries relating to synthetic compounds that inhibit
the University of Geneva and took his DSc in 1929 He
moved to the Pasteur Institute in Pans and became the
head of the therapeutic chemistry laboratory in 1936 In
Paris he was a member of the team which isolated
Noli Laurates in Physiology or Medicine
Their study contributed to the understanding of the
functioning of the discased human heart as also the diag
nosis of its structural defects
1957
BOVET DANIEL
Nationality Italian
b March 23 1907 Newchatel Switzerland
the action of certain body substances and especially their action
on the vascular system and the skeletal muscles
Bovet the Swiss-Italian pharmacologist,
was educated at
94

·Nobel Laurcales in Physiology or Medicine sulphanılamide, which is a therapeutically effective substance in the antibacterial drug prontosıl Sulphanılımıde was cheap, unpatented and its denvatives have been wide ly used against streptococcal infections Bovet s subsequent discovery of compounds which antagonize the action of histamine paved the way to widespread use of them for the relief of allergic symptoms and related conditions like the common cold He developed a surgical anaesthetic derived from curare, the South Amencan Indian nerve poison, which is a muscle relaxant used in major surgeries 1958 TATUM, EDWARD LAWRIE BEADLE, GEORGE (WELLS) Nationality Amencan Nationality American b December 14, 1909 Boulder Colorado d November 5 1975, New b October Wahoo Nebraska 22 1903 York City 95

·George W Beadle helped found the field of biochemical
biochemical level) could be studied experimentally His
his use of an organism in which gene function (at a
opened a new path of biological research by unlocking the
one gene one enzyme concept
Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine
For their discovery that genes act by regulating definite chemical
events
LEDERBERG, JOSHUA
Nationality American
b May 23 1925 Montclair New Jersey
For his discoveries concerning genetic recombination and the o
ganisation of the genetic material of bacteria
genetics His most important contribution to genetics was
demonstration of the
secret of how genes act as controllers in biochemical path
96

·Nolul Laurcales in Physiology or Medicine ways At the California Institute of Technology, Beadle interested Tatum in joining the laborious work of identifying chemical disturbances underlying inherited abnormalities The idea was to select an organism, such as a fungus that has simple nutritional requirements, and induce mutations in it that observably alter these requirements By making one of the genes defective, they hoped to discover the functioning of genes Within a few years more than eighty thousand spores of red bread mold Neurospora were grown in their laboratory By exposing the spores to X-rays, they demonstrated that the genes could be manipulated to change the ability to make vitamin B6 the nutrient required to grow Further, these mutated disabilities were shown to be passed on to progenies Further expenments by them demonstrated that a change in a gene produced a direct change in the way molds and men produced materials essential to their lives a change in a gene also affected the paths that had to be undeviatingly followed in the grand process The gene determined not only how the living edifice was built, but also how it ran Lederberg, a former associate of Tatum had in the meantime, along with Zinder, demonstrated the concept of transformation' by crossing two strains of a bacterium The implications were that a virus was picking up the DNA of one bacterial strain and carrying it into another bactenum In effect, the viruses that cause many human diseases can carry genetic material from one cell to another The discovery of a new genetic mechanism was a matter of great importance to genetic studies and Lederberg then only thirty three, was one of the youngest Nobelists in history 97

·After a brief stint with Ochoa in New York University,
Kornberg moved to Washington University and both pur
sued their interest in the synthesising of DNA While
Ochoa worked on enzymes that might play a part in the
fashioning of RNA Komberg studied those that might put
together the separate building blocks or units of DNA He
demonstrated the incorporation of radioactive thymidine
Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine
1959
KORNBERG, ARTHUR
Nationality American
OCHOA, SEVERO
b March 3 1918 Brooklyn
New York
Nationalty American
b September 24, 1903
Luarca Spain
For fus discovery of the
mechanisms in the biological
synthesis of ribonucleic acid
and deoxyribonucleic acid
For his discoveries concerning
genetic recombination and the
organisation of the genel
material of bacteria
98

·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine one of the nitrogenous bases that are the building blocks of DNA, into a DNA fraction At the same time, Ochoa announced the synthesis of RNA with an Azotobacter en zyme These studies were extended to include the other nitrogenous bases adenine, guanine and cytosine With further purification of the enzyme extracts, Komberg mixed the four bases, a bit of DNA, and the punfied enzyme and this synthetic DNA was shown to be identical with native DNA The experiments brought within reach the artificial synthesis of hereditary material and proteins and a full understanding of the mechanisms of genetic and enzymatic control over metabolism and growth 1960 LA MEDAWAR, SIR PETER BRIAN BURNET, SIR FRANKM Nationality Australian b September 3, 1899, Traralgon, Australia d 1985 Nationality British b Feb 28, 1915, Rio de 99 पुस्तकालय एव वाचनालय Aanda ·began his work on skin grafts in connection with wartime burn victims in the 1940s He continued his work in Bir mingham where he moved to in 1947 and was aware of was born in Brazil, the son of a Lebanese-British produce antibodies against foreign cells is not inherited but skin grafts that immunological tolerance is achievable, This is achieved by using tissue-typing to secure a partial Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine For discovery of acquired immunological tolerance Burnet was a graduate in medicine from Melbourne (Australia) and spent his entire career there excepting for a brief two year stint with bactenological research in Lon don His work (1930's) on bacteriophages and a method for culturing some viruses in live chick embryo, led him to the view that an animals ability to produce antibody in response to an antigen is not inborn, but is developed during foetal lıfe This was supported by Medawar with kas ingenious work with mouse skin grafts Burnet s work also included the mode of action and the epidemiology of influenza virus, polio, Q fever and the cholera vibrio A general scheme explaining how immune systems develop the ability to distinguish between "self and nonsell” was proposed by him in 1951 through his clonal selection theory Medawar the British pioneer in immunological studies businessman A student of Young at Oxford in 1932, he Burnet s work and his suggestion that an animal s ability to is developed in foetal life His demonstration with mouse matching between the donor organ and the patient im muno-suppressive drugs are then used to inhibit the for mal immune response which would cause rejection 100 ·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine 1961 VON BEKESY, GEORG Nationality American b, June 3, 1899, Budapest, Hungary, d June 13, 1972, Honolulu For his discovenes of the physical mechanism of stimulation within the cochlea Bekesy studied chemistry at the University of Bem and did his PhD in Physics in 1923 from the University of Budapest His work on long distance telephone transmis- Sion at the Hungarian Post Office made him interested in the science of audio-reception and the human ear as the major component of the human transmission and receiver system At the Karolinska Institute and the Technical institute in Sweden, where he moved to in 1946, he designed the new audiometer that can be operated by the patient 101 ·For their discoveries conceming the molecular structure of nucleic acids and its significance for information transfer in Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine The uudiometer his applications outside the field of hear ing also He migrated to America in 1947 and worked in the psycho acoustic laboratory at Harvard University until his retirement 1962 we CRICK FRANCIS HARRY COMPTON Nationality British WATSON, JAMES DEWEY b June 8 1916 thampton England Nationality American Norb Apnl 6, 1928 Chicago living material 102 ·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine 5 WILKINS, MAURICE HUGH FREDERICK Nationality British b December 15, 1916, Pongaroa, New Zealand Crick with Watson and Wilkins dominated the so-called dogmatic' era (1950-1965) of biochemical genetics When Watson and Crick began working on the structure of DNA its chemical composition had already been determined The problem was to devise a molecular model that would not only be in agreement with X-ray diffraction data but would also account for the regularity of the molecule s structure, its chemical stability and how the molecule could replicate itself faithfully They had to determine what physical arrangement was possible and search for known molecular forces that could hold the parts of the molecule together 103 ·Erwin Chargaff, Linus Pauling and Jerry Donohue to name other, appearing very much like a spiral staircase, with phate backbone spiraling around the outside This model accounted beautifully for the major genetic structural and biochemical aspects of hereditary material On the biochemical and structural level it explained the data ol tained from X-ray diffraction studies of DNA and the climbing pattern of bases at regular intervals On a genetic level it explained how the hereditary material duplicated itself and suggested how DNA stores genetic information In short Cricks collaboration with Watson had resulted in the single most important development in biology of the Perhaps the most important contribution to biology made by them was their insistence on relating every structural present century The secret of life, that is the nature of feature of DNA to the requirements of its biological func disciplines of classical genetics biochemistry and Nobel Laurcates in Physiology or Medicine As a result of endless days of building numerous possible structural models of DNA and piecing together essendal data obtained from the research of several scientists - cluding Maurice Wilkins Rosalind Franklin, John Griffith, only a few Watson and Crick announced their model of DNA in a short article in Nature (1953) Their model con sisted of two helices (the double helix) n ound around each steps composed of paired bases, and with a sugar phos the gene had been found out! tion In essence they had pulled together the once separate molecular genetics to form a unified biology 104 ·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine 1963 y ECCLES, SIR JOHN CAREW HODGKIN, SIR ALAN LLOYD Nationality Australian Nationality British b January 27, 1903, Melbourne Australia b February 5, 1914, Banbury, Oxfordshire HUXLEY, SIR ANDREW FIELDING Nationality British b November 22, 1917, London 105 ·results in the expanding of the pores in the cell membranes These pores (bontons) allow passage of sodium ions into ward passage of positively charged potassium across the membrane By this process the existing polanty of the Hodgkin the English neurophysiologist became interested in the basis of nervous conduction even when he was a stu dent of biology and chemistry at Cambridge He found that it was easier to obtain single nerve fibres from a shore crab In America (1938) he started using the giant squd (genus Loligo) that are half a metre long and highly active with electrcal charges Electrical impulses that conduct nerve tained The exated nerve cells, he found induce another and even though they were small (1/30 mm diameter), with his student Eccles began the work on squid axon that Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine For their discoveries concerning the wonic mechanisms involved in excitation and inhibition in the peripheral and central portions of the nerve cell membrane Eccles, the Australian neurophysiologist the University of Melbourne and at Magdalene College, Oxford His work at Oxford University and at Canberra showed that the excitement of the nerve cells with impulses results in the release of a substance (probably acetyl choline) in the synapse into the next nerve cell that in tur. was educated at the neighbouring nerve cell and reverse the polarity of impulses are thus converted into chemical impulses at the synaptic region and the sequence of the impulses type of synapse to release a substance which promotes out is main nerve fibres is reinforced and the transmission of impulses are inhibited these could be used in experiments nerve fibres as broad as 1 mm By 1939 Hodgkin along 106 ·Nobel Laurcates in Physiology or Medicine continued again in 1945, after their war service Nerve impulse is electrical and a major nerve fibre acts as a cable Hodgkin, Eccles and associates inserted a fine microelectrode into an axon, and placed a second electrode on the outer surface of its surrounding membrane A resting fibre has a negative electrode potential "inside" compared with the positive exterior surface This is reversed during nerve conduction when an impulse passes for about a millisecond and the nerve impulse moves as a wave of depolarisation passing along the axon Hodgkin and Huxley developed a detailed theory of the origin of this membrane potential, relating to the presence of sodium and potassium ions and their distribution across the membrane Their work is basic for the understanding of the brophysics of nervous conduction Hodgkin became Pressdent of the Royal Society of London in 1970 Huxley was educated at the University College London and at Cambndge Half-brother of the famous biologist Sir Julian Huxley he was Director of Studies at Trinity College, Cambridge (1952-60) and Professor of Physiology at the University College since 1960 His theories on muscle structure and contraction are widely respected 107

·For their discoveries concerning the mechanism and regulation of
Bloch obtained his degree in engineering from Munich in
USA where he obtained his PhD at Columbia Univer
1934 after which he moved to Switzerland and then to the
sity He became Professor of Biochemistry at Harvard
Bloch was especially interested in unsaturated fatty acids
and with David Rittenberg discovered that acetic aad was
a major building block in the biosynthetic pathways of
Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine
1964
BLOCH KONRAD
Nationality Amencan
LYNEN, FEODOR
b January 21 1912 Neisse
Germany now in Poland
Nationality German (FRG)
b April 6 1911, Munich
d 1979
cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism
108

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·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine Francois Jacob and his colleagues (most notably Jacques Monod) were among a group of molecular biologists who contributed to the revolution in biology during the 1950's and 1960s with new insights into the biochemistry of life One of these was the concept of "allostery" Literally mean ing "other site", this explains that enzyme activity can be controlled by the binding of a chemical structurally unrelated to the substrate to a site other than the active site for that substrate on the enzyme protein Any metabolic pathway could be connected with any other pathway in the cell by this process Allostery explains a wide variety of protein activity control mechanisms including oxygenhaemoglobin binding hormonal control of enzyme activity and even repressor proteins The genes located along a DNA molecule are present at all times, yet, not all genes on all DNA molecules in a cell function at all times A cell never manufactures the maximum amount of every compound it is capable of producing at all times The amount of any particular substance produced by a cell vanes Monod s research on the bac. tenal enzyme B-galactosidase led him to propose a model in which gene action is regulated by portions of the DNA molecule adjacent to the gene itself The model contains two distinct parts the 'operon' and the regulator gene The operon, in turn, consists of two parts an operator gene and a sequence of structural genes The structural genes are the portions of the DNA molecule responsible for the syn thesis of RNA molecules which act as the template for new protein molecules The operator gene is found adjacent to one or more structural genes In most cases studied so far, a single operator gene controls the operation of a series of structural genes which manufacture the enzymes for a se quence of biochemical reactions 111

·sor which turns off the operator gene, while an excess of
operator gene to switch to the on position. The
Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine
How is the operator controlled? Monod and his colleagues
suggested that this was the function of a regulator gene, lo
cated on the same DNA molecule, but at some distance
from the operon This releases a 'repressor which binds on
the operator gene and switches it to an "off position i
which the operator gene prevents the structural genes fron
manufacturing RNA molecules The regulator gene is com
trolled by cell constituents An excess of certain cell
products will cause the regulator gene to release a repress
other cell products will bind to the repressor itself allow
basic principles of this theory have now been confirmed
ing
the
1966
}
ROUS, PEYTON
HUGGINS, CHARLES B
Nationality American
b Oct 5 1879, Baltimore
Nationality American
Maryland d Feb 16 1970
b Sept 22 1901 Halifax
New York
Canada
112

·Nolcl Laureles in Physiology or Medicine Rous, for his discoury of lumour inducing viruses, and Iluggens, for his discout nies concerning hormonal treatment of parasite cancer Huggins was educated at the University of Acadia and the Harvard Medical School He vorhed in the faculties of the Unu ersities of Michigan and Clucago, and at the Ben May Laboratory for Cancer Research, University of Chicago He demonstrated the possibility of hormonal therapy in cancer by showing that the injection of a synthetic female sex hormone can cause the disappearance of tumours in the prostale glands of the male After obtaining luus medical degree from Johns Hopkins University, Rous shifted to the Rockefeller Institute in New York where he started his sixty year long rescarch on cancer A tumour occurring naturally in fowl was successfully transplanted by cell grafts, in series Rous, then demonstrated that this transplantation could be done through cell free filtrates also He went on to show that the tumour differed in no way from known tumours except in having a demonstrable cause and that the filterable agent had properties like those of known viruses In the 1930 s Rous borrowed virus induced warts in cottontail rabbits from RE Shape and demonstrated the changes that take place when a single wart acquired the properties of a malignant growth it was shown that the virus and carcinogenic chemicals could act synergistically, cancer being caused by their combined action faster than by either agent acting alone Rous s proposal that carcinogenesis involved two processes, initiation and promotion, that carcinogenic agents act in one way or the other, or both ways, is now generally accepted The filterable foul tumour bears his name, Rous Sarcoma Virus (RSV) 113

·For their discoveries concerning the primary physiological and
Nobel Laurcates in Physiology or Medicine
1967
GRANIT, RAGNAR
Nationality Swedish
b October 30
Helsinki
HARTLINE, HALDAN
KEFFER
1900
Nationality Amencan
December 22 1903
Bloomsburg Pennsylvania
b
WALD, GEORGE
Nationality American
b
November 18 1906
New York
chemical visual processes in the eye
114

·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine The Swedish neurophysiologist Granit graduated from Helsinki University in 1927 After training in medical physics at the University of Pennsylvania, he trained in neurophysiology under Sherrington (Nobel laureate) at Oxford He returned to Sweden in 1940 and joined the Royal Caroline Institute of Stockholm and became its Director in 1945 The Amencan neurophysiologist Hartline took his graduate degree from Lafayette College and his MD from Johns Hopkins University (1927) After training in medicii physics in Munich, he returned to America where he became Professor of Biophysics at Johns Hopkins University The biochemist Wald was educated in New York and Columbia Universities and did his PhD in 1932 after which he joined Harvard University where he became a Professor of Biology in 1948 These three researchers were interested in the physiology and chemistry of visual processes and contributed sig nificantly to the development of this arer of science Granit demonstrated (1945) that single nerve fibres from the retina were differentially sensitive to different wavelengths of light Hartline was the first neurophysiologist to record thu activity of a single visual receptor He devised techniques for intercepting and recording the clectrical signal scnt by an isolated single nerve fibre where receptors are stimui lated by light Wald studied the activation of the photoreceptor cells in the retina by light and the molecular readjustments that take place as a result These chemical prociere were reproduced by him in the laboratory 115

·For their interpretation of the genetic code and its function 11
Nobel Laurcates in Physiology or Medicine
1968
HOLLEY ROBERT W
Nationality American
b January 28 1922
Urbana Illinois
KHORANA, HAR
GOBIND
Nationality Amencan
b January 9, 1922, Raipura
India (now in
Punjab
Pakistan)
NIRENBERG,
MARSHALL W
Nationality American
b
York City
April 10 1927, New
protein synthesis
116

·Nohl Laureles in Physiology or Mladicine Holley graduated in Chemistry from Illinois University (1942) and obtained his PhD from Comell University (1947) At the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) which was a nens c centre of molecular biology, hc formed his basic concepts and strategies and reilised that isolation of pure molecules of transfer RNAs kis a prerequisite for understanding the function of nuclcic acids At Comell, to which he returned, he and his tuam spent three years isolat. ing one gram of alamine transfer RNA from some 90 kulograms of yeast The genetic material DNA communi. ates to the cells through messenger RNAs which transfer the messages to the Irinsier RNAs (or further actions Hol lcy and his group worked out the complete sequence of nucleotides (77 in all) in the amino acid alamine, by 1965 The Indian American molecular biologist Khorina was educated at the Universities of Punjab, Liverpool (PhD in Chemistry in 1918), Zunch and Cambndge At Vancouver, where he moved in 1952, he extended his study of the syn thesis of nucleotide coenzymes Al Wisconsin (1960-1970), he camed out the synthesis of polynucleotides with Lnown base sequences His work was of tremendous importance in establishing the "genetic code word dictionary The four bases adenine thyminc, guanine and cytosine (ATG and C) present in DNA chains are 'read sequentially in group of three' codons' This sequence was known to be non overlapping" and "commaless" Since there are 21 known amino acids and 4 bases, the coding was to be in the form of a triplet (ATC AAA, etc) — 43 = 64 combinations as, otherwise, there would be overlapping In triplets, however, there would be some codons that would code for more than one amino acid and some that are nonsensıcal' Khorana synthesized all the 64 codons and his work is of major significance in molecular biology 117

·his PhD in Biochemistry (1957) from the University of
Florida He played a major role in the study of the genetic
Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine
Nirenberg studied Zoology for his Masters (1952) and did
process of protein synthesis The double stranded DNA un
winds itself at the time of protein synthesis and through
the single stranded RNA that it synthesizes, transfers the
messages and codes for the amino acid sequences in the
protein molecule through the messenger RNAs (m RNA
the sites of the synthesis, the nbosomes Nirenbe
demonstrated the steps that link DNA, RNA and prote:
showing that RNA is a prerequisite for protein synthesis
1969
DELBRUCK, MAX
Nationality American
HERSHEY, ALFRED D
b September 4 1906 Ber
lin Germany d March 10
1981
Nationality American
b December 4
Owosso Michigan
1908
118

·Nolel Lauraits 1 Physiology or Melicine LURIA, SALVADOR EDWARD Nanonality American August 13, 1912, Tunn, Italy For their discorenes concerning the replication mechanism and the genetic structure of viruses Delbruck a student of physicist Niels Bohr, was schooled in the mathematical examination of natural phenomenon He chose bactenal viruses (bacteriophage) as an experimental system The life cycle of the bacteriophage was obscure, with conflicting dati from different phage strains and bacterial host species Delbruck limited the choice to the virulent T phage strains that infect the human gut bicterum Escherichia coli, and suggested standardizing growth temperature and medium As a result, much progress was made concerning the sequence of events that characterize a phage infection and successful production of progeny 119 ·with labelled radioactive materials The bacteriophage par terum and by inference, DNA was the genetic materal the yield of progeny Heritable variants or mutants of of Ecoh by mutationally marked phage parents led to a Lurs collaboration with Max Delbruck (results published in 1943) had an enormous impact, because this study mutants and the origin of such variants corresponded tiplication At the Cold Spring Laboratory U.S Hershey, Hershey's contributed to the understanding of phage mul with Martha Chase studied phage entry into bacterium ticle thrust its pointed tail into the wall of a bacterium and shot its contents into the interior of that cell Whereas the emptied coat of the phage remained outside like an empty synnge the bacterium after twenty four minutes, burst viruses The infected matenal had taken control of the celi open exposing hundreds of carbon copies of the invadeand used the cells content to produce new viruses of its own kind Hershey and his colleague demonstrated that it was DNA that was squirted by the phage into the bac Here in fact Nobel Launates in Physiology or Medicine These studies defined an "eclipse penod immediately fol lowing the phige infection during which no progeny be detected, and the infected unit took on the cha teristics of the host cell Extension of this latent pent before the first appearance of progeny was shown Delbruck in 1940 to result in an increase in the yield! total progeny The characteristic size of the phage portade of each of several strains was shown to be independent of viruses were discovered in the mid-1940 s and co-infection genetic map of phage genes demonstrated that bacterial quantitatively to mutational processes in the higher ganisms studied by classical geneticists variants' or 120 ·Nobel Launnies in Physiology or Medicine 1970 ELROD, JULIUS KATZ, SIR BERNARD ionality American May 30 1912, New York Nationality British b March 26, 1911, Leipzig VON CULCR, ULF Nationality Swedish b February 7, 1905, Stockholm d March 12, 1983, Stockholm lier discoveries concerning the humoral transmitters in the terminals and the mechanism for their storage, release and vation 121 ·had initiated another important area of research in Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicint Axelrod the American neurophysiologist, had to struggle against grave economical odds before he could become a full time researcher He had considerable experience in en zyme physiology and had discovered enzymes in the liver microsome which are involved in the metabolism of drugs. He obtained his PhD from the George Washington University in 1955 at the age of 43 He studied the biosyn, thesis of metabolism in the pineal body and established that this is a neurochemical transducer and not a function less structure as was envisaged at that time (1957) British physiologist Katz was of German ongin and graduated from the University of Leipzig (1934) before emigrating to London, where he obtained his DSc (1943) at the University of London He studied development of muscle fibre He also worked on the nature of nerve impulse neural transmitter substances and the release of Son of the Nobel laureate in Chemistry (1929) Hans Von Euler-Chelpin the Swedish physiologist Euler was a stu dent and later professor at the Royal Caroline Institute in Stockholm Nerve transmission had been shoirn to be at Dale and O Loeur and, in 1946 Euler, isolated neurotransmitter of the sympathetic nervous system and showed it to be non-adrenalin and not adrenalin as onginally envisaged Euler's earlier work (1935) on human semen where he demonstrated that human semen con as 1903 Later pressure sensory terminals and the initiation of impulses them in the excitation process in the least partly chemical by T R.Elliott as early tained a potent chemical which lowered blood and contracted muscle -- he named it prostaglandin" biochemistry 122 ·Nobel Laurcates in Physiology or Medicine 1971 SUTHERLAND, EARL W JR Nationality American 6 November 19, 1915, Burlingame, Kansas, d March 9, 1974, Miami, Florida For his discoveries concerning the mechanism of the action of hormones Sutherland, Amencan physiologist and pharmacologist, graduated from Kansas (1937) and took his MD from Washington University Medical School, St Louis (1942) Later, he joined the department of Medicine University of Cleveland, Ohio From 1973 he was at the University of Miami Medical School His major area of interest was hor- The isolation by him of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cyclic AMP) and demonstration of its involvement in various metabolic processes that occur in animals was a major breakthrough in hormonal chemistry mnones 123 ·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine Axelrod the American neurophysiologist had to struggle against grave economical odds before he could become a full time researcher He had considerable experience zyme physiology and had discovered enzymes in the liver microsome which are involved in the metabolism of drugs He obtained his PhD from the George Washington University in 1955 at the age of 43 He studied the biosyn thesis of metabolism in the pineal body and established that this is a neurochemical transducer and not a functionless structure as was envisaged at that time (1957) in en British physiologist Katz was of German ongin and graduated from the University of Leipzig (1934), before emigrating to London, where he obtained his DSc (1943) at the University of London He studied development of sensory terminals and the initiation of impulses muscle fibre He also worked on the nature of nerve im pulse neural transmitter substances and the release o them in the excitation process in the Son of the Nobel laureate in Chemistry (1929) Hans Von Euler-Chelpin the Swedish physiologist Euler was a student and later professor at the Royal Caroline Institute in Stockholm Nerve transmission had been shown to be at least partly chemical by T R.Elliott as early as 1903 Later Dale and O Loeur and in 1946, Euler isolated a neurotransmitter of the sympathetic nervous system and showed it to be non-adrenalin and not adrenalin as orginally envisaged Euler's earlier work (1935) on human semen, where he demonstrated that human semen con tained a potent chemical which lowered blood pressu and contracted muscle he named it prostaglandin had initiated another important area of research 2 biochemistry 122 ·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine 1971 SUTHERLAND, EARL W JR Nationality Amencan b. November 19, 1915, Burlingame Kansas, d March 9 1974, Miami, Flonda For his discoveries concerning the mechanism of the action of hormones Sutherland, American physiologist and pharmacologist, graduated from Kansas (1937) and took his MD from Washington University Medical School, St Louis (1942) Later, he joined the department of Medicine University of Cleveland, Ohio From 1973, he was at the University of Miami Medical School His major area of interest was hor- The isolation by him of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cyclic AMP) and demonstration of its involvement in various metabolic processes that occur in animals was a major breakthrough in hormonal chemistry mones 123

·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine
1972
EDELMAN, GERALD
MAURICE
PORTER, RODNEY
ROBERT
Nationality American
b July 1 1929, New York.
Nationality British
b October 8 1917, Liter
pool, d September 8, 1985
For their discoveries concerning the chemical structure of
antibodies
The American biochemist Edelman began investigations
into immunoglobins as a doctorate student at Rockefeller
University and continued the work when he joined the
faculty Antibodies form a class of closely related proteins,
erch specific in its ability to bind with a specific antigen
and this system forms a major part of the defence
mechanisms of vertebrates against infection Edelman dis
covered that human immunoglobin, a large protein
124

·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine molecule, is a combination of two light' and 'heavy" - protein chains linked by sulphur bridges By 1969 he showed that 1330 amino acids form a Y-shaped structure in the chains of the immunoglobin IgG Further, he showed that the amino acids in the tips are variable but the main part of the structure is constant The British biochemist Porter was educated in Liverpool and, after a military career dunng World War II, worked on proteins at Cambridge with Sanger, the two-time Nobel laureate In 1950, Porter demonstrated that antibodies could be partly broken down without total loss of their antigenbinding ability By 1960 he could show that they contain both heavy" and light” protein chains and that they have three distinct regions of which two are alike and serve to bind antigens Using Edelman's results as also data from electron microscopy, Porter brilliantly guessed the overall molecular structure of the antibodies Further work by Milstein (Nobel laureate, 1984) and others have refined the structural understanding further The missing link of the structure of antibodies, begun by Ehrlich (Nobel laureate, 1908), was developed by Landsteiner (Nobel laureate, 1930) Pauling (Nobel laureate, 1954) and solved by Porter (1972) Porter was killed in a road accident in 1985 125

·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine
1973
VON FRISCH, KARL
RITTER
LORENZ, KONRAD
ZACHARIAS
Nationality German (FRG)
b November 20, 1886,
Vienna, Austria d June 12
1982 Munich
Nationality Austrian
b November 7, 1903, Vien
na, d February 27, 1989,
Altenberg Austria
TINBERGEN, NIKOLAAS
Nationality British
b
April 15, 1907, The
Hague
For their discoveries concerning organization and elicitation of
ndividual and social behaviour patterns
126

·under conditions unrelated to the animal s natural environ- Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine Von Frisch set out to prove bees were capable of distinguishing colour His experiments not only confirmed this but also demonstrated that bees see ultraviolet (UV) light as a separate colour, a colour to which we are blind Von Frisch discovered the language of the bee For more than 2000 years man had known that if food is placed near a beehive it might go unnoticed for days but when dis covered many more bees soon arrive The first bee to find the food has been called a "forager and the ones to come later, "recruits' Von Frsch's initial observations suggested that foragers performed two types of dances in the hive to attract recruts, one a round dance implying sugar was available and the other a figure-eight or waggle dance when pollen was in the area of the hive This interpretation remained unchallenged for over 20 years when Von Frisch, himself, unravelled the true secret behind the language of the bee His careful experiments determined that the round dance actually meant food was nearby and the waggle dance that food was at some distance More remarkably, Von Frisch found that the duration of the waggle dance indicated distance to the food and the straight portion of the dance direction On a vertical hive, "straight up' cor responded to the direction of the sun The angle of the straight portion of the waggle dance from the straight up. direction of the dance indicated the angle of the food source from the sun Konrad Lorenz applied the accepted methods of observa tion and objective description used in anatomy and physiology to the world of animal behaviour Before the 1930's animal behaviour was studied either by experiments ment or through field studies of one species, with no at tempt at establishing rules and laws that govern behaviour 127 ·and long study of seagulls led to significant generalizations Novel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine In the late 1930 s Lorenz and Nikolaas Tinbergen wrote a series of theoretical papers laying the foundation for modern ethology Perhaps the most famous is on the egg retrieval response in the greylag goose Lorenz and Tinber gen described how a brooding goose will retneve an egs that has rolled out of its nest The goose nises, extends its neck, places its bill over the egg and rolls the egg back into the nest The "motor program" is innate, highly stereotyped, and will continue to completion even if the egg is removed from under the bill in med journey They called the goose's behavioura'fixed action pattern' (FAP) Triggering the FAP they hypothesized an "innate releasing mechanism' (IRM) within the animal which acts in response to stimuli or releases" from the environment. Because only one aspect of the stimulus leads to a response, the term 'sign-stimulus" is often used Lorenz discovered a dramatic example of programmed learning imprinung Orphaned geese or ducks under two days old would follow Lorenz as if he was their parent This parental imprinting' was a rapid and relatively irteversible learning process during an optimal "Critical' or sensitive' period Furthermore when the geese became adults they would court humans instead of other geese Not untul Lorenz made his contribution did the study of behaviour gain momentum, a momentum which it has not since lost Tinbergen along with Lorenz is well known for his field observations of animals in actual habitats His consistent of matıng behaviour and courtship His younger brother, Jan Tinbergen is the recipient of the 1969 Nobel Prize in Economics 128 ·Nobel Laurates in Physiology or Medicine 1974 1 me how CLAUDE, ALBERT DE DUVE, CHRISTIAN RENI Nationality Belgian b 1899 Langier, Belgium d May, 1983 f" Nationality Belgian b October 2 1971 Thames-Ditton, England PALADE, GEORGE EMIL Nationality American b November 19, 1912, Jassy, Romania For their discoverits concerning the structural and functional or- Ennization of the cell 129 ·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine The Belgian cytologist Claude graduated in Medicine from the University of Liegi, Belgium, and was with the Rock efeller University, New York for over two decades before he shifted to Lonvian He was one of the pioneers in the use of electron microscopy for cellular studies His work on the isolation of cellular components contributed remarkably to the work of De Duve and Palade, who shared the Nobel Prize with him De Duve was educated in medicine at the Catholic Univer sity of Lonvian and worked in Sweden and the US before returning to Lonvian in 1947, he later held a dual post also at the Rockefeller University, New York. His discovery of small organelles lysosomes with the help of the electron microscope in 1955 was a major breakthrough in the study of digestive enzymes As early as 1949, he had collected convincing evidence to indicate that at least some of the digestive enzymes must be enclosed within smaller organelles in the cytoplasm of cells The packaging of en zymes in membranous enclosures in the form of lysosomes serves both to isolate the enzymes from attack on their own animal or plant cells and also to concentrate their attack when the lysosome fuses with a food vacuole The macro molecules of the food are digested and the resulting small molecules of sugar or amino acids are passed through the lysosome wall into the cell Absence of lysosomal enzyme results in hereditary metabolic diseases like cytınosis De Duve has also done important worh on cancer Palade qualified at Bucharest, Romania in Medicine in 1940 He moved to the US in 1945, working first at the Rockefeller Institute in New York and from 1972 at Yale His work with the help of the electron microscope revealed that mitochondria are the sites where energy is generated 130 ·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine by enzymatic oxidation Mitochondria, the sausage-shaped organelles of the cytoplasm in animal cells, cluster the endoplasmic reticulum and are storehouses of energy, in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is required by the cells for their metabolic activity Palade discovered smaller organelles called ribosomes which are rich in nbonucleic acid (RNA) and showed that they are the sites of protein synthesis His further work was on the pathway followed by secretory proteins in glandular cells He also worked on blood capillaries and the transport of essential life-supporting materials through the capillary walls 1975 1 BALTIMORE, DAVID DULBECCO, RENATO Nationality American Nationalty American b March 7, 1938, New York City b February 22, 1914, Cantanzaro, Italy 131 ·Nobel Laurentes in Physiology or Medicine TEMIN, HOWARD MARTIN Nationality American b December 10, 1934, Philadelphia For their discoveries concerning the interaction between tumour viruses and the genetic material of the cell Baltimore studied chemistry at Swarthmore and did his post-graduation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technol ogy and his PhD at Rockefeller University In 1972 he be came Professor at MIT and later director of the Whitehead Institute, Massachusetts His work in 1968 on the replica tion of the polio virus wherein the RNA of the vinis first constructed a polyprotein which then split into a number of protein molecules, was a major step in the under standing of viral replication Out of the smaller protein molecules, two polymerised RNA, whereas the others formed the protein coat of the new viral particles 132 ·antibiotic actinomycin D, started the search for the enzyme reverse transcriptase Unlike as in the central dogma (DNA-RNA-Protein), RNA RSV replicated through a Temın realized the significance of this work and proposed RSV) In 1970 Temin identified the enzyme reverse transcriptase, which was also individually done by Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine Baltimore and Temın cach independently discovered the enzyme “reverse transcriptase", for they were awarded the Nobel prize Reverse transcriptase modified the "central dogma' of molecular biology wherein the chain was supposed to be DNA--RNA-Protein, in which the first arrow is transcription and the second, translation These were assumed to be unidirectional processes until the discovery of reverse transcnptase, which was shown to be able to transcribe RNA to DNA Dulbecco studied medicine at Torino University and ob. tained his MD in 1936 After a stint in the army he joined Luna in Bloomington, Indiana Between 1952 and 1963, he was at Caltech after which he joined the Salk Institute His major contribution was his setting up experiments to study the processes by which normal cells become cancerous He introduced the concept of cell transformation Temin studied biology at Swarthmore and obtained his PhD in Virology at Caltech in 1959 From 1960, he was with the University of Wisconsin in the early 1960 s, that Rous Sarcoma Virus (RSV) is inhibited in its replication in the presence of the DNA intermediate He called this DNA the "Provirus DNA (provirus) — RNA (replicated His discovery, + RNA (of the RSV) - Baltimore 133

·ly in East and West, his contribution to geographic
Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine
1976
BLUMBERG, BARUCH
GAJDUSEK, D
SAMUEL
CARLETON
Nationality American
Nationality American
b July 28, 1925, New York
b
September 9, 1923,
Yonkers, New York
For their discovenes concerning new mechanisms for the origin
and dissemination of infectious diseases
Blumberg the American physician, graduated from Union
College (1946), completed his MD from Columbia Univer
sity College of Physicians and Surgeons (1951) and his
PhD in Biochemistry from Oxford He travelled extensive
medicine is significant His work on Hepatitis B and.is
prevention is well known His discovery of the cause of the
disease kuru
seen amongst a cannibalistic Inbal group
in New Guinea, fetched him the Nobel Prize
City
134

·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine Gajdusek was educated in physics at Rochester and in medicine at Harvard before working with Pauling at Cal- Tech, and later in Iran and in Papua New Guinea among the Fore people here he observed, as did Blumberg, that they often die from a viral disease called "kuru' The disease seemed to be specific to females and is assumed to be caused by eating the brains of the dead Gajdusek showed that it could be passed to other primates like chimpanzees, but the infection took more than 12 months to develop A lot of other diseases like herpes, "cold sore', have been shown to be due to slow and persistent viral infections "Kuru' is the first such recorded viral infection disease 1977 GUILLEMIN, ROGER CHARLES LOUIS SCHALLY, ANDREW VICTOR Nationality Amencan b January 11, 1924, Dijon, Nationality American b November 30, 1926 Wilno, Poland (Now Vilnius, Russia) 135 France.

·Nobel Lourentes in Playsiology or Medicine For their discoteries concerning 11 c peptide hormone production of the brain Guillemin, the French biochemist, works at the Salk in stitute of Biological Studies, San Diego, California Schally, the Polish-American biochemist, fled his native Poland to Brtain in 1939 Later, he shifted to Amenca, to the Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas where Guillemin asked him to join him on a project on hormonal chemistry Their initial work was the isolation of the substance that regulated the secretion of Adrenal Corticotropic Hormone (ACTH) They did succeed in isolating the hormone, but in dependent of each other, and it was named the "thyrotropic hormone releasing factor Theur major work, however, was the demonstration that concentration of other hormones secreted by the hypothalamus was a pren requusite for the secretion of the pituitary gland ? YALOW, ROSALYN 136 ·Nobel Laurcates in Physiology or Medicine Nationality. Amencan b July 19, 1921, Bronx, New York. For the development of radio immuno assays of peptide hormones The American nuclear physicist Yalow has a special interest in radioisotopes and tumed to nuclear medicine from 1972 as a staff of the Bronx Veterans Administration Hospital and the Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York City After two decades of work along with her colleagues Solomon Berson, she developed the method of radioimmuno-assay to detect and measure peptide hormones (such as insulin) in the blood Radio immuno-assay is an extremely sensitive and specific technique used for measuring the concentration of vanous biologically active substances that are present in the human body in such infinitesimal quantities, that so far they were practically undetectable by any methods of assay she found that the immune system of the individual produces an antibody against insulin which neutralises the foreign proteins The method has to be of immense value in locating the ongin of the hormones in the body It is also useful in the clinical diagnosis and treatment of a variety of diseases and of male and female infertility-The potential value of the method is so enormous since it can be used to measure very small amounts (10 12g) of any substance that requires an antibody Improvement of this technique has already led to better control of digoxin therapy in heart diseases, and diagnosis of neural crest diseases like spina lifida 137

·Nobel Laureates in Plysiology or Medicine
1978
ARBER, WERNER
NATHANS, DANIEL
Nationality Swiss
1929, Cranchen,
Switzerland
Nationality American
b October 30, 1928, Wil
mington, Delaware
SMITH, HAMILTON
OTHANEL
Nationality American
b August 23, 1931, New
York City
For the discovery of restriction enzymes and their application to
problems of molecular genetics
138

·Novel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine Arber studied at the Universities of Geneva and Southern California before teaching at Geneva University (1960- 1970), as Professor of Microbiology Since 1970, he heads the microbiology department at the University of Basel His follow up work on the phenomenon of host induced variation discovered by Luna contributed further knowledge to the field of "restriction enzymes' These are protective enzymes present in bacterium that modified the DNA of infesting viruses His hypothesis to explain the phenomenon of host controlled variation in phages was confirmed by Smith (1970), who identified the enzyme and extracted it from the bacterium themophilus influenzae (Hind II) Hamilton Smith graduated in mathematics in 1952 and in medicine in 1956 from Johns Hopkins University where in 1973, he became Professor of Microbiology He confirmed and amplified the earlier discovery of the restriction enzyme of Arber that was obtained from E Col bacterium (1960) The Hind II enzyme of Smith cleaved DNA at specific sites in relation to the sequence of bases in DNA Smith and other workers, especially D Nathans (who col laborated with Smith in some of the research) isolated many such enzymes Daniel Nathans studied at the University of Delaware and at Washington, St Louis, Missouri, before joining the faculty of Johns Hopkins University in 1967 He recognized the Significance of the restriction enzymes in cleaving the DNA of the simian virus (SV40) and demonstrated (1971) that the enzyme discovered by Smith could split the DNA molecule of SV40 virus into 11 clearly defined fragments By using two more enzymes he broke the SV40 virus DNA molecule further and mapped the genetic construction of the virus completely 139

·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine
1979
HOUNSFIELD,
GODFREY NEWBOLD
CORMACK, ALLAN
MACLEOD
Nationality. British
1919,
Nationality American
1924,
South
b August
28,
Newark, England
b February 23,
Johannesburg
Africa
For the development of computer assisted tomography
Cormack, the South African physicist, had his early educa
tion at the University of Cape Town and then worked on
the medical applications of radio isotopes in Johannesburg
While on a prolonged convalescence in a South African
hospital, he realised that X rays were used only for obtain
ing two-dimensional "silhouettes', primarily of bone struc
ture In 1956 he migrated to America and later became
Professor of Physics at Tufts University, Massachusetts
140

·Nobel Laureates in Physiology of Medicare In 1963, he proposed a mathematical basis by effectively combining many X-ray images taken in different directions through the human body, to build up a picture of a slice through the tissue. Named Computer-assisted tomography (CAT), this technique is the basis for the modern body scanners buut by Hounsfield in the early 1970 s. The Bntish physicist Hounsfield studied at the City and Guild's College and at the Faraday House College for Electrical Engineenng in London. With his pr Vous to perence in solid state computers, he joined EMI (Electncıl Musical Industnes), becoming head of the medical neurh division Independent of Cormack, he conceptualiset the design of CAT between 1969 and 1972 and the actual scinner for the complete human body was developed by 1974 Highresolution images of the soft body tissues (shah are nor mally almost transparent to X nys) ar buult up by computer from innumerable mesurements of the absorption of X ray beams in different dinutions through the body CAT scanning has revolutionised the field of nuclear medicine Hounsfield is a leader in the field of medical in aging particularly the use of nuclar misnete le sonuncu (NMR) techniques 111

·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine
1980
DAUSSET, JEAN
BENACERRAF, BARUJ
Nationality American
b October
19, 1916,
Toulouse, France
Nationality American
b October 29, 1920,
Caracas, Venezuela
SNELL, GEORGED
Nationality American
December 19, 1903,
Bradford, Massachusetts
b
For their discoveries concerning genetically determined struc
tures on the cell surface that regulate immunological reactions
142

·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine Benacerraf completed his MD (1945) from the University of Virginia, after migrating to America in 1940 After spending time in Pans (1950-1956) and New York Medical School, he moved to the Department of Pathology at Harvard in 1970 as its Professor George Snell had reported that the success of transplants improved when donors were found to be having antigens that were more akın to that of the recipients Benacerraf, while working with guinea pigs, developed on this idea and discovered the Ir (immune response) genes of the H-2 segment as playing a crucial role in the immune system Dausset, a scientist at St Louis Hospital, Paris University, was, since World War II, interested in transfusion reactions By the 1950 s, he disproved the universal donor status of the O blood group and showed that if the donor has recently been given anti-diphtheria or antı tetanus vaccine, the resulting antibodies can produce shock reactions when the blood is transfused Patients with a history of many blood transfusions were shown by him to be prone to produce antibodies against the white cells He suggested that the antigen HLA (human lymphocyte antigen) is related to the mouse H-2 system Tissue typing', as the work is known, has reduced the rejection risks during transplants considerably and is a major landmark in the development of organ transplant George Snell, a retired scientist at the Jackson Laboratory, Maine, USA, worked independently on the group of genes that coordinate the body's immune system He proposed the concept of a group of genes 'Major histocomthat were the prime factor in the acceptance or rejection of a tissue graft patibility genes 143 ·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine 1981 HUBEL, DAVID WIESEL, TORSTEN N HUNTER Nationalty Swedish Nationality Amencan b 1924, Uppsala, Sweden February 27, 1926, Windsor, Ontario, Canada For their discoveries concerning information processing in the Visual system Hubel qualfied in Medicine at McGill University and in 1959, became Professor at the Harvard Medical School Along with Wiesel, Hubel demonstrated the existence of a decoding system from the retina to the brain that provides a new model for the functioning of the brain They used microelectrodes and modern electronics to detect the actvibes of the individual neurons, especially in area 17 of the visual cortex This study aided the understanding of the mechanics of visual perception at the cortical level The 144 ·depnvation of vision in young animals Congenital Nobel Laineal in Physiologer Moore cells of this struate cortex lie in many liyers arranged in columns wluch run through the thickness of the cortex ( few millimetres) Hubel and Wiesel ſound tlut stimulation of cells on the relina by light causes excitation and specific stimulation in the cortex. The visual stimulation suggests that whereas some cells respond to spots of light, others do so to a line s hosc tilt as so entical that esena change of 10° in als angle greatly alters the response A fes would respond to specific directions of movement or specific colours only Their study has made the visual cortex one of the best known parts of the brain. Wiesel, the Swedish physiologist worked at Harvard University with Hube! With Hubel, he further established that many of these specific response patterns are already present at the time of birth and could be modified or cien destroyed by the cataracts and strabismus (squint treatment have been greatly influenced by these discovenes SPERRY, ROGER W 1913, Nationality American August 20, Hartford, Connecticut b ·Nolul Laurcates in Physiology or Medicine For his discoveries concerning the functional specialization of the cerebral lennspheres The Amencan neurobiologist Sperry was a student of psychology at Oberlin College and of Zoology at Chicago and worked in several centres before finally joining the California Institute of Technology in 1951 as a Professor of Psychobiology His three decades of rescarch have revolutionised the theoncs of brain function and for the theoretical basis of today's research into the information processing phenomeny of the brain Sperry studied regeneration of optic nerves in amphibians and found that even with obstacles in the path, an am phibian could regenerate a new nerve that would find its way to its original synaptic connection in the brain Work ing with amphibians, silamanders and higher animals, he demonstrated that both the halves of the brain could be taught to perform similar tasks and each of them possessed independent ability to leam His work on split brain patients (human patients are at times commissarołomised to prevent severe epilepsy spreading) showed that al though they are normal in many ways, the nght hemi sphere of the brain specialises in non verbal processes (like emotions) while the left is dominant in language process ing His work suggests the existence of discrete pathways in the brain carrying specific type of information 146 ·Nobul Laureates in Physiology or Medicine 1982 BERGSTROM, SUNEK SAMUELSSON, BENGT I Nationality Swedish January 19, 1916, Stockholm Sueden Nationality Swedish b May 21 Halmstadt, Sweden 1934, VANE, SIR JOHNR Nationality British b March 29, 1927 Worcestershire, England For their discoveries concerning prostaglandins and related biologically active substances 147 ·Nobel Laureates in Playsiology or Medicine Bergstrom was educated at the Royal Caroline Institute in Stockholm and returned there as Professor of Biochemistry in 1958 and is associated with the World Health Organiza tion His interest in prostaglandins, a group of related com pounds whose biological effects were first noted in the 1930 s, led to his isolating two prostaglandins, in pure form, in the 1950 s His pioneering work led to isolation of more akin substances like thramboxane, prostacyclin and leukotnenes and the study of their structure by Bergstrom, Samuelsson and John Vane These are potent chemical transmitters of intra- and inter cellular signals that mediate a variety of physiological func tions Their effects are complex and a common feature is their ability to contract smooth muscle and their high potency Originally found in human semen, they have subsequently been isolated in many sources, including the Caribbean sea whip coral Their structure was shown to be of a general pattern of a five-carbon ring with chains of ad jacent carbon atoms Samuelsson Professor of Chemistry and Dean of the Karolinska Institute, contributed significantly to elucida tion of the mechanisms of biosynthesis of prostaglandins and the pathways of their metabolism He also worked spe cially on the synthesis and structure of leukotrienes Much of medicinal chemistry is devoted to the study of pros taglandins and related biologically active substances John Vane Group Research and Development Director of the Wellcome Foundation in Beckenham, England, is recognised for his discovery of prostacyclin the potent in hibitor of platelet aggregation that is produced by the vas cular endothelium 148 ·tion of some genes is to control other genes and that some Laboratory, was unrecognized until the Nobel Committee Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine 1983 MCCLINTOCK, BARBARA Nationality Amencan b 1902, Connecticut For her discovery of mobile genetic elements McClintock studied at Cornell University and secured her enetics in 1927 She spent time at Caltech, Freiburg and Missoun then returned to teach at Cornell Her work begun in the 1940's at Cold Spring Harbor hailed it as one of the two great discoveries of our times in genetics She was the first woman to win an unshared Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine Her work on the coloured kernel in maize led her to conclude that the funcof them move on the chromosome so as to control other genes The concept of 'jumping genes' as proposed and PhD in plant 149 ·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine demonstrated by her must involve the physical movement of DNA from site to site She proposed that characteristics like the colour of kernel can be tumed on or off as the case may be by genetic elements that act as switches that can move from one end to the other of the chromosomes 1984 JERNE, NIELS KAJ KOHLER, GEORGES J F Nationality Danish b December 23, 1911 London. Nationality German (FRC) b 1946 For theories concerning the specificity in development and control of the immune system and the discovery of the principle for production of monoclonal antibodies 150 ·(antigen), the body has to stock millions of antibody forms Encounter with the foreign body stimulates the cells, which Kaj Jeme, along with Cesar Milstein and Georges Kohler, played a decisive role in the clanfication of these processes and the complex organisation of the immunological system The breeding of immune ceils which manufactur antibodies in nutrent cultures seemed impossible Noll Laurcales in Prysiology or Medicine MILSTEIN, CESAR Nationality Bntish/Argentincan 6 October 8, 1927, Bahia Blanca, Argentina The immunological system in the human body consists of a wide variety of cells which adopt different tactics to fight foreign bodies One of these is through the production of antibodies, which is brought about by the lymphocytes, Since each type of antibody reacts to a specific "trigger" in tur manufacture the specific antibody required Niels 151 ·Nobel Laureates in Phiysiology or Medicine In 1975, Kohler and Milstein, working in the British Medi cal Research Counal Laboratory for Molecular Biology in Cambridge, decided to use the natural immortal cells myeloma cells, a certain type of tumour cells — for their re- Search They fused a myeloma cell with an antibody producing lymphocyte from the spleen of a mouse The result was a cell which could be reproduced in the laboratory into a cluster of immortal cells (clones) and which manufactured antibodies Any number of such 'mono clonal antibodies” can be produced They are being used in highly sensitive pregnancy, cancer and AIDS tests and in genetic engineering 1985 BROWN, MICHAEL GOLDSTEIN, JOSEPH LEONARD Nationality Amerıcın b 1941 Nationality Amencan b April 18, 1940, Sumter, South Carolina 152 ·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine For their discoveries concerning the regulation of cholesterol metabolism Brown hails from New York and Goldstein from North Carolina, both work at the Health Science Centre of Dallas, University of Texas The two worked on the low-density lipoprotein (LDP) receptor, a molecule that ferries cholesterol rich particles from the bloodstream into the cell The discovery has contributed significantly to the know ledge of cholesterol metabolism and certain cardio vascular diseases We now understand the mechanism through which diet and exercise can help prevent a heart attack Brown and Goldstein, while investigating a rare inherited disorder hypercholosterolemia, a disease where children have six to ten times the blood cholesterol level and can die of heart attack even as early as age two, compared skin cells of the victims to that of normal people They traced the disease to the absence of LDP receptors, protein that stud the outer membranes of the cells, especially that of the liver Further investigations led to the deciphering of the complex minuet between the receptor and its LDP particle The body needs cholesterol for manufacturing new cell membranes like acids and steroid hormones Cholesterols are obtained through the food or are made in the liver, and they travel in the bloodstream in the form of lipoproteins round bundles of fat and protein Vacant LDP receptors snare the passing packets of lipoprotein freeing the cholesterol for use Eating of too many saturated fats results in suppression of the production of LDP receptors by the liver cells. This in turn leads to atherosclerosis, or accumulalion of cholesterol in the walls of the artery A low-cholesterol diet sets off the reverse process 153

·Nobel Laureates in Physiology of Medicine
1986
COHEN, STANLEY LEVI-MONTALCINI,
RITA
Nationality American
b November 17, 1922,
Nationality Italian/
Brooklyn, New York City American
b 1909, Turin, Italy
For their discoveries of growth
factors
Levi Montalcını and Stanley Cohen, who met in St Louis
in 1953 at Washington University, found the first of the
body s many "growth factors" proteins that guide the
development of immature cells from her earliest experi
ments, Levi-Montalcini, who holds both Italian and
American citizenship, focused on the nervous system
Before her discovery, scientists did not understand how or
gans signalled developing nerve cells to link up with them
It was Levi Montalcını who first suggested in 1951 that the
signal might come from a growth stimulating chemical in
--
154

·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine the cells targeted by the nerves This was confirmed in 1952 when she observed that single nerve cells, taken from chick embryos and cultured with tissue from mouse tumours, sprouted nerve fibres that reached out 'like the rays of the sun Her conclusion there was a growth factor in the tumour tissue Subsequent experiments showed that the mysterious substance was also present in snake venom and mouse salivary glands It was left to Cohen to extract the first pure samples of the protein now known as nerve growth factor Later, working separately, Cohen discovered the epidermal growth factor, which governs cell development in the skin He also located a protein on the surfaces of cells that act as receptors for EGF 1987 TONEGAWA, SUSUMU Nationality Japanese b 1939 155 ·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine For lııs discovery of the genetic principle for generation of an tibody diversity Tonegawa moved to the Basel Institute for Immunology after he completed his PhD at the University of California at San Diego He demonstrated that cells accomplish the gigantic task of making antibodies to order by shuffling parts of the genes that govern the production of antibodies, the cellular building blocks of the immune system The process can be likened to the rearranging of boxcars or wagons on a freight train The prevailing dogma was that the order of genes in any one person is immutable Tonegawa found thatthe "wagons" rearranged themselves in a multitude of different configurations to make the an tibodies that fight off diseases His work has led to dis coveries of how some cancers form and could help in understanding such immune disorders as AIDS or rheumatoid arthritis 1988 BLACK, SIR JAMES Nationality British b 1924 156 ·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine ELION, GERTRUDE B HITCHINGS, GEORGEH Nationality American b 1918 Nationality American b April 18 1905, Hoquam Washington For their discoveries of important principles for drug treatment The Nobel Prize for 1988 for medicine was an uncommon break from normal tradition in that it was given to researchers in the commercial drug industry Elon and Hitchings, both Americans, are affiliated with Burroughs Wellcome in North Carolina, and the Bntısher, Black, is attached to the Kings College School of Medicine and Den tistry Elion and Hitchings who have collaborated since 1945, had discovered in the mid 1940 s that the genes of healthy cells process information differently from those of cancerous cells and disease-causing bacteria and viruses ·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine They targeted these cells and microbes with drugs that in terfere with replication and established an approach that resulted in new drug therapies for many diseases, like leu kemia and malaria They developed the drug "azathio prine' in 1957 for controlling rejection in organ transplants This led to the development of "acyclovir" for the treat ment of herpes, and AZT for AIDS Black focussed his research on "docking ports” used by chemical messengers moving between cells He developed a drug for heart disease (1964) that blocks the effect of natural stimulants like adrenaline on special nerve recep tors, or beta receptors and prevents the heart rate from in creasing with damaging speed His beta blocker is widely used for treatment of hypertension and heart diseases 1989 BISHOP,JM VARMUS, HE Nationality Americın Nationality American 158 ·Nobel Laurcates in Plrysiology or Medicine For their work with cancer genes Bishop and Varmus, in a series of experiments that began in the mid seventies at the University of California at San Francisco, have contributed significantly to the understanding of the mechanism of the genes, or units of heredity that cause cancer The general assumption until the startling discovery of these two scientists, was that canoncogens were separate entities and were not connected with the normal, healthy functioning of a cell Bishop and Varmus, by their studies on cancer-causing virus in chicken discovered that oncogens were normal genes, vital to cell development and growth In cases of cancer these genes, somehow, maybe due to mutations induced by carcinogens such as radiation and cigarette cer genes smoke, go awry The two scientists by these findings helped explain the role of genetic damage in cancer development and established a common pathway by which all cancers seem to evolve Researchers have identified more than 40 slightly altered genes that cause cancer in humans, since then "We have the seeds of cancer in our genetic dowry; ob- Served Bishop and these discoveries will make it easier for doctors to diagnose and predict the occurrence of cancer 159 ·Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine 1990 THOMAS, DONNALL E MURRAY, JOSEPH Nationality American Nationality American For their pioneering research and contribution to tissue transplants Murray of Boston's Brigham and Women's Hospital, and Thomas of the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Centre in Seattle, Washington, shared the Nobel Prize for 1990 for their work which was crucial for those tens of thousands of severely ill patients who either can be cured or given a decent life through transplants, when other treatment methods are without success Murray and Thomas, close friends since the time of their residencies at the Brigham Hospital in the late 1940 s, had been interested in the problem of transplants for a long time 160 ·Nobel Laurentes in Physiology or Medicine Murray became intngued with the ideas of transplants and skin grafts during a stint as a plastic surgeon in World War II His work with thousands of bum victims got him involved in the problems of permanent skin grafting His realisation that shin grafting in identical twins worked better led him to suspect that the same may be true of internal organs After experimenting with dogs, he performed his first kidney transplants successfully between twins in 1954 and, as expected, the recipient s immune system did not reject the new organ as an invader Murray then experimented with drugs that suppressed the immune system and thus allowed transplants from close relatives and even unrelated donors Thomas worked on leukemia, the fatal cancer of bloodforming tissues He reasoned that the replacement of the bone marrow of a patient with that of a healthy donor might arrest the disease, since blood cells are generated by bone marrow He worked on dogs, like Murray, destroying their marrow with radiation and transplanting new, healthy marrow In humans, he too found initial success with identical twins (1956) His subsequent work with immunosuppressive drugs and careful tissue matching, helped sig. nificantly to overcome transplant rejection With the emphasis being on basic medical research this award for transplants was a rare instance of a clinical treatment receiving precedence 161

·1
Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine
1991
Neher Erwin
Sakmann, Bert
Nationality German
Nationality German
b - 1944, Landsberg, Germany
b - 1942, Stuttgart,
Germany
For their contribution to the understanding of the cellular
mechanisms underlying several diseases including diabetes and
cystic fibrosis
Erwin Neher obtained his degree in Physics from the Tech
nical University in Munich in 1968 after which he shifted to
the University of Wisconsin for his Masters degree He
retumed to Germany in 1972 and joined the Max Planck in
stitut for Biophysical Chemistry in Goettingen He has been
the Director of the Institutes Division for Membrane
Physics since 1988
162

·Nobul Laurcates in Physiology or Medicine Bert Sakmann received his medical degree from the University of Munich in 1967 A year later, he joined the Max Planck Institute for psychiatry as a research assistant From 1971 to 1973, he studied biophysics in London Upon his return to Germany, he joined Neher at the Max Planck Institute at Goettingen In 1988, Sakmann shifted to the Max Planck Institute for medicine research in Heidelberg Neher and Sakmann's combined research conclusively established the existence of ion channels and their functions Ion channels are tunnel-like structures that let charged ion particles in and out of the cell Neher and Sakmann together developed a technique that allows the registration of these incredibly small electric currents that pass through a single ion channel. they also studied the regulation of the passage in and out of cells of positively or negatively charged ions Their work has revolutionised modern biology, and con tributed to the understanding of the cellular mechanisms underlying several diseases including diabetes and cystic fibrosis 163

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·INDEX OF NAMES
ADRIAN, Lord Edgar Douglas (1932) 45
ARBER Werner (1978), 138
AXELROD, Julius (1970), 121
BALTIMORE, David (1975), 131
BANTING Sır Frederick Grant (1923), 30
BARANY, Robert (1914), 23
BEADLE George Wells (1958),95
BENACERRAF, Baruj (1980) 142
BERGSTROM, Sunek (1982), 147
BISHOP, JM (1989), 158
BLACK Sır James (1988), 156
BLOCH, Konrad (1964), 108
BLUMBERG, Baruch Samuel (1976), 134
BORDET Jules (1919) 24
BOVET Danial (1957) 94
BROWN Michaci (1985) 152
BURNET Sir Frank Macfarlane (1960), 99
CAJAL Ramon Y Santiago (1906) 9
CARREL Alexis (1912), 20
CHAIN Sır Ernst Boris (1945) 65
CLAUDE, Albert (1974) 129
COHEN Stanley (1986) 154
CORI Carl Ferdinand (1947) 71
CORI Gerty Theresa (1947) 71
CORMACK Allan Macleod (1979) 140
COURNAND Andre Frederic (1956) 91
CRICK Francis Harry Compton (1962), 102
DALE Sir Henry Hallett (1936) 54
DAM Hennik Carl Peter (1943), 61

·DAUSSET Jean (1980), 142 DE DUVE Christian Reni (1974), 129 DELBRUCK, Max (1969), 118 DOISY, Edward Adelbert (1943), 62 DOMAGK, Gerhard (1939) 59 DULBECCO, Renato (1975), 131 ECCLES, Sir John Carew (1963) 105 EDELMAN Gerald Maurice (1972), 124 EHRLICH, Paul (1908), 13 EIJKMAN, Christiaan (1929), 39 EINTHOVEN, Willem (1924), 33 ELION Gertrude B (1988) 157 ENDERS John Franklin (1954) 87 ERLANGER, Joseph (1944), 64 FIBIGER, Johannes Andreas Grib (1926) 34 FINSEN Niels Ryberg (1903) 4 FLEMING Sir Alexander (1945) 66 FLOREY Howard Walter (1945) 66 FORSSMANN, Werner (1956), 92 GAJDUSEK D Carleton (1976) 134 GASSER Herbert Spencer (1944) 64 GOLDSTEIN Joseph Leonard (1985) 152 GOLGI, Camillo (1906), 9 GRANIT Ragnar (1967) 114 GUILLEMIN Roger Charles Louis (1977) 135 GULLSTRAND Alvar (1911) 19 HARTLINE Haldan Keffer (1967) 114 HENCH Philip Showalter (1950) 79 HERSHEY Alfred D (1969) 118 HESS Walter Rudolf (1949) 76 HEYMANS, Corneille Jean Francois (1938) 58 HILL Archibald Vivian (1922) 28 HITCHINGS George H (1988) 157 HODGKIN Sır Alan Lloyd (1963) 105 ·HOLLEY, Robert W (1968), 116 HOPKINS Sir Frederick Gowland (1929), 40 HOUNSFIELD, Godfrey Newbold (1979) 140 HOUSSAY, Bernardo Alberto (1947), 73 HUBEL David Hunter (1981), 144 HUGGINS Charles Brenton (1966) 112 HUXLEY, Sır Andrew Fielding (1963), 105 JACOB, Francois (1965), 110 JERNE, Niels Kaj (1984) 150 KATZ Sır Bernard (1970), 121 KENDALL, Edward Calvin (1950), 79 KHORANA, Har Gobind (1968), 116 KOCH, Robert (1905) 7 KOCHER Emil Thcodor (1909) 16 KOHLER Georges J F (1984) 150 KORNBERG Arthur (1959),98 KOSSEL Albrecht (1910) 18 KREBS, Hans Adolf (1953) 84 KROGH Schack August Steenberger (1920), 25 LANDSTEINER Karl (1930) 42 LAVERAN Charles Louis Alphonse (1907) 12 LEDERBERG, Joshua (1958) 96 LEVI MONTALCINI Rita (1986) 154 LIPMANN Fritz Albert (1953) 85 LOEWI Otto (1936) 54 LORENZ Konrad Zacharias (1973) 126 LURIA Salvador Edward (1969) 119 LWOFF Andre (1965), 110 LYNEN Feodor (1964) 108 MACLEOD John James Richard (1923) 30 MCCLINTOCK Barbara (1983) 149 MECHINKOV, Ilya Ilich (1908), 13 MEDAWAR, Sır Peter Brian (1960) 99 MEYERHOF Otto Fritz (1922) 29 ·MILSTEIN, Cesar (1984), 151 MINOT, George Richards (1934), 49 MONIZ, Antonio Caetano de Abrev Freire Egas (1949) 77 MONOD, Jacques Lucien (1965), 110 MORGAN, Thomas Hunt (1933) 47 MULLER, Hermann Joseph (1946), 69 MULLER, Paul Hermann (1948) 74 MURPHY, William Parry (1934),50 MURRAY, Joseph (1990), 160 NATHANS Daniel (1978), 138 NEHER, Erwin (1991), 162 NICOLLE, Charles Jules Henrı (1928), 37 NIRENBERG Marshall W (1968), 116 OCHOA, Severo (1959), 98 PALADE Geoge Emil (1974) 129 PAVLOV. Ivan (1904), 5 PORTER Rodney Robert (1972), 124 REICHSTEIN Tadeus (1950), 80 RICHARDS Jr, Dickinson W (1956), 92 RICHET, Charles Robert (1913) 22 ROBBINS Frederick Chapman (1954), 88 ROSS, Sır Ronald (1902) 2 ROUS Peyton (1966) 112 SAKMANN, Bert (1991), 162 SAMUELSSON Bengt I (1982) 147 SCHALLY Andrew Victor (1977), 135 SHERRINGTON Sir Charles Scot (1932) 45 SMITH, Hamilton Othanel (1978) 138 SNELL George D (1980) 142 SPEMANN Hans (1935) 53 SPERRY Roger W (1981) 145 SUTHERLAND Earl W Jr (1971) 123 SZENT-GYORGI Von Nagyrapolt Albert (1937) 56

·TATUM Edward Lawrie (1958) 95
TEMIN, Howard Martin (1975), 132
THEILER Max (1951) 81
THEORELL, Axel Hugo Teodor (1955), 90
THOMAS Donnall E (1990) 160
TINBERGEN, Nikolaas (1973), 126
TONEGAWA Susumu (1987), 155
VANE Sir John R (1982) 147
VARMUS HE (1989), 158
VON BEHRING Emil Adolf (1901) 1
VON BEKESY Georg (1961), 101
VON EULER UIT (1970) 121
VON FRISCH, Karl Ritter (1973), 126
WAGNER-JAUREGG Julius (1927) 36
WAKSMAN Selman Abraham (1952) 83
WALD, George (1967) 114
WARBURG Otto Heinnch (1931) 43
WATSON James Dewey (1962) 102
WELLER Thomas Huckle (1954), 88
WHIPPLE George Hoyt (1934) 50
WIESEL Torsten N (1981) 144
WILKINS Maurice Hugh Frederick (1962) 103
YALOW Rosalyn (1977) 136

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