·"

·INTRODUCING
poisonous SNAKES
by V. J. Staněk
Translated by Joy Turner

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·. } ·INTRODUCING POISONOUS SNAKES A cluster of poisonous snakes! How does the picture affect us? If we imagine this mass of interwoven bodles to be alive before us, writhing and undulating, with the heads raised, and forked tongues flicking from their faws -We experience a shudder of fear and revulsion. Only experts seem exempt from this common dread of poisonous snakes. Instead of recoiling in Involuntary disgust, as we do, these students are actually prepared to move closer to the writhing bundle of snakes, observing them with decached scientific interest. Man's hostile attitude cowards snakes is rooted in immemorial experience. An encounter with certain kinds of venomous snake almost invariably spells deathdreadful, unexpected death - if no treatment is immediately available, and the days when noching could be donc to remedy the effects of snakc-bitc are not so far gone by. An clement in our fearful discrust of the snake is its capacity for self-conccalment, which makes possible its unexpectedness of attack. Some kinds of snake, such as the African Mamba, the Brazilian Bushmaster, and the South Asian King Cobra, are still objects of terror to the inhabitants of the regions where they are found. It is possible of course for the traveller moving through snake-infested country to protect himself against snake bite: by constant vigilance, and also by sulcablc dress, as for instance the wearing of kncc-high boots. Special first aid equipment should always be carried; for if a man, In spite of all precautions, is bitten by a snake, even a deadly one, death Is nor unavoidablc these days. Modern scrums can effectively combat the effects of dangcrous snake-blocs which formerly were fatal. These serums are the result of many years of difficult and sometimes dangerous research. They are known as 'Anti-venins', and for their production large quantitics of venom arc needed. The venom is drawn from snakes that are kept in aptivity, In the troples there are a number of famous institutos devoted to the study of snakes and the production of scrums. In some of these are hundreds of snakes of different varlelies, which live on grassy portions of land surrounded by trenches. In cther Institutions the snakes arc kcpe in glass anges, Whatever the method of accommodating the snakes, the people who look after them obviously need to be unafrald of them, and they must be able to trcat and handic them gently. Apart from these Institutes there are quite a few private snake breeders, who keep snakes for plcasurc; some of these breeders are very succes:'ul, their snakes even muliplying in captivity. !! properly handled - that is to say, with great care and gentlencsi-some ron. omous snakes live for many years in confinement But they always remain dangerous charges, who are ready at all times to use their deadly weapons. A spil: :ccend's unwarings and death may strike. The dinger is so great with certain tyr:: o! tropicaisnakes that only a highly experiences and autisus keeper, able to concentrare fully on what he is doing, aan safely 105k after them. in Europe this danger of orale-blie is topicd to this common viper, in spite the last that people usually all this snale u firsisch, 14 13 sisilçuis common in some moc romere countles The visse will discoly in sell-defrncs: for instance, when cmo.

·one treads on it, touches it or comes very close to it. When alarmed the snake uncolls swiftly, shooting the front third of its body forward, and striking the unlucky intruder with the fangs which are situated at the front of Its upper jaw. A number of cases of poisoning due to bites from vipers end in death because the victims have not been able to obtain medical treatment in time, An anti-venin serum injection, to be effective, has to be administered not later than four hours after the bite. Prevention, of course, is the best cure for snake-bite; and this obviously means using the greatest caution in places where vipers are thought to be present, If we remember that the viper lives chlefly on mice, It must be admitted that it is a relatively harmless creature. Fortunately for us, the viper has many enemies in the animal world-hedgehogs, wild boars, storks, herons, and other birds of prey which serve to reduce their number. in remote areas away from human habitation, they form an integral part of natural life. It is a good thing that they have survived in such places, even if only to enable zoologists (more specifically, herpetologists) to catch live material for their observation. A live snake in the hands of an expert is far more valuable from the scientific point of view than a dead one; encountered and killed on the road.

·In Africa and Asla there live a number of kinds of cobra. They all have one dangerous feature in common: when not annoyed, they resemble the innocuous (though stronger) colubrina snakes to be found in Europe. They have a similar ovold head and a lithe, nimble body. Even the best known of the cobras - the Spectacled Cobra or cobra de capello (Noja naja) - has the appearance of a harmless snake when not annoyed or disturbed.

·Only when frightened or annoyed does the cobra Hift Its body and expand les hood. This menacing effect is produced by the motion of the first eight or so palrs of ribs which the snake erects and extends to both sides. At the same time the skin covering these ribs, which is normally wrinkled. stretches, and a weird design is revealed on the upper side of the hood, resembling a pair of spec tacles The cobra de capello grows to a length of up to five-and-a-half feet, and in the crect position described it looks most threatening. It is a very fively snake, highly sensitive to its surroundings. It reacts briskly to all stimull, vehemently turning Irs head in the direction from which provocation comes, inflating Issell, hlising and striking with Its head against the Intruder. Man's dread of the cobra is well founded. A single bice of this snake contain a large amount of venom, which paralyses the nervous system, sufficient to kill up to fifteen people! This is why Indian conjurers and shake charmers who perform with cobras arouse such Interest and admiration, Thang performers are usually patient, shrewd individuals, with a detailed knowledge of the make-up of snakes, who can quickly andletpate the lightning changes of mood in their charges. Some of them work without any risk, however, depriving the snakes of their fang in advance or even sewing up their frw.. Indian Brahmins worship cobrar as I they were rods.

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·Genuine cobras lite In India in the East, in the Indo-Chinese
peninsuls, there lives another subspecies, the Monocled Cobra
Nee moja koouho, which has circular pattern on its body,
usually with a couple of patcher
12
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·A full-grown cobra hardly ever bicet a human by
day. The greater proportion of deaths is due to the
victim treading on the snake with bare feet 16
night. The cobra is often blamed for deadly bites
which in reality are the work of the dangerous
Daboia or Russell's Viper. Like the Common
European Viper, the cobra pocs hunting chiefly
at dusk or at night, Ius food consists of small
vertebrates: birdi, lizards, snakes and frogs. When
in pursuit of its prey the cobra often penetrates
Into gardens and the ground floors of houses,

·In the system of snakes the cobra belongs to the
Venomous Proteroglypho, of the family of clapld
Snakes They are related to the American coral
Snakes and the African Mombas. To the west of India,
In Persla, Alghanlitan and in the south of Soviet
Central Asla there lives another subspecies, the
Central Aslatic Cobra, Naja nojo ozlona 1733
usually without patches on lus body, being of an
Inconspleuous yellowish-grey colour without any
trace of a design on les neck instead there are
only wide transverse stripes which differentiate
It from other snakes of a timilar colour. It grows
to a length slightly exceeding three feet, and has
an even calmer nature than its Indian relation.
In Soviet reservations It It protected.

·On the islands of the Malay archipelago there lives the Spitting Cobra, Noja naja sputatrix. This snake squirts its venom at Its victim by compression of its poison glands, which forces out the Yenom through its fangs; is aan hit its target at distances of over three lect. This method of attack is common to several kinds of unicoloured cobras, some of which resemble in appearance the Central European colubrine snakes. They live in East India and in Africa. Some species are very difficult to distinguish from one another.

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·1- In east Asia, India, southern China, Sumatra and Java there lives a beautiful but deadly venomout snake called the Pams, or Banded Kralt, Bungorus fasciecus. Its body is about four and a half feet long. yellowish-brown in colour and of a triangular cross section, decorated with black or brownblack stripes. The Kralt lives usually in dry places, but It can swim excellently, like the cobra. 10 food consists usually of small mammals and frogs and it hunts only at night. In the daytime is very frequently hides in human dwelling It bites only in self-defence; Its bite is dangerous, however, because, like the cobra, It has relatively short fangs. When bicing. these snakes 'chew. I c. bite several times into one place, so that the wound receives a large dose of venom

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·The Sand Natter lives chiefly In rocky regroni, inhabltingin some cases even heiphu ol over 3,000 fert above sea level. Mounain clearings, sunny valleys and rocky slopes are to birat. It hunts sometimes in the daytime, but mainly at night, for its faod which consists chiefly of small mammal and birds. Aker having Eliten them, te gnawa small mammals until they are dead On :ching a mall bird, it holdt it in itu jam until it is completely farsired At the top of this page can be seen the head of a malt with the horn tuleed obliquely forwardt. At the bottom of the opt-it pure there is seen a represenurlrt of subspecirs, the Yippen on master mantsfri, the horn of which in erect exactly upright It is found Meny in Bulgaria ·The heads of all viperine snakes can be readily distinguished from those of the colubrine snakes Thescales at the sides of their forehead form a straight, protruding shield above the eye, thus giving the eye a somewhat villainous aspect. The pupil of the eye is at-like, having the form of a vertical slit narrowed from the sides The upper photograph shows the head of a Sand Natter. At the bottom of this page and on the opposite page there are pictures of the Common Viper, Vipers berus, characterised by the typical pattern an its back. The continuous zig-zag stripe down the back is typical of several European vipers, los more or less visible outline being seen even on the backs of some harmless colubrine snakes. On being examined carefully, however, this snake can be salely separated from the others, its characteristic mark being two dark stripes crossing each other in the shape of the letter X on its neck. This pretty snake lives mainly in rocky and woody regions, in molst, but sunny clearings, in pastures. In piles of stones among fields, in dogs and on stony slopes, let habitat extends from Central Europe to the north, as far as the Polar Circle. !

·Yuhat I wity ·The colouring of the Common Viper is so varied that it is hardly possible to find two specimens of the same appearance Also rellable identification of the Common Viper in relation to other species is quite difficult. The slit-lıke pupil in its eye constitutes Its only characteristic for the layman. Some specimens are almost black, with yellowish-brown markings at the sides of their heads The Common Viper mates at the end of April, and in August or September the young are produced. Their number may be as high u fifteen. Does the female Common Viper lay eggs or does she produce Itving young! This frequently asked question can hardly be answered in one word. When being born the young smakes ait usually enclosed in membranous sacs, which are actually eers As a rule, however, the young ones leave the sac almost im mediately after being fald. Sometimes it happens that the young snakes are born prematurely, while in other cases their birth is overdus, so that they break foose from their sacs by chemielves while sell in the mother's body. In the picture on the left you can see the young of the Common Viper in their sacs, whllo the picture on the right hand side shows them after they have broken loose (magnified about twice).

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·South-east Europe and the iteppes of Central Arts in the habitat the sm21 3:6px Vięce, called Oruni's Viper or ResardViper, Ypere unit', 1. 1rrardilt himler than the common Viper hon which it dites only by imrail run in the testheld, lus food com mainly of modern en liurt: werden 28 ·In the coutal regions of Asia Minor, Palestine and Syria.there tives the beautiful Coastal Viper. Vipera senthing, which aruns: length of four feet. On les back to her a stripe consisting of dark brown rhomboids bordertd in black. The colours of its head a-d neck are more lively than thote of the remainder of lu body. In the countries beyond the Caucasus. particularly in Armenia, there lives a similar species of viper, characterised by a lie reddish pattern on its back and by raised saler above tus ces resembling imall horns. This species is alled the Armenian Viper Vipere roddel, 2 ·The blunt-nosed Levantine Viper, Vipero lebeting, attains a length of five fet: and a weight of several kilograms. It lives in North Africa with the exception of Egypt), In Syria, Israel and castwards 25 far as India. It is very difficult to discern in the open, being grey. greyish brown to olive-green in colour. In Central Asia It is known under the Russian name of Gyurza At the bottom of this page and on the opposite page there are pictures of the tic.polonga, or Russell's Viper, Vipera Russelll. formerly alled alsa Dabosa elegons. This snake attains a length of six feet and has a yellowish brown body with three rows of oval, reddish brown patches bordered in black and white. It is one of the most beautiful, as it is also one of the more dangerous, snakes, Ich widely spread In India and the nelghbouring countries and in the Malay archipelago.

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·Africa wiperine snakes of the famuly Bibs have a short and Fick. almer: blasted body The genus Includes several species, all of which are beautifully coloured The Puff Adder, Bitls erletons, is descrated with lighe yellow, crescent shaped patches across body the colour of which is duit rrey or brown with darker and lighter tinges : arcains a fength of aimert five fees, and is found south of the Stun, ertanding. however, as for us Morocos and Anbiz ft lives in open regions. temuning corled up under the vegetation in the dinime and hunting at night. It is a very viooni and dancerous snake, although it told that give children sort*t play with it.

·74 voel the shortenzitutt shafen** ******* *819-************ ·intim The eyes of the Puff Adder occupy an exceptionally forward position in its erlangular head. Like all viperine snakes the Puff Adder has a cat-like pupil. Some of these 'tonds' among snakes have one or several horns on their snouts or above thelr eyes. A speclally small species of this family, the so-called Horned Adder (Bitis caudalis), with a row of square, brownish-red patches on its back, has a sort of small brush above each eye, formed of painted scales, from which a small pointed horn protrudes.

·This is an Interesting small venomous snake which moves in the sand in a peculiar manner. It does not crowl forward an do the majority of inaker, but glides oldemay. The beautiful Carpes Viper or Siw-scaled Viper, Eche carla414. also slide along the fans-and in a mannte WAKA unique. It winds the whole clits body. which is colled in three Inter. locking loopt, continuously in one direction, wthout wro** EN ·The eyes of this snake are placed a great deal towards the front part of its head. Between both jaws can be seen the channel through which the snake flashes its sensitive forked tongue, while kceping Its jaws closed. In the Central Asiatic regions of the Soviet Union this viper is called 'efa.'

·The habitat of this viperine snake includes the sandy deserts of Central Asia and India. The snake Is, however, found also in North Africa and in some localities of Central Africa. In length it more or less equals the Common Viper. When Inflated with air it seems to be much bulkler. It moves very quickly and is always ready to strike. When moving. It rubs the sharp scales of the adjoining foops of its body against one another, producing a strong, sharp sound similar to hissing, but much more expressive. This aglle and very aggressive snake with relatively long fangs and very effective venom is one of the most dreaded nakut known to man. 37 ·The slic-like pupil of the Carpet Viper is very sensitive to light, fikt the eyes of all viperinc snakes in general. In the dark It extends to the shape of a circle, contracting to a mere slit In the light. According to this reaction one can tell whether a motionless snake is dead or alive ·! In the wet regions of the troples there lives a particularly large number of snakes. They hide in the green foliage of giant jungle trees, often merging with the winding stalks and stolons of the lianas The Bamboo Pit Viper, Trimeresurus gramineus, with a prehensile tail, is green on top and bright yellow underneath. It is a relation of the American rattlesnakes and lives in the jungles of India and of the Malay archipelago. In African Jungles there live similar venomous snakes allied to the terrestrial viperine snakes of the family Bites. These are called Arborea! Vipers and belong to the genus Athers. Their length does not usually exceed three feet. The Palm Viper, Atheris squamigera, of the Congo has Inconspicuous grey colour and large, coarse scales which give It the appearance of a rough, dry twig

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...but
The Wagler's Pic Viper, Trimereturus Waglerl, is a black and yellow
1.-ohmyr wide head I tives among bushes and trees
.:
small arboreal vertebrates, la yenu, "KOL...
snakes, tas not deadly to min. This snake is by nature rather mitd.
For this reason the nativet sometimes transfer is to treat in the
vicinity of the dwellings, belleving is to bring good luck

·On the other hand, the allied genera of Bothrops and Lochesis of Brazli and neighbouring countries are among the most dreaded terrors of the South American forests. They have the powerful resilience of steet springs, and are provided with long, deadly fangs. When fully grown they attain a length of only about six feet, the one exception being the world-famous Bushmaster, Lochesis muto, which grows to the giant length of nine feet or more. Our picture shows the species called Jararaca, Maximilian's Viper, Bothrops neuwidi meridionalis, of Argentina. The lower picture is a photograph of another species, the Bothrops alternatus, commonly called urutu. I

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·* On the opposite page there is a picture of the Bothrops alternatus, with a beautiful pattern composed of crescent-shaped patches. It is about five feet in length and Its bice is deadly to man. Jos habitat includes the south of Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay. In America there live a great many deadly venomous snakes allied to the rattlesnakes. The swamps of Florida and the adjoining regions of North Ameria as well as banks of lakes and rivers swarm with snakes which are the terror of the countryside. They Include the Water Moccasin, also called Cotton-Mouth Snake, Agkistrodon piscivorus. They are dreaded for their viciousness and excitability. They grow to about five feet in length and are practi. cally omnivorous, leeding on fish which they catch in the water, well as on frogs, small mammals and birds, which they hunt on the banks of swamps and rivers.

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·+ +14 ; The opposite picture shows a fully grown Water Moccasin of a very dark hue, except for a brownishyellow pattern on the lower part of its head and its light belly. The young of this snake are bright brown in colour, in deserted localities of Central America and Mexico there lives a somewhat smaller species, the Mexlcan Moccasin or Cantil, Agkistrodon bilincatus. Young specimens are ginger-red, while old, fully crown snakes are almost black, with · white pattern on their head and body. The Mexican Mocasin is smaller than the Water Mocasin, but it is even more excitable and more venomous than the latter, being therefore also more dangerous Both pictures show fully grown snakes ·In the eastern states of the United States of Amerla. there live several geographical species of Copperhead Snake, Agklstrodon contortrix, los colour is light brownish-red, as though it were made of pure copper. Although not so deadly venomous as the rattlesnake, It is greatly feared because of Its agility. American Moccasins produce up to ten young in one brood, while some rattlesnakes bear as many as seventy young in one brood.

·The Moccasin Snakes live not only in North America, but also in Asia, where the number of their genera is three times as targe as in America. The habitat of one of these nine Asiatic Crotalino snakes extends from the south-western regions of the Soviet Union right into Europe (eg the Slberlan Moccasin. Agkistrodon Helys corogonus). When excited, it vibrates Its tall in the manner of American rattlesnakes, thus producing a weak, chirping sound, which is, however, amplified through contact with surrounding objects Simitar behaviour can be noticed in the Amerlan Moc. casin Snakes, for instance, the Water Moccasin, which, by vibrating the end of its tall, whirls the water in such a manner that it can be heard at a considerable distance. The Siberian Mocasin, olled In Russlan shitomordnik, is quite abundant in some loalities of the Aslatic part of the Soviet Union. In the steppes it hunus minor vertebrates in the same way as the common Viper In Europe, resembling this snake also in size Its blte has serious consequences and Involves lengthy treatment even in wes where a serum is administered in good time, ·In the south-east territories of the United States there lives a small venomous snake hardly ont and a half feet in length. Its body is Freyish In colour with a row of reddish brown patches on its back and it is provided with a small, miniature rattle It is known as the Premy Rattlesnake, Sistrutus mi!torius. In some of its autom. ical characteristic it diwens slightly from the true rattlesnakes, being, however, very timilar to them in its general appearance. Ius portle has a rather weak, bell.like sound, which can be confused cally with the chirping of inseats. Usually los ble li nos deadly. but It has unpleasant consequences resulting in lengthy. often chronic Illnesses ·or the number of species of the true rattlesnakes, all of which live only in America, the Diamond-Back Rattlesnake, Crotolus adamanteus, is the largest and the most deadly. It is found in the south-east territories of the United States and grow to a length of over seven feet. It lives in dry deserts and rocks, where it feeds on small mammals, particularly rodents. It does not, however, shun moist regions, and can swim excellently, too. The rattlesnakes are the most feared snakes of North America Their bite is deadly in the majority of ases when help in the form of a sultable serum and further treatment is not available in good time. Contrary to 'mute' South American venomour inaker, which blte suddenly, without warning, the rattlesnakes are los dangerous, usually warning the approaching Intruder with their rattle, which emits a clearly audible sound ·On the deserted costs of south-west California there lives the Red Rattlesnake, Crotolus ruber tuber, of a beautiful, reddish brown colour its tail is striped in black and white like its relation, the Diamond-Back Rattlesnake The Red Rurtlesnake Is not as dlt, attaining a length of a little over four and half feet. The colouring of this snake li tomtume so close to that of its sur roundings that Izs tall cannot be perceived as alt. It can be spected only when it begins to a!ide or rattle. Sometimes it happens that a rattlesnake bites without warning This may occur when the shaka # surprised very suddenly, so that it does not have time to express its annoyance by rattling This enake is al meu dert being sensitive only to vibracions along the ground, lo tytolthe is not very good, either. It is apable of dherrning moving objects a? a maximum datince of about fifteen (ert enly. 4 30 ·The Timber or Banded Rattlesnake, Crotolus hornidus, is found in several geographical subspecies almost all over North Ameria as far as the Mexican Gulf. On a greyish-brown base this snake has a row of wide, transverse black stripes. It is a little over four and a hall feet in fength ·The Poitie Rattlesnake, Crocelut viridis Heiteri, ts found in south. wtit California Further geographia) subspecie live in North Atlione, Oregon, cut Uuh and the joining states, Its basic colour is generally dark. Itu FxIern having an orang or greenish hue los tall Is nor decorated with black bords On the opposite page you kee this rattlesnake in its delenie pariston which is at the same time los position for struck.

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·As some other species, the Prairie Rattlesnake, when striking. Iiſus the anterior part of its body to a considerable height, colling Tt into a loop to be ready to dart forward at any moment to strike the Intruder. les black, long. forked tongue flashes from time to cime from its closed mouth like a shining flame, flicks searchingly through the air and disappears again into its enclosure. In this way the snake probes its immediate surroundings, thus compensating for its lack of some senses known to man, such as hearing, with others not possessed by humans 54 ·South Arizona, West Texas and North Mexico are the hatitat of the small Blue Rattlesnake, Crotalus lepidus. It is usually a little shorter than one and a halffeer, lu pastel colours being olive-green, greyish-green or greyish-pink, with narrow, dark, tramtvene stripes. It is found on the stony slopes of rocky regions. 55 ·1 The rattlesnakes are viviparous, thelr young being of the size of more grown-up vipers. The Texas Rattlesnake or Western Diamond Rattlesnake, Crotalus atrox, throws about ten young, a grown specimen attaining as much as six feet in length.

·in the deserts of Arizona, California and Nevada there liver the Horned Rastlesnake or Sidewinder, Crotolus cercstes, which malns a length of a little over one and a half feet. It is light greyish-brown In colour and has a low but sharp-edged horn over each eye. The movement of this snake is very Interesting. It does not allda traightforwards, but obliquely sideways by means of coilim and uncoillng the loops of its body, thus sliding along dry and from one place to another. This manner of motion has obtlously developed in all species of snaken lang in sand due to the neiutty of adapting themselves to their surrounding which do not otr any solid support for thelt forhold movement ·! The Horned Rattlesnake feeds not only on small desert verte. brates, but also on large insects, such » locusts, cec, Its head is flat and brord, widened in front by means of two horns formed by horn-like scales On the other hand, its neck is relatively narrow, which is actually characteristic of all rattlesnakes, ditungulshing them from viperine snakes, which have a thick neck.

·The only species of crotaliae snakes living in South Americas she
Brazilian Rattlesnake, Crotalus duristes, known by the moth
dreaded name of Cascavela
59

·The Cascavela has a comparatively rich pattern consisting of golden-yellow and greenlsh coloured patches on a base of various shades of brown to brownish-black. At the most It attains a length of four and a half feet and is generally of a non-aggressive nature. If it does bice, however, the consequences - if expert assistance is not available – are deadly in the majority of cases. Its venom Is much more effective than that of other South Amerian snakes. When on guard, the Casavela's front part is folded into the well known S shape from which the snake can strike like lightning to kill. Between the eyes and nostrils of all crotallne snake: (Pit Vipers) a deep, clearly visible pit is situated on either side of their heads. In this pit certain nerves terminate, the ends being very sensitive to warmth. These organs assist the snake the detection of its prey - warm-blooded animals,

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·The Cascavela continuously explores Its nearest surroundings with its agile, forked congue. The rattle of the rattlesnake consists of membranous rings which are formed gradually at the time It sheds its skin. However, the snake rejects Its rattle from time to me, so that the number of its rings cannot serve as a gulde In decermining either the number of times it has shed its skin, or its age ·***** 2) T. In some countries of South America the typial Cascavela is represented by one of fos subspedes, Crotolus durissimus terreficus, Its mode of life and venomousness are the same as those of the original species. Only its pattern, particularly behind its head. to nos so distinct. This snake Is a nocturnal creature living in dry places. Guided by its special sense of discerning temperature, It crawls noiselessly after its prey. Io venom is most effective when used on birds, panalysing them quickly, so that they cannot escape their pursuer The smake usually hold the bltten bird in la font until the venom Quiet paralysts. In the ast of mammals, the snake usvally strikes with its faws wide open, biting its prey with its erect fangs and recollint Later on, sided by the sestery orpin in It fits and la sensitive tongue, it seeks to parziysed grey. which usually cannot escape very far. Forst i rides around the bitter creature, feeling it with the tip of tu forked forve. dostanding in laws, and preparing is swtowiny275191" for action 63 ·The prey is usually selzed by the head, and by alternate move. ments of its discended jaws, the snake shifts it slowly into its throat. Both halves of the lower jaw extend, the skin and the tigament connecting them stretch, and the prey. much wider than the snake's head Itself, slowly glides along a wet mucous membrane into the throat.

·The snakes have no attachment in their mouths enabling them to chew their food, thus being obtle to willow their prey whole This action is aided by several row of sual teeth in the upper palare, which are inclined backwards to serve their purpose better It does not lake long..nd mouth'ul", however begro. wally disappears in the snake's digestive tracemy, where sont. effective acids immediately start the disvolving and difesting procar ·in the last phase of swallowing only a leg or tail can be seen sticking out of the snake's mouth, and even this finally glites Into the throat. Thus the vicum disappears completely from the world and the contented trako can devote some time to the lengthy process of digestion. 66 ·Snakes like to eat and drink fairly often. If necessary, however, they on go hungry for several months on end, chh being of course, detrimental to their bodily strength. Sometimet, on being transferred to better conditions, such a wakened repile ref* Its balance and begins to take lood apua, More etien, however, Io face to settled by its not having mouth strength or interest to remain alive 67 ·When exploring Its immediate surroundings she snake usually takes stock of them with it forked tongue which it stkhs out and withdraws through a slit between its closed faws. On with. drawing lu tongue, the snake puts both of its tlps into the small openings of its so-called Jacobson's organ, thus getting an idea of what the congue has just touched or approached. Both plctures thow the head of a Water Moccasin in the fro. cess of exploring les surroundings

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·When a snake opens its mouth, the long In Its upper fs can De seen more or lest distinctly Under normal circumstance they art uilced backwards and hidden in the folds of the trucout membrant, only their tips being sometimes visible. When the snake is ready to strike, however, both fangt stand erect and perpendicular to the faw, sometimes tyen being inclined highly forward. When triklop, the trake slabs its prey with them by means of Altring with its wide open mouth 70 ·On the clean snake skull the langs, as well as the relacion el thele size to the dimensions of the other parts the head aan te secn clearly the photograph shows pleture of the skull of the African Rhinoceros Viper, com Nosicoma, enlarged about three timo ·Ar the top the opening in the fang is shown with which the cars fuldlas from the resam gland certeza me the paistet end of the hollow Cars there is another sile-like spening through which the venom h dacharged from the fang into the wourd, The cpening is not situared at the very tip of the tong in the for nor radies to effective sharpness 72 ih ·The relation of present-day man towards venomous snakes is expressed in these two pictures in the top one a young man is holding the ill-famed Cascavels, while the bottom picture shows the mythical Cobra in the hands of a young girl. Today man studies the life of snakes, the bulld of their bodies and the composition of their venom, endeavouring to master and render harmless these dangerous fellow-creatures ·The snake dreaded by the whole Orient, the The.Polonga, shows the length of jus fangu By means of a sceel bae It as possible to shit the languera trt Inake into an arest position, free them from their procectht mucous folds and examine their dircharge openings. Every renomous snake can be held in the hand; thr, of coure, requires courage, alm, and cautious skill and care, ifa rare specimen is not to be injured 16 ·.

·1 The 10-called 'milking' of a snake. A fully grown Water Moccasin Specimen does not part willingly with lus venom A glass bowl slid suddenly to the inake's mouth provoke the repule to open lus laws and strike like a flash of lightning orainst the apparent enemy. The grinding of tu teeth on the glass an be heard and down the wall of the bowl its venom flows slowly, like thick oil It is known that enake bite victims can nowadays be saved If a serum prepared from the blood of a horse accustomed to the venom of a certain type of snake and in which appropriate ant). bod.en hore formed as a result, tu injected in good sime. It h of the urmont Importance, of course, that the correct serum te adminis. tered, the one appropriate for the verem of the stake in question, This is sometimes very difficult in the tropla, where hundreds of the most varies anakes and found the renomt of all snaket do not have the tane elett. Some cause decomposiekon of the Elood. ohnt use it to cist, some produse shock, or paralyut the nervous syet, Some pharmacololesk Institutions product s universal, so-called polylent, serum, wtich ts supports to be estira in s' cztes of grsko-tite. It is a better, toweytt, ta kalenterum certnding to a certain type of venom, or : len cas morpem with common spices delect 76 ·The uking of renom from a sozle is not without danger A sudden fishing movement of the smoke's head sidemr artin 2110 mp to hit with at least one fint some of the fingen of the person holding it is its usual reaction. After the sake Naimed tonn again, there foliows a mild pressure of the frgery on the renom glands and another cose drtnom flows down the class will ofte bowl At the textom die vessel there hi tott orer one 5 (enfirserne er fredus liqui3.a qurthy ag. 111. irrat coren. 1ommes even hundreds of people.

·Snake venom has vitious colours, ranglog from pale yellow, honey colour, transparent and white to greenlih.yellow, the cur depending on the kind of snake from watch it is taken. After deticcation and enperation. It forms a solid substanco similar to Introus traht or crushed amber, and can be preserved for any Hannth of time in the picture there can be sesn the venom of the Sand Natter ect ested over a period of several month. The syll toetle hold a cranuly of venon abft to destroy the lived many hundreds of people.

·In the hands of clever experts even deadly venoms are utilised for the benefit of mankind from many of them medicines are pro. duced today which assist people to regain their health The Meat of suitably processed renots are very varied some bill paln, others can be used for local anaesthesia, some types stop theodine. cause the tlood to clor, or are used warens against corint. while soil others decrease the blood pressure, and 10 cm. All these properties aan de vtilised in medicin ·INDEX Cratelus ruber tuber 50 Sisusurus milarius 48 Crctalus viridis Helicet 52.54 Snake, Copperhead 46 A Adder, Put 32 D Dchod dlejens 30-31, 74-75 Snske, Cotron.Mouth 41-41,4869 Adder, Horned 34-35 Dispholdus typur 19 T Tic.Polonga 30-31.74-75 Agkistrodga bilineatu: 45 E Echis cornata 35-33 Trimercsurus gramineut 39 Azkratrodon contortrix 46 Ela 3533 Trimeresurut Wegleri 45 Apkistrodon Halyt caragonut 47 G Gyurza 30 U Urutu 41 42 Akastrocon piscirorus 43 - 44, 68-69 H Hamadryad 17 Y Viper, Ainan RNnoceros 71-72 Atheris quomigero 39 Jataraca 41 Viper, Arboreal 39 B B. 32-35, 39 K Kait, Banded 18 Viper, Armenian 29 kts crt;cac 3: M Mocastin, Mexican 45 Viper. Asp 27 [ti: CVƯỢoli 34-35 Mocassin, Siberian 17 Viper, Bamboo Pit 39 Bitis nasicornis 71-72 Mocasain, Water 43 - 44, EB-69 Viper, Carpet 35-38 Boomslang 19 N Nojo honnch 17 Viper, Coastal 29 Bochross neuwidal Nala kaoutha 12-14 Viper. Common European 24-26 Bothrops neuwidil meridionolis 41 Noje nojo 9-17 Viper, Levantine 30 Dothrops alternatur 41 - 42 Nojo oriana 15 Viper, Maximilian's 41 Lungarus farcitus 18 Najno sputatrix 16 Viper, Onini's 28 C Cantil 45 Naster, Sand 21-23, 24 Viper, Palm 39 Cascavela 59-63,73 P Pamz 19 Viper, Renard's 28 Cobro de copelto 9 - 11 R Ratlesnake, Banded 51 Viper, Rut:oll', 30.-31.74-75 Cobr, Central Asiatic 15 Rattlesnake, Blue SS Viper, Suw-scaled 35-38 Cobra, King 17 Rattlesnake, Brazilian 59-62.73 Viper, Steppe 28 Cobra Monocled 12-14 Rattlesnake, Diamond-Back 49 Viper, Wagler's Pit 40 Cobra, Spectacled 9-11 Aattlesnake, Diamond Western $6 Vipera comoditet emmotte 21-7,24 Cobra, Spleting 16 Rattlesaaks, Horned 9-58 Ypero como res montant mi ?? Crore's famonteus 47 Rattlesriks, Pigmy 48 Wyers oint 27 5 Creclut otrot 56 Roztlesnake, Pruirle 52-54 Vigera berst 24-26 Crotalus seroter 37 - $ Rattlesnate. Red 50 Vipero kadetina 10 Crotal 1 Curitim timien 63 Raitlentke. Yern 56 Visto a!t27 Catalul JPIITW $9--67, 73 Ractlessuke, T-ber 31 Vipets nie's J-21,74-75 Cruelt bortkus S $ SutomordMi 47 Ypers **$*** 1. 10. 23 Cittshas knits Sidewinder -52 eo