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·IN THE STEPS
OF THE
PHARAOHS

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·IN THE STEPS
OF THE
PHARAOHS
TEXT
by
JEAN LECLANT
Professor, University of Strasbourg
PHOTOGRAPHS
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ALBERT RACCAH
UNIVERSITY
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·OR MORE THAN THREE THOUSAND YEARS, F or hoe SIER The World, whole dynasties of gods reigned on earth, in Egypt. Colossal monuments, masterpieces of sculpture and goldsmiths' work, triumphal hymns, all sang the glory of these godkings, the Pharaohs. Then, as one after the other Hellenism, Christianity and Islam triumphed, all the traditions of this powerful and cultivated civilization faded away, to remain shrouded in mystery for some fifteen hundred years. It was not until the 27th of September, 1822, when Jean-François Champollion found the secret of reading hieroglyphics, that the ancient society of the Nile was opened up once more; the language, history and religion of Pharaonic Egypt ceased to be mysteries, without losing any of their prestige and attraction of the strange and wonderful. Finally, about one hundred years ago, Mariette, digging the sands of Sakkara for the Serapeum of Memphis, started a “militant Egyptology” which goes straight to the earth for the materials of history. Such perseverance and unforeseen adventure went into the search after the pomp of these Pharaohs, it is really surprising that so few works have been written telling --7- ·.. the story of the discovery of ancient Egypt. The long and perscvcring but exalting scientific elaboration of the evidence found, the ingenuity, and sometimes genius, patience, invention and chance that were needed for such an enterprise! More extraordinary still is the splendid story of the excavations which makes an impressive roll of man's audacity, ingenuity and tenacity, marked by some resounding human episodes : the discovery of the royal mummies in thc hiding holc of Dair cl Bahri, chcered on their way down the Nilc by the joyful admiration of a whole people; the marvels of Tutenkhamon found in 1922 in the Valley of the Kings' Tombs by Howard Carter, chief of the Lord Carnarvon Mission; thc trcasurc of the royal necropolis of Tanis, in the castern Delta, dug out in 1939 and then again in 1945 by Professor Pierre Montet. More recently still, Egyptian archacologists discovered an until-then unknown pyramid at Sakkara and one of the oldest ships in the world, intact, at Gizch. An enormous amount yet remains to be donc, all the samc. Maspero said in 1900, "The surface of Egypt has only just begun to be scratched,” and this is still very true today. Egypt is an eminently archacological land in the wealth of its monuments accumulated through the centuries and dynasties and it has the truly exceptional conditions needed to preserve them. EGYPT LIES BETWEEN the 24º and the 31° latitudes north, in an extremely dry zone with a wonderfully sercne blue sky. To the north, however, in the Delta, it rains; the land is muddy and soaked with the waters of the Nile. Here there are none of the remarkable preserving conditions that have made the rest of the country so famous. On the desert lcdges in the south, land, temples and necropoles stand forth just as the sands have preserved them. The remains of the different periods have accumulated one above the other through the centuries. All that has been left by each succeeding age forms the mounds known as tells or koms; descending methodically from layer to layer, stratigraphically, is to make a section across history, going back through time. The bundles of fragile papyrus are still intact. The many-colored reliefs — most of the buildings were painted in bright colors - have often kept their freshness. Unfortunately, it must be admitted, once an object is exposed to the air, it rapidly decays. The air, a difference in the degree of humidity, handling, too, soon make the color disappear; the stone itself often begins to crumble - 8 - ·a risk of and fall to pieces with the capillary rising of the saltpeter and infiltered salts. In the valley proper and in the Delta, the water level is constantly rising – 254 inches a year or 3,280 feet in a thousand years — as the Nile brings down alluvium. This means that the buildings are continually attacked from beneath; the foundations of the temples, several layers of enormous blocks, are beginning to sink and there is many of them collapsing, as in the case of the pylons and the hypostyle hall of Karnak. The Nile, a constant menace to the sites of ancient Egypt, and even more dangerous today with the barrages that raise the water level, is nevertheless at the very roots of Egyptian civilization. The prosperity of the land depends on the annual flood. “They tremble, they who see the flood, when the waves) beat," it is written in the Texts of the Pyramids, the oldest Egyptian religious composition (middle of the third millenary), “but the meadows laugh, the banks burst into flower, divine offerings descend [from heaven); men do homage; the heart of the gods exults." The river has to have extraordinary force to be able to bring water and life from the rainy massifs of central and castern Africa to Egypt, after traveling thousands of miles across the most terrible deserts in the world. There is no more grandiose contrast than the Nile and the Sahara in the Sudan and Nubia, it is an exclusive dialogue between river and desert under an overpowering sun. The sun is another force with the same regularity and implacability as the river flood. Every day sees it rise suddenly and brilliantly on the eastern horizon, reach its extraordinarily dazzling zenith at midday, to come finally to its dramatically rapid setting in the evening. It is not surprising that, from prehistoric times, there was a Heliopolitan doctrine to the glory of the sun-god, nor that the sovereigns of the IVth dynasty, who built their great pyramids to the sun, introduced Ra into their own name. One of Pharaoh's titles was "son of the sun," "son of Ra." Let us leave these cosmic perspectives for a while, however, and come down to earth again. Egypt may be defined as the low valley of the Nile, a "burning and fertile land" as it has been called, “hot and laughing," a long oasis, green with meadows and palms, golden with corn and planted with cool orchards. All along the river, beside the countless streams of the Delta, are marshes with their tufted vegetation of reeds and undergrowth. This naturally rich land is rare in Africa. -9 ·To the rest of the oasis is the Libran plan one oie worst 52.7 oz de Santa The mountains of the irabian Dasar, td de eis, Soundze ir ten dhe unidade banks of the Red Sea Lipstick, the cames of the Nile cui comanacions with the south. These montis common manat basarintos acus. "Fomited on all sizes or Natura" (Diodorus. Egzobras de sus on the rat on the rola: Fond the Vairamundan dan messo Ster ston the Red Seabr to great marine cine ad Ennen de rest of Africa of which Egris Dani Berber Baumanes de combinar Hamaics and black womea de scu. Ime sase ore I3r care mantiene link, it is a with the Guitar Strandthe south commisererades oma sirena nahs of the Sučan in the direction 01 Chaz. Ta zilende inzerce was creed as it were on its war into Egiti da se sa te perditionis rery original civilization. For more detais Toti e nose bis was treat and wanted to be direction Eren sores incoran togel way was always inmediately made 10 contomato is om narodnog carried this principle oi diserende manier te cu rise up *Tvrd-Earths" (B). In Tipe Egri steze is consta a samostalno watered pati, only fTe er six miles wice in sumaglieres pan-with the casen plateau en aan on eiker steinste da clear-cut, imperious outlines ornarezanu. inauanseondeboss and rathe harsh severity of Egon video cha Delim ca che diverses chels branches out; the low rlain is endret igraces by ta sontines seen one in their Namimale sal beta gezien como los inese (Tm-Darins." Their union at the end or Veckach 3300 3. Este dation stone of Egrdian History. For more than one canadas de trach WAS "Aing at Upper and LoMEET" The sorenaissanemanestamaiah Fidols of this double kingdom; tier mean the main is marianacroma of Upper Egtri(and the red crona Below the plant of the south, the lig, and the citie ad ammus and tried anording to one of the major ci tie Fiarzdis. The latest comme sprang iron the "Ivo Mistress" izt waren orer eich sul elada? Turcgoclass oiel Sab and the serpent of buio.

·ACCORDING TO TRADITION the first kings of Egypt were the gods themselves. A papyrus preserved at Turin even gives the number of years they reigned. Writings make constant reference to the "times of the gods,” the wonderful primeval period, "the like of which is no longer.” Naturally, the order of these god-kings is not always the same; and the different religious centers give several versions of the old stories. The dynasty was founded by the god Osiris and, in spite of the rivalry of his wicked brother Set, his son Horus managed to succeed him. Helped by his mother Isis, Horus kept his throne; he was the great dynastic god throughout. If Pharaoh was the "son of Ra," the sun-god, he was still more anciently Horus; right from the first dynasty, the very word king was a rectangle representing a palace, with above it, firmly seated, the majestic falcon Horus. For Horus was both the falcon-god and the son of Osiris; he existed in more than one form-seen from a different point of view, as it were, in each case. Pharaoh was Horus in his lifetime; after death he became Osiris. As in the old myth itself, the new Horus succeeded to his father Osiris and all his rights. When Pharaoh came to earth he went on being a god by birthright. His enthroning was only an epiphany, not an apothcosis. "Right from the egg," he was a king and a god and "made conquests while in his mother's womb. His birth was set in a timeless world and thus all the more mysterious. His divine birth made him a full-blooded god. This fundamental theme was expressed in various fashions-each true in its own way. The Westcar papyrus tells how the god Ra simply substituted himself for one of his own priests with the wife of the latter; she conceived the first sovereigns of the VIth dynasty, “vigorous children with limbs of gold.” Famous scenes dating from the XVIIIth dynasty also explain these divine conceptions. In the temple at Luxor, Amenhotep III recounts his own divine birth, and on one of the porticoes of Dair el Bahri the god Amon is shown approaching the queen Ahmosis, followed by a scene of the birth of their daughter Hatshepsut. This wonderful poetry is of another world. More crudely, the god Ptah declares to Rameses II: “I am thy father... I took the form of the ram of Mendes and procreated thee with thine honorable mother." Pharaoh was the link between the world of the gods and that of men; the gods and goddesses had cause to rejoice one and all in a royal birth. The gods said, "We created thee;" and the goddesses: “He springs from us." It was probably in order to ensure the purity yet II — ·of their line that certain Pharaohs married their sisters, or half sisters to be more exact (for the royal harem was vast). The "great royal wives” were of higher birth than their brother-husbands, who were born of concubines, and ensured children of divine blood. These incestuous marriages were, however, far from being the rule, as it is too often thought. His Majesty "Life, Health and Prosperity” was anointed king of the "Two- Earths.” Newly born to his supreme royal existence, the sovereign was fed by the protecting goddesses. He could then appear like the rising sun in the dazzling splendor of the great royal box covered in gold, the incorruptible metal, symbol of rebirth and eternity. Henceforth, the pictures on the temple walls show Pharaoh with the gods, whose life he alone of the living could share. In actual fact, priests assisted him in the celebrations, but they were acting in his name; it was a sublime dialogue in which the sovereign, representing all Egypt, made his wishes known to the gods in return for their promises. Everything royal--sceptre, mace, crownwas sacred; they were talismans and might not be touched with impunity, any more than the person of the sovereign himself. The very statues of certain kings were later worshipped. The essential duty of Pharaoh was to ensure the triumph of Maat, Truth- Justice. This meant that he had to act in accordance with the order of the universe of which he was the permanent stay. The king had to attend to the worship of the gods, build temples and make sacrifices. Supreme high priest, Pharaoh was the heir to all the gods and their high priest in each of the little local principalities. As Canon Drioton has pointed out in the absence of any real church, Pharaoh made a framework for all the different and very often enemy sects. When royal power weakened during the decline, the religion of Egypt broke up as a consequence; it was only then, indeed, that the worship of sacred animals began. During the great centuries, right until the eve of decadence, in spite of the hundreds of little local gods, there was only one Egyptian religion, that of Pharaoh, the god on earth and unique representative of the faithful before the gods. To men, Pharaoh was at one and the same time the possessor and servant of Truth-Justice. He was responsible for the order of the universe in a sense that is not far from what was much later to be the doctrine of the Stoics. Egypt owed order and prosperity to the fundamental pact linking Pharaoh and the gods. The 12 ·offerings and prayers of Egypt reached the gods through Pharaoh's intercession; thanks to him, the blessings of the gods showered down upon the banks of the Nile in return. Pharaoh ensured the annual flood of the river; he presided over the subsistence of all things living, while he vouched for and promoted justice in social matters. His Majesty the "perfect god” was consulted about everything. The palace where he sat was the "great house" or peraa in Egyptian, whence the name of Pharaoh that has come down to our languages. He was also the head of the army and excelled at sport and hunting. The king's victories and great strength were the symbol of Egypt's triumph in every domain. Nothing could stand in Pharaoh's way; like a god over primeval chaos, alone he conquered all. The religious character of Pharaonic Egypt cannot be too much stressed; more perhaps than in any other ancient civilization, the political, not to mention social, and even economic foundations of ancient Egypt rested on a theological basis. After his death the king went to heaven: "The king beats his wings like a bird ; he flics, fies, oh men, King Unas flies [far] from you;" there "he was united to him who had engendered him.” The deceased king at the same time became Osiris, the god who suffered and came to life again, ruler of the other world under the carth. Such contradictions, surprising as they may seem, are really only approximate expressions of a single truth seen from different points of view. The only Ferson admitted to the presence of the gods on earth was Pharaoh and in death he still had exceptional privileges. There were sumptuous feasts for his funeral; grandiose monuments were erected to his memory; writings ensured his rebirth and future life. He represented Egypt in his struggle with death and Egypt needed his intercession forever. Near his tomb there was a temple where he was worshipped. All around it were the tombs of dignitaries who shared the royal privileges of the other world and went on forming part of the sovereign's court forever. “May Pharaoh deign to grant a favor; may Anubis deign to grant a favor," was the double formula for prayer in the time of the Old Empire and, as Sainte Fare Garnot has pointed out, the similarity of the two invocations underlines the common nature and functions of Pharaoh and the other gods. All Egypt owed this god on earth its profound 'gratitude. Praises were sung to the fountain of riches and justice in this world and the giver of life in the "Adore King Nimaatre [Amenemhet III] may he live forever within next. - 13- ·Tour 1-27; T Wisst be always in our thoughts," adrised one grand Saber "It's abe god Sa who is in your beart of hearts; his eres sorsa a spass. It is the oa Ra Rose iats give light for us to sec br. He sahe Iro-Ems or Egte ihan the resun's ord, he makes the [land] oreganise Vicia sood. 200 ibc Two-Earths orcio vith streagth and . Is dosis ideasca is aagt; zen he is calm, we can breathe cascate goccess Easter 20:00 it. TTO-Eazzis; że who respects them, szciechimicis a Serhautorkonsorte: has transgressed his order; Se bosse Seria barestier Voter dare to go against him... 4200X0 = 3.C, Vaseso. 2a Estonia ciest contemporary with Prolcm; II, Crice che fbzrechs into thirty-094 Orasties. It is tis coarenient mcinod ihat is sai cse3 55 05 sociacions, tato sigbt changes, to classify the sotees who succeesec 022 202es or the thousand years. 13. STC: Et begins me caiga c: the Two-Earins. Anem pred a ise bishe loss lomas 3"500pica 38,"it was saalls achiered by the iace zarica 0-2 2s 3500s voo's co-sicured as the first Pharaoh. Venes is probably the Narzesza ciscorsoza 55 zchaelogists. The bac engraved shale bere he was and shows online con cia bull orei 2a outsarcicaed cent, cestroying the crenelated wzis ciztons with his boras. Ia other pictures be is a baan iorm, bratallo the inhabitants oi the Delta. Violence was thus used to all oa tribice is 232 ziilso: che gods, as in all history. The Estozza "miracle case isto beag ai the end of the third millena.with te citizordinzer rapid zasica cia ciezacoa founded 03 the agricultural derelorment of the bence.orward and tailer. The real mutation which brought Empirom prehistoric to bistegicissis to be cancia the Prostess in writing and in the process of organizatica o: a rigorozslr nierzichical societ-io phenomena probably closely allieć. Tadag, which allowed orders to be transmitted to a dis- 122.ce zad ser dona permagests, could easlare, however, 25 well as liberate. Erzcilt bow the Phzi2015 came to power is pot bona. Right from the beginning of the first dynasty there was oae and only one sovereign, a god-ling who had the endre life of the county in his ands; total ou cizis cezlt with the provinces in his name. The major task of the ceatralized power was the organizacoa of the waters 14- ·: of the Nile for drainage, irrigation and canals. As Napoleon said, "In Egypt, the government has an immediate influence on the height of the flood.” Nevertheless, local differences persisted even under the supreme authority of Pharaoh; independent and even hostile sects existed side by side in each district. There were differences between Upper and Lower Egypt all down the centuries. Little is known as yet of these early times in the history of Egypt. A stone block in the museum of Palermo gives some annals of these early kings. Feasts, expeditions, constructions are all there; the height of the Nile's flood is given annually and the census of taxes for every two years. For the period of the first two dynastics, known as the Thinite (about 3000-2800 B.C.), excavations have brought to light quite a lot of material and several celebrated monuments, including the funerary stele of the “Serpent King" now in the Louvre in Paris; it offers a number of vague indications of political and religious unrest at the time. Even for the great period of the Old Empire, that is to say from the IIIrd to the VIth dynasties (2800 to 2250 B.C.), the historical facts, properly speaking, that have come down to us are rare. There are large breaks in the chronology and the order of events is still very difficult to establish. The civilization of these times has nevertheless left some admirable architectural works, superb though too-tare vestiges of an austere and grandiose epoch entirely dependent on the gods and dedicated to the glory of the god who gave Egypt life, Pharaoh. The Old Empire was essentially the period of the pyramids, that group of gigantic constructions stretching along the Libyan heights on the edge of the western desert near Memphis, a little to the south of the present city of Cairo. The pyramid of Khufu (Cheops) is a veritable man-built mountain, once more than 480 feet high, with a base 765 feet long, that is to say nearly 28,000,000 cubic feet of stone. But the pyramid is only part of a gigantic whole: beside the low-lying lands stands the temple of the valley or receiving temple; a long causeway, generally covered, climbs, at the edge of the desert, up to the funerary temple set on the eastern side of the pyramid; inside the latter or below it, is the chamber containing the sarcophagus of the deceased together with the funeral apartments, in a far from simple or uniform layout. Prestigious monuments these, that have made men drcam, some even to madness. The pyramids are pre-eminently meeting places of the godly and the earthly; their whole conception is designed for a dialogue between - IS ·heaven and carth. All the secrets of thcir message cannot be interpreted in the grcat detail attempted by too many, however; most of them have not yet been thoroughly studied or even systematically investigated. Each year, new discoveries alter what has been up until now accepted and much remains to be found. On the threshold of the Old Empire stands the terraced pyramid of Zoser. With the latter, perfection was attained all at once on a huge scale; in a single attempt, the Egyptians reached the heights of the very greatest architecture. It was not for nothing that Imhotep, thc architect and minister, doctor too, of Zoser, was worshipped as a god in the Low Period. This construction is an amazing work; it is a palace, though an imaginary palacc, set in cternity. There is a huge enclosure with redans round it, setting down in stone the primitive forms conccived for a mud or brick framework. There arc doors, but thcy, too, arc in stone, open or closed for ever. Inside thc cnclosure arc all kinds of buildings, though most of thc façades are to hide cmbankments. The pyramid, with its six layers, 197 feet high, is a gigantic staircasc up to the sky. There are countless corridors and funeral apartments; the labyrinth of galleries leads to bluc chambers sparkling with faience mosaics. Recently, a building of the same type begun by Sekhmet, Zoser's successor, has been discovered. The unfinished enclosure reveals the building methods under the earliest Pharaohs. On the rough, unsmoothed walls the builders' marks, in red ink, can still be seen. The colossal pyramids of thc IVth dynasty are among the great wonders of the world: “Chcops belongs to the horizon”; “Grcat is Chephren”; “Divine Mycerinus.” There is no need to dwell on the character of geometrical necessity they produce. Four isosceles triangles on a square base converge to a point; the facing of fine stone over the enormous dressed stone is perfectly smooth; nothing could be simpler or more imposing. Their size proves the importance all Egypt attached to the safeguarding of the remains of Pharaoh, the perfect god in whom the pyramid of society finished, both in this world and the next. No site could be more frequented than Gizeh. Yet, to the south of the pyramid of Khufu, only a few yards from excavations begun years ago, eighty-three slabs, each more than a yard long, were discovered in 1954; the first forty-two are above a kind of dry dock containing a partly dismantled wooden barque that has sailed magnificently down the centuries. - 16- ·Vienna hitt atkall.mn:8:::: DEI TO * sur simplo i thair, insa :- inttika kind ook in onschwimmen Siva We also in tiha Viharman, and the line with Vicino miss ir small. The dania with finns giar an bh torld **** as much above the mos! Sorrez ang salah selam non on vain! ** -, which wars, se ha sams kom ons king in any in Toms Pirmias, otormulas intended in it all betons. The Pazad more than ninan-Durrean con i thone :: 2 oso ha sidor: buniretras old, his reigai?1101: il lor, ? unitetin mustavo Brezime he tached old age ithe sounia maya pallinas. *** The annons senses astond: the dead must have brought how the ant" Irmg. The mos fon the lands greato che nolok 3*, Oxfiye potopios to the deceased; great donations were alea mach oth Armagedia The booking op of the kingdom was accompanial o defeyles penting lords or principlinas, os nomes, and the clergi here no longer attiv?«»? central power encept br vhat were really foudellinks. The ice love all in A***4141 and coops-in a word, all its power. A time of amarely 13 cliccando VINS ngr korn as the first Intermediary Period. All countries Wallets minuty to noms, are the decorated tombs that woull out bule imun yataghn *11*p*rni the roral tomb. The style is provincial, the lines : Android tells Athenedig poor. With the upheaval of society, funeral tites bromme vlere trivel. Viritthee website gave themselves the right to bowmno Osiris Alie's three oluli lider Hotels after that it was the curn of ordinuy peper into the theme Egypt, so attached to its traditions, wide xhithen I thin bulutan perlinda the history of which is difficult to leave the ithut the **** olla, "Those things have perishich thue llete mill i list he'll learn the foot is struck down like flax that it sounds line will it with me dead and gonc. Would sliu tlic erunty Wolle bestellen und more tumult." 14 ·THE REVIVAL came from Upper Egypt, with the beginning of the Middle Empirc, a little before 2000 B.C. The reign of thc bull gave way to that of a god later to be called the ram; Montu lost his prestige to Amon. Thcbes now comes into history. Although they built sonic huge buildings herc, thc sovereigns of the XIIth dynasty nevertheless actually resided in the north around Memphis, in the old tradition. They were thus near Fayum, the great oasis they had devcloped by diverting thc Nilc, to the west of thc main vallcy. There are few cdificcs, as such, of this period left; thcy were all destroyed, or rather “rc-uscd,” in later periods. It was a common practice of the Egyptians to pull down older monuments to use the parts for the foundations of new ones. Yet, for the Middle Empire, there is a comparativcly large number of historical sources giving the succession of the various kings and the ycars of their reigns --royal pyramids, tombs of nobles, stcles of private individuals, literary texts and epigraphic monuments of all kinds. Thesc are so many proofs of Egypt's being rich and powerful once more at the timc. History and power arc inscparable in Egyptology. The reigns of the Amcncmlicts and the Sesostris were marked by fine achievements, both insidc and outside the country. Skillful propaganda boasts of their exploits. Their glory is stamped in the beautiful statucs which reveal what they looked like. They are always shown as gods, though the features arc human. They make an astonishing gallery of portraits, the most moring of which were found during French excavations at Mcdamud. Among others is the disillusioned face of Sesostris III. “Widening its frontiers,” Egypt now stretched right into Nubia, beyond the Sccond Cataract. On the Asian side, opened up to the Egyptians by the adventurous Sinuhe, contacts were many. Several statues of the Middle Empire have been found at Byblus and Ras-Shamra, while under the foundations of the temple of Tod in Upper Egypt, four bronze chests bcaring the name of Amenemhet II were found to contain some wonderful Egeo-Asiatic gold work. Many of the craftsmen had Semitic names. Sesostris III probably made a campaign right to Sishem, in the heart of Palestinc, yet a few Bedouins occasionally made their way into Egypt perfectly peacefully, their donkeys walking before them, much as did Joseph and his brothers some time later. Once more, however, Egypt fell into ruins. The Pharaohs of the XIIIth dynasty were still fairly powerful, but a second Intermediary Period set in about which 18 ·little is known. The central authority crumbled a second time and the country was divided up once more. By 1730 B.C., all the north of the land was under the Hyksos or "Shepherd Kings." This invasion of Egypt may have been the result of the great surge forward made by the horse-breeding Indo-Europeans at the beginning of the second millenary, throughout western Asia. It is more likely, however, to have been an expansion of the Semites; Canaanite names, Jacob-Her, Anat- Her-are to be found on the interlacing scarabs of a type frequent at this period. Under the Asiatics, Egypt's splendor was dulled for something like two centuries. REVIVAL CAME ONCE AGAIN from the south. It was the princes of Thebes who led the liberation movement. The mummy of Sekenre-Tas, found at Dair el Bahri, still bears traces of the wound received by the prince in battle. The Hyksos wanted the princes of Cush in Nubia to be their allies and trap the Thebites between them; a stele recently discovered at Karnak tells how the latter arrested their enemy's messenger on the road to the oases, after a veritable race. Then Ahmosis, the first king of the XVIIIth dynasty, conquered Avarıs, the citadel of the Hyksos, in the western Delta and pushed on right into Asia. Egypt's renewed energy did not stop at the liberation of the country; the New Empire was to extend itself far into Asia and Africa. A new imperialism now began to manifest itself and for half a millenary, from 1580 to 1085 B.C., the Empire of the Pharaohs had a decisive role in the Near East. Right from the second year of his reign, around 1530, Thutmosis I was able to declare that his kingdom extended from Tombos, in Upper Nubia, to the Euphrates, “the river that flows backwards down to the south"-for, compared with the Nile, the Euphrates does indeed run backwards. To the south, the Third Cataract was passed and, according to recent observation, the great Sudanese steppe on the edge of the land of the black races was perhaps then reached. By the time of Thutmosis III, fifty years later, Egypt had a widespread empire in Asia and Africa. Great steles of triumph were erected. Egypt's rapid successes are to be explained in that the Hyksos had taught them a great deal; the use of the horse and the war chariot, a new weapon, and a greater knowledge of metals, all came from Asia. The importance of officers, those of the chariots mainly, grew enormously. New crafts were born; chariot makers, saddle - 19 ·makers and metal workers were needed. Horses and chariots also not only made new motifs, but developed new forms of expression of great rapidity and elegance of line. They were a wonderful source of revival for Egyptian art. Within the framework of the traditional rules, it found a movement, a liberty, until then unknown. The reigns of Thutmosis Il's successors were difficult, howerer, especially when the Hittites of Asia Minor became ambitious under the energetic Suppiluliuma (1388-1347 B.C.). Under Ikhnaton and Tutenkhamon, Egypt was completely absorbed by an intense religious crisis and retired from the political arena, though the general Horemheb went back to Asia. Under the XIXth dynasty, that of Seti I and Rameses II, the struggle grew to its full height. One of its major phases was the famous battle of Kadesh in 129; B.C. If the numerous hieroglyphic inscriptions, in the poem known as that of Pentaur, on the walls of the temples of Luxor, Karnak and Abydos are to be beliercd, Egypt won the day. The story giren at Abu Simbel, in the Rameseum and at Luxor, is also victorious. In reality, it was more probably a defensive victory in which Rameses II managed to aroid disaster and bar the way to the south to the Hittite Muwattalli; he was not able to take Kadesh, nor push on to the Euphrates. The Egyptians retreated to the south; according to Hittite sources, the local princes eren had to submit to the latter. It would be an exaggeration to deny all historical value to the Egyptian versions, but there are propaganda tendencies to be found in these, and several passages are obviously borrowed from previous inscriptions. It should be understood that there is a fundamental theme underlying the story of actual erents. Egyptian texts are dominated by an essentially religious and eren cosmic idea; it was not possible for Pharaoh to do other than conquer, the prosperity of the land required it, it was in the natural order of things. Not long after, Hittites and Egyptians were brought to agreement by the Assyrian menace. There are two versions of the treaty, hieroglyphic and cuneiform (1278 B.C.). A few years later, as the marriage stele shows, Rameses I made : Hittite princess one of his many wires; there may eren have been two, if fragments of letter in Hittite are to be believed. But the new peace had barely been completed when all was undone by the terrible advance of the Sea Peoples, another episode in the story of Indo-European expansion. In 1230 B.C., the fifth year of the reign of ·Mereneptah (the thirteenth son of Rameses II and the latter's successor), the Akaiawasha, Teresh, Lukku, Sherden and Shakalash, "all peoples of the north come from all kinds of lands," joined by the Libu and the Mashaiawasha of Libya, bore down on Egypt. They were crushed, but this was to happen a second time in the reign of Rameses III (1198-1166 B.C.). ALL THESE BATTLES must be taken into account if the civilization of the New Empire is to be seen in its truc perspective. While retaining her traditional originality, Egypt nevertheless came out of isolation; military expeditions, embassies and commercial exchanges brought the country into close and permanent contact with Asia, the Mediterranean and Africa. The great conquests led to a considerable increase of wealth and created new needs. They stimulated the development of the arts; the epic developed, alongside the great mural compositions, all to the glory of the kings. The colossal building programs of the XVIIIth dynasty, and then of the Ramessides, cannot be explained without this expansion. All along the Nile, from the Fourth Cataract in Nubia right to the Delta, stone temple was built upon stone temple and palace upon palace - the latter in flimsier material; today most of them have disappeared. Under the XVIIIth dynasty, tremendous works were undertaken at Thebes; grandiose ruins all around Luxor, one of the present capitals of world tourism, still tell today of the splendor of the Pharaohs. Enlarged during the centuries that followed, the dynastic temple of Amon at Karnak, with all its appurtenances, is probably the biggest excavation site in Egypt today. There is hardly a single Pharach of the New Empire who did not add something to the glory of Karnak. Before the immense pylons, beside the majestic ruins, the colossi of the builder-kings are still in position and the obelisks, like petrified sun rays, their long columns of hieroglyphs bearing the titles of sovereigns, are an eternal memorial to their greatness. Over a mile further south, a sphinx-or 'dromos-lined way leads to Luxor where Amon stayed during his great annual procession. The colonnadc of Amenho tep III stands out in its perfect harmony. The left bank of the Nile is the land of the dead; above is the natural pyramid of Thebes, so beautiful in its simplicity and ·so majestic that it was thought of as a goddess, "she who loves silence.” Along the edge of the valley stretches the line of temples, consecrated to certain forms of the gods, which are also chapels of the royal tombs. One of the most extraordinary of these is that of Queen Hatshepsut, in the circus of Dair el Bahri; long horizontal terraces, one above the other, stand out on the sheer cliffside while the chapels lie hidden in the rock. The royal tombs, properly speaking, are out of sight behind the natural pyramid which was common to all, in the celebrated ravine of the Valley of the Kings' Tombs. It is there that the line of kings who reigned during the Great Egyptian Empire may be meditated upon. Some of them were so glorious or so reputed for their good deeds that, though already gods, they received yet another form of worship after death. Such was the case of Amenhotep I, who together with his mother, had a special cult at his tomb up until the Low Period. Not long after, another woman, Queen Hatshepsut, came to the fore; heiress to the blood, she married first her half brother, Thutmosis II, and then, after his death in 1504 B.C., his young son by a concubine, her own nephew, Thutmosis III. For more than twenty years she ruled as Pharaoh in her own right, like a man, pushing her nephew out of the way and "directing the affairs of the whole world, according to her own decisions.” Later, Thutmosis III, in his hatred of Hatshepsut's memory, had her name hammered down. A great conqueror and builder on a gigantic scale, “there was nothing he did not bring to a happy end,” in the words of his vizir, Rekhmire. The reign of his great-grandson, Amenhotep III (1408-1372 B.C.), saw Egyptian civilization rise to the height of its glory; the elegance, opulence, subtlety, too, and harmony of the supreme years cannot be surpassed. The reliefs in the tombs of Khaemat and Kheruef are so uplifting that further development is not to be imagined. They attain such a degree of refinement and grace that their ecstasy has a kind of anguish that almost reaches breaking point. The Amarnian revolution followed. Much has been written about Amenhotep IV, the prognathous and adenoidal husband of the charming Nefertiti. This Pharaoh "intoxicated with the divine,” banished the group of gods of whom Amon was the chief and replaced them with the solar disk of Aton whom his predecessors had already worshipped. Amenhotep renamed himself Ikhnaton, “he who is agreeable to Aton.” He then left Thebes and founded a new capital, Akbeton, or 22 ·the Delta, the temples were thoroughly overhauled and bear these words: "Monu. ment restored by Seti I.” At Karnak, the king went on building and decorating il. vast hypostyle hall begun by Horemheb and continued by Rameses 1. N. grandeur and quiet simplicity distinguish the tomb of Seti I ar Thebes andilain : the "horizon of Aton," the Tell el Amarna of today. It was a revolution in two domains, giving a new interpretation to all the old fundamental principles which nevertheless remained in place. "A mystic of the truth," Ikhnaton went to the very verge of the absurd in the exaltation of Maat, who became from then on the ideal of sincerity. The Amarnian is shown with oversized, long-drawn-out head, shrunken body, swollen abdomen and enormous thighs; the deformities and strangeness are exaggerated. It is more than realism–surrealism, rather. As Canon Droton so aptly puts it, it is a school of the nightmare." Yet this distorted art aimed at the essence of things; spiritual ideas are to be found in it, and it is moving, for all thc distortion and horror. The Amarnian doctrine had tendencies towards universalism and naturalism. Whether it really sought liberty or not, the scenes of this reign are sunlit and some of them give off a "frenzy of joy." The king himself sang hymns to the sun, the creator and organizer of the world. In addition to the nightmarish scenes there are the charming studies made inside the harem in the company of the king, the queen and the little princesses. Much has been said about Ikhnaton, yet more than fifteen thousand stones of the period little sandstone blocks decorated with brightly-colored, swiftly-drawn scenes from several buildings at Karnak where later sovereigns re-used them are still unknown and even uncatalogued. Accursed king, it is written, and in truth, he was so. But several times his successors carefully rebuilt the foundations of edifices he began and raised the under layers. The case of Ikhnaton, a sick man of genius in search of the Absolute, is not With Tutankhamon and Horemheb a return to orthodoxy was made; the name of Aton was hammered down and the traditional models were restored. Yet the Amarnian period left its traces; Egyptian sensitivity henceforward had new accents. The beginning of the XIXth dynasty, with Seti I, saw a gigantic building program carried on with a firm hand; the gods who gave the Empire back to Egypt the object of energetic worship. All the way from Amada in Nubia to Bubasus in at Abydos is among the finest achievements of Egyptian art yet closed. werc The scho. - 23 – ·are perfect masterpieces of purity, in places somewhat monotonous in their perfection. The limestone in which they are engraved has an admirable grain and probably preserves the fine workmanship better than the sandstone of Karnak, which is crumbling. The immense last hall of the tomb of Seti I is decorated with the phases in the nocturnal journey of the solar barque, in a series of yellow and black paintings of a sober grandeur; André Lhote called it the Sistine Chapel of ancient Egypt. After the time of Rameses II (1301-1235 B.C.), the great ruler of Asia and Africa whose name is to be found on almost every building in Egypt, the quality of artistic production tends to go down. This is probably the result of an ever increasing demand, reaching gigantic proportions, which made art almost an industry. Two defects became apparent which grew worse as time went on: the inexpressive heaviness of the colossal on the one extreme, and the mannerism ending in exaggeration and feeble affectation on the other. A number of masterpieces were nevertheless produced. Besides the traditional temples, Rameses II built six new ones in Nubia, where his own image as conqueror was particularly venerated. Rameses II was thus worshipped as sovereign and also as “Rameses, the great god” at Abu Simbel, the most imposing of all his temples. On the façade, the four enormous colossi of the scated king, cut in the sandstone of the cliff, overlook the Nile; in the great underground hall, the walls are covered with the fabulous stories of his combat, while giant figures lean on the pillars. Rameses built a residential town in the eastern Delta, near the Asian frontier, to which he attached particular importance; a poem of the period sings its beauties. Open to sea traffic, it was a stopping place on the road from Egypt to Syria. At Thebes, the funerary temple of the king is no other than the magnificent and celebrated Rameseum, about the ruins of which, it should be said in passing, nothing adequate has yet been published. The mummy of Rameses II, several times moved during disturbances of the necropolis, is well preserved. The haughty features of the glorious monarch stand out from among all the other royal mummies. The dullness and confusion of the long period of decadence that followed seems all the greater by contrast. The successes of the New Empire were the cause of the downfall. The state was still, at bottom, an agricultural society of passive fellahs ; but with the great conquests, a multitude of relations and officials, surrounded - 24 - ·scETTE srcr * * **** care to MX*; feri ex S. Shu ST 453 DECESE 2 AT Fo: orci russe VIA Das is pas cert richt hisoara, ETE: - *.41.4** maigbos. La pe o tais caisse, with more than once the old speis: sono sin ni sin tidin . pasked aside Remoss XI, the lis 0 Gamma around 1055 B.C, "che rebirth." la an Evi gods who seemed to have forgoten i : Sisi ti 1 with himself both king and high pris. Von his successors, there was soll 2 Pharaoh, also ho 11.12, Auto north, mainly at Tanis. Until Professor Joana's divi10.10.hr of 1945, of the sarcophagi in gold and silver o l'haraohs wil than lice's af olma unknown, this period for long seemed obscure, cumpliceman uninnapi to historians. Although these treasures, including curls, munka, Netralno vases, are in the best Egyptian tradition and norwithoranding the car that Shah onk managed to take Jerusalem "in the fitih war of Rchahaun" (*hone 00 116 and “put his hand on the treasure of the Eternal and the Kingsmanna" Ning XIV 25-26)—that Egypt nonetheless entered into a veritable thin Intermodini during which the country suffered greater and greater impoverixliment, i evlilanit, The Sheshonks and Osorkons were not really ligyptians in any cities line 1.4 they descended from the Mashaiawasha chicks, scuolal near tasumi, de les depuillas Under the last of them the power of ligypt completely wone in ploaie, The renewal came from the south again, as ar ele irtinning of the Alhlille | New Empires. In the middle of the seventh century 11,Con Kalite sus of this kingdom of Cush (which had grown up around Najuta bear dhe donne Gillette north of the steppes of the Sudan), came down the Nile anul artdral in Upper Huerte

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·Egypt was so bound up in its Pharaonic institutions that every conqueror-Persian, Macedonian and then Roman—was obliged to appear as a Pharaoh. The Darius, Ptolemies and Caesars all occupied the throne of Horus and wore the pschent and other crowns; holding the royal attributes, scepter and flagellum, they did homage to the gods and made sacrifice according to the thousand-year-old rites. Caesarion, the son of Cleopatra and Caesar, was fed by Hathor, the goddess of Dendera; there were once bas-reliefs at Armant tracing back his divine birth. Only Hadrian, Septimius Severus and Caracalla came to Egypt; yet, according to the traditional theory, it was the right and bounden duty of each of the Caesars to have himself shown accomplishing his task of king-priest to the gods of Egypt. In return, the crises of the Late Roman Empire had consequences as far as the temples of Upper Egypt. The images of Pharaoh and the cartouches of Geta at Esna were hammered down by Caracalla, his brother and enemy; those of Phillip the Arab were destroyed by Decius. Hieroglyphic writings were engraved under Diocletian (284-305) and Maximinus Daia—who may still be considered as Roman Pharaohs-right up to Theodosius, in August, 394, not long after the proclamation of severe mcasures against paganism in Egypt. Christianity from then on had won the day, although for long after resistance went on. By the time eastern and western empires separated, the Egypt of the Pharaohs, in all its forms, had already ceased to exist. Nothing is easier to make than a post mortem. The torpor of Egypt under its foreign masters has been much stressed. And, findeed, the Egypt of the Low Period clung desperately to its worn traditions. The great works of the past, those of Thebes and even of the Old Empire, became the only source of inspiration. Many changes nevertheless appeared and though they did not always succeed, at least they prove an effort was made. The cult of sacred animals grew up and whole specics were even held as sacred. The classical authors and the Fathers of the Church do not hide their irony or indignation at these popular practices. Under one of the last Ptolemies, the crowd bore down in anger on a Roman who had killed a cat. Magic, too, grew powerful; charms and talismans were made in industrial quantities and magic recipe books were many. Yet there were still some who sincerely searched after the truth. A sage of Hermopolis, Petosiris, had the following words engraved on his tomb at the end of the fourth century B.C., a masterly study - 29 - ·of which has been made by M.G. Lefebvre: “If I have come to the eternal city (the necropolis), it is that I have accomplished good on earth and that my heart was pleased to follow in the path of God from my youth up to this day; during the night the spirit of God was in my conscience and from the dawn I did what He loved.” The fine maxim, “Happiness and destiny are in the hand of God,” is to be found in many of the papyri. Despite its morc astonishing practices, Egyptian religion nevertheless reached heights worthy of the best schools. Certain passages of the Psalms and Proverbs are not without some resemblance to the Wisdom and Hymns of the priests and scribes of the Nile. There is almost an idea of the Messiah in the sufferer identified with the god-victim scen as savior of the world; Osiris and Horus promised triumph over evil and death. Another direction was taken by the ruling classes, judging from their biographical inscriptions, which have curiously rational trends, in some cases going almost as far as an exclusively moral rule. As history grow more and more detached from theory, the monarchy was seen as a purely carthly crcation; Pharaoh was no longer a god and had to obey a divine law outside himself. This meeting of the spiritual and the reasonable, so reminiscent of the Renaissance, is a very long way from what is generally thought of the Egypt of the Low Period. AS WE LEAVE the footsteps of the Pharaohs, some may regret to have seen so little of the workaday Egypt of the living, the men in the fields or at their crafts and the crowds rejoicing on feast days. But "in the steps of the Pharaohs,” to use the beautiful phrase of the Old Empire, we had to "take the fine ways" and walk with the kings and the gods-in a world that is not of this carth, but of eternity. Most of our documents come from the temples or tombs; the religious perspective is the only one possible. But Egypt was not only a land of gods and mummies, even so; life was enjoyed there to the full and it boasted many charms. "Spend a happy day,” say the writings; and Pharaoh himself lived in the greatest luxury. Yet it is to the sumptuous temples, by the enormous colossi, that we instinctively look for the Egypt of the Pharaohs. For the immutable silence of all the Pharaohs of those stone reliefs and countless statues, among the ruins of Egypt and strewn across the museums of the world, tells us that the civilization of Egypt was from the beginning, and always remained, a civilization of stone. It grew up in the heart of - 30 — ·the stone age and, rapidly rising to the greatest heights, remained attached to these first achievements. To this deeply-rooted agricultural civilization born of the rich river soil, the ideal lay not in the promises of the future of technical progress. Metal civilizations were essentially destined to research and progress, while those of stone were to remain statuesque in their past glory, once it was established. They were content to live in the mirage of the golden age of the gods and their ancestors. Egypt was an island of extraordinary immobility in a world tied on every side to technical progress and the development of ideas. With its own exclusive cosmos to which it was connected by Pharaoh, the god-king, Egypt found its glory in its own originality. It needed no great declarations of nationalism and, more than elsewhere in ancient times, patriotism in Egypt rested on religion. Egypt was the exclusive dependency of its gods, with Pharaoh at the centre of this great framework, at once on earth and in heaven. Fundamentally different, Egypt wanted, cost what it might, to remain itself, but the outside world subject to the requirements of historical evolution carried it off on the tide of progress. Set fast in its stone framework, Egypt could not free itself sufficiently to evolve and survive. Its originality made its greatness and of this very greatness it dicd. Jeanfellant

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·HISTORICAL AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL NOTES ·MEDITERRANEAN SEA GERUSALEM Gaza Damietta Port Said Dar Alexandria DEAD SEA Buto. Iseum PSaïs ISRAEL O Mendes Tallis Naukratis Bubastis Ismailia Mirror nimik Bilier Lakes JORDAN Suez Giza boleliopolis (Gizch)o CAIRO Abusino "Sakkara og Memphis Dahshur Lake Karun noinningmommer Beni Suef milf a mich Nile fulf of Suez Gull of kaba un ba Minya Ashmunein (Horimopolis) Tunah el Gebelo Tell cl Amarna Akhet Alar Asyut RED Cover E G G Y PIT Sohag Abydoso Dendera SEA Thebes Armant Coptos Wadi Hammamat bMedamud Karnak Dan Luxor (orga Oasis o Kharga Esna el Kab Edfu Pon, Kom Ombom Aswan 1. of Philae first Cataract 0 ninenti Amada, هللافراان Abu Simbel punnயாபயாக THE MAIN SITES Miles SUDAN Wadi Halfa 2nd Cataract 100 ---- ·PLATES IN BLACK AND WHITE river and loaded onto a barge Dozens of these obelisks, which once stood before the main temples, show what perfect mastery ancient Egyptian techruque had acquired. I. -- The Nubian Nile The River and the Mountain Desert. Between the Second and First Cataracts, in Nubia, the river crosses the mountainous desert in an impressive solitude The modern barrage of Aswan has already raised the waters covering the bottom of the valley far away upstream. If recent projects were put into action, the level would go up from 390 feet to 590 feet, the entire valley would then disappear and the waters submerge forever all the necropoles and temples, still as yet barely explored, that have seen the centuries go down this difficult but unique route between Egypt and the rest of Africa 4 -Sakkara Corner of the Foundarions of the Unfinished Pyramid In October, 1951, excavations of the Antiquities Commussion, led by Mr Zaharia Goneim, brought to light to the south of the great pyramid of Zoser at Sakkara a vast wall containing the remains of the foundations of a terraced pyramid These discoveries revcaled the different stages of building in this type of construction As Mr. Lauer has shown, the terraced pyramids chafacteristic of the Ilird dynasty were built in layers of masonry applied one upon the other, the beds are sloped perpendicularly to the facings, which are incined about fifteen degrees in relation to the vertical, 2. - The Egyprian Oasis Egyptian civilization was born when man first discovered how to use the waters of the Nile Hundreds of canals drain and irrigate the fields and orchards and the eruberant profusion of the most widely varying crops In Upper and Aliddle Egypt the culuvated land 15 only a narrow strip shut in by the high wall of the desert, the clear-cut outline of the cliff stands out in all its severity and majestic grandeur in the dazzling light 3. - The Quarties of Aswan. Unfinished Obelisk. Quarries were of great importance to ancient Egypt and its builders Granites are to be found only at the First Cataract, where it is the beds of hard rock coming to the surface here that actually cause the fall From a Inttle to the south of Aswan, on the right bank of the Nile, came the gigantic monoliths cut in one piece from the rock One of them--[must have been more than 100 feet long -was left unfinished. The great block had yet to be taken from its niche, carried down to the -Sakkara The Outside 11"all of tbe Unfinished Pyramid Mr Zakaria Goneim dug out the remains of a magnificent wall with bastions and redans which, left unfinished, had been hidden under some embankments Similar in more than one respect to the neighboring wall of Zoser (sce no 7), the blocks here are, however, twice the size, the fine limestone is used in this case much more sparingly and a scagle row of facing blocks was applied before the filling of various local stones. These architectural consideratons seemed to point to the unfinished construction's having been built by a king later than Zosti; the objects subsequently found inside the pyramid have confirmed this ·curious pyramid of Dahshur, just south of the necropolis of Memphis, to be his. 300 feet or more high, the sides have a double slope; at the base it is 54° 31' 13" then, starting from the middle, about 43° 21'. The intersecting line of the two slopes is very slightly raised near the ridge. 6. Unfinished Pyramid at Sakkara. The Alabaster Sarcophagus. At the end of a long descending passage, you come to a burial chamber, the walls of which are only coarsely dug out and neither smoothed down nor decorated. This chamber contains an alabaster sarcophagus that is not quite finished, though touched up with odd pieces and plaster. The form of the sarcophagus is not strictly geometrical and it would be an illusion, as in the case of many Egyptian monuments, to attach too much importance to the deceiving precision of the measurements; the “ official » length of the sarcophagus is 7 feet and the height 3 feet, 6 inches. There is an unusual vertical trap on one of the small sides. Solemnly opened, it was found to be empty. The new pyramid is none the less a source of very precious information on the still obscure history of the beginnings of the IIIrd dynasty. Pyr.of Abu Roash CAIRO Giza (Gizeh) Khufu (Cheopst Khafre (Chephren Menkaure. A Sphinx (Mycerinus). Necropolis and Pyr. of Gizeh WEILE Meadi Pyr. of Zawiyet el Aryan GROUP acres. Sun Temple of Abu Gorab Sahure Pyramids of Abusir Weuserre Neferirkere Serapeum NORTHERN Kunfinished Monument to Zoser Pyramid"Unass MEMPHIS Necropolis and Merenerea PepiІ Pyr. of Sakkara Dedkere Sakkara o Shepseskaf Bedrashein Akhenzer Anonymous Sesostris III Snefru Pyramids of Dahshur Amenemhet II Amenemhet III Rhomboidal Pyramid (Snefruj SOUTHERN GROUP Helwan 7. The Funeral Palace of Zoser at Sakkara. The Outside Wall and the Terraced Pyramid. The work of Imhotep, the architect of genius employed by the first king of the IIIrd dynasty, Horus Neterirkhet, traditionally known by his first name of Zoser (about 2800 B.C.), the terraced pyramid is situated in the center of a vast rectangular enclosure 1,765 feet by 909 feet, no less than thirty-seven Thanks to the work of Mr. Lauer, who has been at Sakkara for thirty years, the southwest part of the outside wall has been rebuilt near the one and only way into the monument. It is a splendid wall in fine limestone, with bastions and redans; the facing is small, well smoothed down and pointed with remarkable attention to detail. There were originally more than six different projects for this “ pyramid, ” only the last of which were of the terraced type. In its final state there are six tiers, with a steep slope of fifteen degrees in relation to the vertical, each“ step” making a glacis inclined more than 200 on the horizontal. The layout of this “ pyramid "--which, properly speaking, is not really a pyramid-is slightly elongated in a line running southwest, the base being 397 feet by 308 feet. The initial height must have been something like 200 feet. Pepills Abas N Dahshur THE MEMPHIS REGIONO THE PYRAMIDS 9. — Gizeh (Giza). The Pyramid of Khufu (Cheops) Seen from the Southeast. The great pyramid of Gizeh was-rightly enough considered one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. It was built by Snefru's successor, Khufu, the Cheops of the Greeks or, in fuller style, Khumkhufu,“ the god who protects me. All round the pyramids were the tombs of courtiers, the ceremonial chapels of 8. - The Rbomboidal Pyramid of Dahshsır. Sncfru, the founder of the IVth dynasty, probably built several pyramids. Recent investigation shows the 116

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·curious pyramid of Dahshur, just south of the necropolis of Memphis, to be his. 300 fcct or more high, the sides have a double slope; at the base it is 54° 31' 13" then, starting from the middlc, about 43° 21'. The intersecting line of the two slopes is very slightly raiscd ncar thc ridge. 6. Unfinished Pyramid at Sakkara, The Alabaster Sarcophagus. At the end of a long descending passage, you come to a burial chamber, thc walls of which are only coarsely dug out and neither smoothed clown nor decorated. This chamber contains an alabaster sarcophagus that is not quite finished, though touched up with odd picccs and plaster. The form of the sarcophagus is not strictly geometrical and it would be an illusion, as in the case of many Egyptinn monuments, to attach too much importancc to the docciving precision of thc mcasurements; thc “ official " icngth of the sarcophagus is 7 fect and the height 3 fect, 6 inches. There is an unusual vertical irap on onc of the small sides. Solemnly opened, it was found to be cmpty. The new pyramid is nonc the less a source of very precious information on the still obscurc history of the beginnings of the Ilird dynasty Pyr.of Abu Ronsh CAIRO Giza (Gizchi tutü Cheopot XHafre (Chephrenia Alpskoure Sphinx (Mycennus). Necropolis and Pyri of Crich -3.7.I.N. Meadi Pyr. of Zawiyel el Aryan Sun Temple of Abu Gorss MORINIRR) EDUTIBU CROUT Dettare acrcs Helwan ĀSahure Pyramids of Abu:ic เieuermะ Nafchiriere Serapeum CROUP (unfinishedblonument to Zaser Pyramida Vas MEMPHIS Necropolis and Pyr. of Salkara Nereneren a Pepit o Sakkara "Bedrashein Anonymous Sesostris 711 Snerro Pyramids of Dahshur Amenemhes Argenemhel III Rhomboidal Pyramid Snerrus repelt. Abu Shepseska a žhenzer 7. The Feral Polars of Zoser al Sakkorii. The Outside 11"all ard the Terraced Pyramid. The work of Imhotep, the architect of genius employed by the first king of the Ilird dynasty, Horus Netcrirkhct, traditionally known by his first name of Zoser (about 2800 B.C.), the terraced pyramid is situated in the center of a vast rectangular enclosurc 1,765 fcct by 909 fcct, no less than thirty-seven Thanks to the work of Mr. Lauer, who has been at Sakkara for thirty years, the southwest part of the outside wall has been rcbuilt ncar the onc and only way into the monument. It is a splendid wall in fine limestonc, with bastions and rcdans; the facing is small, well smoothed down and pointed with remarkablc attention to detail. There were originally more than six different projects for this "pyramid,” only the last of which were of the terraced type. In its final statc thcrc arc six tiers, with a stccp slope of fiftcen dcgrccs in relation to the vertical, cach" step " making a glacis inclined more than 200 on the horizontal. The layout of this “ pyramid "-which, properly speaking, is not rcally a pyramid mis slightly clongated in a line running southwest, the basc being 397 fect by 308 fcct. The initial height must have been something like 200 feet. A N Dahshur THE MEMPHIS REGION O THE PYRAMIDS 9. - Gizeh (Giza). The Pyramid of Khufu (Cheops) Seen from the Southeast. The great pyramid of Gizeh was--rightly cnough-considered one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. It was built by Snefru's successor, Khufu, the Cheops of the Grecks or, in fuller style, Khumkhuf who protects me. All round the pyramids were the tombs of courtiers, the ceremonial chapels of « the god > 8. - The Rhomboidal Pyramid of Dahshur. Sncfru, the founder of the IVth dynasty, probably built several pyramids. Recent investigation shows the 116 1 ·which have been known since Mariette as mastabathe Arab term for “ bench "—for from outside they do indeed look like little benches, with their slightly inclined walls and lack of decoration, Only on the facade is there a way in, stele and entrance, very simple in most cases. At the southeast corner of the pyramid of Khufu, the reconstituted facade of the mastaba of Seshemnefer IV can be seen Unlike most, it has a monumental entrance, with columns supporting an entablature in front of which are statues and were, originally, a number of small obelisks. 12 – Karnak (Abddle Empire). Sesostris I and the God Montu. There are now very few buildings left of the Middle Empire. They were all destroyed, or father " re-used,” in later periods, parts were taken down to go into new buildings. Inside the third pylon of Karnak, Chevrier found all save one or two of the blocks of a splendid chapel in white limestone built by Sesostris I, which he has since reconstituted This picture shows Sesostris I face to face with Montu, che falcon-god, master of Thebes before Amon took his place There is a double uraeus (sacred serpent) wound round the solar disk, above which are two little feathers The eminently classical art of the beginning of the Middle Empire is distinguished in its equilibrium and perfection of detail The ornaments of the different persons are treated with the greatest care, every single hieroglyph is a masterpiece in itself LIC. TH. SAL. P.--...5 1 1. nº 11), near the cultivated land, stands the sphinx with its ever mysterious, astonishing face. Who can have carved from the rock this lion with a human head with features recalling those of Chephren? Facing the rising sun, it is thus Harmachus, “the Horus of the horizon,” but at the same time it is the god Hurun Over 60 feet high, it is most awe-inspiring and the Arabs call it Abu Hol, or " the father of Terror Amenhotep II, the athlete king, had a stele built here to boast of his exploits Hts successor Thutmosis IV (1425-1408 B. C.) received the promise of kingshup in a dream while resting in the shadow of the sphinx, the stele he later had engraved tells how he then built a wall here to hold back the sand 13. - Dair el Bahri. The Cliff Circle and the Temple of Queen Hatshepsut From the top of the sheer cliff, you overlook the circle of Dair el Bahri, the “convent of the North,” so named after a Coptic monastery that once occupied the ancient ruins. There, at the foot of the natural pyramid of Thebes, on the western height, Queen Hatshepsut had her funeral temple built, near that of one of the kings of the XIth dynasty. Beyond a great courtyard, across terraces along which tun porticoes with celebrated reliefs, you go up towards the chapels set in the rocky cliffside. It is a splendid ensemble, extraordinarily well fitted to its setting, without its equal in all the rest of Egyptian art. The remarkable proportions underline the purity of the lines and the immense horizontals which stand out perfectly straight in all their simplicity at the foot of the cliff; the severe parallelism seems like an expression of eternity in architectural form. Below, to the east, the Nile flows through cultivated fields. Beyond, the line of crests which cuts off the circus of Dair el Bahri to the north begins a long valley, the upper part of which, curving back towards the south on a level with Dair el Bahn, contains the tombs of the Pharaohs of the New Empire; this is the famous Valley of the Kings' Tombs. 11. — Sakkara. Relief on the Tomb of Try Egyptian art reached one of its heights in the reliefs on the tomb of Tiy," the one and only friend, chief of his master's secrets in all places, chief of all the king's works, director of the pyramids of the Kings Neferirkere and Neuserre » (end of the Vth dynasty). The serene and noble attitude of the dead man makes him the ideal of the ancient empire, the movement is taken from life, though the composition has a supreme harmony. The engraving has great delicacy, precision without fixedness, and the whole is set off by colours that time has now dimmed. The art of the Old Empire managed to catch the eternal, the technique is so perfect as to leave you almost unaware of it. Rarely has such distinction been achieved with such simplicity. 14 – The Colossi of Memnon Batbed in the Flood Waters In the cult of the dead the deceased sovereign was thought of as a god The burial 117 - ·place properly speaking was actually far from here, in the shadow of the natural pyramid of Thebes in the Valley of the Kings' Tombs. The temple of Amenhotep III has now entirely disappeared under the fields. But the giant statues that were in front of the entrance are still standing; these are the colossi of Memnon. Set on a tall pedestal, they are nearly 60 feet high, yet the harmony is so great that the figures nevertheless remain human. their heads. The group of captives is evenly set out; kneeling, lifting their arms in supplication, they are all bearded Asiatics with delicate profiles. Behind is a goddess holding little medallions on ropes with the names of the towns of the vanquished, above which are the faces of the prisoners whose arms are bound. On the upper part, to the right, is the god Amon; the image is partly destroyed. He was the god who gave victory. the Medamu Gurnah . Taf Maatu Karnok North) 17. Temple of Karnak. The North Outside Wall of the Hypostyle Hall. On the north outside wall of the hypostyle hall of Karnak are the victories of Seti I in a series of rows of pictures painted with admirable movement. The crown prince at his side, the king is struggling with the Libyans and Hittites. On the left of the photograph, near the entrance to the hypostyle hall leading towards the sanctuary where the gods live, the outcome of these combats is shown: the king is presenting the chained prisoners and booty to the Triad of Thebes, then he sacrifices his captives. Dedinet T of Amon Karnak T. of Mut THEBES Yards LUXOR In 27 B.C. the northern colossus was damaged by an earthquake and in the early morning dew the crack gave out curious sounds. It was thought to be Memnon, the son of the dawn, “ warmed by the maternal torch, who lifted his musical voice at the Libyan mountains of Egypt. ” Repaired by Septimus Severus, the colossus became silent once more. 18. - Temple of Karnak. The Obelisks of Queen Hatshepsut. Before the temple of Amon's barque, Queen Hatshepsut erected on the occasion of her jubilee two obelisks in rose-colored granite which were the biggest in ancient Egypt. The one on the north, which is still in position, is nearly 100 feet high. The point of the southern one, now broken, has been put beside the sacred lake. The obelisks were covered with gold on the upper third. IS. Temple of Karnak. The Heraldic Pillars of Thutmosis III. Before the sanctuary of the sacred barque of Amon stand two tall granite pillars that bear the cartouches of Thutmosis III. On two of the sides there are motifs in high relief, each bearing one of the symbolic plants of the two halves of the country on the south side, the lily, emblem of Upper Egypt, and on the north, the papyrus of Lower Egypt. 19. Excavations at Karnak, North. Reconstituted Statue of Amenhotep III. To the north of the great temple of Amon at Karnak is the wall of Montu (see n° 12). Among the discoveries made during excavations in this sector by the Frencb Institute of Oriental Archaeology is a favissa, or kind of ditch, where the remains of two splendid statues of quartzite bearing the name of Amenhotep III were found, broken into countless fragments. They have been reconstituted by Robichon with great method and admirable patience. Two masterpieces have thus been added to Egyptian art. The king is shown standing, holding a holy rod with the ram's head of Amon at the top. 16. Temple of Karnak. Facade of the Seventh Pylon. Thutmosis III is holding a bunch of prisoners by the hair and brandishing his mace over 118 ·Tirar Lxx. Point The NI. The second courtyard of the temple at luxit has u elegant portio on three of ir aides emmally Amenhotep II. Abore the tur nous of raitis form columas, arranged in clusters with chant capitals, are texts to the glory of the Parach an! bis constructions. 1918 1414* * * fit leh An » lui fit in the want it to be a little 4 stilo hill Wen tematwa An Atli ft 111146116416 the forum..the late 1910114 han silme fun than halen ******* w oh Nile Hilekotth.1 It to lw london #ll that it in v Kam IV 11 luath all the ring the white at all inte at sounds like Wall An1 quten at the ***** foil in Dordrecht 21. – Karmant Ithustot, she real l'A Inside several monuments at Karnal here it # filling of sandstone blochs, generally smilt in 126, from the edifices of Ihnaton, the licretical hrauh. They give us a picture of this arlent, mystical figure prostrated before the sun, his goal will be noticed that these blochs were re-usel without, as a general rule, the nime nor the image of this king, who was nevertheless officially crocta ted, having been hammered down. Whit 11 mese, inside the second pylon of Karnah, whole porttons of a construction to the cult of Aton lave been systematically reconstituted for some unkrawn reason In the tomb of Tutenhhamon, Ikhrston's successor and restorer of the traditional Montian faith, are to be found still further images of Aton (the solar disk with the rays coeling in hanes), whuch were the exclusive object of the herctical king's adoration. Touple hari Timine lill 'Il **** fimil 4 vumus un taller dyl Bull col bourrick. We are they tool pl www Wawa را ۰۰۰ ۰۰۰ آرا را ، راه را، ، ۱۰ ۱۱ ۱۲ ۱۱ ۱۱۱۰ ، ۱۱۳۱۴ ال is who w 11179 tals, wir wollen will. WE ******** Alt www! were used wywi po tome wall whithin eritony, Salon narrat. Joel *** f . ." لا أ۱۱۰، ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۱۱/۰۱ ۱۱۱ ۱۲۱۱۰ ارابررا ۱۰ ۱۰۱ ۱۰۰ درء -11 22 17r papyynist write while the www.th ende alles wrir 4*y* I boltitartean, ay l'omple of anpamunul lui Pariny, tha llam / 1110101 11 da A ۲۷۰ ، ۱۰، ۱۰۸ ، هم ۱۰ ما) // // // 1434 ,ام 41 لاروار - Temple of Karnak Amou and Ils Spouse Amonet. On the north side of the courtyari, before the temple of the sacred barquc of Amn, Tutenkhamon built colossal statues in fine teid sandstone of a god and goddess, more than 20 fert high. Fragments of these were found during diggings in 1899 by legrain and were ellfully put together again. The statues arc Amon and i goddess, not Mut hut usual amanım, but Amonet, whose name comes from that the port with the simple addsumn A the feminins endiny, *1 grammatical goddess," as pla:pero tuid. W disg to the currenthon ur, dc yoxds are town in the imaze of the king; thy fayeti olacy, 50chet tickly 3323 vivercin win Toman, afer te pare pina and sers can of the momey. TIeu somriel gratis in faue 11 na yoyas Jer, bie shirt *, , 1) Weinsteyzemplary Coloring the tr' : , Terms of Parribar Columns of the 1 L". Trys Ysrar, 2. Just 14:17 Somo 57+7 4.1. Spore :36 pm, the mint app ·is a Memphite god of the dead; another version of Ptah and Osiris, he is, like the latter, sometimes shown in the form of a mummy holding scepters, on his head, is throwing the lasso; the crown prince, wearing the long plait of a child, is holding it back by the tail to prevent its escaping from the slip knot. This scene before sacrifice is a survival of the old desert hunting; the king's victory over the bull symbolizes his triumph over all his adversaries and he is killing it in honor of the gods who grant victory and prosperity. 30. - Temple of Abydos. Vassal Peoples of Africa, Shields like these were used by the Egyptians to symbolize the peoples of Asia and Africa under their power. Full-lipped negroes, with flat noses and rings in their ears, symbolize the two countries of Ikauti and Gerses in a list of southern lands engraved by Rameses II at Abydos; the location of these people has not yet been determined among Egyptian possessions which stretched as far as the savannahs of the Sudan. 27. Abydos. Head of a Priest in the Role of Horus Tunmutef. At the back of the temple of Seti I are seven chapels, one of which is to the dead king now a god. It is before the latter that the person who can be seen here is officiating; he is dressed in a panther skin and has a wig on his head with a long elaborate plait falling in a curl onto his shoulder. The inscription says it is “Horus lunmutef.” The panther skin was traditionally worn by the eldest son when doing homage to his father. Here the long plait of youth means that the person is playing the part of a child. 28. Temple of Abydos. Portrait of the Crown Prince. Engraved with great mastery in exceptionally good limestone, the reliefs of Abydos may be considered as models of classicism. These masterpieces of Seti I are in the direct tradition of the style of Amenhotep III. The line is neat and there is an elegant subtlety in the molding. Admirable in its finesse, the relief renders the fine Semitic features of the young prince with great suppleness. As on the relief of Horus described above, much attention is given to the details of the youthful plait; but how much is minute observation and how much clever composition it is difficult to say. 31. — Temple of Seti I at Abydos. Fragment of a Chariot Wheel. This fragment is part of a war scene, a very frequent subject in the New Empire, when Egypt extended her rule to her Asian neighbors. The sovereign, whose foot can be seen here, is upright in his chariot, watching the hands cut from his vanquished enemies being counted. The body of the chariot is decorated with the head of a Syrian that the Pharaoh is crushing underfoot. Although the frightful cruelty of Assyrian reliefs is not to be found here, the Egyptian scenes nevertheless set forth the constant triumph of Egypt over other peoples in every way possible. The kingpin fixing the wheel to the axle is decorated with a small Asiatic head dominated by a lion's muzzle - the royal symbol triumphing over the vanquished enemy. 32. Temple of Seti I at Abydos. Massacre of Asiatic Enemies. Enemies falling pierced by arrows are shown at the feet of Rameses II, as he wins the Syrian fortresses he is attacking. Very vivid movement animates the battle scenes of the New Empire. In an effort to be realistic and create a certain effect, the landscape and decorative elements appear as though thrown into space, freed of the frames to which Egyptian art generally submits its compositions. 29. Temple of Abydos. The Pharaoh Seti I Making an Offering to the God Socharis. All along the temple walls countless pictures in strict order show Pharaoh doing homage to the gods; he—and he alone had this privilege, though he was, of course, assisted by priests in the actual exercise of his functions. These pictures correspond to the rites actually celebrated close by. They are more than just pictures - special ceremonies made them “ animated. The figures themselves then accomplished the acts of the rite to go on making offerings forever. Egypt was essentially a world of immanence. Socharis, with his falcon's head, 33. Abydos. The Tomb of Osiris. Just behind the great temple of Abydos, the tomb of Osiris is a complex edifice, the layout and purpose of which are not yet perfectly clear. Hollowed out underground for the most part, this cenotaph, the work I 20 ·of Seti I, may recall in its general plan the original hell of the creation of the world. A network of tunnels and staircases connects it to the prineval waters There is a vast hall, too feet by 65 feet, divided into three naves by two rows of enormous square pillars of rose-colored granite. rated marsh shows The picture has remarkably well-drawn teatures and dramatic intensity without equal, it is enough, alone, to prove that the art of the time of Rameses 15 unjustly discredited 34 - Thebes. The Romeseum The Rameseum is the funerary temple of Rameses II, a thing of wonder to the ancients, this powerful construction is today in ruins. The second courtyard is 170 feet wide and go feet The peristyle surrounding It has heavy columns on the side aisles, on the other two sides there are Ostriac pillars nearly 33 feet high. 38. Temple of Karnak. The Pharaoh Rameses IV In the great temple of Karnak there are a great many " wandering " blocks, of all sizes, from the ruined walls This one shows the successor of Rameses III, the Pharaoh Rameses IV who reigned only six years (about 1160 BC) W la hieman eh uran dawn on ha for reign, in the other 35. - The Rameseum and the Natural Pyramid of Thebes. Like all the funerary temples on the left bank of Thebes, the Rameseum stands on the edge of the cultivated field and the desert, with above and behind it the natural pyramid of Thebes. Under the latter, in the Valley of the Kings' Tombs, are the real tombs The funerary temples were chapels connected with the actual tombs which were several miles away The cult of the deceased king was associated with that of certain gods It should be noted that the enormous stones hold themselves together, certain forces are skillfully brought into play and it is actually their own weight that prevents them from falling. 39 Karnak The Colonnade of Tabarka In front of the temple of Amon at Karnak, in what is today the great west courtyard, Taharka, a Pharaoh of the XXVth dynasty, known as the “ Ethio pian," erected a monumental colonnade of a kind brought into fashion by his predecessor Shabaka He also built some of the other entrances of Karnak, to the north, south and east Only one of these is still standing, on the west colonnade It is 69 feet high, slender and more gracious than the columns of the hypostyle hall, like them, though the portrayal is probably better, it is in the form of a papyrus stem and umbel 36 Temple of Medinet Habu The Second Courtyard. The most important building of Medenet Habu is the funerary temple of Rameses III, the victorious adversary of the Peoples of the Sea His monument in some ways recalls the Rameseum, the funerary temple of Rameses II, but the dimensions here are even greater. Like the Rameseum, the second courtyard has a colonnade on either side and was bordered, on the east and west, by tall Osiriac pillars, today very much damaged. The columns, of the type with closed capitals, were decorated with pictures of the Pharaoh and various gods; they still have some of their original coloring. 40 The Natural Pyramid of Tbebes Seen from the Porch of the Tomb of Afonfuember There are not only several kings' tombs on the left bank of The bes, but also those of other notables When the central power began to weaken, at the beginning of the Low Period particularly, certain tombs of high dignitaries became veritable funerary palaces In the Assasif sector near Dair el Bahri, the tomb of Montucmhet, “ Prince of the Town," that is to say governor of Thebes, who served one after the other the Ethiopians, Assyrians and finally the Saites (muddle of the seventh century BC), has recently been explored in detail. The tomb is decorated with elegant reliefs and was surrounded by a wall of unbaked brick with a great archway through which the natural pyramid of Thebes can be seen. 37. - Temple of Afedinet Habu Tbe Orber Side of the First Pylon and the Forufied Gateway The enclosure of Medinet Habu was entered by a triumphal military gateway. Behind was thc enormous pylon of the facade of the funerary temple of Rameses III. The other side of the south mole is deco- - IZI - ·44. - 41. - Karnak. Taharka, Pharaoh of the XXV th Dynasty, Known as the “ Ethiopian. " Under the XXVth dynasty, which camc from the south from the land of Cush and has always been known as the Ethiopian, ” Egypt had a new period of grcatness (beginning of the seventh century B.C.). On the many buildings which then camc into being, these Pharaohs are shown in the traditional way; only the lips and nosc arc a little heavier. But, as kings of Egypt and the Sudan, they wcar a double uracus on the forchcad. Later, when they went to war against the south (591 B.C.), Psamtek Il rcmcmbered the Ethiopians; he had the second uracus cngraved and on the cartouches of his predecessors that had been hammcrcd down he put his own The Balustraded Wall of Tunah el Gebel. To the west of the tomb of Petosiris, excavations made by Cairo University have brought to light a limestone balustrade about 2 feet high which probably separates the town of the dead from the district known as that of the " superior spirits,” or perfected souls of the dead. Ncarby are the remains of a well 115 fcct dccp; it fed a vast park where ibis were rcared. Here the cntrance was to be found to the huge subterranean chambers where thousands of mummies of ibis and monkeys that were sacred to the god Thoth lie piled up. nnmcs. 42. Karnak. The Dirine florshipper and the God Amon. In the XXVth dynasty, the Ethiopian sovercigns entrusted the region of Thebes to the Divinc Worshippers, members of their own family. Truc qucens, they were allowed to assist in all the ritcs of the cult and possessed all the royal privileges. Vowed to carthly celibacy, they were the spouscs of the god Amon. A scries of graceful pictures shows the various stages of the cult; the Divine Worshipper here appcars face to face with the Master of Thebes, the two alone together. This scene is engraved on the post of the gate into one of the numerous little chapels which, at Karnak itself, show how widespread was the cult of Osiris. 45. Tunah el Gebel. The Courtyard of Petosiris. Dug out from the sands that buried it, Tunah el Gebcl sccms to have been a great town of the dead. Families must have met together here in the chapels on fcast days, as they still do today in the cemeteries of Egypt. On the squares the high dignitarics had temples built. Egyptian genius together with that of the Macedonian period, then of the Roman, can be seen together here everywhcrc. To the south of the tomb of Petosiris is a vast csplanade with cdifices all around it. To the left is temple nº 1, over a foundation with several steps leading up to it, and an altar in front; the refined decoration belongs to the late period. To the right is temple nº 2, by contrast in the purest traditional style. The bare façade is framed in a torus and above is a grooved cornice. Between the temples is the funeral house known as that of Isidora; the ground floor, like the first, with an outside stairway leading up to it, has two halls cradlc-vaulted perpendicularly to the axis. There is a Greek epigram here recalling the early end of the deceased:“ In truth, oh Isidora, it is the Nymphs, the daughters of the waters, who built thee this chamber.” 43. The Tomb of Petosiris. Tumab el Gebel. In Middle Egypt, Tunah cl Gebel is the site of the Grcco-Egyptian town of Hermopolis, formerly Khumunu (or “ town of the cight ") which the Arabs still call Ashmunein today. Mr. Lefebvrc dug it out in 1919 and then published the Tomb of Petosiris. Built at the beginning of the Maccdonian rule, about 300 B.C., it is the chapel of a family tomb. First comes a vestibule, the façade of which has four columns joined together by intercolumnal panels on which Petosiris is shown sacrificing to the local gods. Petosiris was the “ procurator of Thoth,” high priest of this god and grand dignitary of the priests of the region. The texts engraved in the chapel are a reflection of his profound wisdom, later to become famous when his tomb was made a place of pilgrimage. 46. Behbeit el Hagar. The Chaos of Granite Blocks of the Isenm. Right in the heart of the Delta, near Mansura, the ruins of Behbeit el Hagar form a huge pile of granite blocks; they are the remains of an immense temple erected by Nectanebo and the Ptolemies in honor of the goddess Isis. 47. Behbeit el Hagar. Pharaoh Making an Offering to a Goddess. Dating from the dawn of the Ptolemaic period, the reliefs of the Iseum are in an excellent style. The granite is worked in the best I 22 ·so. - tradition of Egyptian technique. The elegance in some places, however, is rather affected; a certain exaggeration is already to be noticed sovereign, the name of whom is not given-it is one of the first Ptolemies—is doing homage from a meadow, symbolized by reeds growing out of a marsh, to Akhet, a goddess whose horns are set around a disk surmounted by two tall feathers. 48. — Dendera The Sacred Lake and the Surrounding Wall In the background, the desert In what was the sixth nome of Upper Egypt, the ruins of the buildings of the holy places of Dendera on the edge of the desert form an immense parallelogram, the biggest side of which is 3,900 feet long. There are three enclosures of unbaked brick, the walls of which, 30 feet or more thuck, are still up to 30 feet high One of the enclosures was to Horus, the companion god of the goddess Hathor, the other was to their son, the young god Ihy The enclosure to Hathor, the goddess of love and joy, is the best preserved; it encloses a number of buildings—the great temple to Hathor, the mam. misi or birth temple of Nectanebo, and the Roman mammisi, the little temple of Iss, the sacred lake (see Pl. VII)—which show how strong Egyptian religion was under the Ptolemies and the first Caesars. Dendera. The Facade of the Temple to Hatbor. According to the old principles of EST tran architecture, dating from the umes then buildings were made of brick, the walls of the temple of Hathor at Dendera are only slightly inclined. The ridges are underlined by a tonus and the whole is surmounted by a grooved cornice, in the centre of which floats a winged solar disk. The vesubule or pronaos which is today the forepart of the temple was added under Tiberius, it is a hypostyle hall flooded with light coming in through immense openings The upper part of the façade is in effect supported by sit columns, linked together at midheight only by panels, their abacus capitals are decorated on all four sides with the head of the goddess Hathor, surmounted by a sort of naos All the usable surfaces-sides walls, columns, intercolumnal walls, door posts-are covered with scenes and inscriptions. The gencral theme is the consccration of the temple by Pharaoh and the offering to Hathor, sometimes accompanied by her divine son. On the frieze there is a double procession converging towards the head of the goddess, portrayed in the middle above the central way. 49. Dendera. Scene of the Roman Alammisi The mammist is the annex of the temple where the goddess retired to give birth to the third person of the divine triad, in whom the king was recognized There are still two mammisis at Dendera One bears the name of Nectanebo, it is the oldest to have been found in Egypt. Close by is the second, daung from the Roman period, it is surrounded by a portico, the columns of which are linked halfway up by intercolumnal walls The general theme of the decoration of the mammist concerns the birth and feeding of the divine child. Here the king is making an offering to the goddess Hathor who is feeding the god Ihy, a naked child wearing the plait of youth (sec no 26-28). Ihy is shown again behind his mother; this time he is the same height as herself, but wears the plast of youth and has his finger in his mouth like a child He is naked, protected by a great cloth spread out round him. In spite of a certain swelling, the relief is still clear and neatly outline Great attention has been paid to detail. SI - Dendera The Back of the Temple to Harbor The far side of the temple to Hathor has a remarkable decor In the central line of the temple, on 2 level with the riche which contains, on the inside, what was probably the most sacred image of the goddess, the centre of the wall is occupied by a colossal gold-plated head of Hathor The face of the goddess is framed in a headdress with curls finishing in horns around the desk, this was the object of supreme veneration She was most probably enthusiastically worshipped in the Coptic period, too On either side of the goddess are two immense pictures, opposite those of the five gods of Dendera in line, of Ptolemy Caesarion, the son of Julius Caesar, consecraung incense on a perfume burner, and, behind him, his mother, the celebrated Cleopatra, making the musical offering, shaking the sistres On the upper part, where there is a Scries of offerings scenes, are monumental gargoyles in the form of lions, Hornets have thickly encrusted the inscriptions on the side wall and they are now irreparably damiged. 52 The Temple of Edfu Under the Ptolemics, the old capital of the second nome of Upper Egypt was given a sumptuous new temple to the god - 123 ·Horus. Buried under mounds of carth during the centuries and thus prosccicil, it was dug out by Maricrie. "This forusc of Ilorus at lalu is cnor. mous.450 feet long: the pylon of the façade is :60 feet wille and 115 fcct high. The general larour, on a grand scale thougı offrcit simplicity, staris inom a centralaxis. Beyond a prcat courtyard closcu at the sides by two porticues, the building proper, surrounded by : Watch corridor, opens inio pronzes, followcu loy 3 second lrypareste or apparition 11.11. Before thic kincmuary 30, halls surrounding it, is the " o!icrings chanser" where llicrc is a skircare up to the court. Tlic eccrice ured to have a high wall round it which lie it from thic Common parc; ccrc:nie ucrc performed herc, soncrimes lirele pavilion that 112s som disappearcil. Only the lase pages of the latter arc known to us, however. Over a lcnzth of soo yards, and a width of icss than 100 yards, what a collcction of masterpicces ! Nectancho built an clegant pavilion hcrc. Beyond a doublc portico bcaring thc name of Augustus, you come to the tcmpic of the goddess who was adored right up until the sixth century, in the time of Justinian, when all the cmpirc had long since becomc Christian. Beside it is the mimimisi dcconied by Prolemy Lucrgetes, complcscd in the reign of Tiberius. Not far away a chapel n (siris is seill to be found which must have been built by thic Antonines, a little sanctuary of Imhotep, Trojan's charming pavilion and, finally, the temple to llarhor, begun by thc Prolemics and continued by Augustus. Goddess of love, Hathor liked only scenes of music and dancing. The grotcsquc goci Pcs accompanies hicr; his funny or frightening f.cc was cnough to chasc away all cncmics of joy. w . . 19. Philor. 12: Colorrade of the Mammisi. 'The west side of the courtyard of the great tcmplc to Isis is occupicd by a wamisi, or small building scscrvod for the birth of the baby god (sce n° 49). Tony C. 17 Blic"Cond Ileries. The master of the temple ni lidlu ja Ilonus, the file con," the great goal and lord of the heavens, the şod with the specllc plumage, who rives out of the loun. "I'lscrc arc mins inscriptions, parti. cularly on the sound wall reund the onsidc corridor, which give a good sical or information on the myth and cult of the food and the rites and ceremonics cclcbrod in luc horor, florus, ele " lcro with iz stroni: 3/11, lear his cncny Scr many times; his barpoon pierced the cartul hippopotamus. Ilis continual victories symbolize those of Egypt over her chemics. In the far cnd of the fact court of Bellu, near the chirancc the pronaos, there is still a truly regal statue of the unchallenged master of the heavens, the dynastic god of ligypt. Margieri Temple of arendoles W:: foetico Bromos Themes lolii: Tomas to letalep in coele? Tre; se's Parill. 5.f.38.36, 37 andiss. PU::.. Temple of Hallar, Music:! Srem's. (Going from right to left and top to bortom: thc pod Bes playing the larg, 1 double- Suic player, a frapp player; : second double-flutc player; on the right hand page, the god Bes playing the tambourine.) of the great up-croppings of rock stretching for several miles which cause the First Caracı, thic Island of Philac is one of the furthest south and certainly the most famous. But it is now: hidden from its admircrs for the better part of the year; since the construction of the bar. range of Aswan, the island is submerged. Only when the river is in spate, during the summer, is the barrage cmprice to Ict the silt-charged water through. The temples then cappear to bear wilacss to the brilliant history of the island of Isis. The commisi is surrounded by a portico; above the intercolumnal walls stand the columns with their capitals of varying foral themes. Over thcsc arc Hathoric hcads, wearing a kind of naos. 60. – Philae. Tbe Pylon of the Temple to Isis and the "est Porrico. On the edge of the river, at the southernmost point of the island, a pavilion erected by Nectancbo in the last years of Egypt's independence welcomed the visitor. Going up a dromos with a portico along cither sidc, you came to the 124 ·first pylon of the temple to Isis, the gate of which also bears the name of Nectanebo, whereas on the main buildings those of the Ptolemies are to be found. on the façade with capitals of varying types; the far wall is decorated with scenes of offerings bearing the names of Augustus and the first Caesars. The portico overlooks the Nile just below, which divides into branches here between the islands and rocks, as it makes its way into Egypt bringing prosperity. To the south is Nubia, the ancient --1--L.-t 61. — The Pylon of the Temple to Iss and the Unfiss. esbed Colonnade. The first pylon of the temple to Isis is 59 feet high. On the facade, the Pharaoh Ptolemy Neos Dionysos is massacring capuve enemies (see aº 16) in the presence of the gods Isis, Horus of Edfu and Hathor. Before, are the damaged remains of two granite lions, dating from the Low Period, hke so many to be found before the temples of Sudan and Nubia The colonnade bordering the dromos on the east side is unfinished the waters of a colossal barrage forever. As the latter is to be built a few miles upstream of the cataract, the level of the reservoir of the present barrage downstream might then be lowered The venerable old island of Philae would then paradoucally escape from its watery grave and the wonderful temples would be restored to the sunshine of Egypt for the whole of the year. 62. — Pbilae The Other Side of the Iest Porch and the Nile The west porch has a row of columns ·CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY (*) SECO.ID I.XTERJEDIITI: PERIOD : THE TIYKSOS PRETUISITE ASD THIXITE PERIOD (s. 30-9-8c3 B.C.) Scorpion King Ist Dynasty: Venes o: Varmerza 2ct (Wadji) or Serpent King Til: .1!19 E..HPIRT: (c. 1530-1033) Xilith Dina! XI.Xth Dynasty: .::os! (1436.1153) Scil(13!:-1293) .::cntioci! Ramecs II (1301-13) 771.11.01!1 il Mercrepih !!::8:5 Thurat:is: Ill (:15.6.1:50) XXth Dynasty Innhorp III (:.-4.137) Raircies 11 (1193-1166) .Incalı:cp litholo), Rar: 503 XI 111.d Dynasty: Zosco Sclhnct OLD EMPIRE (c. :300.::50) Vith Dynasty Salurc Vousc:rc Linas IVth Dynasty: (c. 2720-2560) Sncfru Khufu (Cheops) Dcdcfrc Khafrc (Chcphren) Menkaure (Myccrinus) Virh Dynasty Teri Рcpi I Popi II Ticklun:::: 11:0!cl) THE DECLIVE XXII:nais: XXVIth Dynasty: (667.5) Puncares ! Nacho (69-19:) XXin Dinast Pack 11 (59.4.533) ():11:09 1 (onicni :: icoh XXVIIth Dynasır: century, beinni?:? ninth :!:c Persiars coolt!!:) Comboses (s:5-1::) XXVth Dr .: (715.556) Darius (-::-:35) Punk XXXth Dynasty (79-3-1): Shalabr (711.791) Vecuncho lindil Taharka (689.66.) XXXIse Dinasari XXVith Dynasty: (667-19) Second Persian rule (3.41-333) Pamick! (668.659) Verander's Conquest (53:) Phillip Arrhidacus THE LIGIDES (3:3.30) Prolemy I (323.:.:) Clcopatra Prolemy IV Baric of acrium (31 B.C.) Prolemy XII THE ROMAN EMPERORS .lugustus (37 B.C. - 1.4 -1.D.) Caracalla (:11-217) Tibcrius (1.4-37) Decius (348-251) Iladrian (117-135) Diocletian (28.-395) Septimus Severus (193-211) Maximinus Daia (d. 313) FIRST INTERMEDIATE PERIOD (c. 2:50-2150) XIth Dynasty: (c. 2150-2000) Antcf Mentuhotop MIDDLE EMPIRE XIIth Dynasty: (c. 2000-1785) Amcncmhet I Sesostris III (*) N. B.-1) In this summary, only the reigns of principal rulers are given. B) Ac thc present state of documentation, it is still impossible to give cxact datcs for the very, carly periods. Historians appear agreed upon the date of 1580 B.C. for the beginning of the XVilith dynasty and, less precisсly, that of 2000 for the XIIth dynasty.

·COLORED PLATES PL I -- The Pyramid of Kbafre (Chephren), Seen from the Edge of the Desert, Where the irrigation comes to an end, the cultivated lands suddenly cease, there is a brutal contrast and beyond are only the desert, sand and rocks Towards the west, where the sun suddenly disappears every evening, the Libyan desert is the perfect land of the dead On the edge of the plateau of Gizeh, the first Pharaohs of the IVth dynasty built their pyramids, where the crops finish on the last canal of the valley, a temple of welcome stood to recerve the royal body The procession went from here the length of a long causeway up to the temple set on the flank of the pyramid proper Inside the latter, and underneath, were the complicated corridors leading to the actual burial chamber. 253 feet wide Certain rites were performed here about which little is known. At the northwest corner of the lake, the Ethiopian Pharaoh Taharka built a sort of tomb of Osiris, today in ruins, thus edifice communicated with the pool by an outside staircase and a long covered way In the background, the west part of the great temple of Amon is dominated by the hypostyle hall, the central nave of which is more than 75 feet high Between the latter and the sanctuary of the barque, stood the third, fourth, fifth and sixth pylons, now reduced to ruins There were many obelisks in front of them, the only ones still in position, before the fourth pylon, are a monolith bearing the name of Thutmosis I and, behind the fourth pylon, the north obelisk of Queen Hatshepsut PL. II. - Grzeb The Sphinx and the Pyramid of Khafre (Chephren). Chephren built hus pyramid a little to the southeast of that of his father Cheops, on the plateau of Gizeh It is a little lower than the former, 499 feet at the beginning, and smaller, 70s feet along one side at the base It still has the upper part of its fine limestone facing which forms a sort of hat at the top At the foot of the plateau, at the start of the causeway, stands the sphinx, watching over the silence of the sands which have buried it so many times during the centuries (see nº 10) This colossal effigy of the god Harmachis followed the lines of the general form of the rock. But the face is that of a king whose headdress is ornamented with a uracus, probably Chephren. The sphins keeps its secrets. Pl IV - The Temple of Luxor and the Nile South of Thebes on the right bank of the Nile, along the riverside, stand the ruins of the temple of Luxor, the work of Amenhotep III, completed the following century by Rameses II It was a second residence for Amon, his southern harem > At the feast of Opet, Amon, Mut and Khonsu left their temples at Katnak in solemn procession They went by boat to Luxor, where a sumptuous welcome awaited them They later regained their temples at Karnak amud general rejoicing. P1 V - Temple of Abydos. Set I fl'elcomed by a Goddess. The Pharaoh Seu f is welcomed by the goddess lues-ases, one of the several forms of the great ferrunine divinity who in various ways gave Pharaoh life and power. The latter are syonbolized here by the ansate cross and two little scepters the goddess is holding out to Pharaoh's nostru The Pharaoh is wearing the blue cap to receive new life from the goddess; on his shoulder 15 the bega scepter, insignia of royal rule. Pl. III. – Kamak The Sarred Lake. In the Background, the Hypostyle Hall and the Obelisks On the south side of the great temple of Amon at Karnak was the sacred lake: 394 feet long and - 127 - ·CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY (*) PRETHINVITE 1.9D TIII.VITE PERIOD (c. 309-355 13.C.) Scorpion King SECOND INSTEAEDI.ITE PERIOD : THE TIYKSOS TU: VEN 1.IIPIRE (c. 1580-10) X1111:1: D: 117 XIXth Dynasti: This (1986-1855 Sc:il (131:-1:93) ca!!! Ramses II (:301-1235) **1935 II Mccropiah ise Dynasty: Vericsor Varmetra 2.et (11.) or Serper' OID ESIPIRE (c. :86:* Vin D II (1937.8410) 11:03:37:) hr:100, XX: Dinast Ram.cies 111 (1193-1165) Ra.::2905 X1 Ilird Dynasty: Zoscr Sckhme! S: CLI.SE 'Vir Dynasty: (663-5:1) :0 (1:09:59:) 11 (59.5-533) nusty: IVeh Dynasty: (c. 2720-2560) Sncfni Khufu (Cheops) Dcdcfrc Khafre (Chophren Menkaure (.Vyc

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·Pl. VI. The Little Prince Amonherkhepshef. Behind Mcdinct-Habu there is a mountain passage near Thebes containing numerous tombs of queens and young princes. Tomb nº ss is that of Amonherkhepshef, the son of Rameses III. The pictures have kept their very brilliant colors. They are in the rather heavy style common to the end of the New Empire. Gencrally accompanied by his father, the little princc, wearing a lock falling to his shoulder, is shown before a series of gods. Roman Caesars. There was already a temple to Hathor on this site at the time of Pepi I (Vith dynasty) and even at that of Cheops (IVth dynasty). The sacred lake, to the southwest of the great temple, is a deep pool, 108 feet long and 32 feet wide, cdged with stone. From the four corners there are steps down to the water. As at Saïs, representations of the sufferings or “ mysteries " of Osiris were probably celebrated here. The purification water, for the ablutions of the priest who officiated in the temple for the king, was drawn here. Pl. VII. Dendera. The Sacred Lake and the Temple. The great temple of Dendera, to the goddess Hathor, is an immense, very well preserved cdifice and a good example of a typical Egyptian temple, as it has remarkable functional unity although it was built and decorated during many reigns, from the last Ptolemics right up to the Pl. VIII. Philae : the West Portico. On the southern tip of the Isle of Philae, before the temple of Isis, Augustus and the first Caesars began two wings of a portico running alongside a dromos or way in. Only the western colonnade was finished; it is on a terrace overlooking the Nile (see nº 60 and 62). The photos for Plates 1-3, 5-39, 42-45, 48-62 have been taken by ALBERT Raccan. The photos for Plates 4, 40, 41, 46 and 47 are by JEAN LECLANT and the photo for Plate 19 is by CLAUDE ROBICHON. Imprimé en France - Héliogravure de S.A.P.H.O. - Typographie de BRODARD ET TAUPIN Dépôt légal no 6.646 - 4º trimestre 1958 2.913 - VI - 6.685

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