·PREFACE. In the composition of this Handbook the Editor disclaimis all originalty “Composition" indeed, is hardly an applicable term in the case, except in the literal sense of the word, that 13, inasmuch as it has consisted in a "placing together" of materials already in existence products of the genius and researches of other and far abler men The work may more properly be designated a compilation and the only merit that the author cap rightfully lar claim to is that of care and diligence in the selection and arrangement of the subject matter the only mert that complimentary critics lan attribute (of deemed due) being that of judiciousness, exhibited un the manner in which this has been done He does not profess to be a manufacturer, but simply a merchant (or retauler) of haterature, sho knowing from experience the state of the market as regards “demand' ·PREFACE VI - Sendeavours, to the best of his ability, to provide the proper "supply” Contrary, however, to mercantile custom, in general, instead of "buying at the cheapest market and selling at the dearest," the Editor has sought for "profit" (the reader's, if not his own) by getting his materials from the most authentic sources available even though the most expensive-In order that he may retail them on for cheaper terras, as well as in a much more handy form, to his reading customers The principal of these authorities--some of which works aro non difficult to be procured from being out of print may here be mentioned, though generally acknowledged ah the body of the treatise The book to which the Editor bas, perhaps, been most largely indebted, us the learned and volumunous work * On the History, Litera- Jure, 'etc, of the Hindoos,' by the late Rey Y Ward, of Serampore Next to that he would mention the more modern, but equally learned work, by Professor Max Muller, the "History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature" His chief other authorities have been Sir William Jones, II T Colebrooke, Esq, and Professor H Wilson, from whose valuable contributions to the "Journal of the Asiatic Society," as well as separately published words, he lias freely and largely quoted To these he would ·PPEFACE. YL . 3 add the "IIistorical Sketch of Sanskrit Litemture," by Professor Adelung, , as translated from the German by Mr Talboys, the prize essay, by the late Dr Ballantyne, on "Christianity as contrastel with Hundur Philosophy," and various other treatises, by the same author, on the "Philosophical Systems of the Hindus, "Lectures on Indian Epic Poetry," and other works, by Professor Monier Williams, of Oxford, "India and the Hindoos," by the Rer r de TV Ward, Vissionary at Madras , and Lastly, but very especially the editor voulu acknowledge hus indebtedness to the raluable little roth of a very similar character with the present, but now olit of point, cntitled the "Jissionary's Vade Jeruiin," by the Rev. T Phillips formerly missionary at Muttra The Editor's principal object in the preparation of this Handbook bas been the supply of a de ideratum, long felt both by himself and 129 pupils--thosc of them, especially, who were candidates for III Col Service in India--12, a fork in a condensed form, and at a molcratc price from luch might be obtained such a generi acquaintance with Sansknt Literaturu as vroula cnable then to answer the questions on that subject likely to be out at the competitisc and fubsequent cIamination + ·Viu PREFACE The importance of the study of Sanskrit, eren on merely philological grounds, as the parent of the other classical languages of the Aryan family), as well as on account of the richness and variety of its own literature, 19 now becoming increasingly felt and acknowledged, not only on the European continent (where so much more attention has hitherto been paid to it), but even in England, which forms an additional reason for hoping that a volume Like the present will be harled, in spite of all ats imperfections, as a useful work of reference, or text book If, in any humble degree, it should prove an incentive to the study of that venerable and highly polished language, and a handy-guide to those entering on its study, the Editor will feel that the trouble he has taken in the preparation of this little volume has not been xz vain 5 0 24 WELLINGTON STREET, STRAND June, 1866 For the assistance of those readers who may not be already familiar with the Sanskrit character, though, 14 general the Roman eqwvalents have been used through. out the work, the Deva Nagari Alphabet, and most usefil compound Itters, oro here appended 6 ·PREFACE. 13 ह . ग मा Bh प TOWEIS ) अ, आ, दकि, है, उ., ज, ऋn, ऋ, ri, ल.in, Ori, ए, ऐ, ओ, औt ar Nasal symbol, called Anustára, 'm Symbol for the final asp?- rate, called Visarga, : R COYSOVA VTS. Gutturals, का घgh Palatals, चch ochh ना Cerebral, ठth Dentals, थ Labials, प फp व भी म Semirowels, य Tr ला Sibilants, Aspirate, हh Tur worr COMMON OF THE COMPOUND OR CONJONCT CO1804&vrg, k,nt, akr, ला, क्वkr, Th, स्य khy, ग्न gn, ग्रgr, ग्ल, घू.ghr. sank, g, चchch, छ chemi, च्य chy, ख्न जप, घnch, onchh, अ.1, व्य ty, dg, य, एट11 nth, एडnd, an, Any, nt. त्य tth, ain, मm, त्यty, tr, ar, म छ thy, dg,rddh. don, m, udy, Pr, dr.ध्य dhy, thr,न्तnt,न्दndian, न्य ny, Hpt, प्यP. BAp, न, दत, व्य by br, भ्य Uhy, U Unr, ग्म msh, म्म mm, म्य my. Aml, य५y, ra, #rm, नप Ip, au, यस यch, .यग, य, व, et ashth, eAn, ushy, स, मल akh, स्तन, Ath, am, Am, स्या, मग, स्वाम्म m, ay.हा त्यty. Ar,ta ktmkin, घkshm, ishy. ग्न्य gry, ग्भ्य gdhy, ग्य gry, rnkt, ky, Luckchhy, Ichchhre एय. स्त्र in De tmy, यtry, त्स्य try, घtra Tadhy, dshy, ary, स्य, भ्य ny. dr, free, Pahtra stha, स्थy, स्त्र, Nrtry यryy.

·CONTENTS PART I. RELIGIOUS LITERATURE CILAPTER 1 1 & . IYTRODUCTORY AVD ON TIE VEDAS PATTACZ her II General D va on of the sustras or Eacred Tntings of the II odus $? Ongis and Aquity of the Teles 2 43 On the Theology of ide Fedu 5 $4 General D ris ogs of the Teclas 18 Spoc al D Tons and Contents of the several Velas 7 I-or the R Feda 7 (2) It Sanhits () Iu Tretmana () Its Arangala and Cmolhada 12 2-of the Tajur Veår, or aderya 14 () 14 20hita 15 () iu Dribana, pass, end &ransils 15 3-06 the teda 17 - 1 tbt 11.rs - 10 *** ·XIV COYI YID CHAPTER II OF THE SANKHYA AND YOGA SCHOOLS I TRE SÁNEHYA SYSTEM P407 73 $1 As to its Author (Kapıla) • 42 Outline of the Sankhya System 73 + 76 II -THE YOGA (OR PATANJALA) STSTEL. 3 Of its Author (Patanjali) 94 Braet Summary of hu Doctrines $6 Fuller Account of the System 76 77 CHAPTER III 6 ON THE VEDANTA AND ATMANS X DARSANAS Erc 1_THE VEDANTA SISTEM 87 $ 1 Of its Ungo and Author (Veda Vyása) $2 Outlıse of the System 43 Concluding Remarks on the Srstem 88 94 2THE Mímans Dardana 96 $ 4 0f its Author (Ja min) and his Writings $5 Outline of the System 92 3-OTHER PEILOSOPHICAL SYSTEMS 103 104 46 The Catwata Sert $7 The Paurants $8 The Bauddhas or Buddhists $9 The Ja 03 $10 The Khándanas 105 106 107 ·COVTEYTS Xv PART III POETICAL AND MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE CHAPTER 1 O THE EPIC POETRY OF THE INDUS PAGE 108 109 112 1 Introductory Pieparks $2 The Ramayana 3 The Mahabharata 4 The Bhagavad G ta 5 The Nalopakhyanam The IlincaDLA thu dalygon eta 116 117 119 CHAPTER II 121 122 123 124 . 124 OY THT PURAVAS AND DRAMATIC WORKS $1 The Puranas gencrally described $2 The Cosmogony and Theogony of the Paranas 43 s to the Dates + as to the r Style $$ The Puranas Epamerated 56 The Taranas Classified and Described {of the Slanda and Padma Puránia & Of the Iishnu Parang 19 of the Sri Bhagarata Purana | 10 On the Dramatic and Miscellaneous Poct cal Works 11 Of Ku di and by Works $19 The Sattatals 125 126 126 127 128 123 130 ·111 FONTENTS Site The Raghu Vensa PAGE 131 131 131 132 $14 The Mega-Data $15 Tho Aalodaya $16 The V kramoryasi 17 Miscellaneous Works of Yalıdása 18 of the other Epic Sanskrit Poets $ 19 On the Tables and Nitikatha (or Eth cal works) 133 133 13+ APPENDIX I BRIEF OUTLINE OF HINDU MYTHOLOGY 135 Intor ductory Remarks 1 Of Brabına 2 Y shnu 136 . 137 139 3 Sira 4 KAS 140 6 Durga 6 Indra 7 Surya 8 Ganesa 9 Kart heya 10 Sabri manmiz 140 142 142 143 144 145 11 Yama 146 12 Agai (F re) 13 Pavana (WY d) 14 Varuna (the Ocean 16 The Planets and other Heavenly Bod os 148 148 149 ·CONTEVE XT11 2 150 16 Lakshmi 17 Saraswati 150 II -OY TAE INFERIOR CELESTIAL Bergs 150 1 The Asuras, or Giants 2 The Rakshasas 3 The Celestial Dancers and Musicians 4 The Náyikss 5 The Yakshas 151 159 162 153 6 The Prachas 153 7 The other Servants of the Gods 153 155 III -OX YEE AYATÁRAS AND TERRESTRLAL DUTIES 1 Krishna » Gopala and Gopinatha 3 Jagannatha (or Joggernatb) 4 Pama 6 Vistakarma 6 Kama-dur a the Indian Cup d 155 15" 158 159 IT OP TIX PRIYCIPAL FEMALE TERRESTRIAL DETTA 1 Sita 153 • R.db. 159 3 Pukmini and Satya-bbana 159 4 Sabbadru 160 TOP DELFIED PITELS I Cange (the Ganges) 2 Other De fed Rivers 100 ·GONTENTS .XV111 ( VI OTHER OBJECTS OF DIVIYE WORSHIP PAOT 1624 162 163 C 163 263 < 163 1 The COT 2 The Monkey (Hanuman) 3 The Dog 4 The Srigala (or Jackal) 5 The Garuda (or Garura) 6 Aruna 7 The Sankara cbulla (or Brahmanı kite) $ The Kanjana (or Water wagtail) 9 The l'eacock, the Goose, and the Owl 10 Fishes Worshipped 11 Trees Worshipped 12 The Salagráma Stone 163 163 163 164 164 164 CE APPENDIX II ( ON THE HINDU CASTES AND RELIGIOUS SECTS 165 169 170 I OF THE FOUL CARTES II --OP THE Rezignovs SECT: (a ) Divisions and Doctrines of the Vaishnava Sects 1 of the Sri Sampradayis or Rumánujas 2 The Rawanandis, or Rámáwats 3 Tho Kabir Panthis 170 175 179 186 186 4 The Khakis 6 The Jalsk Dasia 6 The Dada Panthis 7 The Rudra Sampradaya, or Tallabhachásia 187 188 ·1 CONTENTT TIL 191 193 197 199 199 "CO () Or toe Saura Certz i The Dandis and D2-oimis 2 The Tons, or Jogis 3 The Jangam.33 or Lingayats + The Paramhansas 5 The Aghoris 6 The Crddhabahus 7 The Alas Jukhis 8 The Walhus 9 The Godaras 10 The Sakharas 11 The Palbaris > • OL 201 201 202 202 102 12. The Ul baras 203 03 13 The Karalingis 14 The Sannyass 15 The Vairagu 203 203 16 The Avatag 03 204 704 105 905 206 17 The Vagas (c) of the Sakta Sects 1 The Dakshunas or Bhaktas 2 The Vami: or Fámácháris (d) Other (Uscellaneots) Sects 1 The Saurapatas or Sauras 2 The Ganapatyas 3 The Slus or Nanak Shah : 4 The Udásís Goyad Suabus etc 5 The Jains 206 206 107 907 207 ·1 2 ILLYDBOOK OH(st1SKNIT LITERATURE 3 The sis Ana 18,1 fuz, tho Sibsha, on pronw.ciation, tho Kilpa, on ceremonies, the Tyálarana, on gommar, the Chhandas, on prosody and crso, the Jyotisha, on astronomy, and the Nerukla, an esplanation of difficult Words, etc, in the Terlas 4 Tho four Upings, riz, the Pwanas, or poetical lustories, the Nyaya, on cthics, the Jimunsa, on deine Tisdom and religious ccremonies, and the Dharnia Sustra or the civil and canon laps. 82. Origin and Antiquity of the Vedas The difficulties attending the first attempts to obtain from the Brálmans a knowledge of their Sastrus spre very great This 19 accounted for from the fact that the Sletras denounce the heaviest penalties on a Brahman who shall teach the laorledge of the sacred books to infidels or persons of low caste This reserre, however, has at length been so overcome by the persevcance, influence, and gold of Europeans (pioneered by such men ng Sir Willam Jones Jr Colebrooke, etc), that tho Brahmans will now, without the slightest hesitation, sell or translate the most sacred of their books, or communicate all they Inow of their contents The difficulty now lies Lore in the scarcity and obscuinty of these works than in the scrupulosity of the Bráhmans, their guardians Though probably do person living has ever seen the hole Veda yet distinct portions of each of the four parts --the lig, the Pajur, the Sama, and the Atharia-have long been in the hands of learned Europeans, by whom they bave been identified, and their contents examined 1 That 35, lbs parts.

·LYTIQUITY OF VEDIS. 3 Th 7 and trahslated. The Rtg, the Pajur, and the Sami re considered to be the principal portigns of the Teda, but the Atharrant is generalls admitted as a fourth part And dirers mythological poems, entitled Itiha375 and Puranas,' are reckoned a supplement, and as such corattute a fifth Veda It is well known that the Bráhmans have more reverence for the Vedas than for any other of the Sa+ras Several cau-es may be asigned for this, they are at prevent but little known, and aguonnce, in this case, I doubtle s the mother of devotion, they are declared to be the peculiar inheritance of the Brahmans, and are Lept from the lower castes, so that a Sudra cannot hear any part of them repeated without incurring guilt, ther are sypposed to be the ource of all the ſa tras everything, it is said, is to be found in the Vedas They claim an inscru table antiquty Vany belere them to have proceeded immediately from the mouth of God, thus the Vedanta waters say, "The self evident word proceeding out of the mouth of God this is the Vedi." But, perhaps (as one writer remarks) we may consider the word " Peda," as signifying “knowledge," or true ideás, or philosophy in general, and not merely the books so called and thus account for the veneration in Thich it is held by Hindus generally, and especially by the Brahmans m. i.-41 Tº 12, At 1 ·HANDBOOK OR SANSKRIT LITERATURE og san . the divinity, with other personified attributes and energies, and most of the other gods of Hindu my: thology are indeed mentioned, or at least indicated, in the Veda But the Forship of deified heroes 18 no part of the system, nor are ther incamations of deities suggested in any portions of the text which I have seen, though such are sometimes hiated at by the commentators "Some of these statements" hometer, remarks Prof TVilsen," "may perhaps require modification for without & careful examination of all the prayers of the Vedas at would be hazardous to assert that they contain no indication whatever of bezo worshty, and certainly they do appear to allude occasionally to the Aratars or incarna tiors of Vishnu It is also true that the worship of the 'Vedas is for the most part domestic worslıp, consisting of prayers and oblations offered in their ova bouscs not un temples by individuals for individual goal, and addressed to unreal prescnces not to risiblo types In a Ford, the religion of the Vedas was not idolatry " $ 4 Gencral Drisions of the Vedas The hole Veda is divided into three parts, rız, the Jantras or Ganas-prayers hymus etc, which collectively are called the Sanhila of each Vedr, the Brahmanas or theological part, and the Jnana or Upanishads the philo sophical portion , besides which many selections bare been made from the Veda by different sages ·DIVISIONS OF HEDAS The first of these dissions comprises about thirts da ferent treatises, or collections of prayers and hymns, with comments, as the Rig reda Sanhita, the dranya Panchala, the Yajur reda Sanhita, the Tarttırıya Sanhita, ete , etc The Bráhmanas melnde between sits and serents separate works and comments, and the Upanishads are saxis two in number, though many are comprised in a few leares, and only ten of them are much studied now a days, as containing matters of dispute between the sects who follow the sur Darshanas, or philosophical schools The proper meaning of Upanishad is said to be dirine science," or the “Loorledge of God," and is equally apphed to the theology itself, and to a book in wluch thi science is taught The whole of the Indian theologt is profe-sedly founded! on the Upanishads The several Sankıtas, or collections of Tantris in each Veda, copshtute the Salhas (216T) or “ branches." of each Veda Tradition, preserved in the Purenas, reckons the Sanhıtas of the liug reda as 16 m number, of the Tajur, 86,-or, including those which branched from a second rerelation of this Teda, 101 Those of the 197 rename recloned as no fewer than 1,000, and of the All arrana But treatises on the stud' of the Veda reduce the Sakhas of the Rig to fire, and those of the lojus in cloding both rerelations of it, to 86 $5 We proceed not to gire a brief account of the Special Divisions and Contents of the sercral Todas nine I-OF THE TIG-TE. () 17e Sanhita --The collection of prayers in the Rig- ·HANDBOOK O SANSKRIT LITERATURE . 41 the divinity, with other personfied attributes and energies, and most of the other gods of Hindu my: thology are indeed mentioned, or at least indicated, in the Veda But the worship of deified heroes is no part of the system, nor are the incarnations of deities suggested in any portions of the text which I have seen, though such are sometimes hinted at by the commentators" Some of these statements " however, remarks Prof TVilsen, 'may perhaps require modification, for without a careful examination of all the prayers of the Vedas, it would be hazardous to assert that they contain no indication whatever of hero worship, and certainly thicy do apnear to aliude occasionally to the Araturs or incarna tiorg of Vishnu It is also true that the worship of the 'Velas is for the most part domestic worship, consisting of prayers and oblations offered in their own houses, not in temples_by individuals for individual gogl, and addressed to unrcal presences, not to visible types In a Ford, thc religion of the Vedas was not idolatry' 84 General Divisions of the Vedas The Thule Teda 19 divided into thrce parts, víz, the Jantras or Gunas-pmyers hymns, etc, which collectively are called the Sanhita of cach Feda, tho Bralimanas or theological part, and the Jnana or Upanishads, tho philo sophical portion , besides which many selections llave been made from the Veda by different sages "Yir the Sun (under the party dames Surya Vire ctr ) font (the moon) and Agns (firey To which are to be added Indra (the firmament, expecially as seen at night) and I dyw (the win!) As les vol riu, 193 *)ntroduction to the shnu l'oruna t ·DITL IT OF THE VEDIS The first of thee dincon. compras about thirts du erent treatus, or collection of praer and htmu3, with comments, the Pug reda Eant ita, the Aranya Parchats, the Your reda Sonhita, the Tarifa ya Sinfita etc, etc. The Drał manas include beteen zats and serent separz e sorks and comments, and the Tannlrds are estr two n number, though mar are compared 20 a few leaves, and only ten of them are much saded now : der, 2» containız; matters of dispute betreca tho sets trho follow the su Darslanas, o- philosophical saboola The proper meaning of Canisład 19 sad to be “dince science," or the "bnowledge of God, and is equally ap pbed to the theology itself, and to a book in rŁch thi science L. taught The whole of the Indian theolog as prifc dc foardra on the Upanial ads The several Sanlitar ou collections of Vantra un each Teda, cozitute the Salt 23 (TIGT) O-“branches" of each Veda. Tradition preserved in the Purana rectrns the Sanhıtas of the I, reda , 16 , number, of the Tajur, EE-0-, including those which branched from a second revelation of thi. Teda 101 Those of th- 9:"7 pa se recloned 2 to fewer than 1 000, and of the All arrana nie. Dat treatuses 03 the stud' of the Teda reduce the Suklas of the Pig to fire, and those of the Yanı in clading both revelations of it to 86 Eu Te pred row to give a bref account of tłe Special Diruant and Conte is of Il exteral Tedas L-Or Et Rou. (1) TJ. Sankuter --The collection of prasers in the Rig- ·8 II 4D BOOK OF $ 4VSKRIT LITERATURE of e'eda is divided into eight parts (Khanda or lánda), each of which is subdivided into as many lectures (adhyaya). Another mode of division also runs through the volume, distinguishing ten books (mandala), which are subdivided into more than 100 chapters (anuzaka), and comprise 1,000 hymus or invocations (súkla) A further subdivision of more than 2,000 sections (rarga) 13 common to both methods, and the whole contains above 10,000 Ferses, or stanzas (slokas) of rarous measures “ The Sanhita of the first Veda" says Mr Colebrooke, "contajas mantras or prayers, which for the most part are encomiastic, as the name, llig veda, implies 1 On examining this voluminous compilation, a systematic arrangement is readily perceived Successive chapters, and even entirc books, comprise hymns of a single author, invocations, too, addressed to the same ederties, hymns relating to like subjects and prayers intended for similar occasions, are frequently classed together The Rishi or speaker 13 of course rarely mentioned in the Mantra itself, but in some instances he docs Dame himself A few passages, tog, among the Mantras of the Veda are in the form of a dialogue, and, in such cases, the discoursers were alternately considered as Rishi and Devata In general the person to whom it was revealed, or by whom its use and application was first discovered, is called the Rishi of 1 Denre from the Terb riil (2) to pra se The term bigofies any prayer or by a 11 hich the deity us praised and as those are mostly in verse the term becomes also appl cable to such passages of any, Teda as are reducible to measures by the roles of prosody The Rig Veda containing most of these derives its name from them.

·THE SAXHITA OP TH RIG-TEDL 9, that Mantra Hc b eridents, then, the author of that :Prayer, notwithstanding the assertiort of the Hindů, with thom it 13 an article of their creed, that the Tedas were composed by no human author “The deities intohed appear to be as variona is the authors of the prayers addres.ed to them, but, according to the most ancient annotations on the Indian Scripture, those numerous names of persons and things are all resolvable into different titles of three deities, and. ultimatels of one God. The Nighantu," or galas ary of the Vedas, concludes with three lışts of names of deities, the first comprising such as are deemed synonymous with fire, the second, with air, and the third, with the sun In the last part of the Mirukła, which entirely relates to deities it is twice asserted that there are but three godon Tista era deratah' The further endence that the e intend but one deity is supported by mans passages in the Veda, and it is very clearly and conciselt stated in the beginning of the Index to the Rig reda, on the anthonty of the Nirakta and of the Veda itself “The deities," it is there stated,' are only three, whose places are the earth, the intermediate region, and bearen, fire, air, and the sun. They are pronounced to be the deities) of the mysterious names severalls, and Prajapalı (the lord of creatures) 1» (the deity) of them coliuctively 1 The gássou 13 the first part of the ruikte, one of the Fedargus, of works supplementary to and commected with the Vedas. It is a glossarial erplanation of obscure terme i blue. Thessak. avd. Sraz, mallet. Spillereit). an cả voru cr sound, as om etc. These commesre the daily praters of Le Dráhaans ·LANDBOOK OF/SANSKRIT LITERATURE 10 or(SARSKRIT The syllable Oml intends every deits, it belongs to (Parameshthi) Him who dwells in the supreme aborle, it appertains to (Brahma) the rast one, to (Deca) God, to (Adhyatmd) the superintending soul Other deitics be longing to those several regions are portions of the (three) gods, for they are rariously named and described, on account of their different operations, but (in fact) there is only one deity, the great soul (Alahan A'ima) He is called the sun, for he is the soul of all beings, and that 19 declared by the sage_-The sun is the soul of (aga?) that moves and of (tasthus)) that which is fixed Other deties are portions of him, and that is expressly declared by the text The wise call fire Indra Mitra, and Va runa," etc? 0 "The subjects and uses of the prayers contained in the Vcda differ more than the deities which are unrol ed, or the titkos by which they are addressede Crert line is replete with allusions to mythology and to the Indian notions of the divine nature and the celestial spirits For the innumerable ceremonies to be performed by a householder, and still more for those endless rites enjoined on hermits aarį ascetics a cho ce of prayers is offered in every stage of the celebration The various and repeated sacrifices with fire, and drinhing of the mully junce of the Moon plant or acid asclepias (soma lała), furnish abun ##, the myste name of the desty trefzt ng all the prayers and most of the tage of the Hindus It is composed of three letters Tz # a name of Tishal, 3 of Siva, and of Brahma. It therefore imples the Indian Triad and expresses three in one * This passage of the Ani'ranan is partly abndged from the Atrukta and partly taken from the Dráhmana of the Vedas ·TTLE BRAHNANA OF THE RIG-TEDA dant occasion for numerous prayers, adapted to the many stages of those religious rites"! The third book of the Rig reda (distributed into five chapters) contains invocations by Vissimitra The last hymn in this book consists of sıx• prayers, one of which contains the celebrated Gayatri (or scrse consisting of eight syllables), as follows “This new and excellent praise of thee, O splendid play ful sun, is offered by us to thee Be gratified by this my specch Approach this craying mind, as a fond man scels a wonnin May that sun (Pushan), who contemplates and looks into all worlds, be our protection Let us meditate on the adorable light of the devine rules (Sarıtra), may at guide our intellects Desirous of food, ve solicit the gift of the splendidun (Sautr), who should be studiously worshipper Venerable men, gunded by the understanding, salute the divine sun with oblations and praise (6) The Bráhmana of the Rig teda - The second part of the Rig reda consists of the Brahmana (or precepts) The Artereja Brahmana is divided into eight books (Panzıka) each contaınıng five chapters or lectures (Adhyaya) and subdivided into an uncquul murahcr of sections (Khandas), amounting in the Thole to 285 The work is partly in prose, but for most part in verse It treats chiels of sacrifices to be performed by kings, and of the consecration of kings, ete This latter ceremony was per- ·HANDLOOK OF SANSKRIT LITERATURE OFYSAWSKRIT 2-OP TAX YAJER VEDA, OR ADIIVALTO The Yajus, or Adhtirru, consists of two different Vedas, the white and the black, which have cach separately branched out into various Sáthás ? To explain the names by which both are distinguished, it is necessary to notice a legend which is graurely related in the Puranas, and the commentaries on the Tedas The Yajus, in its orginal form, tras at first taught by Varśampáfang *to twenty-seren pupils At this time, hanog ostructed Yájnzvallya, le appointed him to teach the Teds to other disciples But long afternards offended with him, the resentful preceptor made him csgorge the science lic had learned in a tangible form The rest of Vaišampáyana's disciples, receiving luus command to pick up the disgorged Veda, assumed the form of partridges, and swallowed. these texts, which were boiled and for this reason termed "black" (mu, krishna) This Voda is dlso, and more commonly, called the Taille riya, from it (fafaro) "a partridge, and it contains twenty-seven Sillis according to the number of Vassarpiyana's pupils Vájanjallsa, orcrwhelmed with Barror, * had recourse to the sun, from which he reciral a noi reciation of the Yajue, a bich 18 called "iluto" (pa sukla) Therc 19, lokerer, a moro rational accou of origin of theo tro Velas, gis en in the sinulramanl, or Index, to tho black Yajus Tho Yajur-toda relates chiefly to oblations and sacrifices, as the namic.twll implie, & hich us denre from voj 1 TOT"almacb ·15 THE SAXHITA OF THE ASTR-SE.DA. (45), "to worship" It contains instructions respecting religious exercises, the castes, feasts, punifications,"expia- *tions, pilgrimage, gufts, various sacrifices, the requisite qualifications in animals to be offered, the building of temple, the usual ceremonies at the births, marriages, and deallis, of men of all rauks, etc Vany of the hymns and detached portions of the Veda have been translated by Jr Colebrooke, Sir William Jones, Dr Carey, and others The Vayasaneyi, machte Yans, 13 the shortest of the Vedas, so far as respects the first and prin pal part, riz, thc mantras (a) The Sanhla of the Pajur -The Sanhita of this 1 cda is comprised in forts lecturs (auhyu ja), tinequally divided into numerous short sections (lhandalar kundilu), each of which, in general, constitutes a prajer" or lantra It is also drdol, like the Rig reda into anurakas (chaptors) The number of these appears to be 286, the number of sections or terses is nearly two thousand (1987), but this includes mans' repetitions of tho samo test in dirers places The Idhya jas are very unequal, containing from 13 to 117 sections (handika) The black I'ng is 13 more copious as regalds the Vantras, than the echtle, but lesa so than the Rig Veda Its Sanhtu as arrangel ecsin books (1shlata or kunda) containing from fire to cight lectures or chapters (Adhyaja, Prasni, or Prapallaka) Each of these is sub deruded into sections (Inucaka), which are equally distnbuted in the third and susth books, but unequalls in the That whole number cxccutis Co. Yo almtiells human" authors were noticed by Colebrookc in thus leda.

·IC VDBOOK OF SUISKRIT LITERATURE. -OF TNB YAJCR-VEDL, OR ADIVARIU The Yajus, or Adhvaryu, consists of two different Vedas, the white and the blach, which have cach separately branched out into various sábhás! To explain the names by n bich both are distinguished, it is necessary to notice a legend which is grarely related in the Puranas, and tho commentaries on tho Vedas, The Yajus, in its original form, its at first taught by Vaisampiganyto tienty-seven pupils. At thus time, buring instructed Yajnarallfa, be appointm him to teach the Veda to other disciples. But being afterwards offcndol with liim, the re-cntful preceptor madlo him dingorgo tive scienco he had learned in a tangiblo form. The rest of Vaisompárana's disciples, ncciring 1.19 commind to pick up the di gorged Vala, a gunoi the form of partridges, and swallos ed. three texls, ), scre mwilel anıl for tlus reason tormeul “Llach(gray, Lyi-luna) This Vela is dl-o, and more commonly, colleal thio Taidlo riyn, from bıllır (fafafo" partridge," so it contains twentyasesen Sibliás accoring to the nunbar of Vakan- ·TIIL SASHIT 1 OF TIIF WUT-VED 15 973), "to worship" It contains instructions respecting cligious cxcrcises, the castes, feasts, purifications, expla- 10ny, pilgrimages, gifts, samous sacrifices, the requisite qualifications in animals to be offered, the building of temples, the usual ceremonies at the births, marriages, and deaths, of men of all ranks, etc Vany of the hymns and dctatbed portions of the Veda karo been translated by JIr Colebrooke, Sir William Jones, Dr Carey, and others The Vujasancy, or achite Yajus, is the shortest of tho Vedas, so far as respects the first and prinopal part, y17, the mantras (re) The Sanhulu of the J'azur --The Sanhıl of this Vedr is comprised in forty lecturs (adhya ja), unequally dudel into numerous short sections (handala . or lundiko), cich of which, in general, constitutes a prayer or Jantra It is also disidel, like the Rig-scia into anurulas (chapters) The number of these apilars to be 2G, the number of sections or verses is nearly two thousand (1987), but this includes inanı repetitions of the sainc text in dirers places The Idhya jas are very unequal, contuming froin 13 to 117 sections (hundika) The bluck Iny is 13 more cuprus 13 remaid: the Jlantra«, th in the white, but le- ro than the Rig veda Its Smilu 19 arranged in sevin bools (alshtale or kinela) containing from fire to cight lectures or chapters (.17'ya ja, Pras'11, or Prajathaka) Lach of these is sub dless lead into s ttiois (on traka), cluch are cqually distnbuted in the third and esxth lxxha, but unequally in the The line number exeuls Go. Yo almittedly human authors were noticed by Colebrooke in thu lela ·16 HANDBOOK OF SANSKRIT LITERITURE Nine entire Kánclas are ascribed to Prajapatı (the lord of creatufes), 18 many to the noon, spren to Agni (or fire), and sisteen to all the gods Vany of the topics are the same as those of the white Tyus, but differently placed and differently treated () The Brahmana and Upanishads of the Tajus - The fortieth and last chapter of this Veda 13 on Upanishad, called Isarasyam, which has been translated by Sir William Jones A part of this Upanishad, the Uada Arang aha, together with a commentary on the sime by Sankara Acharya, is now in the library of the Asiatic Society of London The Satapatha Brahmána 18 morc copious than the collection of prayers (the Sankıta), but the same order 29 followed in both The Trihadaranyaha, which constatutes the fourteenth book, is the conclusion of the white Yous This forms the Tribad Upanishad In it we have an account of Turáj (fatist), the first cause, dividing his own substance into malo and femalo of every creature, from man to the luwest animal In the second part of the Brahmına of the black Teda, religious obseruances are deseribed Its Upinishads are trro, the Taitturiyaka' and the Nariyanı Other Sábhás hare other Upanishads, as the Maitmyanı, Katha, and Swetaśratara The Jesuits forged a moderni tation of this Verla, called the Ezur Vedam Copies of the other l'edis it Sanskrit, written in the Roman charicter and in French, were found anong the manuscripts of the Catholic mis- ·DIT ISIOTS OF THE SUMA VEDA 17 sionary at Pondicherry (II Barthelmr) where the one in question was discovered A copy of the Ezur Vedam tas brought from India, and presented to Voltaire, who sent it, in 1761, to the Royal Library of France The forgery which had been manufactnred at the instigation of the Jesuits (it is said by Father Roberto de Sobilı, in the bererteenth century) has been able esposed in an article by the late F Ellis, Lsq , contained in the Transactions of the Literary Society of Bombar 3-OP TIE SANA TEL. Thuis Veda, so called from Suman, a prater arranged for singing, consists of more than 1,000 Sanhilus A peculiar degree of holuess seems to be aftached to it by the Hindus, it being supposed that the perusal of it is destructive of sin The prayers (fantras) belonging to it are composed in metre, and intended to be chanted. The principal if not the first part of the Sama veda 18 that entitled Archika It comprises prayers arranged in six chapters (Prapathaka) subdırded into half chapters, and into sections (dasalı), ten in each chapter, and usually containing exactly ten verses each. The same collection of prayers, in the same order, but prepared for chanting, is distributed in seventeen chapters, under the title of Gramageya gana Anotlıer portion of the Sama Veda, arranged for chant ing, bears the title of Aranja gana, and 29 subdınded in the same manner as the Archika 2 ·18 LANDBOOK OF SANSKRIT LITERATURE There are four Brahmanas of this Veda, received by four different schrols One is denominated Shadrınsa probably from its containing twenty-six chapters Another is called the Adbhuta-Brahmana But the best known 18 that entitled the Tandya, and an expositiot of it by Suyanacharya Its principal Upanishad is the Chhandegya, divided into eight chapters Another is called the Kena Upanishad These words are disquisitions on abstruse and mystical theology The Kena has been trans lated by Rammohan Ráy 4-OF TAS ATHARVA VEDA Severnl scholars, learned in Indian literature, have sup posed the fourth Veda, from its more modern djalect to be of less authonty than the others, and mill only acknowledge the first three to bo genuino "Passages of the Indian Scripture itself,” says Colebrooke, “ seem to support the inference, for the fourth Veda 19 not mentioned in the enumeration given in the white Yajush, bor in the followung text quoted from the Sastras by the commentator on the Rich "The Rig vcdi originated from fire, the Tajur Veda from air, and the Sáma-Veda from the sun" Iſence somo hold tho Atharran to be only a supplement to the others The popular dictionary, Amura Singha, rotices only thrre Vexdas, and mentions the Atharyan without calling it one The Sunhild, or collection of prayers and in Focation 4, belonging to the Atharcana, is comprised in twenty books (landa) subdivided into sections (anutuka), bymns (sukła), and verses (rich) Tho puber of verses 19 stated as ·DIVISIONS OF THE ATHARYA YEDA 19 . 6015, of sections, above 100, and the hymns amount to more than 760 The Atharvan contains many forms of imprecations for the destruction of enemies But it also comprises a num ber of prayers for safety and for averting calamities, as well as hymns to the gods with prayers to be used at solerin nites and religious exercises, excepting such as are named Yajna The most remarkable part of the Atharran consists of theological treatises, entitled Upanishads, which are appendant on it They are computed 39 fifty-two in number, but in this reckoning different parts of a single tract are considered as distiect Upanishads Four of such treatises, comprising eight Upanishads together with ex of those before described as appertaining to other Vedas, are perpetunlly cited in dissertations on the Vedanta Others are more sparingly, or not at all quoted The Gopatha Brahmana appears to belong to the second part of this Veda The first chapter traces the origin of the universe from Brahma, and it appears from the fourth section of this chapter than Atharvan is considered as a Prajupati (or king) appointed by Brahma to create and protect subordinate beings In the fifth chapter sereral remarkable passages, identifying the primeral person (Putusha) with the Year (Samratsara), consey marked allusions to the calendar $6 Concluding Remarks on the Vedas The genuineness of the Vedas in general has been fully proved by Colebrooke and others, that is, that they are ·Thus Tyasa 90 JIANDBOOK OF SANSKRIT LITERATURE the sime compositions which under the title of Veda havc Vecn revcrcd.by Ilindus for hundreds if not for: thousands of years From this opinion flowever, are excepted the detached Upanishada thich are not received into the best collections of fifty two theological tricts belonging to the Atharva reda and even some of those which aro thero inserted Tho of these Upanishads are particularly suspic1045 viz tho Ramı Tapaniya and the Gorel Tapaniya from the Pell known comparatively recent data of the worshup of Ráma and Krishna So plso every Upanishad that strongly farours the doctrines of these sects may be rejected as liable to much suspicion The Puranas relate multitudes of storics which show what holy men these Yedve authors were "himself was illegitimate and lived with his brother s wife by wlsom he had two children Vasishtha cursed his hundrců children and degraded them to the rank of Chandalas In the Rig veda is given a hymn repented by the enge to stop tho barking of a dog while he was break ing into a house to steal grain Gautamna cursed his wife for a criminal intrigue with Indra and afterwards received and Bhrigu murdered his own mother by cutting off her head The writers of the Vedas too disagree among them selves while the mythology therc taught 19 no better than that of the Puranas The natural philosophy of the Vedas is also ridiculous and in speaking of the origi of things they equal the Puranas in indelicacy and absurdity The Lilling the inhabitants of the three worlds and her PAIR ·PERIODS OF VEDIC LITERATURE 21 eating food with a person of inferior caste, are esteemed of equal magnutade by. Vanu, “the great grandson of Brahma, the first created of beings, and the holiest of legislators" $7 Periodical Distribution of Vedic Literature Professor Jax Juller' divides what he calls the Vedic age into four periods, viz ,(1) the Chhandas, (2) the Jantra, (3) the Brahmana, and (4) the Sutra periods, the last-named forming the connecting link between the Vedic and the later Sanskrit He excludes from the Vedic age such works as the Mahabhárata, Ramayana, Janu's Dharma Sastra, the Puránas, and all the Darśanas and Sastras generally, as later productions "Another important division of Vedic works must be always borne in mind, 122, Srutz' (revelation) and Smalı? (tradition) To the Sruti belong the Mantras and Brah- The Smrti includes not only Sutras, but also Sloka works, such as the laws of Vanu, Yáznavalkya, and Parusara, which cometimes are called the Smmtis, in the plural. Most of these, if not all, are fr anded on Sutras, but the texts of the Sútras hare been mostly superseded by these later metrical paraphrases "The Smrit has no independent authority, but derives manas Ia bus "History of Accient Sursknt Literature, from whyha azt ad erudile work the contents of this sert on bare been extracted, trigla 13a condensed form mostly 13 the Tery words of the learned author युति that which he been heari.” sofa that which has been remembered." → ·22 HANDDOOK OF SAVSKRIT LITERATURE its sanction from its intimate connection with the Srute Tor, os Kumárıla ºremarks, Recolection 19 hnowledge, the object of which 19 some previous knowledge, and if Dlanu and other authors of Smritis liad not omginally been in possession of uithoritatise lonowledge, st would be 172possiblo to appeal to their recolection as an authority Actordingly, there is no pussago in the Veda to warrant the authority of Smriti" I LITERATUEE OY THE CREANDAS PERIOD. age which "The Sutra, Brahmana atid Mantra periods of edac Literature, all point to some earher ve birth to the poetry of the early Risirs There was a time, * doubtless, when the songs which were collected with such careful zeal in the Mantra period, commented on with such cláborate pedantry during the Brahpana period and examined and analysed with such minute eractices during the Sutra period lived and were understood without any at hy a simple and ploug race There was a time when the sacrifices which afterwards became so bewildering a systein of ceremonies, were dictated by the free impuke of the human heart, by a yearning is render thanks to some Uabnown Being and to repay in words and deeds a debt of gratitude, accumulated from the first breath of life-a turae when the poet as the leader, the hug and priest of h13 family or tnbo, listened to and looked up to as better, nobler and wiser than the rest, and as a being nearer to tho gods in proportion is he was raised above the common level of mankind " Such men were at onco teachers lar ·THE CHEASDAS PERIOD 23 race. mrere, poets and priests Their teaching, poetry, and Religion, simple and caude 25 ther aree possess a pecular charm, as spontaneons, onginal and truthfal. "The greater portion of what we now poses of Vedic poetry must be aserībed to the Lantra (or Secondary) period, but there still remas enough to gire us an idea of an earlier race of Vedic poets. Even tho e earlis t specimens of Vedic composition, however, belong clearls, as Bunsen remarks, to the modern history of the lunan Ages must have passed before the grammatical texture of the Vedic Sanskrit could have assumed the consistency and regulanty which it shows throughout The sme applies to the religion of the Yeda. The warheat periods of its historic growth pust hare pas-ed atas long before the Rishis of India could have worshipped their Dercs, or "bright beings,' with sacred hymns and myocations. But we should look in rain in the literi ure of Greece or Pome, or of any other dryan nation, for docu ments from which to studr that interesting chapter in the history of mankind—the transitior from a natural into an artificial relimon— fall and valuable a3 we powers thera in the Veda.” The Chhandas period, intere-ting as it is in a philo sophical point of view, I reprewented br a rery limited Literature Several specimens of hymns to the god., etc., are giren by Mas Jullet, such as to Tarona (otparós), igni (fire), Indra (the king of the gods), the home (Aswa), the day. (Cshas), etc., and one to the liste Deros, or "all the godz.” Bat, in trorehan one of these has, a bet« a vils entEPRENE DIue bang (Jomon ·C 24 HANDBOOK OF SANSKRIT LITERATURE theism), though worshipped under vanous pames, is clearly expressed in verses which the Vedantists frequently quote and indeed have incorporated in their Upanishads. Somo of the hymns (especially those of a philosophical cast) are doubtless comparatively modern and may be assigned to the Mantra period, at latest, but those which belong clearly to an earlier date were probably composed between 1000 and 1200 BC, which Max Muller thinks should be assigned to the Chhandas period 2-PRODUCTIONS PP The MIXTRA PERIOD C "The only document we have in which we can study the character of the times previous to the Brahmana period is the Rrg reda Sanhitů The other two Sanhitás (viz of the Yajur veda and the Sáma veda) were in truth, what they have been called, the ‘attendants of the Rig-recla' The Brahmanas presuppose the Tray - Padya, the threefold knowledge,' a the threefold Veda, but that again presupposes one Veda, and that the Rig-reda It belongs to a period previous to the complete ascendancy of the Bráhmanag, and before the threefold ceremomal had been worked out in all its details And yet there is some system, some prestly influence, cleally distingushablo in that collection also The ten books of the Rig-Teda stand before us as separate collections, each belonging to one of tho ancient families of India, but there are traces in them of one superintending spint Light out of the ten Mandalas begin with hymns addressed to Agni, and thicse, with one exception, are in variably followed by hymns addressed to Indra ·THE DATE AND BRXHILLA PERIODS 23 This cannot be the result of mere accident, but must have been from prenous agreement, and it leads us to conclude that the Mandalas were not made independently by different families, but were collections carried out simultaneously in different localities under the supervision of one central authority" Vås Muller fixes the probable chronological lunts of the Mantra penod between 800 and 1000 BC 3-Works OF TEE BRAXAN PExion (a) of the Brahmanas-It 'is difficult to give an erhaustive definition of what a Brahmana is “They were Brahmanic (ie theological) tracts, compriswg the knowledge most valued by the Brabmans, bearing partly on their sacred hymns, partly on the traditions and customs of the people They profess to teach the performance of the sacrifice, but for the greater part are occupied with additional matter" chiefly connected with the Hindu faith and ceremonials. "4 Brahınana," says Sayana in his Introduction to the Rig Veda, "23 ttofold, containing erther commandments ( -i) or additional cxplanations (artharada)" The Veda consists of only two parts, the Vantras and the Brahminas, but the only particular a which the former can be distinguished from the latter 13 in their more peculiarls earrificial character Whatever part of the Veda is not a Junira, therefore, is a Brahmana, whatever be its subject matter Although different portions of the Veda are often referred to under the designation of Itthasas (epic stones), Purunas (cosmo- ·26 HANDBOOK OT SANSKRIT LITERATURE gonic stories), Kalpas (ceremonial miles), Gathas (song), Narzánsis (heroic poems), etc —all these titles apply only. to subdivisions of the Brábmanas The number of the Brahmanas, such as we possess them In DISS, is much smyller than ye should have expected from the definition thus guven above by Sayan? "If every Sabha consisted of a Sanhita and a Brahmana, the number of the old Brahmanas must have been very considerable It must not be supposed, however that the Brahmanas which belonged to the different Sakhás were works composed independently by different authors On the con trary as the Sanbitas of different Śákhas? were only different recensions of one and the same original collection of hymns, so the Brahmanas, which were adopted by different Charanasof the same Veda, must be considered not as so many independent works but in most instances as merely different editions of the same common original" • There was originally but one body of Brahmanas for each of the three Vedas for the Rig Veda, the Brahmanas of the Baher.chas for the Sama-Veda those of the Chhandogas and for the Yyjur Veda, in its two forms those of the Taittriyas and the Satapatha-brahmana These works were not composed in metre like the San bitás, and were therefore more exposed to alteration in the course of a long continued oral tradition" The Brahmana of the Bahrrichas is contained in the 1 CT 14 & branch (e of the Veda considered as a tree) means somot meg ad y39on or part sometimes an ed tion or recension 1 TC (ht & foot the root of & tree a famly or rece) s sometimes used As synonymons with IT01, at others as a part cular Brábmanical family or sect ·DPXIJI VAS OF TIE CILA DOGAS súbhás of the Artareyins and the Kanshulakıns which are still extant It is erident however that though we do not now possess them, there were other Sabhas of the Babyn chas which differed but little in the wording of their Brahmanas The Antarcra and Ezushitabı Brahmanas differ from one another considerably in their arrangement, but not to any extent otherwise "In the Bralimanas of the Chhandogas it 13 evident that, after the principal collection has made (called the Praudha or Panci acınsa brahmana re consisting of twenty five sections) a twenty sıxth was added, known by the name of the Slaleinsa bral mana This horever, together with the Adbhuta brahmana must be of vert modern date It mentions not only temples, but images of gods which are said to laugh to cry, to sing to dance, to sweat, and to twinkle These two (the Praudha and Shadrinsi) bare long been supped to be the only Brálimanas 'of the Chhandogas, but it is a curious fact that whenever the Chhundega brülimanas arc quoted their number is in variably fived at eight, which afo expressly nameal bs Súgant' But besides the Cama vidhána brahmana rhich is well known re hare only one NIS (nor'in the Bodleian librar) containing four small tricts with the titles of an many others mentioned l Susana maling peten in all The cilith was the Chhando o Upanishad. “With the crception of this and the Sama 57 Ihana thich contains most important information on qucetions connected with Icl ára or custome all the other tracts are of comparatively imrall importance' It in the valura'ha bral mind that we can best obecny ·28 LANDBOOK OF SAASTRIT LITERATURE the gradual accumulation of yirious theological and ceremonial tracts which were to form the sacred code of a nerv Charana According to Indian traditions, Yáznavalkya Vajuaneya, the founder of the Charana of the Vajasanleyins, was, if not the author, at least the first promulgator of the Sanhita and Bránana of the Charana so called " Ho and big adherents were seceders from the followers of the Adhvarya or Yajur veda, the sacred text of which school we possess in the Tarttırtya-eeda “The general name of the ancient Sakhas of the Yajur- Veda is Charaka, and the Taittırıyas, therefore, together with the Kathas and others, are called by the common title of Charaka-sál has This name (Charıka) 18 liserl in one of the Khilas (or "supplements") of the Vajasaneyi- Samhitá as a terms of reproach," evidently from a feeling of animosity against the ancient schools of the Adhvaryus The chief difference between the Sanh ta and Brahmana of the Vajasaneymas and those of the Charalas consists in the division of Mantras and Brahmanas, which is carried out more strictly in the works of the former school "This was most likely the reason why the text of Yajnavalkya was called Sukla Yajur leda, which is generally translated by the Thule Tajur-seda"? But some commentators explain Sakla more correctly by suddha (cleared'), because in this new text the Mantras had been cleared and ber ated from the Bráhmanas, and thus the whole been rendered more lucid and intelligible In opposition to this they suppose that the old text was called Krishna, or dark,' because in it the verses and rules are mixed together and less intelligible, or because the rules of the ·C 30 IDBOOK OF SANSKRIT LITERATURE. late production) the names of the Charanas of the different Vedas are given of the Rig veda, fire Charanas are mentioned Burt while the names of several old Sakhás (such as the Aitareyins, the Kauslitakins, etc ) are omitted, the Assalayanas, who are mentioned, must be considered as the founders of one of the latest Sabhás of that Veda The number of Sábhas of the Fajur reda is atated as eighty sex We hare, first, the twelve Charanas comprehended under the common name of Charakas, including the Afastrayanıyas, which are subdivided into seven Cha ranas, next the Tarttıriyas enbdivided into Aukhiyas and Khandiligas, these last comprise fire Charapasm-making twenty-seven in all Then follow the fifteen sakhas of the Tūjasaneyrns This brings the number only up to fortytwo, or including the Vájasaneyins, forty-thrce, exactly half the stated number, eighty 52x Of eren the names of the remaining sabhas we have now no record The largest number of Sukhás is ascribed to the Samareda It is .811d to have been one thousand, but the greater part of them no longer exist Of the Alhartareda nire divisions are mentioned, but the names given are incomplete and corrupt It is impossible not to determine which of the Charanas ove their origiu to Sutras, and which to Bráhmanas or Sanhitas Some of them certainly cţisted previously to the Sutra period, whilst others as evidently must be referred to the Brahmana period, such eg, as those ascribed to Yájnavalky Most likely the Sanhita charanas are restricted to the Rig-reda It is certain, at least, that ·DISTI\CTTO BETWEES CHARANAS AVD GOTRAS 31 no Brahmanas belonging to any Veda were composed before the division of .prests into Hobris, Udgátrus and Adhrary as had taken place Before then there was but one collection of hymns, that of the Bahynchas, and it is among the Bahyichas only that ve have any distinct tracce of Sanhitá charanas It is difficult to assiga a distinctive meaning to the terms Charana and Sakha By the latter, however, we may understand a particular book or recension of a work, whilo to should reserve the name of Chargna for those adcal successions, or fellowships, to which all belonged who road and received as their standard the same Sahha. We must distinguish, however, between a Charana and a Gotra "I Gotra, or Kula, means a family, and the number of families that had s right to figure in the Brahmanic pecrage of India was very considerable. The Brulugans were proud of their ancestors, and preserved tłıcır memory with the most scrupulous care Gotras existed amon; Kshatnyas and Varsyas, as well as among Bráluman, but Charanas were confined to the priestly caste Gotrag depended on a real or inaginary commnunits of blool, Charanas on the commanity of sacred texts. Thes were dal fellotelups, held together by ties moro micrel in the creg of a Brahman than the mene tics of blood Jembers of different Gotrai taight belong to the same Charana. When the member of a Gotra became the founder of a new Charana, that Charing might bear the naine of its founder and thus become synonymou, bat not idor lical rith a Goth • III Brat inanic fimilice sho hap the sacred fire are ·TIE GOPATIA BRXIUANA 33 . sacrifices He is the Hotrı as well as Adhvaryu among the gods, and 13 supposed to invite the gods to the sacrifice, and to carry himself the oblation to the seat of the immortals "To marry a woman belonging to the same Gotra, or having the same Pravara, vas considered incest, and visited with sciere penance There are exceptions, howcver, to this rule among the Bhrigus and Angirasas" Thrco out of the thuteen Gotras of the Bhrigus may intermarry Thic Brihmanas represent a most interesting phasa in the history of the Indian mind, but, judged by themselves as literary productions, they cannot be matched anywhere for pedantry and downright absurdity Their gencral character is marked by shallow and insipid grandiloqucnce, by priestly conceit and antiquarian pedantry They are not the work of only a few individuals The most modern differ very little in sty lo from the most ancient, but Max Muller considers that the Brihmanı period extended orer at least 200 years, riz, from about 600 to about 800 DC “There is onc Torh connected with the Bráhmana period tluch dieseres special mention, viz , the 'Gopatha Brah- This is the Bruhmans of the Brahma reda, tho Veda of the Artharr ingiras', or the Blingu Angiras' Tius Veda does not belong properly to the sacred literature of the Blrshimins, and though in later tun it obtained the title of the Fourth Veds, there ras originally a broad distinction b tween the magic formulas contained in it and the hymns of the Baluchas, the Chlian logas, and the Melroryza" llic Pala is geoerally spoken of by the nara 3 ·34 HANDBOOK OF SANSKRIT LITERATURE » Brálmans either as one, or a threefold, yız, the Rich, the Yajush, and the Saman “The duties of the Hori priests are described in the Rig reda, those of the Adhtaryu in the Pajur, and those of the Udgatn in the Sama reda The duties of the Brálunan and the sacrifices are contained in all three, The Atharta reda, on the contrary, 13 110€ used for the sacrifice, but only teaches how to appetse, to bless, to curse, etc. But though the hymns of the Athartans were not from the first looked upon as part of the sacred Literature of the Brahmans the Brahmana of the Athar vans belongs clearly to the same literary period with the other Brahmanas, and though it does not share the sime aathonty with those of the three great I erias it is written in the same language and breathes the same spirit (e) of the Aranyakas and Upanishads The Brahmanas differ in style both from the Sutras und from the Intras, and are supposed to have come into ex. istence at a period intermediate between them But as between the Sutras and the later Sanskrit literature we shall find a connecting link in the writings katrofimi under the name of Parisisihas, so, between tbc Brah mana and the Sutra periods, we mect with a class of Torks of intermediate dates, viz the Aranyakas, or "Treatises of the l'oresta" These were so called, as Sáyana inforzas us, because they had to be read in the forest "It might almost seen as if they were intended for the Tana prasthas only, people who, after having performed all the duties of 1 student and a houscholder, retire from the world to the forest ta end their days in the conteroplation of the Deity In several instances the Ananyalas forma ·TIE KPULITAKIS AND UT LISU ADS 33 part of the Brahmanas, and they are thus made to share the authonts of Srutz, or rerelation The most important Úpanishads, which are full of philosophy and theologs, form part of the Aranyakas, and (particularls in later tımcs) the Aranrala was consider the quintessence of the Vedas" The Kranyahas pre suppose the existence of the Brah manas, and may be considered as enlargements upon thern “The philosophical chapters, known by the name of Upanishads, are almost the only portion of Vedic Iiterature which is extensivelr rçad to this day They are supposed to contain the biggest authonty on which the various systems of philosophy in India reyt The founders of the various systems, if they have any pretensions to orthodont, inranably appeal to come passage in the Upanishads in order to substantiate their own reasonings However, then ryne of the ancient Upanishads could be found to suit their purpose (liberal and conflicting as they often arc) the founders of net sects had no scruple and Do difficulty in composing nen Upinishads of their own Tlus accounts for the large and crer increasing number of these trcatiacs, the most malern of which scem now to cnjoy the same authorts as the really ancient and scaune The original Upanıshads had their places in the Brahtonnag and mnrikas, but chiefis in the latter The etimology of the word Upanulad is doul·ful It Ber?* horurer, to finufs atling dorm near somlwdir, in order to listen, or to mediate and worship (from upa+ni +87) The names of the author of the principal Tranishads 71 ·36 IANDEOOK OF SANSKRIT LITERATURE are unknown There are but ten which are now generally stuflict in Bengal“viz , the Brihadtrany aka, the Altareya, Chhandos; &, Taittiriya, Isa, Kenn, Katha, Praśna, dun. daka, and Mandúkya, which bave all been printed Rammohan Ray published several of them with notes and translations, and, more recently, an excellent edition of them all (both text and commentary), by Dr Roer, las appeared in the volumes of the Bibliotheca Indica A-LITERATURE OF THE SÚTRA TERIOD "The period of the Sutra literature of India extends from 600 to 200 BC, during which the Vedangas, Anukrunants, etc, were composed This was posterior to the Mąutra and Brahmana periods, and to that of the Vedas gezerally "The productions of the Sutra period form the connecting unk between the Vedic and the later Eanslarit literature But whilst, on the one hund, we must place several worhs written in Sŭtras under the hcad of the post-Vedic or modern Sanskrit, we also find others which must be considered as the last productions of the Vedic age, trespassing in a certain degrec upon the frontiers of tlic later Sanskrit "Tlic word Sutra (7) literally means 'a string,' and all the works written in this style, on subjects the most Various, aro nothing but one uninterrupted string of short sentences, twisted together into the most conci8c form Shortness in the great object of this style of composition, and it is a proverbial saying (tahen from the Lahábbáskya) amongst the Pandits, that ‘an author rejoreeth in the sconomizing of balf a short towel as much as in the ·ANUTRITTI AYD NIRFRITTI 37 birth of a son' Lvery doctrine thus propounded, whether grammar, metre, law, or philosophy, is teduced to & merc Bhcleton All the important points and joints of a system aro land open with the greatest precision and clcarness, but there is nothing in these works like connection or development of ideas Even the apparent simplicity of the design, as Colebrooke remarks, 'ranishes in the perplexits of the structure The endless pursut of exceptions and limitations 60 disjoins the general precepts, that the reader cannot hecp in view their mtended connection and mutual relation Je wanders in an intricate mazc, and the clew of the labyrinth is continually slipping from lus handa” There is no life or meaning in these Sátrs, except what either a. teacher or running commentary, by which there works are usually accompanied, mas impart to them any of these worhs go even further they not cols cypress their fundamental doctrines in thus concise form of language, but they coin a new hind of language, by which they succeed in reducing the whole system of their tencts to merc algebraical forjuulas The hey to thns sy stom 19 generally given in separate Sútras, callel Pariolushi, whichi & pupıl must brion by heart, or have always present before his eyes, if he is to adrance one step in the reading of such works But cien then it woull be imp sible to arrive at any real understanding of the rulject, without being also in pas cesion of the laws of the so-callal nucnitli and Mirroitto "To explain the meaning of the technical trorda, The must remember that the Sutras generallybugin by putting forward one proposition (adhihóra) which is actor after.

·THE SUTRAS, SPUTI AND SMRITI 39 carcer spend half their life in acquinng and practising them, until their memory is strengthened to such an unnatural degree, that they know by heart not only these Sútras, but also their commentaries, and commentares upon commentaries Instances of this are found among the learned in India up to the present day “The numerous Sufra vores which we still possess, con tain the quintessence of all the knowledge which the Brahmans had accumulated during many centuries, of study and meditation Though they are the worls of individuals, they one to their authors little more than their form, and even that form vas, most likely, the result of a long continued system of traditional teaching, and not the invention of a fer andividuals " There is a great difference, according to the Hindús themselves, between a work composed previously to the Sutra period andą? Sutra composition The difference of style between a Brahmana and a Sutra work (with the cxception of somo Kalpa Sútras) is most striking, though, as regards the grammatical forms, I edic irregularities are, according to Sanshnt graminarians, allowed in Sutras niso But there is a still moro important difference besides that of style Literary works belonging to the preceding periods, the Brahmanas as well as the Mantras, arc con sidered by Indian theologans as forming the bruts, or dirino reuclation, in contradistinction to the Sútras and all the rest of their literature In the dogmatical language of orthodox llindús, the works which contain the Sruti hare not beca composed, but have only been seen or percened by men, re they hare beca rerealed to them ·11 CLAPTER II OTHIE DIARII SYSTRAS, OR SICRED SCT IPTURES, SUPPLEMENTARY TO TIE VED IS şi Generall, Described These belong partly to the Brábmana and partir to the Sútra periods of Sanskri literature, and consist of 1 --Tax Frutta (a + 4 sep 2, obycet, or eenpe ) Under this name there is an ancient work in Sanskrit, by Pyava, or Jairuni, said to hare been composed abore two thousand years ago, and to contain an abstract, or quintessence, of all the Vedas united This trork is also hnown as the Púrrá limanı, that 13, the first or most ancient enqurs, in opposition to the Uttara or Brahmi Jiman'a, one of the Philosophical system. The great authorities for its doctrincar the works called the Todanta Sulra and the Drahma Sutra The commentary on these Bis Sankara 'chiryal 18 the last Rammolan Rás published a translation of the Vedánta into Beagili, mth an intrre-ting prefice, in 1915 For further regards on the Vedantz and Jimins's doctrines, Ece the account of threr Darsanas under the Plulo-ophical systems." Muered by Cosmotes the begane 1.9.3 tratar ·LANDBOOK OF SANSKRIT LITERATURE - 2 - TsceUra Vedts (34, near, or 1014ed to, +) These supplementary Vedas are sard to be immediatelſ deduced from the Vedas themselves They are four in number The first, called the Ayus (Prge or smage"), is said to have been delivered by Brahma, Indra, Dhanrantati and five other deities, and comprises the theory of diseases and medicines, with the practical methods of treating bodily disorders The second viz , the Gandharrra (Tor"a celestial minstrel'') a treatise on music, was composed by Bharata The third, called the Dhanus ( Or 47 "a bow"), on the fabrication and use of arms and implements employed by the Kshatriya caste, was written by Visvamitra The fourth, called the Sthapatya (ETT "guard of the women's apartments”), or the Šulpa (forçou a mechanıcal art"), was revealed by Visvamitra also, in various treatises on sixty-four mechanical arts, for the improvement of such as exercise ther. Of the more minute contents of the above works, we have as yet no accurate information Indeed it is believed that they are now lost Upon Mugic, as formamg part of the religion of the Hindús, there is a treatise by Sir William Jones 3--TAC VEDÁNOAS (ET,' member of the Teda ) These are considered as in Bome sense a subordinato part of the Vedas Sus sciences are treated of in them, . Yiz ·TUE 1 EDITGAS 43 . 1 Siksha (Tan),' or the science of pronunciation and articulation 2 Chhandas (a), prosody, by the Muni Pingala 3 Vyuharana () or grammar, by three Nishrs 4 Nirukla (front), or thi csplanation of dificult or obscure words and phrases that occur in the Vedas 5 Kalpa (**a), an account of religious ceremonies Jyotisha (üfau), on astronomy or astrology, by Surya 4-Tag Uravou (3976' adlitional limus ) These are four in pumber, F12, the Purana, or history, thc Nyuja, or logic, the limunsu, or moral philosophy, and the Dharma Sustra, or jurisprudence 82 Parlıcular Description of the Vedúngas The Sikslia and Chlanilas arc consideral nccessary reading the Veda, the Vaharana and Airuhta for understanding it, and the Jyotisha and Kalpa for employing at at sacrifices I The skelu - Jax Juller thuals that the rulce of Shahu tcrc formctly cmlvlied in the cork callal the Tarttıriya Aranyala, and perhaps als in the Brálınanam, though they afterparls lost their place there Thu lır accounts fur by the appuarance, subxquently, of mori scientific treatises on the 59200 subjects, inatu moru #1stcoaticalls, yiz (n) The Iruliukhyar The origin of threr le thus "A done from 1 (be ?'), ceoul Miyu deset * lleret , TIT, "1 les les for ·IANDBOOK OF SANSKRIT LITERATURE describes “During the Brahmana period the songs of the Veda were preserved by oral tradition only and as the spoken language of India had advanced and left the idrom of the Veda behind as a sort of antique and sacred utterance it was difficult to preserve the proper pronunciation of the sacred hymus without laying down certain rules on metre, accent, and pronunciation in general The necessity, how ever, of such a provision could hardly have been feld until certain differences had actually arisen in different seats of Brahmanic learning Thus, when the attempt was made to present a further corruption, a certain nuim 'ber of local varieties in accent and pronunciation, and in the recital of the hymns, had actually crept in and become sanctioned by the tradition of different families and schools We find in the Brahmanas occasional mention of verses which, of improperly pronounced, become changed 12 meaning" "In the Pratsakhyas the rules and exceptions of the old sacred dialect were first reduced to a system Tuo real object of the Prátisakhyas was not to teach the grammar of the old sacred language, they are never called V'yalarains (grammars), and it is only incidentally that they allude to strictly grammatical questions The perfect phonetic system on which Panipi's Grammar 13 bult 18 no doubt taken from the Prátisákhyas, but the source of Pánını 8 stretly grammatical doctrines must be looked for elsewhere" Tuis work, though ascribed to onc author, must have required ages of observation and collec tion before its plan could be conceived or carried out by one indydual > ·46 HANDBOOK OF SANSKRIT LITERATURE revelation (Śruti), and they bear all tho came frult, the sacrifice (karman). If otherwise, they would be different trees, not different branches Blore frequently, however, Sákhá 13 used to signify the various editions, or, more properly, the various traditions, that brincbed off from each of the three original branches of the Vida In this latter sense, Sakha seems sometimes synonymous with Charana But there was originally an important difference in the meaning of these tivo terms" (c) The Craranas Śákhá means originally a iterary 2012, Charana, a school or collection of readers Accordingly we meet with such expressions as Śckham adhite (TTTTA wa) "he reads a certain edition of the Veda," but never Charanam adhute (TITA wa)," he reads 7 Charang” “ If śákhá is sometmes used in the sense of Charana or sect, tiltus is because in India the Sahhas existed, in reality not as written books, but only in the tradition of the Charanas, each member of a Charana representing and embodying what, in our modern times, Fe should call the copy of a bool Women, even, are mentioned as belonging to a Charano A binha, which is always a portion of the Śs utt, cannot properly include low books But followcra of ccrtain Sakhas might well, in the course of time, adopt a code of laws which, as it was bunding on their Charani only, woull oturally go by the name of their Charana Thus the Pritzsákbzas also nere called by the name of the Charanas, because they were the cxclusive property of the rcaders of certain Silhác, and cren moro 60 than thie Kuladharmas, or family laws ·TIE CII IRITIS AD PAPISHADS 47 "As a Suhhí consisted of a Sanhita as well as a Brahmann chferences in the text of the humns, as well.as in the Brahmanas might lead to the establishment of new Charanıs, founded as they mero on sacred texts peculiar to themsclic But, altlıough the cannot doubt that there was an orginal difference between Salha and Charana at 13 certain that these to words were frequently used synonymously, just as we muy spicah of the Jets then rro mean tho Old Testament or of the Koran Then wo mcan the Staliomm lans” (d) The Parshada and Parishads As the terms Sabha and Charans are frequently confounded, so also are those of Parslıda and Prafisálhra 'Thougl crery Prátisallra may be called a Parshada fue a voril belonging to a larshad) not erery larghada can be called a Prutisahva Amara (the great Ilindu kexicographer) esplaine Parishad by Sabla or Goshtir son ac cililly But in Janu's cole of laws, and clserbere, we have the more dcfimte opplication of the term Ac corling to these writers a l'ansiad ought to consist of tuonti-onc Brilimine well versal in philosophy, thcologs, anllan It was such an a cscmllr as slod l be competent to gir docu i ns on all points on which the purple generallt mught denunc odrice That such l'anishads or Bralımnanic Act'lcments culsel in olden timer, 19 ccrtain from our radling in the balirnyata fit instance, that "Stre takreement in the l'util ? 1 of the l'anchalıç," and many l'arın sors I our, or cron thirce Allor107 from in E the Bralimans in a place who Inox ili lala ou l Icep the sacrical fire, formu a Parishad' similar 14618 ·48 II ADBOOK OF SAISLRIT LITERATURE “The real difference betycon 2 Charana and a Parishad scems.to be that tlfo former sigmfics an ideal succession of teachers and pupils who learn and teach a certain branch of the Veda, while the latter means a settlement of Brah mans, a community on college, to which members of any Charana might belong Thus the members of the same Charana might belong to different Parishads, and of the samo Parishad to different Charanas () The Kula dlarmas, or have Books, could not be called Pritisábhyas, but they might claim the title of Charanas or Párshadas “These Dharma Sustras, as wc DOW possess them, betray their comparatively modern origin by their form and metre, and occasionally by their matter also They were probably made up only in order to fill up the gap which had been occasioned by the loss of ancient law books This loss was felt the more severely because the names of the old authors retained their celebrity, and were stull quoted in common practice and courts of law Large portions of the Kula dharmas are written in Sutras, as mught be expected in works contemporaneous Tith the Prátisákhyas It has been thought that the sources of Marfu's, and other Dharma Sastras must be looked for in the Grihya-Sutras This is not quite correct The Grihya Sutras are concerned chiefly with the Sanskaras, or domestic sacraments extending from the birth to the marriage of a man, and in so for only as these sacraments form a portion of the subjects treated of in the Dharma Sastras, the Grihya Sutras might be considered as their original sources. By far the greater portion of these Dharma-Sastras, or codes of law, 15 tahen up with Aclari, ·MAYU. TIE CHHAYDAS 49 1 e. laws, manners and customs, and especially the duties to be performed by an individual on his on behalf. They art of great importance for forming a correct view of the old state of society in India, and the loss of the larger number of them is greatly to be regrefted." “ The Mánara-dharma-Sastra, the law book of the MISnavas, et subdivision of the sect of the Taittiriyay, or, as it is commonly called, the 'Lars of Manu,'' is almost the only work in Sanskſit htcrature," obertes Vax Müller, "which, as yet, has not been assailed by those who donbt the antiquity of ererything Indian. No historian has disproved its claim to that early date which had from the first been assigned to it by Sir William Jones It must be confessed, however, that his proofs of the antiquity of this code cinnot be considered as conclusive, and no sufficient arguments have been brought fortard to substantiate any of the different dates ascribed to Vanu, as the author of our Law-Book, which vary, according to different writers, from 880 to 1280 BC." 2. The Chhandas, or Prosody, which is reckoned the second part of the Vedángas, stands very much in the same position as the Sikshá. Some name, which have been afterwards adopted as the technical designations of metres, occur in some of the Jantras of the Rig-veda, and there are frequent allusions to metres in the Brábmanas. What is said in the Brahmanas, however, on this ..13 1.r- 1 L 41 I'uran. of in time o those . later ww Lagu vy eir paw Jones.

·50 HANDBOOK OF SANSKRIT LITERATURE subject is in general so full of dogmatic and mystical ingredients as to be of scarcely any practical use In the Aranyakas and Upanishads whole chapters are devoted to prosody But it is in the Sútras of the Chhandas only that a real attempt has been made to arrange these archard metres systematically "The work of Pingalanága on Chhandas, which 19 most frequently quoted under the title of Vcdánga, does not pretend to be of greater antiquity than the Mahabhashya, if it be admitted that Patanjalı, the author of this famous commentary on Panin, vas the same as Pingala" This work is one of the latest that could possibly be included in the Sutra period, and to that it probably belonged Pingala at any rate, is quoted as an authority in the Pars sishtas a class of literature which does not seem to be separated from that periol by a long interval Two other works on Chhandas (also, like Pengala's, not restricted to certain Sahhas but intended for the Veda in general) are referred to by the commentator on the Sakala Pratsakhya, the one aschbed to Yaska and the other to Sartara But neither work appears to be estant no 3 Vyakarana, or Grammar, forms the third Yedánga According to Indian authors this branch of Vedic learning Fould be represented by the grammar of Párını But in that celebrated work "the rules wuch refer to Vedic gram mar un particular, form only the exceptions to thoso which arc applicable to the regular or classical language Instcad, therefore, of considering the third Vedánga doctrino 29 represcuted by grommarians beginning with Pánımı (MURITE ), as Indian writers do, it would be more ·P.XYTYI THE VIDETI. 51 correct to say that it 13 represented by the grammarans ending with Panini (fa) Panini's work, horrerer, by' its merits, acquired such a celebrity as to supersede almost all that had been written on the subject before him, so that, except the names and some particular rules of former grammarans, we have little left of this branch of literature, except what occurs occasionally in the Pratisakhyas And, by a comparison of Panını’s Sutras with those of the Pratsal hyas, it 13 endent that he largely availed himself of the works of his predecessors, frequently adopting their very expressions, though he quotes their Tlames but rarely, and only as authorities for special rules There are two separate treatises on ammatical subjects which belong to a period anterior to Panını, viz the Sutras on the Unadh (Buf) affixes, and the Sutras of Santanacharya on accents The Unádı affixes are those by which nouns are formed from roots. They are so called because in the Sutras us me not possess them, un (34) is the first mentioned affis." We do not know by whom those Sutras Tere first composed They seem to have been originally intended for the Veda only, but afterwards enlarged by the addition of rules for the formation of non- Veda (Bhásha) words It is uncertain to what exact period the Phitutros of Santana belong' 4 Nirukla, or Etymology, is the fourth Vedang.. This, like the Vyalarang, is represented by but one work, generally known by the name, Tasla's Nirulla He seems to have been onc of the last authors who ernbodied the etymological lexicography of Vedic terms (to which it exclusively refers) in one separate work Other previous ·50 II 4 DBOOK OF SIISKRIT LITEN ATUTE. Niruktárus (or autliors of Niruktas) are mentioned by YasLn, komo of 1 hor must line bech as famous as lumself, and are likewise referred to in the l'urána, Tbc Brahmanis contain very rich materials for etymologies and 8} non17nous expressions, and, Trith the exception of the knlp, no other l'alinga king a better clun than the Miruhta to be considered as foundal on the Brahinan19 L'usha: Norulla (vluch 19 commonly distinguistici by the namo of Siglantu) and Pusla's Comncntary on thc Niruhta tror two separate works, though often confounded The Nuruh ta consists of three parts, vız, the Maighantuki, the Naigama, and the Dairala . The Toril Nighants applies to works wlicre, for most part, synonymous tehins are taught Ten Niglantug aro usually mentioned, including tho works of Anara Sinha Vijayantı IIaláyudha, etc IIence the first part of Yaslia's Niruhta is callce Naghantula, comprising the first three Adhyajas Migama means Veda and, as in the second part, words are taught which usually occur in the Vedr only, the title of Nargama (the fourth Idhyaya) 18 811en to it The Daulata (the fifth Idhaya) Ix so named from its treating of the gods (ET), viz, of the earth, of the air, and of the sky The whole worl consisting of five Adhyijas (or chapters) and three parts, is called Nirukta (fata) because the meaning of ecords is given there irrespectare of anything else from nıriach, “to explain 6 Kalpa, or the Ceremonial—Thig 19 the fifth and most complete of the Vedangas, for which we have not only the Brálmanas of the different Vedas but also their respective Sutras "The Sutras contain the rules referring to the ·THE KALPA SUTRAS 53 Sacrifices, with the omission of all things which are not immediately connected with the performance of the ceremonial They are more practical than the Brahmanas, which, for most part, are taken up with mystical, historical, mythological, etymological, and theological discussions” Orthodox Brahmans do not admit that Brahmanas and Sutras belong to the same class of literature The former was Srut the latter Smriti Originally a Brahmana was a theological tract, and was called so, not because it treated af the Bruhman, the Supreme Spırt, or of sacrificial prayers, but because it was composed by and for Bráhmans These Bráhmanas were gradually collected in different famulies, or Parishads and gave rise to greater works, which were equally called Brahmanas Thc.Sutras were later compositions, in which the Brahmanas were more systematically arranged " The Kalpa Sutras follow the same system as the Brah mana, They pre suppose however, not only the existence of three distinct collections of Brahmanas, but of different Sábhas, or recensions, which in the course of time had branched off from cach of them” The Kalpa Sutras were composed contemporaneously with Panin, and even after his time They form a kind of grammar of the Vedic ceremonials useful for the members of all Charanas recording the duties of the different orders of priests, viz the Hotri, Adhtarya, and Udgalr There were two other classes of Sutras, forming a bort of appendices to the Kalpa Sutras and belonging to the Banc branch of literature with the Srauta Sutras, but in distinction from them included under the title of Smarta ·51 HANDBOOK OF SANSKRIT LITERATURE. Sutras, as deriving ther authority from Smriti, or immemorial tradition, the others being founded on the śruti, ze the Mantras and Brahmanas These additional Sutrag were called the Grenya and the Samayacharila The Gșihya Sútras descube the ceremonies to be performed by the married householder, chiefly for the benefit of his family The Sámapáchárka rules were those to be observed by the rising generation, and which should regulate the various relations of every-day life It is chiefly in the Sámayachérika, or, as they are sometimes called, Dharma Sutras, that we bave to look for the originals of the later metrical law books, such as Manu, Yajnarnlk ya, Parusara, and the rest Grihya probably meant originally "the house," or "the famıly hearth," from griha, “a house” (włuch, however, some Hindu commentators say means also "a wife"), and it wảs in opposition to the great sacrifiers, for which several hearths were required (and therefore called Partanha), that the domestic ceremonies were called Grihya, as per formed by means of the ono domestic fire The Samayachárka Sutras are interesting on account of the light which they throw on the every-day Life of early Brahmans 6 Jyotisha, or Astronomy --This was the sixth and last of the Vedángas Its literaturo 19 very scanty, and the small treatise, tisually quoted as "the Jyotisha," belongs to the same class of works as the Sikslu Colebrooke Xpeals of different Jyotishas for each Veda, and he calls one, which was a commentary, the Jyotisha of the Nigveda Among bus MSS, however (at the East India ·THE JYOTISHA THE PARISISHTAS 55 House), there is but one work of this lind This tract is later than the Sutra pertod, and we possess as yet no Tork on ancient astronomy composed in the style of the early Sútrag The doctrines it propounds represent the earliest stage of Hindú astronomy Its object, howerer, is not to teach that science, but merely to convey such knowledge of the heavenly bodies as was necessary for finng the days and hours of the Vedic sacrifices It was the establishment of a sacred calendar which, in India, as elsewhere, gave the first impulse to astronomical studies “The fact," as Jax Muller observes, " that the name of the moon is the same in Sanskrit, Greek, and German, and that it is derived from a root which originally means "to measure," shows that even before the separation of the Indo European family, the moon had been looked upon as the chief means of measunog time And the close connexion between the names of moon and month proves that a certain knowledge of lunar chronology existed daring the same early period.” In the Rig Veda allusion is even made to a thirteenth or intercalary month . 5 -Tag PARISISATAS This is a class of works intimately contiected with the śútra period, although eridently of a somewhat later date than the Sútras, and, as the very name' implies, of secondary importance They have, however, a character of their own, and they represent & distinct period of Ilundu literature, which, though it shows clear traces of intellectual 1 fifTe, “a supplement, Tapale sopivas ·50 JALDBOOK OF SAVSKRIT LITEILITUPE. And literary degeneracy, 19 not to be altogether orerlooked IN A, Tork Iiko tliis Some of the Parsishtng profces to be composed by authors whoso names, doubtless, belong to tho Sutra period Thus Saunala 19 gard to have been thic author of the Charanır ália, Kútyayan of the Chhandog parisishta, and Kuśika, knonn as tho iter of the Atharrara Sutras, is the reputał author of the Atharvana-parisightas also Tho stylo of these compo itions is less concise than that of tic Sútras, gesembling more that of the Bárhaddurata and Rig vidháua, works orginalls composed us Saunala, but landed down to us apparently in a more modern form They do not, however, exhibit that monotonous uniformity which to find in the Dharma Sástry of Vanu, or in tho later Purunas The simplo Aposhtubla Sloka preponderates in them, nnd the metre is moro regular than that of the Anushtuleh compositions of Saunah2, the genuineness of which is less doubtful Tho Parsishtas, therefore, secm to belong to the Vedic age, but may be considered as the very last outskirts of Vedie literature There is a collection of Parisıshtas for cach Veda, eighteen being attributed to the Yajur Veds, and sefenty four to the Atharyana The Rug and Sama-Vedas seem not to have had so many, but their number is uncertain They are said to have been Whitten in the form of dialogues, in a style similar to that of the Puranas It 15 remarkable that Panipt seems not to have luown the Parsishtas even by name ·PART IT. PHILOSOPIICAL LITERATURE CHAPTER I ON THE SIX DARSANAS, IN GENERAL, AND THE NYAYA AND VAIS ESHIKA IN PARTICULAR (a), viz, $1 The Schools Enumerated and Analysed The Hmdús have six schools or systems of Philosophy the Nyaya, Varseshika, Sunkhya, Yoga, Vedanta, and Dimansa Darsana The Vaiseshika being in some sort supplementary to the Nyája, the two are familiarly spoken of as one collective system under the name of Nyája, and as the case 19 1 The anthonties chiefly quoted from, in tins and two subsequent chapters are. Vard on the Hindoos and Dr Ballantyne's pnze essay. Christianity contrasted with Hinda Philosophy he the various treatises au cou trenlanes Wien Buuu ! Alosopb} bas produced. BI Cousin (in hus“ Cours de 1 Histore de la Philosophie endeavours to trace among the Hindú Philosopliers, the Sensualism the Idealism, the Scepticism the Fatalism, and the lysticism of the ancient Grecian and modern European Schools ·58 HANDBOOK OF SANSKRIT LITERATURE somewhat similar with the two other pazrs, it is customary to speak of Hindu Philosophy as being divisible into the Nyaya, the Sankhya, and the Vedanta Schools These three systems, if we follow the commentators, differ more in appearance than in reality, and hence they are, each in its degree, viewed with a certain amount of favour by orthodox Hindus Their common bond of union is their implicit acceptance of the Vedas as among Christians the Bible which, however, they explain differently In this respect, and on this ground, they unite in opposing Buddhism, which denies the authority of the Vedas These three systems differ from one another in the several points of view from which they regard the unirerse, -or things in general, --29 standing in relation screrally to sensation, emotion, and intellection "The Natyayıla, founding on the fact that we have various sensatzons, enquires that, and how many, are tho channels through which such varied browledgo flows in ? Finding that there are fivo very different channels, ko imagines fire different oxternals adapted to these IIence, his theory of the five elements-the aggregate of that the Nyaga regards as the causes of afiliction "The Sankhya, struch with tho fact that tre have emotions—th an ere to the question tchende our impres. bions come coquires their quality Art they pleasing, slispleasing, or different? These three qualities constituts, for lum, tho esternal, and to theit aggregato ho gives the name of Nature (uafa) "With the Britayiha ho agrecs in Haslung that we cro rell rid of all three, holding that things plcasing, ·THE NYIYA GAUTAMA 59 . and things indifferent, are not less incompatible with man's chief end than things positively displeasing "Thus, while the Nyaya allows to the external a substantial existence, the Sankhya admits its existence only as an aggregate of qualities While both allow that it really (eternally and necessanly) exists "The Vedantın, rışıng above the question as to what is pleasing, displeasing, or indifferent, asks simply what is and what is not The categories are here reduced to two -the Real and the Unreal The categories of the Nyaya and the Sanhhya were merely scaffolding for reaching this pinnacle of Philosophy The implied foundation was in all respects the same, viz , the Veda" i Thus the Nyáya is conveniently introductory to the Sáokhya, and the Sankhya to the Vedanta" and it is in this order that in Hindu schools, where all three are taught, the learner usually takes them up The Nyaya is the ezoteric doctrine, the Sankhya a step nearer what is held as truth, and the Vedanta the esoteric doctrine, or the naked truth 82 As to the Founder of the Nyata School The Nyaya system was originally concocted by Gautama, of whose personal history, however, but very little is known From the Ramayana and the Puranas we learn that he was born at Himalaya, about the same time as at the commencement of the Treta Yuga (or second age of the world), that he married Abalya, the * Ballantyne s Essay Ráma, ie, ·60 HANDBOOK OF SANSKRIT LITERATURE daughter of Brahmá, and afterwards cursed her on account of criminal intercourse with Indra, the king of the gods He is said to have lived as a very austere ascetic, first at Pryaga (now Allahabad), then in a forest at Mithila (Uuttrı), and latterly, (after the repudiation of his wife) in the Himalayan mountains His son, Satananda was priest to Janaka King of Bathila, the father of Sita the wife of Rama From the above statements we may seo how Little reliance can be placed on the historical reracity of the Puranas These works assure us that Gautama, though he lived in the second or silver agc, married a daughter of Brahma, but they meet the anachronism by affirming that all the sages live through the four Yugas (the Satya Tretá, Dwupay, and Kali), înto which the lindos divido the whole couro of the world's existence 1 2 $3 of the Doctrucs of the Nyags School "Tho Nyuya offers the sensational aspect of Ilindú Philosophy In saying this, it is niet mçant that the Ng 4ya confines itself to sensation, caeludiog (motion and intellection, nor that the other systems ignore the fict of sensation, but that the armngement of this system has a moro pointed regard to the fact of the fiso rcnscs than the others havc, and treats the external moro franbly as a bolic rcalaty "The Bord Mj 632 means 'propriety or fitnes,' and the Bystcm undertakey to declare the proper niethorl of omnuing at that knowledge of the truth, the fruit of whichi, it 1 Vand oa the Illadda ·THE NYXYA SYSTEM 61 promises, is the chef end of man The name is also used, in a more limited application, to denominate the proper añethod of setting forth argument This has led to the practice of calling the Myaya the Hindu Logic,' a name which suggests a very inadequate conception of the scope of the system The Nyaya system was delivered by Gautama in a set of aphorisms, so very concise, that they must, from the first, haye been accompanied by a com mentary, oral or written The aphorisms of the several Hindu systems, in fact, appear designed, not so much to communicate the doctrine of the particular schools, as to ard, by the briefest possible suggestions, the memory of hom to whom the doctrine shall have been already communi. cated To this end they are in general admirably adapted The sixty aphorisms, for example, which constitute the first of Gautama s Tire Lectures present a methodical sum mary of the whole system, while the first aphorista again, of the sixty, presents a summary of these sexty The first aphorism is as follows --From knowledge of the truth in regard to endence, the ascertainable, doubt, motire, * example, dogma, confutation, ascertainment, disquisition, controversy, caril, fallacy, perversion, futility, and occasion for rebuke, there is the attainment of the Summum Bonum "In the next aphorist, it is declared how knowledge operates me ately in producing this result Pain, birth, activity, fault, false notions,--since, on the successive departure of these in* turn there is the departure of the antecedent one, there is Beatitude That is to say, when knowledge of the truth is attained to, 'false notions' depart, ·02 IT.LDBOOK OF S SKRIT LITERATUPC on tlıcır departure, thio fault' of concerning ono'a seli about any external Object cases, tharcupon the enlightened sago ceascs to act,' threr, there being no actions that call. for either reward or punishment, there 19 po occasion, after his death, for lys being born again to receivo reward or punishment, then, not being born again, so as to be liable to pain, there is no room for pain, and the abseilce of pau 29 tho Ngasa conception of the Summun Bonum" As to the instruments adapted to the acquisition of a knowledge of the truth, Gautama teaches that "proofs' (HATUT, 12, instruments of right knowledge), 't are the 8cnscs, the recognition of signs, the recogaution of liko nosses, and speech for testimony)" The objects in regard to which we love to obtaia right knowledge, hy means of the appropriate instruments, he cauaerates as follows - * Soul, boly, sense, sense object, Loowledge, the mind, activity, fault, transmigration, fruit pain, and beatitude,--these are the objects regarding which re are to seek for rght knowledge Here it is to be carefully observed that the soul is spoken of 49 an entirely different entity from the mindi Dugald" Stewart tells us that the mind can attend to only one thought at a time Gautami, recognising the same fact but speaking of the knouon invarably as the soul, accounts for the fact in question by assuming that there is an 33 " It the Huda system the soul (H) is the self and the mand (ATEL) is the organ or faculty which standing between the sclf and the del ter-inces of the senses-(as & m nister between the monarch and the thot and smultanco to cla es oths attention)--prerents the latter from Crowd Dg 1 confusedly by presenting one thing at a time ·THE NYAYA SYSTEM 63 instrument, or internal organ, termed the mind, through which alone knowledge can reach the sonl, and which, atlmitting only one thought at a time, the Naiyáyzla inferred must be no larger than an atom “Plensure, pain, desire, aversion, volition, and knotledge," says Gautama, "are that whereby we recognise soul (atman)," and, again," the sign (whereby we infer the existence) "of the mind" (manas) "is the not arising of cognitions" (in the soul)" simultaneously" Thus the soul may be practically regarded as corresponding to the thinking principle, and the mind (manas) to the faculty of attending to one, and only one, thing at a time, it being further to be kept in remembrance that the Naiyáyıka reckons the mind to be a substance and not a facully? "In the list of the objects regarding which nght knowledge is to be obtained, the next, after mind, is activity (HET) This 19 defined as that which originates the [utterance of the voice, the [cognitions of the) understanding, and the (gestures of the] body. This activity, we have seen under Aph II, Gautama regards with an evil cye, as the cause of birth, which is the cause of pain, which it is the summum bonum to get permanently rid of “Ile further holds that it is through our own fault' (STAT) that we are active, and he tells us that faults (or 1 The Substances (etfu drarydni) according to the " Tarka Sangrata' are just tine, siz . Earth great prithera), " water, (74 ap), "Lght (aart tepas)", "a (ang rayu), “ether (Hat dkdas), " time (ata Lela), "place (fest dwg), "soal (Etats diman), and “mund (**mance} ·6 ANDBOOK OF SANSKRIT LITERATURE fulings) have this characteristic, that they cause 'activity' These faults are clássed under the heads of affection (TTY), aversion (29), and stoldity or delusion (TE), each of which he regards as a fault or defect, inasmuch as it leads to actions, the recompense of which, whether good or enl, must be received in some birth, or state of mundane eristence, to the postponement of the great end of entire emancipation" The immediate obstacle to " emancipation" (PIET moksha, or uri, apararga), namely, " transmigration (Perna) pretyabhara, he next defines as" the arısıng again"l (पुनरुत्पत्ति) punarutpatti "Pain” (ra) duhkha, he de fines as “ that which is characterised by uneasiness," and absolute deliverance therefrom 18 (14901) " emancipation This summum bonun is to be obtained by an abnegation of all action, good or bad 99 $ 4 Of the Varseshcha and its Author 2 The founder of this school was Kanada, a sage who is supposed to have lived at about the same period with Gautama He als said to have resided, as a most austero ascetic on Mount Nila, sustaining himself merely by almost invisible particles of grain When his severe devotions had drawn down Tishinu from Heaven to ask him to solicit some special blessing, he informed the god (so says the 1 The term " Prefyatlaus transmigratjon ) is derived from a pret sal " having died and (HT bidva) * tbe becoming (boru into the world again) Chiefly from Ward + ·KANADA. ITE TAISESHIKA 65 Padma Purana) that he had only one favour to ash, viz, that he mught hare egon in his feet, thut he might not stumble on the road, but that, even in his pilgrimages, with his eyes closed, he might contine to meditate on Vishnu According to the Rig Veda, he was a tall man, with a grey beard, his hair tied round his head like a turban,' and his whole body withered with age and religious austerities Very little is known authentically about him personally, but the following is a brief summary of his doctrines 85 Outline of the System Kanida taught that the visible form of God wag light, that when the desire of creation arose in the divine mind, he first gave existence to water, and then to innumerable worlds, floating on the waters like the l’undane egg, that in these primæral eggs water was contained, on which lay Vishnu, and from whose narel issued a lotus, 20 whick Brahma was born, that Brahmná, recensing instructions from God, created the world, first from his mind, and then with the primary atoms, that spirit and antipal life were separate substances $6 The Varseshika Sútras To him are attributed the Pazśeshiba-Sutras, sbuck contain about 550 aphotisms, or sentences These relate to seren subjects (padarthas), under the following destinct heads, ri_1 Things, 2 Qualties, 3 Actions; 4 Garut ·G6 IAYDBOOK OF SANSKRIT LITERATURE. + 0 Species, 6 Tue insepirable Connection of Constituent Parts, and 7 Nor-entity ler a long discur43107 of the different subjects included in this arrangement, Kanada discourses on religion, riches lappiness, and final liberation Haring first explained the nature of religion, he then armngce the component parts of the universe, and, lastly, g19cs a discourse on the dirune nature, which lodrides into three heads (1) that God is essentially possessed of wasdom (which however, docs not comprise the whole of lus nature or character), () that He is the erer bicssed and supremely happy, and (3) that in all Iis works and His will He 19 irregıstıble and ornnipotent Emancipation from matter he beld to be anscpambly connected with complete deliverance from SOYTOW, and the cnjoyment of final bliss Several commentarıcs have been written, and are extant on the Sutras of Kanada, of which the principal are a large onc called the Bhashya, and a smaller one entitled the Parsesha Sutra pushkara, but the only work now read in Bengal which has any relatron to the Marseshika Philosophy is that of Vista Natha Siddhanta which merely treats of the logical terms of this system, and of the Nyaya school In the Nyaya Colleges of Bengal the students read that part of this work which relates to the Vaiseshika system, and then proceed to study the Nyára system itself 87 Extracts from the Sætra Pushkara The following account of the system is taken from the Sutra Pushkara commentary —“On a certain occa$100 ·08 JANDBOOK OF SANSKRIT LITERATURE $ (as those are conected with sacrifices, ablutions, gifts etc), when performed with a fixed and ardent mind, men are drawy to practise the duties of religion, and by a knowledge of the future evil consequences of certain actions (such as visiting forbidden places, committing injuries, cating forbidden fruit, ete), men are deterred from those actions To thing, qualities, and actions belong existence and restability Cruse and effect are then discussed, and proofs adduced of the existence of God, and of spirit u man distinct from the corporeal frame An objector is adduced 23 urging that the body is a collection of atoms which contain a living principle, and that this living principle is not something separate from the body, but inherent in atoms, and therefore diffused through the whole body To thus Kanáda replies -—"By this argument you deny the existence of inanimate matter, for, atoms be animate, and this be an atom-formed world, then all matter must be life, for this is a settled maxim, that the nature of the cause is always seen ti the effect Why, then, do we not see matter possessed of life?" The objector says, The animating priciple is there, but it remains in a concealed and latent state" Kanada says.--" This proposition can never be established, since all mankind allow this distinc tion, that motion is an essential property of that which is animated, but in senseless matter motion is not found" The opponcnt refuses to admit the testimony of the multitude, that is, of "all mankind," who, he says, "aro not capable of comprehending subtile essences Kanada replies —"If you refuso assent to universal opinion, the ·THE VAIS ESHIKA SISTEMI 69 And as common proverb must be false that'a hpire has no homs, for it may have horns u'a latent or concealed state". Kanada next attempts to prove, from the existence of anxiety arising from desire and aversion, the existence of a spint separate from body or matterpsince these emotions are excited by a perception of the good or evil ansing from certain things, so that good 18 sought and evil is aroide. But this perception of the good and bad results of different actions, and the anxiety occasioned by this perception, to embrace that which produces good and aroid that which produces efil, are attributes of spirit we find these perceptions and this anxicty existing w our selves, we infer that they must exist in others, since they possess sth us a common nature, and from thence we ascend up to a First Cause distinct from Matter The mode of matter and Spirit becoming united 15 next ciscussed. “Who an animal soul, through having the consequences of good and evil actions attached to it, is about to assume human birth, it is united to a single atom, and to this others are added, till a regular body is formed In cases where merit preponderates, an excellent bodr is constructed, and where demerit abounds an inferior body' Atoms are globular, and they exist in a most subtile state Their union, retaining their independence, 19 Tery wonderful Their extension, as the consequence of union is to be attributed to the effects of ment and demerit Thcır bull arises from accessions of atoms invisible, and so arc tro, but then a third is added, the substance formed resembles a mote in the suti In this congregated and dependent state, atoms are not cternal One atom 15 ·10 HANDBOOK OF SAYŞERIT LITERATURE uneleate Atoms are unc eated, and are of four kunds, from which arise earth, water, light, and air These remain "distinct" tull substances become yışıble When the animal soul 18 to be united to a body, the atom to which it is to be united begins to be agitated, till at length it becomes unfixed and separated from its former union, and then unites itself to the soul Objects too minute to be visible, are placed under the class of atoms and cverything diffused is called mahat (FET) x" great” Atoms and thought belong to the former, and the division of the points, time, space, and spirit are all denominated n ahat He who is possessed of the qualities belonging to mahat enjoys an affectionate relation to all thungs Some Hindú philosophers plead for the existence of innumerable minds in one individual Others endcavour to establish the doctrine of five mindst to agreo wth the Kanada contends for one reasoning faculty 10 ench individual The multitude of forms assumed by this one mund, says the same, arises from its union with visible objects Fire is one, but it assumes various colours froin its connection with the oried properties of the com bustibles which it consilmes In tho production of thought, the senses are tho inferior senscs 'fana jesha) Thus opnion as to ted stinetneu of the different kinds of atoms gate nse to the bame of the act, I a risk la Tho amtation in thu case un altr butca to 11e d ripe Jethalalt, ( ru). He, the separate (special distinct) energy of God, as opposed lo con mon (ut oru pinly esercise!) ¢DIT&T Iron HE to increase ·TIE VAIS ESHIKA SYSTEN 71 helpers to spirit in the acquisition of knowledge, but mind is the chief helper It is a single power, but 18 possessed of five faculties corresponding with the senses, by which its capacities are multiplied, but the opinion that each sense has a distinct power, called mind, is a mistake When the mind retires to the tubular vessel called medhyu (AWI) sleep ensues When it retires into a particular part of this vessel called puritate (gctant) profound sleep follows As to the body, Kanada teaches (in opposition to various other theories which he combats) that it is composed of but one element, carth, and that water, air, light, and vacuum are mere adjuncts To confirm this idea, he adds that scent is evidently the prevailing and only abiding, quality of bodies The other properties form, taste, sound and touch, are subject to decay, but scent never leaves either a living or sy dead body Bodies are formed in the womb, in eggs, from sceds, and are raised by fermentation Desire is exacted by the hope of pleasure, and aversion by the fear 8f misfortune They are ascribed to the in fluences of the actions of a former birth upon the present birth, for a child knows nothing of unchaste desires, he does not Icarn them of others, still, at a certain age, they riso in his mind From whence, then, can they come, but from the baneful influertes of the actions of former births Kanada then decides a number of points respecting religious duties In the pursuit of sccular concerns, a person is not to especi the benefits peculiar to a future state Nor in the duties connected witu the invisible world aro visible fruits to be sought Invisible benefits ·THE SAXKIYA STSTERI in his [purusha], is merely terbal, because it is merely a reflexion, lihe the redness of a [Pellueid] crystal (when a Ching rose is near it], but not a reality, with no fale imputation like the redness of the Chuna rose itself »i Of nature, which thus, by conjunction, makes the soul seem to be in bondage when it is really not, he gives, sixty second aphorism, the following account _“Naturo (wafat prakriti) is the state of equipoise of goodness (ant sattva), passion (TOTH rajas), and darkness (7HH tamas), from nature [proceeds] intellect (Her mangt), from intellect self-consciousness (ETC ahankara), from self consciousness the five subtile elements (atata tanmatra), and both sets [external and internal] of organs (feat andriya), and from the subtile elements the gross elements (era athula-bhuta), [then, besides, there is) soul (994 purusha), such is the class of twenty-five" We add fwther, that, in aphorism 105, we are told that experience (77T bhoga) [whether of pleasure or pain, liberation from both of which 18 desiderated], ends with (the discrimunation of] thought [z e , soulas contra distinguished from nature],” that a plurality of souls is asserted (in opposition to the Vedanta) in another åphorism (100), "From the diverse allotment of birth, etc, the plutulity of souls [1s to be inferred],' and, finally, that the Sunkhya system explicitly repudiates the charge of annihilation, aphorism 47 declaring that, “In neither way may F12 ma 11.4.4 וז ground.

·70 IDDOOK OF SITSKRIT LITERITTE. Blirtier n melns or as an end) : this (rız, annihila tion.) the toul's aim 11-Tor Toos (on Parisrit) Sretes $0 Of its Author The aige Palangali founded this school of philosophy Little is known of his personal history IIc 19 said to have been born in Ilárrita-Varsha, where his father (An gira) and mother (Sald reeded, and after his marriage with Lolupa, whom he found on the north of Mount Sumeru, in thic kollar of a rala (or Indan fig) tree, he kad to have lived as a mendicant devotco to a great age Being insulted on onc occasion by the inhabitants of Bhoga brandura, s bulc engaged in his religious austerities, he is said to havo reduced them to ashes by fire from his mouth § 4 Bref Summary of hus Doctrines He taught that the Dirine Spirt and the soul of man oro distinct that the former 19 free from passion, but not the latter that God is possessed of form (alur] and capable of being seen by the true Fogt (ie, practiser of tho Foga rites and duties) that He 19 placable, glonous, the creator, the preserver, and the regenerator of all things that the universe first arose from His will or command, and that the infused into the system 1 power of perpetual progression that the truth of things was discoverable by the senses, by esperience, comprison, and revelation that some material things are unchanged and others changeable, and that the latter pass through sex ·PATU JALI THE YOG. 77 changes, as birth, increase, etc thatlererything ongi nates in the fire elemeits, fire, tater, etc that knowledge is of fire sorts, certam, uncertan, etc. that there are fire hinds of men, rz, thoe who are governed by their passions, the wrathful, the benerolent, the pious, and those who are freed from worldly attachments and, finally, that emancipation” is to be obtained by the practise of Toga, or perfect abstraction of mind. Many of the doctrines of Pythagoras seem to bear.a considerable resemblance mth those of Patanjalı The Sutras, entitled the Patanjala Darsana, comprise 198 lunes The sage Veda Fyasd wrote a comment on this work, on which Pachaspati Vishra has given an ex planatory treatise A commentary on Panini's Grammar, and a medical work called Moja Unganha are also attributed to Pátanjali 85 Fulier Account of tle System Bhoja Dera, King of Dharu, wrote a comment on the orginal Pulanjala Darsana, from & translation of which we make the following extracts The restrains of the mind, and confining it to caterual meditations, is called Tage When the mind 13 thus confined within, it becomes assimilated to the Being whom at sechs to hnot, but when the mind 15 secularised, thus Being takes the form of sculanty (f) In the first case, the mind us szögly and incrocably fixed on God, in the second, it 13 restless, injurious, and voluptuong. In the former state, there is no SOTTOF, in the latter, there are frekods of Borrow, ansia, sterilis, from the lisen ·78 If AWDBOOK OF QANSKRIT I ITEN TOTF of rocking proofs (f the reality of things, from crror, from the pursul of shndors, from heavy sleep, and from recollochon The three curls, restlessneae, injuriousness, and rolur tuousnese, may be prevented by fixing God in the mind and by destroying desire This restraining and freeing the mind is called Poga, of Thich there are tn'o handls sampragnula and Asampragnato 1 Sampragniita 19 meditation on an object till the idenza connected with it are imprinted on the mind and occups all its powers The proper objects of meditation are two- Malter and Spirit (1) Vatter assumes twenty-four forms (or 19 denied into twenty-fpur parts), riz , crude matter, tho understanding, consciousness of personal identity, tha qualities of the firo primary clements, the cloren Organg of sensc, and the fito primary clements In these, cuther as the attributo of subject, arc included quality, action, nnd Lind (guna, larma, rishesha) 6) Spirit is one (purusha, le, the masculine power) Sampragnata is of four kinds.--1 Meditation on the distinction between sound and substance until the Yogi arnres at the conviction of the non distinction between these two in reference to the Deity as a pisille being 2 Meditation on the Supreme Being in referepce to form, As well as to time and place, till the l'ogi is able to fix lix meditations, without regard to form, tune, or place 3 Meditation on the Deity till the mind in which saffica guna prevails is filled with joy and till the powers of the understanding become abstracted, so that the distanction The first ford 10t mates that the Fogi has obtained the knowledge of the Derty and the second that the Tog is lost in the divine manifestation ·TIE YOGA SYSTEM 79 between matter and spirit 19 no longe recognised, and spirt alone 18 scene Meditation till the Yogi becomes 80 far delivered from pride, that it exists only as a shadow in his mind, and the divine principle receires the strongest manifestation This last state is called karralya, ie, absorphon in (or though the person 19 not separated from) matter At length the logs attains what is chled asampragnala, in which, if he be perfect in his abstmction, the very slia lor of separate existence will be destroved, visible olujects will be completely cstugustied, and spint alouc becoino inanifest Ile trilo ling attained the states calici rideha and kavalja, after transnigmtion, finds hraself in the same state of adrancement towards abstraction as when he quitted his former body Thosc who die, rithout laving attained to thic gente of rileka, must entering a ner bodi, labour after a prepared wind resolution remembrance, ar'i dis crimination wluch acquisitions (naturally succecling and Asusting one another) will be followed by the meditation cillel Ioga (1) for which thcs barcal Uccn preparatory. Tiere are three hands of Yogas, distinguished by the ramdity or momness of their progress towards perfection sluch as nfheted ls the actions of precamg and ihracat births logo and its bleusrelaces are to be recurred by the re linquishinent of all hopes of happiness: in rcular thun 13 prethe Top list to tw nils (FETE) (wa Is moreal} , 13 powygranolfmas that meet winietis une in mo "As II,.,bille!!!, John, 151 traSur et laitytuc ·80 HANDBOOK OF SANSKRIT LITERATURE 1 and by that medtation which identifies every religious formyla every sacred uteasil, and every offering with the object of worship This object is the Supreme Being, called 'soara (827): represented as being free from the fruit of works, 2 e , exempt from birth among any of the forms of matter, from increase or decrease of life, and from enjoyment or suffering as the consequence of actions To his will all creatures owo their preservation He is omnipotent, eternal the omniscient fountain of knowledge who presides over all events This Being the Yogi must intensely and continuously meditate on, while repeating constantly his sacred name Thus he gradually loses his worldly attachment , the sattwa guna (or virtue of goodness) obtains a clearer mani festation in hun, and he is brought to resemble God, and thus he obtains also deliverance from the effects of birth (Viz, Lickness, incapacity, proneness to error, fickleness eto ), and final emancipat on In the next place the Yogi must (for the fixing of his mind) attend to pranayama, that is, to the gradual sup pression of breathing, since the animal soul and the mind act in conjunction In this work he must first endeavour to fix the understanding by some act of the senses, eg, Le must place his sight and thoughts on the top of his nose, by which he will perceive smell, then bring his mind to the tip of bis tongue when taste will be realised, and afterwards fix his thoughts on the root of his tongue, by which sound will be suggested After this, if the mind > * From A to rale ·DUTIES OF TIE YOGI 81 be full of tho sattua guna, and free from every degree of the raja and tama gunas, it will escape the waves of passion and become truly fixed. Freedom from secular desires will be followed by freedom from borrow, and the mind will ur consequence become fixed His mind will be fixed whose intercourse with sccular objects is like that of a person in a deep sleep, who, without the active union of the senses partakes of perfect happiness Ho who medi tates on God, placing his mind on the sun, moon, fire, or any other luminous body, or within his heart, or at the bottom of hus throat, or in the centre of his skull, will, by afterwards ascending from these gross images of the Deity to the glorious orginal, securo fixedness of mind The Yogi will, by these means, deliver himself from all crror, or proneness to error, and be filled with the effects of the sattua pung He thus becomes identified with the Deity that is, visible objects, the operations of tho understanding, and personal identity, become absorbed in the Being contemplated, in the same manner as the crystal receives the image of whatever is relected upon it That ho may not fall from the eleration ho has attained, the Yogi still sechs God by meditation on lies names, or on thic import of these nomes, or on bis cxistence, after wluch he loses all remembrinco of the names of tho Deity, and of their import, and God 13 realised in the mind a. pure light, and to this succeeds a state of mind similar to selfannihilation Still, horrorer, he is not wholls delivered from subtle allusion, though Insuleas hard trented the impress of the Deity, but, i lo succeed in perfecting his abstraction, - ·RESULTS OF SIXTX 83 (719), and is discovered athir in this or in a future buth Actions performied under the influence of illusion are followed by cight millions of births in connection with some caste, with an appointed period of life, and subjec tion to the fruit of actions From Torks of mert result superior caste, long life, and many enjoyments, from evl actions arise degraded caste and short and miserable life To secular persons (fauf), these consequences of illusion do not produce sorrow as they do to the Yogi The former are likened to those member of the body which remain at case, while the visual faculty, from some acci dent, suffers cxcruciatmg pain, the Yogi 13 the eye of the body This illusion, from whence are the cffects of actione, 19 to lc dc truyed by discrimiuatiug wisdom un reference to tlıc Devine nature, leading to the reception of truth (God), and delus crice from tlıc sorrows of transmigration The progress of creation 14 thus described first allusion then the elements, then the senses and lastly the understinding Thic orgiu of birth is the union (or vicinity) of spirt with the understanding, in thich the former is the partaler, and the latter the tlung enjoyed, or, in other word, tlic one di plass, and the other 18 the thung despolar el The union of spirit and matter, as the roccirer and noch, 13 mithout Inginni The origin of the union 19 ull ision The perfection of spint 14 to be attributed to lil mition from this union, and this is tu I sought in the requisition of di chipinating alom Illusion being ren moval, all the effects re-ulting from the union of spurt > + ·81 TIADBOOK OF Si SKRIT LITER.ITURE with illusion mll necessarily ccade This separation constitutes the liberation of the Yog!, who is hercaſter Lnown As the "overlastingly free" Imperfect discrimidation, however, which leares the inind wafering in its chosco bencen olyccts and spints, will not accomplish the work of liberation Perfect dus crimination is obtained by acquring tho eight parts of Yoga, which ncquestion secures the removal of the darkness and ignoranco arising from tho raja and tama gunas, and the perfect subjcction of the mind to the satira guna These cight parts are called yama, nyuma, 1997, pranayama, pratyahura, dhurana, dhyana, and samadhi The first five barve the purpose of subduing the passions and of thus uggesting the Yog: The last threc are assistants to the Yogí, without any modum In "yama" (restraint) are fire d117sions () Freedom from desire of injuring others, (2) truth, verbal and mental, (3) freedom from cotetousness, or the appropriation of the property of another, by thought, word, or act, (4) subjection of the trembers for the extirpating of desire, and (5), the renunciation of all pleasure Ile who has fully accomplished all thesc duties, is said to have performed the great low (190) Niyama also ipcludes five dırsions viz (1) Puntz of body (by earth, water, etc, after certain functions), and purity of mind, through the exerciso of friendly and benevolent affections, (2) cheerfulness u erery condition (3) religious austerities, (!) the repetation of incantations, and (6), the causing all the formularies of worship and all its benefits to terminate God ·TIE EIGHT PARTS OP YOGA. 85 Asana consists in eighty four modes of sitting at Yoga To be complete, the posture (horerer at first and naturally painful) must have become qute casy to the Yogi, and unattended with agatation The mind must be raised to the wonders of the heavens, and not confined to the body, and thus the Yogi will at last cease to feel the inconvenie ences of heat and cold, hunger and thirst, etc The accomplishment of the asana prepares for the prd nayama, or the suppression of the breath The Yogi must begin by restraining his breath for twenty fix secondo and enlarge this period till be is perfect He should confine the exhalation of his breath, at the utmost, to taclve finger breadths from his nose The Pratyahura 19 the withholding the mind frona mandering, that the organs, turped from their accustomed objects, inwards, may become thoroughly subject to the Yogi The fixing of the mind, so that it may not wander besond the nose, nor descend inwardly beyond the lerel of the wavel, 19 called dharana, in Thich the Yoga purifics 1114 mind by benevolence, practises all the previous duties (yaria, cte), and fisiog lus eres on the tip of his bosc, gulxincs all hus members and all the powers of the clements Olcr him Dhyuno (or meditation) umples that the practiser of it endes rours to fix his mind on the Dety, according to the furins of dłorana, so as to serum a constant stream of thought towards him, and exclude all worldlr tendencies In Sarudhi (the understanding), crnid aloa by an uninterrupted current of thought towards the Deity, or ·88 HANDBOOK OF SANSKRIT LITERATURE The system of philosophy set forth in the Vedanta- Darsana he is said to have derived from the discourses addressed by Krishna to Arjuna, recorded in the Bhagavad Gita, a part of the Bhishma chapter of the Mahabharuta The Vedanta Sutras.consists of 595 verses, which are divided into four Parts In the first, the author maintang that the whole coutents of the Veda refer to the Dirzne nature, in tho second part, he confutės the opinions of other sects, the third part is a discourse on devotion, and in the fourth ho enlarges on the doctrine of the divine nature 82 Outline of the System Veda Vyasa taught that the best idea we can form of God 19 that he is bht, or glory At the same time, he maintained that God is a spirit, without passions, separate from matter that he is pure wisdom and happiness, one without a second, everlasting, wcomprchensible, and unchangeable, and that, after describing all modes of existence he is that which is none of these The Universe, ho tăught, was formed of the five elemente, rız, aur, fire, water, earth, and æther (or vacuum) that the world, being destitute of life, was liable to dissolution that God himself was the sole possessor of life, and that one divine spirit perseded the whole animated creation When the desire to produce creatures arose in tho divine mind, God united himself to what is called Sakti (afa), or energy, in which reside threo qualıtıcs con duciog to divide wisdom, to actints, and to sensuality, viz, Sattaa (77), Razas (tre), and Tanas (147), which ·THE YEDSTA SYSTEM 89 may be translated, pure cognition, urely emotion, and in-, eriness, or "goodness," "passion," and "darkness". The first thing created was tacuum (TFH), from which arose atynd (alfa), from vind fire (fa), from fire water (at), and from water earth (124) All these, at the first creation, were produced u an atomic form. Dividing each of them into four parts, the Creator caused the first forms of things to arise Veda Vyása further taught that deliverance from matter, or return to God (re-absorption in the Divine Spirit?) was to be obtained in the following manner First, the devotee must read through the Vedas He must suffer no desire of advantage to mix wth his religious services, must renounce everything forbidden 10 the Sástras, must render himself pure by the performance of daily devotions, duties for the good of others, atonements, and divine contemplation, must acquaint lumself with the ursprofitableness of that which is flecting and transitory, and the value of that which is unchangeable and etcrnal, must renounce all hope of present or future rewards, gain the complete mastery orer all huy sensual organs, and meditate on God in all the forms and media by Shich he is made known to his creatures By the power of these meditations and austerities, the soul trill leave the body through the basılar suture, and ascend to the heaven of Agar (god of fire), from thence, in succession, to vanous other heareas till, haria; obtained, ua the hearen of Varuna an aēral body, called Artukla, the devotee will 'निपल, निधारा, or निवृति ·90 ITANDBOOK OF SASSKRIT LITEP TURE. + tlien ascend to the heaven of Brahms, and after the expirtion of ono hundred years of Brahmi and this god's absorption into the difine spint, the derotec, hlewisc, will obtain the same state of felicity Such, Tjasa taught, vas the method of obtaining gradual cmanciration Immediate emancipation (1) was to be secureonly by dirine isdom, which wasdom could not exist in the mind without the entire extinguishment of all consciousness of outward things, by meditation on the one supreme spirit, Brahıná that when this had been attained to, tho soul frould then obtain emancipation oren in a boldly state' Thus, huile the Ngafa allows to the external world a substantial al existence, and the Sánbbya admits its cxistence, but only as an aggregate of qualities, the Vedantin, advancing beyond both, arrives at the limit of simplification by deuding that nothing really existe besides one, and and that this one rerl bong is absolutely simple This one simpio being according to the Vedanta, 15 anou ledge (9117 grant}—not the knowledge of anything for this would imply a contradiction to the dogma that nothing exists except hnowledge simply Among us knowledge is regarded as tho synthesis of subject and object, but, according to the Vedanta, there is no object, and hence the term subject is not strictly applicable under a theory which, denying duality, does not admit the conditions of a relation Soul, the one reality, is accordingly spoken of in the Vedánta, not as a substance ( drarya) as it is reckoned Vard ·THE VEDYTA SYSTEM 91 in the Yyaya, but as the thing (en castu), or, literally, " that which abides ». This sole-existence, soul, according to the Vedáutin, is God To the objection that the soul does not spontaneously recogniee itself as God, he replies that this is because it is "ignorant,” ze, obstructed by ignorance (15Ta ajnana) Were it not for this •agnana, he argues, the soul would know itself to be God-there would be nothing but God--there would be no world It is this aynona, then, that makes the world, and this being the case, it ought to have a name suggestive of the fact Shall it be called Pratrık (wafa), or "energy,” then, the Tiame by which the Sanzhyas speal of their unconscious maker of world? But then this Prabrite can be nothmg else than the All Powerful, for we can admit the unde pendent existence of God alone, so that the agnana, under discus ton, may be even more accurately denoted by the word Saldı (Tm), God's "power," by an exertion of which power alone the fact can be accounted for, that souls which are God do not I now that they are so The term Saltı is therefore enrolled among the synonymes of agnana But then comes the mythologist, who arguer, if this world Tould not cren appear to be real, but for ignorance, then this apparent reality 19 “illusion” (ATAT Maja) This being admitted, Vása is made a goddess, and called the wifo of Brahma, the Creator The definition of " ignorance notice Ignorance, we are informed, 13 " a somewhat that is not to be called positively esther real or untcal," (not a mere negation, bat] in the shape of an entsty, the opponent of 07 in the Vedanta requires ·92 JIANDBOOK OF SANSKRIT LITERATURE knowledge, consisting of the three fetters. According to the Aaryayıl as, ajnuna is merely the prication or nonexistenco (WTA abhára) of Jana To exclude such a meaning here, it is asserted to be " in the shape of an cntity" (भावरूप bhasa rupa) The description of it as something "not to be called positively either real or unreal," corresponds with Plato's ov xal un ov, as dis tinguished from outws ov The distinction is that of the phenomenal and the real The universe being held to be tho joint result of soul and ignorance ( 1 and 4571), and the soul being the only substance, or "substratup of all," at follows that ignorance 19 equvalent to, and identical with, the sum total of qualities These, as in the Sankhya system, are held to be thrce, so that ignorance is spoken of as “consisting of the three qualities" (farua trigunatmaka), or, as it may also be rendered, consisting of the three cords (or fetters], the ward for " quality' (Tu guna), meaning originally a ' fetter," and these two senses in Hindú pbilosophy, being closely related Let us see what can have led to this division of quality into three The one reality--the universal substratum being veiled by the garb of the Phenomenal world cer tain marked distinctions of character among the phe- Tlomena present themselves We have phenomena of pure cognition, of lively emotion and, finally, of inertness To one or other of these three heads, every phenomenon may, with a little ingenuity, be referred The three heads are named respectively, in Sanskrit sattua rayas, and tamas (HTT, TTE, THE) According to the commentators, the first of the qualities, whulst endlessly subdivisible into ·or two porcer that by thich it checlopes the soul, og THE 1 EDASTA SYSTESI 93 calmness, complacency, patience, rejoicings, etc, consists summarly of happiness' The second, on the otber hand, congsts summanly of pain To these categories belong almost all the sensations and thoughts of thinking beings, scarcely any fecling, viewed stretly, being one of sheer indifference Thus indifference, the third of the qualities, is exemplified in its hughest potency z such things as stocks and stones, wherc the soul, the substratum of these, as of all else, is altogether "immersed in matter," obfuscated by the quality of darkness, as the word tamas Jiterally signes In its lower potencies, this third of the qualities exemplifies itself in sloth, drowswess, ele These threc qualities separately or commugled, more or less obscure the soul, which is held to be simple knowledge (znana), and as the aggregate of them is the opposite of soul, or, in other words, not soul, therefore the aggregate, as we have seen, tales the name of a gána, 1e not knowledge, or ignorance The soul is often spoken of as a ught low, suppose a lamp to be enclosed in a Lamp shade, the glass may be exther so pure that the light passes through scarcely dumınished, or it may be stained, so that the light is tinged, or partly dummed, or the lamp shade may be of opaque materials so that the light within us altogether obstructed may perhaps illustrate the supposed operation of the three qualities, as well as account for the names by wluch they are spoken of as “punts," "foulness," and " darkness (sattua rajas, and laras) “ Ignorance' (anons), according to the l'ed inta, has These three ctes ·94 HANDBOOK OF SANSKRIT LITERATURE 17 to rise to the concert of personality or conscious indırıduality, and that by which it projects the phantasmagoria of a world which the individual regards as external to hunself Soul thus invested is what the universe consists of The supposed root of all ev]—the belief that aught exists besides the "one"-9 to be got rid of, we are told, by 7 right understanding of the great sentence, "That art thou' (77), 16, Thou--whosoever thou art-art the one" Then this dictum has beco rightly understood and accepted the accepter of it, changing the thou the first person, reflects thus - Jam theone' (act) This 19 so fir well, but he must finally get rid of the Labit of maling eren himself an object of thought There must be no object That was previously the subject must now remain alone an entity, a thought, a joy, but these three being one only-the " existent joy-thought"} $3 Concluding Remars on the System The treatises written in esposition and defence of the Vedanta System 're Téry numerous the original rork of Veda Vyasa of course being the principal authority, upon which most other works are merely commentarica Tho Vedanta Sura (or essence of the Vedanta) contains, perhaps, the best summary of the system from the introduc tion to which we give the following extract - Veda Vzása obtained by religious austerities, the discourse which Krishnı held with Arun, and from this discourso com posed the Vedanta for the following reasons, viz, to humble Kakutst.12, a king of the Solar race, who was 1 Ballantyne ·THE TEDYTA SYSTEM 95 intoxicated with an idea of his own wisdom, to point out that the knowledge of Brahmá is the only certain way of obtaining hberation (for moksli), ustead of the serere mortification of former yugas (ages) wuch man- Lund at present are incapable of performing, and to destroy, among men, attachment to works of merit, since, so long as the desire of reward remaineth, men can nerer be delivered from liability to future birth "As the primary object of a person in planting a tree is the fruit, and the secondary one is sitting, under its shade, so, the cluef frut of devotion is a fixed mind ou Brahma, the inferior fruit, a temporary enjoyment of happiness with the Gods He ibo bas obtained emancipation does not desire this inferior frunt "Those things which perfect the Laorledge of Brahma are-(1) Discriminating trisdom, whuch distinguishes between what is changeable and that is unchangcable; (2) a distaste for all worldly pleasure, and eren for the happiness enjoyed by the Gols, (3) an unrufled mind, the subjugation of the passions, unreporting generosity, coutempt of the world, the absence of whatever obstructs the novledge of Brahma, and utarering "faith in the Vela , (1) the desire of emancipation Brahma, the everlasting, the erer living 19 one He is the first cause But the world, which is bis sorh, is finite, inanimate, and disable Dei diciness to Brahma secures real and permanent happiness "Sanlara A'churya wrote a comment on the Vedanta, and a disciple of Adwaita Janda Paramhansa, a Sunyer, wompo-eu iroma this comment the Tedânta Sara" ·96 IDBOOK OF SANSKRIT LITERATURE The chief upholders of the Velánta System used to be the two claescs of Ilında ascctics' callel the Mandis and tho Sun jusis, but of lite cars the principles of the system have been very widely adopted and adrected by educated natircs (szpecially the alimni of Gorenient Colleges) nt Calcutta and the other principal towns of British India The late talented Rámmolien-Rås was one of its ablest modern supporters Tlic doctrines of the school lase Ken fully discussel and condutal by the Rer Dr Dul, in a scries of lectures on lcántem, elescrev! rome years ngo at Calcutti, by tko Ror Ds Waleon, of Borbay, and others ·TIE UID SK DARSANA 97 He $5 Outline of the System From the three last named vorbs chiefly we gather the following abridgment of the system of Jumini taught that God 13 to be worshipped only through the incantations of the Vedas that the Vedas were uncreated, and contained in themselves the proofs of their own divinity, the very words of which were unchangeable His reasonings on the nature of material things were similar to those of Gautama, insisting that truth is capable of the clearest demonstration, without the possibility of mistake Creation, prescrration, and destruction, he represented as regulated by the ment and dement of works, while he rejected the doctrine of the total destruction of the um verse le maintained that the images of the Gods were not real representations of these beings, but only given to assist the mind of the worshipper, that the mere forms of worship had neither merit nor demerit in them, and that the promuses of the Sastra to persons who presented so many offerings, so many prayers, etc, were only giren as allurements to duty He directed the person, who sought final emancipation, to cherish a firm belef in the Vedas, as well as persuasion of the benefits of rehgon, and the desire of being engaged in the service of the Gods, and then, by entering upon the duties of religion and by degrees ascending through the states of a student, a secular, and a hermit, he would be sure to obtain final al orption in Brahma Of the three dissions of the Veda, the first, called the Karma Kunda, or "practical part," relates to religious ·THE JOHANSA DARSANA 99 the evidence of divine authorship, and comes forth as the command of a monarch It is incumbent on men to receive also, as divine, those works (of the sages) which are found to gree with the Veda, to contain clear definutions of duty, and to be free from contradictions What is rehgion? That which secures happiness and it is the duty of man to attend to the duties of religion, not only on this account, but in obedience to the commands of God The divine law is called Padliz (fafu) Should any one say, then I have nothing to do with other kinds of instruction, since this alone is divine To this it is replied, that forms of praise, motives to duty, and religious observances, are auxiliaries to the divine law, and have, therefore, a relative sanctity and obligation There are five modes of ascertaining the commands of God, viz (1) The subject to be discussed is brought forward, (2) questions respecting it are stated , (3) objeccions are started, (4) replies to these objections are given, and (5), the question is decided' He who acts in religion according to the decision thus come to, does well, and so does he who rejects what will not bear this examination, but he who follows rules which have been hereby condemned, labours in vain Those actions from which future happiness will arise are called religious, or good, because productive of happiness, and those which tend to future misery are called evil, on account of their evil fruits Hence, according to Jamını, actions of themselves have in them neither good bor enzl Their nature can only be inftrred from the declarations of the Veda respecting them, or from future ·100 HANDBOOK OF SANSKRİT LITERATURE t Other sages consequences.' The Hindus appear to have no just idea of moral etil of all the works of the Civil and Canon Law, that of Manu is to be held in the greatest reverence, for Manu composed his work after a personal study of the Veda have composed theirs from mere comments Trom the evidence of things which God has afforded, especially the evidence of the senses, mistakes cannot arise either respecting secular or religious affairs When there may exist error in this evidence, it will diminish, but cannot destroy the nature of things If there be an imperfection in seed, the production may be imperfect, but its nature will not be changed seat of error and inattention 29 to be found in this reasoning faculty, and not in the senses, error arising from the confused union of present ideas (anubhara) with recollection Scme affirm that ideas are reccived into the understanding separately, and never two at the same instant Th18 18 incorrect, for at must be admitted, that while one idea 19 retained, there is an opening left in the understanding for tho admission of another Thus, in anthmetical calculations, one added to one makes two " The Veda has, in some parts, forbidden all sentient beings, and in others has prescribed the offering of bloody sacrifices Jaumini explains this apparent contradiction by observing that some commands are general, and others particular that the former must give way to the latter, as a sccond knot always loosens, in a degree, the first So, when it is said that Sırastati is altogether white, it is to be understood, not literally, but generally, injury to ·TIE HOUTSK DARSAKA 101 for the hair and eyebrors of the goddess are not white Therefore, in cases where general commands are giten, they must be observed with those limitations which are found in the Sastra The promises of reward contained in the Sasira upon a mundte attention to the different parts of duty, have been given rather as an incitement to its performance than with the intention of entire fulfilment Ile who has begun a ceremony, but has, by circumstances, been unable to finish at, shall yet not be anrewarded. The benefits resulting from the dae performance of civil and social duties are confined to this life Those con nected with the performance of religions daties are to be enjoyed in a future state, while some meritonous actions or virtues, reap their reward both in the present and the future life TWorks sive birth to inviable consequences either propitious or otherwise-according to their nature, and, besides works there is no other sovereign or judge These consequences crer accompanying the individual, as the shadow the body, appear in the next birth, in accordance with the time and manner in which those actions were performed in the preceding birth. « Yorks rulc, and men by them arc led or dnsen, as the ox with a hook in its noce The progress of all actions whether ther ongnate in the commands of thc. Saetras, or in the customs of a country, are as follows -Iirst the act is considered and resolred on in the mind, then it 15 pursued by means of words, and, lastis, it us accomplished by esecuting the ·102 LANDBOOK OF SANSKRIT LITERATURL. different constituent parts of tho Action Hence it follows that religion and irreligion refer to thoughts, words, and actions Some actions, however, are purely those of the mind, or of the voice, or of the body The yırtuo or vica of all actions depend on the stato of the heart Tho doctrine that, at a certam period, the whole universe will be destroyed at once, is incorrect The world had no beginning, and will have no end As long as there are works, there must be birth, as well as a world lhe the present, to form a theatre on which they may be performed, and their consequences either enjoyed or endured One of the sages of the Mimansa school thus expresses himself —"God 18 simple sound To assist the pious in ther forms of meditation (or incantations) He 12 represented as light, but the power of Liberation lies in the Bound "God-God” When the repeater is perfect, the incantation, or name repeated, appears Co him in the form of surple light or glory "The objects of worship which are within the cognisance of the senses, are to be received, for without faith religious actions are destitute of frut Therefore, let no one treat an incantation as a mere form of alphabetic signs, zor an image 29 composed of the inanimate material, lest he should be guilty of a serious crime 37 3-OTHEE SISTEMS OP HEYDO PAILOSOPHY Though the Hudú Philosophy is commonly said to be comprised in the sus Darśanas already described yet at 19 proper to add that there have existed in India several 1 Nantras > Brahm ·THE SATYATAS 103 other sects, such as the Salvata, the regular Pauranıks, the Bauddhas, the Jains, etc § 6 The Satuats Sect Previously to the time of Rámányjá-Chárya, the Sátwata', sect had sunk into oblıyzon, but since that period, a body of persons, distinguished by this title, has always been found in different parts of India Latterly they have been most numerous in the Karnata country They study the works of the reviver of the sect, Rámánúja, and a comment by Tata Charya, along with a few other treatises This creed is, in substance as follows -God 18 possessed of form The terms government, effort, desire, etc, are wholly inapplicable to a being destitute of form Those who have spoken of God as pure spirit, meant only that he was not clothed with a body derived from primary elements The mud regulates, through actions, the fature destiny, but mind is an appendage to body, and not a part of abstract spint Trom the divine form proceed rays of glory, so that God appeals as a body of light The Deity is perfect joy Creation arose from His will, and the desire to create from that energetic joy which is essential to the Divine nature As soon as the mundane system was formed, God entered it, and began to display all the operations seen in the visible universe In obtaining liberation, devotion is more efficacious than Wisdom or ceremonies A future state of bliss is connected with a residence near the Deity in the unchangeable abode of the Divine Being 1 Or Shát rata, according to Yard.

·104 II ANDBOOK OF SANSKRIT LITERATURE This sect rejects the idea of absorption, plcading that it 18 far more pleasant to druh the swect and cooling daught than to be lost in the occan, and that the highest happi- Dess of Thich we are capablo is to bo near the Daty, partaking of II19 overflowing blessedness $7 The Pauranıks One syse Although the Puranas appear to have led the people to the popular mythology, rather than to philosophic cnquiries, they still abound with speculations from which many systems of philosophy might be formed tem was taught by Loma IIarshana, who attracted around him many disciples and formed a distinct sect under the nane of Pauránice, though, in Bengal, at present, thusa are called so who hare merely read one or more of the Puranas The doctrines which Loma Ilarshana appears to have taught, comprised, among others, the following -Nar - yana, the supreme c10se, possesses a visible form l'or the purposes of creation, etc he assumed the names of Brahmá Yishiu, and Siva, under each of which names some one of the three qualities pretauls For the good of man Lund, Narayana has been frequently incarnate, either as a divine teacher or as a leader or guide, or as a hero In the different forms of the Gods, to meet the immediate and private trånts of mankind, as to remove diseases, etc , he assumes various shapes The worshup of God is to bo performed bf bodily sertices, such as bowing to his image, doing memal service in a temple, etc , by rords, i e, by ·THE BAUDDHAS 105 reading, singing, repeyting his name, etc , and by the mind, as in meditating on the parous forms he assumes cause $8 The Bauddhas, or Buddhists Among these there were sus sects of philosophy, some of which agreed in doctrine generally with the orthodox sects, but all of them deny an intelligent separate first The founder of Buddhism was Buddha Sakya Muni, called also Gautama? Sakya sinha, as to the period of whose existence historical data are exceedingly contradictory The Chinese records fix his death at about 1000 BC, while those of Ceylon place it in 543 B C The polttical triumph of Buddhism in India dates from the æra of Asoka, about the middle of the third century BC It was definitively introduced into China in A D 61, and into Ceylon probably during the third century BC The chronology of Buddhism 13 discussed at great length by Dax Muller in hrs “Ancient Sanskrit Literaturo" Buddhists were the great opponents of the Bráhmans Buddha himself was a Kshatriya but of princely origin He was not the first of his caste who sternly opposed the ambitions of the Brahmans Vzyámitra, among others, who was also of the royal caste, had several centuries before struggled, with some success, against the exclusiveness of the priests The Brahmans, however, were ultimately victorious, and succeeded in driving Buddhisma almost entirely out of India, which found a successful footing in Burmah, Ceylon, and China IIe must not be confounded with Gautama, the founder of the Nyaga School 9 ·106 HANDBOOK OF SANSKRIT LITERATURE $9 The Jains . Though these, like the Buddhists, may be regarded as rather a religious than a purely philosophical scct, yet as, in all tho schools and systems, religion and philosophy aro inscparably united, perhaps this may be the most befitting place to notice their peculiar tencts Tho founder of this system Tas Rishabha dera, Ilindu, who is suid to haro becn incarnato thirteen times, cach of which arıdars is distinguished by the cpithet Jina! This term is also applied to the twenty four Tirthan/ aras, or saints, who are supposed to flourish in an Arasarpını, or Janna ago, the last of whom mas Vahirira The leading tenets of tho Jazzze, and those which chiefly distinguish them from the rest of the Indus, are-first, the denial of the divine origin and infalliblo authority of the Vedas, secondly, the rescrevce of certain holy mortals, who acquired by practises of self denial and mortification a station superior to that of the gods, and thirdly, extreme and even ludicrous tenderness for animal Life The disregard of the authority of the Vedas is common to the Jains and the Bauddhas, and involves a neglect of the rites which they prescribe, in fact, it is in a great degree from those rites that an inference unfavourable to the sanctity of the Vedas 13 drawn, and, not to speak of the sacrifices of animals which the Vedas occasionally enjoin, the Iloma, or burnt offering, which forms a part of every ceremonial in those works, is an abomination, as ifta from fatto conquer, i he who bag overcome the eight great crimes ·THE JASS 107 insects crawling among the fuel, bred in the gkl, or falling into the flame, may be destroyed by every oblation. As far, howerer, as the doctrines they teach are conformable to the Jain tenets, the Vedas are admitted as of divine authonts The Jains are dinded mto relig1005 and lay orders, Yatis and Srarahas. Haring no priests of their own, Brahmans officiate in their temples. The Jains are disided into Digambaras and Stretámbaras, the former sky-clad, se naked, the latter whute-robed. In the present day, howerer, the Digambaras in general are only entirely dirested of covering at meals The Literature of the Jains is very extensite, inclading Paránag of their own, waters on astronomy, astrology, medicine, mathematical seiences, etc The followers of this sect rere formerly rery popular in Hindustan, and are still very numerous, especially in the Doáb, about Vampuri, and also in Guzerat vinces of Mewar and Marvar are the cradle of the Jain system The only other philosophical or religious sect we shall mention here is that of . The prog 10 The Khándanas The founder of this sect 123 Śn Harsha,' sho in a work called the Khandana taught a system different from all the Darsanas, from thich circum-tance he received the title of the Khandang lara, or the destroyer He 724 the author of a poem called the Saskade.

·PART III. POCTICAL AND MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE CHAPTER 1 ON THE EPIC POETRY OF THE HINDUS § 1 Introductory Remarks That Cpc poetry, traditional as well 13 improvised, on the spur of the moment, existed during the Vedic age, though it was lost afterwards, is a fact clearly established by passages and references in the Brahmanas and other works of the Sútra age In the collection of the Vedic hymns, there are somie wluch may be called cpc, and may be compared, with the short hymns ascribed to Ioner In the Dráhmanas passages occur, in prose and verse, celebrating the actions of old hings, and on certaio public occasion», such as at the Horse Sacrifice (as we learn from the Sanhhyana Sútras, 18 quoted by Mas Muller), the priest, on cach of the ten days which it occupied, had to rcate a story for the anstruction and enterta nment of the people, doubtless mostly or all in melre, and of a decidedly epical character Jany compositions of this kind, therefore, must have existed i Vedic times, though they are ·TIE RAMAYANA, 109 now lost; and songs in celebration of great heroes were, doubtless, current in India quite as carly as the Homeric poems in Greece, and perhaps earlier, The two great Epic poems of the Hindús are the Ramdyana and the Blahú-bharata To fix the exact period at which either of them was composed is now impossible, though, from internal evidence, they must both have been the productions of a post-redie age. $ 2. The Rúmiyang was, no doubt, the more ancient of the two Indian Epics. Neither it nor the Mahá-bbárata, nor any of the productions of antecedent ages, was committed to writing till many centuries after their original composition in the fourth chapter of the first book of the Rámáyana, we mect with special reference to the minstrels and reciters,, by whom, like the Greek parodol, the ancient Hindu poems, previous to the invention of writing in India, Tere pre- Berred and transmitted from age to age.? * Mar_Muller, who discusses at some length (in hu work on Ancient before ·110 HANDBOOK OF SANSKRIT LITERATURE The word Ramáyana (TTH+ HITT) means the adventures of Rama, who was one of the incarnations of Vishnu, the Preserver, and is still a favourite deity in most parts of India, more especially in the districts of Oude and Bahár, where Krishna has not supplanted him Thero wcro three Rimas in Jlindu mythology, Tiz, Parašu-Ráma, Ráma. Chandra, and Bafz-Náma, all avatars (or incarnations) of Vishnu The last is the Indian IIcrcules, and as the clder brother of Krishna, appears frequently in the Mahabharata Parasu-Rárva, as the son of the sage Jamadagni, 18 the type of Brahmanism, arrayed in opposition to the Kshatriyas, or military casto He is introduced onco into the Ramáyana, but only to exhibit his inferiority to tho real liero of the work, viz, Ráma-Chandra, who, as the son of Dasaratha, a prince of the solar dynasty, typifies the conquering Kshatriyas, advancing towards the south, and-subjugating the barbarous aborigères, who are represented by Rayana and his followers There are many poems bearing the name of Ramayana -all rolating to the sume herombut by far the most complete and famous is the lengthy epic, the authorship of which is attributed to Valmik: It narrates the banshment of Ráma, under the surname of Chandra (the moon), a prince belonging to the dynasty of the kings of Ayodhya, his wanderings through the southern peninsula, the seizure of his wife, Sita, by the giant ruler of Ceylon (Rárana), the miraculous conquest of tlus island by Ráma, aided by Sugriva, Ling of the monkeys (or for sters-the word bandar meaning both), or Rahshasas as they are also called, and by Vibhıslana, the ·THE PITAL 111 brother of Ratana, the sharing of the rayzahing demon by Pama, and recorering of Sita, and the restoration of Chandra to the empire of his ancestors at Ayodhya Jo mention 2 made of Rama in the Teda, but he may be regarded as the first real Kshatriya hero of the post redic and looking to the great simplicity of the stile of the Pamarana, the absence of ans reliable allusion to Baddhum as an establi.hed fact, and to the practices known to have prerailed in India as early as the fourth century before Chrit, as well as from other condiderations, "Te cannot," says Joner Tilliams (Essay on Indian Epic Poetry), " be far Frong in asworting that a great portion, if not the rhole, of the Pamarana, 23 we now hare it, mact have been current in India as early as the fifth century before Christ" Valmíhis work consists of 24,000 ślolas (or du-tich»), divided into seren books, which are again subdırıded ato chapters It mar be dinded into three principal parts or periods, corresponding to the three chief epochs in the life of Rama. (I) The account of hu youthful days, his education and residence at the court of his father Data ratha, king of Arodhra, hus happy marriage to Sita, and his inauguration as beir apparent or Crown Prince (IL) The circumstances that led to his bani.bment, the de- Ecription of his evile and residence in the forests of Central India (III) His Frar nith the grants or demons of the south for the recogers of his wife Sita, who had been carned off by their chief Parana, b, conquest and destruction of Parans, and his restoration to the throne of his father ·112 HANDBOOK OF SAYSKRIT LITGRATURE ! In the first two sections of the poema, there 13 little of extravagant fiction, but in the third, the poet mars the beauty of the descriptions by tho wildest cxaggeration and hyperbole The poem seems to be founded on historical fact, and the traditions of the south of India uniformly ascribe its civilization, tho subjugation, or dispersion of its 'forest tribes of barbarians, and the settlement of cırılsed Ilindus, to the conquest of Lanká (Ceylon) by Ráma A part of the Rámájana was published, with a translation, by Messrs Carey and Marshman, some forty years ago, and a Latın traaslation of the first book has been more recently published by I'rofessor Schlegel The entiro last book, in which Ráma receives adoration as a God, and 18 identified with the supreme, is, doubtless, a modern appendage $3 The Jaha-bharar& This huge epic, which is in all probability later in date than the Ramayana, and consists of about 220,000 long lines, is rather a cyelopædia of Hindu mythology, legendary history, and philosophy, than a poem with a single subject It is divided into eighteen books, nearly erery one of which would form a large volume, and the whole is a vast thesaurus of national legends, said to have been collected and arranged by 'yasa (the supposed compuler of the Vedas and Puranas), a name derived from & Sanskrit Terb, meaning "to fit together," or arrange The following is an outline of the leading story, though this occupies Little more than a fifth of the whole work, ·THE LAFORU PATA 113 numerous episodes and dressions on all reneties of subjeets being interperled throughout the poem According to the legendary butors of India, 'two dynasties were ongipalls dominant in the north-called Solar and Lirar, under whom numerous petty praces held authonts, and to whom they acknowledged fealty The most celebrated of the Solar line, which commenced in 1be/walu, and reigned in Oude, was the Rama of the Ramayana. Under this drnats the Brahmanıcal system gained ascendancy more rapidls and completely than under the Lunar kings in the more northern dutricts, where fresk arntals of martial tribes preservert an independent spint among the population already settled in those parts The mot famous of the Lunar race, who reigned m Hastinapur, or ancient Delhi, was Dharata, thoe 'au thonty is said to have extended over a great part of India, and from whom India is to this day called by the natives Bharat varsha (the country or domain of Bharata). This Bharata was an ancestor of Kuru, the twenty third in descent from whom was the Brahman Krishna Dirapa jana Tyala the supposed author of the Vahabharata), who had two sons, Di ritarastra and Pandu The former, though blind, consented to assume the government when resigaed by his younger brother Pandu, and undertook to educate, with his own hundred sons, the five reputed sons of his brother These fire sons tere, -Ist, Yudhu.hthira (ze, "firm in lattle'), 2nd, Bhuma (le, "terrible"), 3rd, Arjuna (ie, "upnght'), 4th, Jakula, (ie, "a mun goose "), Sth, Lahadera (Ll., 'a twing plant ') ·114 HANDBOOK OP SANSKRIT LITERATURE The two last The three first were born from Pandu's wife, Prithá, or Kuntı, but were really her childien by three gods, viz , Dharma, Váyu, and Indra respectively were children of his wife Mádrı, by the Aswini Kumaras, or "twin sons"?e, of the Sun As, however, l'andu had ach nowledged these princes as his sons the objection to their birth was (verruled by his example Panda (ze, " the pale") was probably a leper, and so incapable of succession out the poem The characters of the five Pandavas are draw with much artistic delicacy, and maintained consistently through- The eldest, Yudhishthira, is a pattern of justice, integrity, and chivalrous honour and firmness Bhima 19 a type of brute courage and strength of gigantio stature, impetuous and irascible, he is capable, however, oi watin unselfish love, and shows devoted afectiun from his mother and brothers Arjuna, who is the chief hero of the poem, 19 represented as a man of undaunted courage, and, at the same time, generous, modest, and tenderhearted, of super-human strength withal, and matchless u arms and athletic exercises Nakula and Sahadera are amable, noble minded, and spirited All firo are as. unlike as possible to the hundred sons of Dhritarfshtra, commonly called the Kuru princes, or Kauravas who are represented 29 mean, spiteful, dishonourable, and The cousias, though so uncongenial in character, were cducated together at Hastinapur by a Brahman named Drona, who found in the Pandu princes apt * God of the Wind (Lolus) * God of the Firmament (Jupiter tonans) Yicious * The God of Justice the Hindu Pluto ·TIE TAIRBHARATA 115 scholars Their education finished, a grand tournament is held, at which the colisins display their skill in archery, the management of chariots horses, etc Arjuna especially distinguishes himself by prodigies of strength and skill, but suddenly a stranger enters the lists named Karna, who, after performing the same feats, challenges Arjuna to single combat But each champion is obliged to tell his name and pedigree, and Karna's parentage being doubtful (he was really the illegitimate son of Pritha, by Surya (the sun) and, therefore, half brother of Arjuna), he is obliged to retire ignominously from the arena Thus publicly humiliated, Karna joins the party of their enemies, the Kurus, to whom he rendors important service Euraged at the result of this contest, the Kurus endeavour to destroy the Pandavas by setting fire to their house, but they, warned of their intention, escape by an underground passage to the woods Soon after, in the disguise of mendicant Brahmans, they repair to the Suayamrara (the public choice of a husband), by Draupadı daughter of Drupada king of Panchala Arjuna, by the exhibition of his gymnastic skill, wins the favour of the lovely princess who becomes his bride Strengthened by Dru pada’s alliance, the Pandu princes throw off their disguise, and the king, Dhritarashtra, 18 induced to settle all differences by dırıdın: his kingdom between them and his own sons the Kurus Yudhishthura, however, afterwards stakes and loses his whole territory at dice His brothers then pass twelve years in the woods, in disguise, after which the war is again renewed. *Krishna, King of Dwaraka, in Guzerat (an incarnation of Vishnu), joins the Pandavas, ·116 LANDBOOK Or SA YSKRIT LITCRATURE as charioteer to Arjuna The ri Fal armies mect near Delhi The battle which lasts for eighteen days terminates in favour of the Pandavas who recorer their possession and the elder brother 18 elevated to the throne Duryodhani and all the Kurus being slain in the conflict Thus the undınded kingdom of Yastınápur became the possession of the sins of Pandu, but they were so grieved by the dreadful slaughter which their ambition had occa sioned that they resigned their power Their famous ally Krishna--vyho previous to his founding the city of Dwaral a bad been expelled from Mathura (Muttra) the scat of his family was accidentally killed in a thicket and his sons driven from their paternal possessions sought refuge beyond the Indus Such is a very brief outline of the leading story of the Maha bharata but the episodes which occupy more than three fourths of the whole poem deserve a passing notice $4 The Bhagavad Gita This is a divine song in the form of a discourse be tween the Avatar Krisbna and his pupal Arjuna held in the midst of an undecided battle It gives a full and most curious cxposition of the half mythological half philosophical pantheism of the Brahmans and a general view of the whole mystic theology of the Hindus Schlegel calls this episode the most beautiful and perhaps the only truly philosophical poem in the whole range of litera turo know to us There is something striking and magnificent in the introduction of this solemn discussion ·BHAGAVAD GITA AND MALOPXKHITAJL. 117 on the nature of the Gidhead and the destiny of man in the midst of the fury and tumult of civil war in which at occurs It consists of eighteen lectures on so many different subjects Numerous translations have been made of it into various languages $5 The Nalopakhyanam This episode forms part of the third book of the great Lpic It 19 of entirely a different cast from the last, and 18 said to partake more of the manner of our own Spenser than of the osophic tone of the Gita The gist of the story is briefly as follows Yudhishthura, the eldest of the Pándus, 19 in exile in the wilderness, where he and his four brothers are doomed to pass twelve years, according to an engagement he had entered into with his opponent Duryodhana, with whom he had lost in dice The sage, Tnhadasva, bears him company, and to amuse and console him, relates the history of Kung Aala, who, like himself, had lost his empire and wealth by playing at dice, but in the end became fortunate and happy Nala, king of Aishada, possessed all the noble qualities and acquirements that could distinguish an Indian monarch. Bhima, king of Vidarbha (Berar) had an only daughter, the most beautiful and accomplished of her sex-the gentle Damyanth Nala and Damyantı became mutually enamoured from the nere fame of each others virtues The Sıcayamtara of the princess 13 about to take place Nala repairs as a Tutoor 'to " vairs, wat 'nitura aile hmet hier nie ·118 4 DDOOK OP BASKAIT IITTLICHE become incarnate for the same propose, and, meeting Nala in the way, thing Ing him to ix the latct of their income of lors Jie n monstrate but at tas! conents 11o delicto t, but Damjanti declares elint, crin in the presence of the gala, she shall oclect the noblo Yala. Thio macmalıls rute and all the royal multor are 111 array, but Damyanti dicoters, to ler dumnas, fino Xalas, cach of the deities luring assume thic form, fratures, and dress of the king of Nisladı Mhe utters a murricatory prayer to the gods to rescal to her the truo object of her choice They are moral with compreson, and stand confeszexl, their spintu buxhes lx ing destinguished froin that of the human hero by their casting no skadon, nor toucling the ground, and otheranse Damyanti tlırong the wreath of flowers around the nech of the mil Yala in tohen of her clinico "The nesembly breahs up and the applause of the gods, and the lamentations of tlar disappointed ouitors Tho nuptials arc celebrited, and Mala and his bride aro blessed with tiro losed children Nali, tho model of ritur, and mety, and Icarning at length performs the Aswameda, or sacrifice of a borxc, tho height of Indian deration In the course of tinc, hov. cvcr, Nala is induced by an esilepint to play at duco with his brother, Puekhara, and loses kuus kingdom, luis sealth, his very clothes Onc staho onls remains-Damyanti herself This Pushkara proposes, but Nala refuses Tho all fatal pair are doren together into the wilderness all but nahod Nala persus_lex łus wife to lcare kim, and return to her father's court, but she will not forsake him The frantic man, honeycr, resolrcs to abandon her while asleep ·NALOPXKHYXNAJ AND FARIYANSA 119 He does so Each pasees through a series of strange and stormy adventures, ending in Nala becoming master of the horse to the King of Ayodhya(Oude), and Damyantı returning to her father's house After some time, Dampanti, in order to discover the retreat of Nala, proclaims her intention to hold another Suayamtara, and to form a second marriage, though forbidden by the laws of Manu Rituparna, the King of Oude, resolves to become a suitor, and sets forth with his chanotcer—the disgused Nala Ag they enter the city of Bhima, Damyantı recognises the sound of her husband s trampling steeds--his drug could not be mistaken by her car She employs every artifice to discover her lord, she suspects the charioteer, she procures some of his food, and recognises the flavour of her husband's cookery, she sends her children to him Nala can conceal himself no longer, but the jealous thought that his wife was about to take a second hustand, rankles in his heart, and he rebukes her with sternness Damyantı solemnly denies any such design, declaring that she had only employed the artifice to win back her lord Nala re assumes his proper form and character-wins back his wife and all that he had lost to his unprincipled brother, and, re ascending his ancestral throne, recom mences a reign of prety, justice, and felicity $6 The Haritansa (le, family of Vishnu), etc This forms a sort of appendix to the Mahá bharata, consisting of 25,000 verses It recounts the adventures of Krishna, and subsequent fate of his family, but commences

·120
LANDBOOK OF SANSKRIT LITERATURE
with an account of the creation of the world, and of the
patwarchal and regal dynasties! The principal other
episodes are
4 "The Deluge"2_an Indian tradition of the deluge of
Noah - This has been translated by Bopp and Milman
5 "The Rape of Draupadi," and the combat of her five
husbands to revenge it
6 "The Death of S:supula," and an account of Krishna's
war with him
7 " The Drahman's Lamcnt" over the orgies of the
cannibal giant Bala The Baka badha (as it is called in
the originıl), or Bráhmana vitapa, has bcen translated, in
verse, by Dean Milman
.
u in the datapatba "Brahmana, attached to the bajasanesi Şanhits of tha
Yajur Terus

·121 CHAPTER II. OY THE PURANAS AND DRAMATIC WORKS $1 The Puranas Generally Described The different worls known by the name of Paranas are evidently derived from the same religroits system as the Rámayana and Mahabharata, or from the mytho-heroic stage of Hindu belief They present, however, peculiarīties which designate their belonging to a later period, and to an important modification in the progress of opinion. They repeat the theoretical cosmogony of the two great poems, they expand and systematise the chronological computations, and they give a more definite and connected representation of the mythological fictions and historical traditions But, besides these, and other particulars, they offer characteristic peculianties in the paramount importance they assign to indırdual deities, in the Tariety and purport of the ntes and observances addressed to them, and in the intention of new legends illustrative of the power and graciousness of those divinities, and of the efficacy of implicat deration to them Sira and Vishnu, under one or other form, are almost the sole * Abridged from Professor Yisoa a Preface to Translation of the Visina Purópa ·122 HANDBOOK OF SANSKRIT LITERATURE objects that claim the homage of the Hindus a the Purárias departing from the domestic and elemental ritual of the Vedas, and exhibiting a sectarial favour and exclusiveness not traccable in the Ramayana, and only to a qualified extent in the Mahabharata They are no longer authoritieg for IIindu belief as a whole, but wero evidently compiled for the purposes of promoting the special worship of Vishna and Siva It is probable, horrever, that there may have been an earlier class of Puranas, of which those we now have ato but the partial and adulterated representatives The name atself, Puruna ("old") indicates the object of the compilation to be the prescrvation of ancient tractions, e purpose, in the present condition of tho Puranas, but very imperfectly fulfilled “I cannot discover in them" says Col Yans Kennedy, "any other object than that of religious instruction The descriptions of the earth and planetary systems, and the lists of royal races which occur in them, are evidently extraneous” § 2 The Cosmogony and Theogony of the Puranas These may both, probably, be traced to the Vedas Tho schemc of primary or clcmental crcation they borrow from the Sunklya philosophy, which is, probably, one of the oldest forms of speculation on man and naturo amongst Illndus The Pantheism (or, viewed in one light, the Polytheisin) of tho I'utanas is one of their insariallo characteristics, although the particular divinity-ho is all things, from ·THE PURITAS 123 whom all things proceed, and to whom all things return be diversified according to their individual sectarial Inas They seem to have derired the notion from the Vedas, bat in them the one universal Being is of a higher order than a personification of attributes and elements, andhowerer imperfectly conceired or unworthily described- 19 God In the Puranas, the one only Supreme Being is supposed to be manifest in the person of Sıra or Vishnu, either in the way of allusion (HTET), or in sport, and one or other of these disnties is, therefore, the cause of all that is—13 himself all that exists $3 As to Date It 15 The Puranas are evidently works of different ages, and have been compiled under different circumstances highly probable that, of the present popular forms of the Hindu religion, none assumed their actual state earlier than the time of Sankara Acharya, the great Śxica reformer, who flourished, in all likelihood, in the eighth or ninth century of the Taisi nata teachers, Ramanuja dates in the 12th century, Jadhracharya in the 13th, and Vallabha in the 16th, and the Puranas seem to have accompanied or followed their innovations, being endently intended to advocate the doctrines they taught $4 The Style The manable form of the Paranas is that of dialogue, in which come person relates their contents in reply to the ·124 HANDBOOK OF SANSKRIT LITERATURE enquiries of another Tho immediate narrator a$ commorly, though not constantly, Lonná harshana, a disciple of the fargous Krishna Dwaipajana Vyusa, the son of Parásıra, who is said to have taught the Vedas and Puranas to various disciples, but who appears to have been the head of college or school, under whom various learned men gave to the sacred literature of the Hindus the form in which it now presents itself, Tyasa being a generic term meaning "an arranger or compiler" Loma harshana was a Suta, a e a bard or panegyrist, who was created according to the Vishnu Purana, to celebrate the exploits of princes, and hence perhaps, the appropriatron, in a great measure, of tho Puranas to the genealogies of regal dynasties and descriptions of the universe 33 $5 The Puranas cnumeratod The Puranas are utformly stated to be righteen in number Their names are as follows (1) The Brahma Purána, (2) the Pasma, (3) the l'aisinala, (4) the Saira, (5) the Bhagavata, (6) the Narada, (7) the Márkandeya, (8) the Afgncya, (9) the Bharishya, (10) the Brahma zawartia, (11) the Lainga, (12) the Taraha, (13) the Slands, (14) the Tamana, (15) the haurma, (16) the Matsya , (17) the Garuda , (18) the Brakmanda This list is accordug to the Bhagarata In other authorities there are a few variations in the titles, but not in the number It is said that there are also eighteen Upa puranas or minor Puránas, but the names of these are specified in ·THE PURANAS 125 the least receirable authorities, and the greater number of the works are not procurable 86 Classified and Described The Puranas are, in the Padma,, divided into three classes, according to the qualities which characterise or prevail in them, yız, the Satrila, the lamasa, and the Rajasa from the predominence, respectively, of the qualıties of satua (goodness or purity), tamas (gloom or ignorance), or rajas (passion), which distinguishes each Those in which the mahatmya (greatness) of Han, or Vishnu, prevails, are Surnira, those in which the legends of Agni, or Śiva, predominatės, are Tamasa, and those which dwell most on the stories of Brábma, are hajasa These last are special favourites with the sai tas, or worshippers of salti, or the female principle It is in tho Puranas included in the Rajasa class that such legeads occur as the Durga Mahátmya (an episode of the Mar- Landeya), on which the worship of Durgá, or Kalı, 29 especially founded The Brahma vaivartta (another of the same class) devotes a great portion of its contents to the celebration of Radha the mistress of Krishna, and other female divinities Indeed, the principal subject of the Rájasa class seems to be the worship of Krishna, and the account of his amours, and as the sojourner in Vrindavan, under the title of Gopala, and Bal Gopala, the companion of the cowherds and milkmaids the lover of Radhá, or ag the juvenile master of the universe, Jagannatha The aggregate sumber of Slobus in the Purings 13 stated to be 400,000 or 1,600,000 lines ·126 DANDBOOK OF SANSKRIT LITERATURE. 87 Of the Standa and Padma Puranas The longest of the Purunas scems to have been the Standa, which is said to hare contained 81,000 stanzas, but in a collected form it is no longer in existence Only fragments of it are met with in the shape of Sanhitás, Kándas, and Malátnyas The most celebrated of these portions is the Kasi Kanda, which gives a minute descriptron of the temples of Sura in or near Benáres (Kasi), mixed with directions for worshipping Naheshwana (sica) The greater purt, at least, of this Kanda was most probably nitten before the first attack on Bendres by Mahmud of Ghazni The story of Agastya records, in a legendary style, the propagation of Hinduism in the south of India The Padma Puruna, which is the next longest, contains 55,000 stanzas, and gives an account of the period when the world as a golden lotus (padma), Brahma assuming that form at creation $8 the l'ishnu Purant But the best known of all is the fishnz.Purana, on account of the translation of it, with a long preface and numerous notes, by Professor I Wilson, who gives, in his preface, a full analysis of all the other Puranas, so far as their contents are ascertainable It contains 23 000 staazas In this Forh, Parasare, beginning with the events of the larala halpa, expounds all duties especially in connection with the worship of Vishnu (as Krishna) ·THE PURATAS 127 The fourth book, thich contains the genealogies of the royal family, commencing with the Solar and Lunar dynastics, until a comparatively modern period, may be regarded as a valuable epitome of Hindú history Another of the Puranas deserves special notice here, as one of great celebrity in India, and as exercising a more direct and powerful influence on the opiðions and feelings of the people than perhaps any other of the Puranas, 7z -- 89 The Śrı Blágarata This is placed fifth in all the lists, except in that of the Padma Purána, which ranks it as the 18th, as being the extracted substance of all the rest It is so named from being dedicated to the glorification of Bhagavat or Vishnu. It consists of 18,000 verses The Bhagavata was communicated to the Rishis at Naimisháranya by the Súta for bard) Lomá-barshana, but he only repeats what was related to be by Sula, the son of Vyása, to Parikshit, the Ling of Fastınápura, grandson of Arjuna Haring incurred the imprecation of a hermit, by which he was sentenced to dic of the bite of a renomols serpent at the expiration of seven days, the king, in preparation for this event, repairs to the banks of the Ganges, whether also come the gods and sages, to witness his death Among the latter 13 Súba; and it is in reply to Pa shut's question, what a man should do who is about to die, that he narrates the Bhagarata, as he had heard it from Vyása, for nothing secures final happiness to certainly as to die whilst the thoughts are wbolly engrossed by Vubnu.

·129 HADLOOK OF SIYSENIT IITCH TUIN The narrtırc opens with a cosmogony, wluchi, though in vnost respects similar to that of the other l'urúnas, is moro largely much up with allegory and mysticism, and denizes its tono more from the Valinta than the Sankhya plulo oply 'The fourth Shantis contains the anxantara of Sca. yambhurı, and describes the multiplication of thic patri. arcual familie The tenth woh the characteristic part of t1114 l'urana, and tho portion on which ite popularıty is founded It is appropriate to tlic history of Knislina moro in detail than in tho 17«lnu Purung IC Las been translated into nearly all the languages of India. Thc l'rom Sugar is thc IItldı version of at Colebroohe thinks the Ish igarata to be the work of tho grammaru lorauera, sux hundred years ago thenticity is doubtful It would be talous and superfluous to dwell longer on the Purunas, by giving crcn tho bricfest analysis of the contents and characteristics of tho remaining works so callou We proceed, thercforc, to notice tho Its au- . $ 10 Dramatic and other Poctical Compositions, to which reference has not already been made The classical poetry of ancient India is disided into three periods Thc first is that of the Tedus, the second that of the great Epics, the third that of the Drama A fourth 13 mentioned, but as it is of later dato (since the birth of Christ), it is not considered 13 belonging to the The differenco of stylo alone between the classic age ·KIT IDICA 129 Vedas and the grcat Epic poems already noticed, 13 50 great as to prove that centuries must bare elap-ed between their respective composition The language of the foriner 15 visibly softened and polished in the I pic, nearly as much as that of the Ilind in the hands of the Grecian dramatists Thuc bards of Indir hare, grea to poetry ncurly csers form which it has assumed in the western world, and in arch and all they bic crcelled Its hcrarc pocts hare been likened to Homer, V'yása 18 not unworthy of comparison with Milton --- fus Nala and Dunyantı with the “ Taeric Queen" of Spenser In the Drama Kulid isa ling been designated the lodian Shihe. speare Under the present liead, therefure, tre shall com mence with some account of that great poet and Ins norh ·130 HANDBOOK OF SANSKRIT LITERATURE 18 bis Salantala, or " the Fatal lung," a drama, in seven acts, the plot of which is taken from an episode of the Mahabharata $ 12. The Sakuntala It was the publication of a translation of this play, by Sir William Jones, full seventy years ago, which Dax Vuller thinks "may fairly be considered as the starting point of Sanskrit philology' “The first appearance of this beautiful specimen of dramatic art," he continues, "created, at the time, a sensation throughout Europe, and the most rapturous praise yas bestowed upon it by men of high authority in matters of taste." It has since been translated into Trench, with elaborate notes, by M Chézy. and, more recently, a beautiful ecution of a new, partly poetical, translation has bçen published (in English) by Professor Monier Willams Di Gilchrist also (in 1827) edited a translation of it into "elegant Hindoustanec," which had been made long before his time The Hindu drama possesses one striking peculiarity which should alone secure it general favour " It is impossiblo," says Professor Wilson, " that the dramatic compositions of India should have been borrowed from any other peoplo, either of ancient of modern times, besides which, they present chiracteristic features in their conduct and construction which plainly emce their original design and national development In the Sikuntali, as in most other Ilindu dramas, the COD 1920n people are represented as speaking the Prul rt, or vulgarised Sanskrit, while the language of the higher ·THE WORKS OF EXLIDS. 131 and more educated classes as the cla-sıcal Sanskrit of the present type § 13 The Raghu lansa 13 another poem by Kalidasa, in nineteen cantos, and is considered one of the most admimble compositions in the Sansknt language It contains a history of the ancestors of Ráma, commencing with Dilips, the father of Raghu, ono of tho Lings of Ayodhya (Oude)-- tho was tho grandfather of Rama chandra-and carrying down the history of lus descendants to Agaivira, giving a genealogical tablo of twenty ninc princes in all Nearly one-half of the Tork relates to the history of Naghu, and as much to that of Nama and other interncdiate princes of the line $ 11 The legha Duta, os" Cloud Vosscnget," 29, next to the Sakuntali, perhaps the most celebrated of the poems of Kálıdása Editions of this work were pub Iished at Calcutta in 1813, and in London in 1815, by Professor II II Tilson, wth a translation in Fnglish verse, and notes and illustrations, and again reprinted with a vocabulary, etc, bor Profeanor Johnson, of Jailey bury, in 1813 It consists of only 110 stropues or stanzas $ 13 The Walodaya 24 n mom in four cantos compri ing 220 stolas, or couplets on thin clientures of Wala and Damantı. Onc cution of thu4 14 accompanied log the contents of sıx lcıma pane data, and designatel Ilie Subodhink This work has beer ·132 IAPBOOK UT SANSKRIT LITERATUNC errefully cdited by the late Rev Dr Yates, of Calcutta (1814)— accompanied by a metrical English translation, an essay on alliteration, it grammatical analysis, and an account of other similar works In this singular poem rhyme and alliteration are combined in the terminations of the verscs for the three or four last syllables of each bemustich within the stanza are the same in sound, though different en sense It 19 a series of puns on a pathetic subject It is supposed to bave been written as a counterfet of a short poem (of 29 stanzas) similarly constructed, but with less repetition of each rhyme, and entitled, from the words of the challenge with which it concludes, Ghata karpara ("an elephant's shall") $ 16 The l'ikramorrasz 1.5 drama by the same clegant kand, doubtless, that wrote Sakuntală, tradition as well as internal eredences attestung the identity of authorskıp "In each we see the same exquisite polish of style, the same light touch in painting scenery and character, and get the dramas are like in difference,' and each has the separate personality, as well as the mutual lilencse, which characterises the train off spring of the same creating mind”! An edition of the text ras printed at Hertford (1819), under the auspices of Professor Milliams, and an Enghsh translation, in 1851, by Professor E B Cowell The text has also been edited in Germany by Professors. Lenz and Bowlithengd, ·OTHIER EPIC POEUS 133 and Professor Vilson has given a translation, in elegant Terse, in his "Specimens of the Theatre of the Ilındús”. $ 17 Discellancous The other works attributed to Kílıdısa are (1) The Mutu-Sanhura (or "assemblage of the seasons"), a de scriptive poem, which was the first bool crer printed in Sanskrit Wilson gires sixteen terecs of it in his edition of the Megha-Dúta (2) The Srusha. Bolha, a poem on Sanghsit prosods, founded on Pingala's aphorisms, or rules of pro ody, especially applicable to Práhnt poetry (3) The Kumara-Sambhara, or Birth of Kártikeya, the God of War, a long pocm, originally in twenty-two books, but of which only fragments are not cxtant Three or four other works have been attributed to him, but their authenticity is doubtful, viz, the Sringára-Tilaha, and Prasnottara-Vula (two lyric poems), etc $ 18. The other Epic Pocis are Bharati, Sri-Ilarsha, and Jáglia, rho, with Kálidła, have been dignified by the titles of Jalu larya, or the great procts Blárari 19 the author of the Kiruturginija, whicla contains an account of the cars cimned on by Arjuna against sarago nations Sri-Ilarla's principal work is the darshadha-Clarita, or the drentures of Nala, Raja of Xrladha, in tacats tro cantos, a luck the Hindus rink 09 one of the sis great poems regarded as the inasterpieces of their profuse literature Vágba's epic poem, cafıtlad Sisipala Badha (or the death of "supala) is a fork of much mont An odioa x FrequiblesCalw,IS!). SE ·131 HANDBOOK OF SASKRIT LITERATURE Soma-Deva, another epic poet, is the author of the Vranat-katha, which Sir William Jones compares with the poems of Ariosto and of a poem on tho death of Nanda and the accession of Chandragupta to the throne $ 19 Fables and Ethical tlorhs (Nutzkatha) The most celebrated work of this class is the Pancha- Tantra, so called from its bemg divided into five Tantras, or sections, but also known by the name of Panchopakkyanam, ar five (collectrons of) storics It is the parent stock of the Hitopadeśa, Palpay's Fables, and other similar collections Its authorship is attributed to Vishnu-darmá, who is said to have extracted the essence of all the most celebrated works of this class “Whoever reads this work," it is said, acquires the whole Nitz śustra, and and will never be overthrown by Indra himself” The oldest collection of fables and talcs that is known, is that which goes under the name of Brdpai, or Prlpay, and there is no book," except the Bible, which has been translated into so muy languages, though its origin is involved in mystery The Arabic and Persian versions of this work are known by the name of the Kalila wa Dimna The Sanskrit version is the celebrated Hitopadesa, or "T"riendly Instructor," which is divided into four books, entitled respectively, the Matre-Labha (or Acquisition of Friends), the Mira-Bheda (or Separation of Triends), Sandke (Peace), and Tigraha (War) This work is too well known by mere tyros in Sanskrit lore to require a further description liere ·APPENDIX I BRIEF OUTLINE OF HINDU MYTIOLOGY As intimately connected rith tho htern ure of the Hindus and tending greatly to its elucidation, the editor has deemed it de sirable to subjorn short account of their religious systems For the following concise outline thereof he has been indebted chiefly to a valuable and interesting volume, entitled "India and the Hindoos,' by the Rev F de Ward formerly m35910nary at Madras along with the larger work already referred to, by the Rer TV Ward, of Serampore The Vedas and Sastras, which clum to communicate all that need be known regarding the charucter of the Supreme, with the modes of performing acceptable worship nou of securing the divine blessing, teach the existence of one universal spirt, the fount and origin of all other beings animate or inanimate, material or immaterial To this bupromc divinity 19 given the incommunicable name of Brahma 1 poun, in the neuter gender, as indicating the negatire mode of his existecco and to be distinguished from Brahma, the distinctive title of the first of the Hindu Triad of this great self existent, independent, and eternal One, we are told in the Sastras that he resides in per pctual silence, takes no interest in tho affairs of the universe, finding his happiness in undisturbed repose They add, that though all spirit and without form, he is defoid of qualities (fjGT) without will (fatie) without consciousness of his own existence, immersed in an abyss of unrelicved darkness and gloom He is the Oxf, say they, not genericaX/, as posscssed of a divine natars, not kịpostalreally, as simple and recompoundeil, ·136 APPENDIX 1 C&sence not numerically, as the onls actual dits:--but the sole entity, whether created or upcreated *]I 19 oncness is so absolute, that at not only excludes the possibility of any other God, co ordinate or subordinate, but escludes tlic possibility of aught else, human or angclic, material or immaterial " IIc is thus, as one well says, "an infinite negatire, an infinite nothing" This is the supreme deity of the IIindus, mysterious, unanprochable, indescribable, -in fact unintelligible The Hindús are not Atheists on the sense of a chance crcation of all beings and things Their system, generally, 19 rather, in ats original state, refined and sublimated Panthersı, all visible things being regarded as but manifestations of his (Brahma's) With a verbal clango, we may adopt the poet's couplet as descriptivo of the Iliadu futh,- * All are but parts of fous mysterious thole, Wlioso body nature 19, and Dralım the soul The authors of the Hindu system, like the Greek philosophers, found a difficulty in conceiving how pure spurt could exert any energy, and especuls an energy sufficient to create a Torld When, therefore, the supreme Brahma willed to create the world, he dresy fortlı from limself three hypostases, to which were given the names of Brahma, Vishnu, and Siya These constitute the celebrated Hindú Triad, pf whom the sacred books declare that "Thcy were originally united in one essence, and from one casence were derired, and that the great One, became distinctly known as three Gods, being one person and three god's of each of these divine personages, we shall give a short description 1 Brahma This deity is usually represented as a mid with four faces, riding on a swan, and holding is one of his four hands a portion of the Vedas, in the seconil a pot of Tater, while the third is raised ups ard to 16dicate protection, and the fourth declined clown Tar], as btstoting a gift He is voriously styled the ·OUTLLSE OF AN DU MITHOLOGY 137 " celf existent” (El-though falsely, since he sprung from Brahma--the "great father" (FTAT E ) the "Lord of creatures," (featit) and, more appropriately, the "Creator" (ag or 727) He is reputed to have had originally four heads, having lost ode, for a reason upon which his biographers are divided 11 opinion That giren in the Skanda Parana is as follows "The Linga (or sacred symbol) of Siva fell, by the curse of a l'ishi, from heaven, and increased in such height that it filled heaven and hell In order to see it, Brahma, Vishnu and the other gods, assembled, and in the midst of their sonder they called out who can reach its extremity ? Visbna descended to hell, and Brahma went upwards, but neither search prored succes ful Brahma, under the influence of shame, hired the cov, Kama,' and the tree, hetala, as false witnesses, and asserted three times that he had secn tht end The gods, knowing the falsehood of his declaration, deprived him, by their curse, of all worship, and Sıra cut off one of his heads" Be the cause what it may, there ys but one temple to his honour erected in the land, and he receives less direct reverence than almost any of the celestials ve 2 l'ishnu This second of the Trimurttı, or Triad, appears as a wae man wearing sellow garments, and nding on a shate (TE)' and holding in his four bands a var club, a conch shell, a weapon called a chalra (or discus) and a water bly He has numerous other names, as Maravana, Viswambhara Kesara, Govinda, la dhara, etc, and 15 worshipped as the Perrader, or the personifica tion of the preserving principle ? Kama-dhena re the cor which gields everything dea red * The Pandanus odoratlemos 3 forgfalt tbree forms Or more generally on a Garuda (119€) o garura an animal hal bird and half man s The Sastra Egy 1 001 ·139 APPENDIX I The Puranas mention ten dzalárs descents or incarnations) of this God, ning of which have already taken place, vz, (1) As a fish (the Jataya aratára), (2) 18 a tortoise, or turtlo (Kachhapa), (3) as a boar (Parala), (4) as a man monster (Nara Singha), (5) is a dwarf (Tamara), (6) as a guint (Parazu rama), (7) aş Rúna (the hero of the Ramáyana), (8) as Krishna , (9) as Buddha The tenth, which is still expected, will be (according to the Sastias; as a vhate horse, called the Kalli azatara The first six are said to have taken place during the Satya Tuga, se, the first or golden age of the world s history, and of these there are no images made for worship The following threc occurred during the Treta and Dwaparı Yugas, and the tenth is assigned to the present and Inst age, the Kali Yuga Each incarnation was effccted for the accomplishment of some special parpose of more or less importance, and distinguished by the performanee of wonderful exploits Thus, in the first, Vishnu took the form of a fish (some sy of one kind and some another) in order to bring up the Vedas from the bottom of the ocean, for the instruction of Bralımá on his entering on the Worl of creation In the Kachhapa, he assumed the formi of a tortoise, in order to take upon his bach the newly created earth, and secure its stability. The Hindus still believe that the earth is supported on the back of this tortoise or turtle The Varaha happened at one of the periodical destructions of the world, when the earth sunk into the waters Vishnu, the preserver, appearing in the form of a boʻır, then descended into the waters, and, with his tusks, drew up the earth The fourth and fifth avatars took place for the destruction of certain giants and tyranta The sixth (Parasu' Rama), for the overthrow and extinction of the Kshatriyas, who had become very corrupt and <tyrannical As Ráma chandra, in the seventh, he conquered and killed the giant Ravana, the king of Ceylon, and as Balarama, in the eighth, he destroyed Pralamba and other giants The 1 Paraft is the name of an austrument of Tar ·OUTLINE OF KTVDU PIETEOLOGY 139 hunth had for its object,iso the destruction of certain giants For this purpos, in the form of Buddha, vi bna produced among mankind, by his prearbinz, ete, a disposition to umrereal sceptirish, that, hating no longer ans faith in the god, the gants might cease to apply to them for tho.e powers by which they had become euch dreadful groarges, to mankind In this appearance, the object of Yubnu was accomplished by art without the necessity of War, but the dreadful alternative adopted affords a proof of how wretchedly the Torld tonld be governed if ererything depended on the sidorn of man Some idea of the moral character attributed to Vishnu may be gathered from the folloring incident recorded in the Si tras — Then the sea as churned to recover the ambrosia (Mount Mandra being the charming stick, a fire headed snake, Tauba, the rope, and the demons called, Asuras, the rorkmen), Akabai and Lab.hmi, two madon sisters, aro-c at the same time Vishnı, prrceno, Lakshmi to be the more brantfo), wished to marry her, but not being able to accomplish the object until the elder was disposed of, he deceased the Pishi Uddakala as to Akabar s beauty and excellence, which induced him to marry her, while Vishnu espoused the roman of his choice C The followers of this god, in particular, form one of the three fola dirons of Hindu society, riz , the Taj hnuvas, the Suras, and the Saktas . ſ. 3 Sira is the reputed destroyer of mankind, a3 Vi hna is the preserver He is commonly represented as a culrer-coloured maz, with fire heads and eight hands in six of which are sererally, a skull, - deer, fire, an axe, a rosary, and an elephant rod, while the Tenth is open, in the attitude of bles ing, and the lat in that of protecting He has a third eye in his forehead with perpen dicular corners, ear rioms of males, and a collar of skulls the end of each series of the four Yuga., Sira submers and destroys the earth, and then remodels at K3 name being wore properly the new modeller or reproducer One form in which ·110 TIF DIX I tlus deats 11 vorshipped is the longa (or lingan), alleenng to tạo ralls of the Grek It is exposed to Tich all the country otcr, and cspecially worshipel by the women Sist has an immerso number of derotres, some of whom con udur him superior to Iralima himself One of 1915 con ports is tlic 990 guinary Kill, another (fur lic as a polysumist) was the moro pacific Durga, of each of hom te shall giro a sluort account 1 dl. is the Holoch of India ller appenranco Indientes her character Sbers representcil as stinding with one foot upon the chest of her husland, $115, whom she has thrown dawn ja n fit of anger, her tongue, dyed with blood, is grotruding from her mouth, sic is ndorncd with Bulls, and the hand, of lier einin enemics aro saspended from her girlle The Llood of a tiger delights her for ten years, of a human being for one thog 200 years If any of her worshippers draw the blood from his own person, and offer it her, she will be in raptures of joy, but if he cut out a pieco of his ena desh for a burnt offering, her delight is beyond bound: But, though thus sanguinars and malevolent, Kell 19 one of the favourito dcities of the Ilidus The Swinging I estival, and other observances cqually atrocious, aro in her honour, being doened to avert her wrath, or secure her blessing She is tho special friend of threres and marderers, who arole her blessing before entering upon their deeds of siolonce, fraud, of deatb $ 5 Durga combines the characteristics of Bidetra, Pallag, and Juno Iler onginal name was Parrati, but having, by a display of extra ordinary valour, defeated a giant named Durga, she was thence forth dignified with the name of her conquered foe This monster 13 by some supposedl to be a personification of vice, and Durgi of virtue, while the struggle typified the action and reaction of good and cul in the world The festival in honour ·OUTLISE OF HIYDU LIYTEOLOGI 141 of this goddess (the Durba Puja), observed in the month of September, has no superior for magnificence of entertainment and imposing appearance in the country At the celebration of one festival, a wealthy Hindu has been loown to 818e 80,000lbs of sweetmeats, 80,000lbs of sugar, 1,000 suits of cloth garments, 1,000 suits of silk, and 1,000 offerings of rice, plantains, and other fruits In the single city of Calcutta, 1t 23 supposed that half a million pounds sterling arc annually expended on the Dargá festival alone ✓6 Indra He is called the king of Heaven, and his reign is said to continue one hundred years of the gods, after which another indırıdual from among the gods, the giants, or men, by his own merit, raises himself to this emigence. The sacrifice of a horse (ascamedha) one hundred times will raise a person, it is said, to the rank of Indra He is represented as a white man, sitting on an elephant, with a thunderbolt in his right hand, and a bow in his left He has 1,000 eyes The Puranas and other Sastras contain many stories regarding Indra, who is represented as particularly jealous lest any per son should, by sacred austerities or sacrifices, out do him in religious merit, and thus obtun his kingdom To prevent these derotees from succeeding in thert object, be generally sends a captivating female to draw away their minds, and thas lonog them from their religious austerities, induce them to return to a life of sensual gratification He was once guilty of stealing a horse consecrated by ling Sagara, who was about to perform for the hundredth time the sacrifice of that animal But that which entails the greatest infamy on the character of this god as his seducing the wife of his religious gnde (guru) Gautima he effected (like Japater in the seduction of Alcmena) by assam 10g the appearance of her absent husband Ahalya, the guru's wife, discovered her celestial seducer, but, through wantonness, and he being king of the gods, consented to his importunities Gautama, boterer, met him as he has learing the hermitags, This 1 ·142 APPENDIX I It is and discovering the erime he had committed, pronounced upon him a curse by which the god instantly became a eunuch Amaravati, the capital (or hearca) of Indra, was made by Visvakarma, the architect of the gods, a son of Brahma described as eight hundred miles in circumference, and forty milcs high Its pillars are composed of diamonds, all its thrones, beds, cto, of pure gold, as also its ralaces It is surrounded by beauteous gardens arfd pleasure grounds, interspersed with pools, fountains, etc, while music and dancing, and every sort of festivity, entertain the celestial inhabitants Indra 18 supposed to preside over the elements, and 18 by some considered the deificd impersonation of the heavens His annual festival takes place on the 14th of the month Bhadra (August September) ✓ 7 Surya--the Sun This god 19 said to be the son of Kasgapa, the progenitor of gods and men Le 1s represented as a dark red man, with three cyes and four arms In two hands he holds the lotus or water lily, with another he signifies the bestowment of a blessing, and with the fourth the forbidding of fcar He sits on a red water lils, while rays of glory issue from his body The Brahmans consider bim one of the greatest of the gods, resembling Brahma in glors The celebratcu incantation called tho gayatri, and many other forms of prayer and praise used in the daily cercmonies of the Brahmans, are addressed to him Every Sunday, but especially on the first in the month Mágha (January Iebruary), kus worship is performed, especially by women, who box of him the blessings of a bon, riches, health, etc Those who adopt this god as their particular guardian deity, are callc 1 Sauras They never cat till they have worshipped tho sun, and when it is entirely covered with clouds they fast On Sundays (Raubár), other Hindus as well as they perform special Trorskap to luis vol, and some of then uso fast Surya has to l\cs, named Sararnir "like," or "coloured," or "gollon') and Chara (+ € Halade" or "shadop") Sararna, ·OUTLIXE OF HIYDU MYTHOLOGY 145 sıx faces, is of a yellow colour, rides on a peacock, and holds 11 his right hand an arrow, and in his left a boty The express object of his birth is said to hare been the orerthrosy and de struction of the giant Taraka, wbo, bayng by the performance of religious austenties obtained the special blessing of Brahma, afterwards oppressed both Brahmans and gods. Indr (the Lins of the celestials) then called a council in heaven, when the gods applied to Brahma, who declared that he could not reverse his blessing on Taraks, but that Kartikeya, who should be the son of 818a, would destroy the grant Durga, the daughter of Hima laya, partly by the intervention of Kandarpa, the god of love, and partly by the power of religious austenties, prerailed on the ascetic Sıra to marry her, and Kartikeya was the first fruit of their union On the last evening in the month Kartıla (October November), & clay image of this god 15 torshipped, and next day thrown into the water These images are sometimes not less than twenty fire cubits high, so that the offerings have to be pre sented at the end of a long barpboo to reach the mouth of the god His image 13 also made and set up by the Eide of his mother, Darga, at the great festival of this goddess in the month Aswina (September October), and in the month Chaitra (Varih- April), when each day the worship of the son 18 performed after that of his mother There arc no temples in Bengal, hotrerer, to this god, nor any images of bim lept in the houses of the Hudas except during a festival Women worship and make special rors to Kartikeya, in the hope of obtaining a male child 10 Sabramanmar, tho 13 likewise styled the Hindu Vats seems to be nerely another form of Kartikeya,,and 13 regarded as the special guardian of the Brahmanical order He is represented with sur faces and tweise arms, riding on a peacock, and holding in his several hands a bon, an arrow, 2 coach, a discus, & sword, tope, a 10 ·A 140 ALTE: DIX 3 trident, a diamond reapon, fire, e dart, a drum, and a crescent ollapod rapon Ho 2trorshipped chiedy in the Jadras Presidency 11. Yama, called also Kila ("time"), Dhalina ruja (" tho holy king"), Kritunta ("the destroyer"), I'rcta sát ("the lorl of the dead") etc, is the Pluto of the indus The nano Yama itselt peans "restraint," "penance," or, according to Yarı), "ho who takes out of the world" He is tho judge of the dead 1119 image 15 that of a green man, with red garments and inflamed eyes, having a crown on his head, and a flower stuch in his hair, with a club in his right hand, and sitting on a buffalo Ilis dreadful teeth, im aspect, and terrific shape, fill tho inhabitants of the thite worlds with dismay Yama is said to bold a court, in which he presides as judge, being assisted by a person nanded Chitra gupta,' who Iceps an account of the actions of men A Domber of officers are also attached to the court, who bring the dead to be judged If the deceased persons have been wiched, Yama sends them to their particular hell, if good, to some place of happiness The poor Hızdus, at the bour of death, sometimes fancy they sce Yama's officers (Kritanta duta) in a frightful shape, coming to fetch them away * Tama 18 said to reside at Yamalaya, on the south side of the earth All souls, wherever the person die, are supposed to go to Yama in four hours and forty minuter, and a dead body cannot be buried tiil that time has elapsed An annual festival is held in honour of Yama on the second day of the moon's increase in the month Kartika (October November), when an image of clay is made and worshipped with the usual ceremonies for one day, and then thrown into the river 1 Tbat be who paints for wntes the fato of men) in secret mi Y 1 41 ·OUTLINE OF HINDU MYTHOLOGY 147 No bloody sacnfices are offered to this god He is also yor shipped at the commencement of other festivals as one of the ten guardian deities of the earth Every day the Hindus offer water to Yama in the ceremony called tarpana Some Hundus, rejectog the worship of other gods, worship only Yama, alleging that, as their future destiny is to be determined by him only, they have nothing to fear from any besides him We learn from the Mahabharata, thaty after Brahma had created the three worlds--heaven, earth, and patala-he recol lected that a place for judgment and the punishmeat of the wiched wis wanting He, therefore, ordered Visrakarma to prepare a superb palace for the purpose, the ball of judgment being surrounded by a ner of boiling water, which each one, after death, is obliged to swim across But the offering of a cow to a Brahman cools the riter, and renders the passage easy. 12 Agni (Fire) This god 19 represented as a red, corpulent man, with eyes, eye brows, and hair of a tawny colour He rides on a goat, wears A palta' and a necklace of a certain fruit From his body is uc sercn streams of glory, and in his right hand he holds a spear He is the son of the sage Kasyapa and Aditi, called the mother of the gods Agni is especially worshipped under different names, at the time of a burnt offering, wben clarified butter (ghr or ghrıta) 15 presented to him The gods are said to have two mouths viz , those of the Brahman and of Ago (fire) As one of the guardian deities of the earth, he is worshipped at the commencement of every festival. At the full moon in the month Jagha (January February), when danger from fire is considerable, be is sometimes worslupped before the image of Branha, for three consecutire days, and 1 The Partó (a corruption of afara" hols) or par ta u the sacred thread worn by the thrce first castes of the Hindús over the left shoulder and falling on the night hop ·146 APPENDIX I tndent, a diamond weapon, fire, a dart, a drou, and a cresccat shaped weapon To 13 Forslupped chicfly in the Jadras Presidency His image 19 11. lama, called also Kala ("limo''), Dhaina raja ("tho hols Ling"), Epitánta ("the destroger"), P'reta rát ("the lorl of the dead"). etc, 19 tho Pluto of the Hindus The name Yamı itself means " restraint," "penance,'' or, according to Vand, he who take out of the world! TIe is the judge of the dead that of a green man, with red garments and ipfamed eyes, having a crown on his head, and flower stuck in his hair, with a club in his right hand, and sitting on 1 buffalo Its dreadful teeth, grim aspect, and terrific shape, fill the inhabitants of the thite worlds with dismay Yama is said to hold a court, in which he presides as judge, desag assisted by a person muncul Chitra gupta,' who keeps an account of the actions of men A number of officers are also attached to the court, who bring the dead to be judged If the deccascul persons have beer wicked, Wina bends them to their particular hell, if good, to some place of happiness The poor Hindus, at the hour of death, sometimes finoy they ser Yama's officers (Krtinta duta) in 1 frightful shape, coming to fetch them anay: I ama 13 said to reside at Yamalaya, on the south side of the earth All souls whercrer the person die, are supposed to go to Tima ja four hours and forty minutes and a dead body cannot be buried tull that time has elapsed An annual festival is held in honour of Yana on the second day of the moon's increase in the mouth Kártaka (October November), when an image of clay 19 made and worshipped with the usual ceremones for one day, and then thrown tato the river That ia he the parts for writes the fata of men) in sreret AT-T- 1 ·OUTLINE OP DU TEOLOGY 147 No hloody sacrifices are overed to this gol. He is als torshipped at the commencement of other festirals as ope of the tea guardien deutes of the earth kresy day the Medus oficr water to Tama in the ceremony called tarpina Sme liedsregeer les the worship of ober gole, woselap oals Tara, ali to that, as their futare destuny 25 to be determined by him onds, they have nothing to fear from any betydes hun We leam from the Mahabharata, that after Brahma ka! created the three worlds-bearen, earth, and postalam-be recol. lected that a place for judgment and the punishment of the wieked as ranting He, therefore, ordere! Vizrahirwa to prepara a saperb palace for the purpse, the ball of judgment being ettrroqoded by a nirer of Imiling water, thich canta one, after death, as obligel to stim Leroy But the offends of 4 coy to a Brahmaa cools the rivcr, and readers the passage cheese 12 Agnu (Fire) Tws god is represented as a red, corpulent man, with Fre, eye brots, end hair of a tawny colour le sides on goat, wears A parte 1 avd a necklace of a certain frwt. From las body is ue Soren streams of glory, and in his right hand he hulds a pear He is the son of the sage Fayçaya and Adit, called the moflcr of the gods Agui us cspecially worshspped under different namea, at the time of a burnt offering, when clanfied batter (gilt or girila) is presented to bim The gods are sand to have two youths, Mi, those of the Brahman and of Agus (fire) As one of the guardian dennits of the earth, he is worshipped at the commencement of every festival. At the full moon in the topth Jagha (January February), when danger from fire 13 con aderable, he is sometimes worshipped before the image of Bramba, for three consecutive days, and The Taald la corruption of fe "bely ), ar paslat o tle taered threat worn by the three fint castes of the Bucus over the left shoulder and Les va tus non ·118 APPENDIX I when any particular work is to be done by the agency of fire, as the burning of bricks, etc, his worship is performed, or when & trial by ordeal is about to take place Some Brahmans are distinguished by the name of Sagnsha,' because they use sacred fire in all the ceremonies in which this element 19 to be used, from the time of birth to the burning of the body after death Swaha, the daughter of Kaśyapa, wag married to Agar H18 nimo is repeated at the end of every incantation used at a burnt offering 13 Parana (Tind) He is the god of the winds and messenger of the gods H18 mother, Aditi, it is said, prajed to her husband that this son might be more powerful than Indra Her request was granted, but Indra hearing of this, entered the womb of Aditi, and cut the futus, first info seven, and then each part into seven others Thus Pavana assumed forty une fornis' (the points of the compass) He is represented as a white man, sitting on a deer, with a flag on his rgbt hand Pavana has no separate public festival, Deather image nor temple As one of the ten guardian deities of the earth, he is Worshipped, however, at the commencement of cvery festival Water is also offered to him in the daily ceremonies of the Brumans, and whencver a goat is offered to any deity, 4 servike 19 pud to him under the pamo of Yarı He presides in the Torth-west, as'Agni in the south east region of the earth 14 Farina (the Ocean) is the god of the waters His image is painted wlute, and he Bits on a marine monster called Jalara, with a ropa in his right From th + 19 "fire" • The Ilindus bare forts nue, instead of thirty two posts, and the Turamas give the above fable to account for the number. * Orcban rifus weapon, called pasa (Tat) has this property, that wbomsoever it catches it bipda so fist that he can zover get loost Au the learn the use of this weapon ·OCTLISE OF ATYPU WYTHOLOGT 149 TUD hand Taruna's names 29 repeated daily in the entier of the Drahoses, but his image 19 tercr mada fo- Torlup for has to aor publie perfice or temple le 25 worshipped, honores, es one of the guardian deities of the earth, and also be those who form the lakes in Lagad before they go out a falut, and a times of drought people repeat his name'and prasang to obtain It is common at sarba esasons, for Prahnaas to at 19 crowds on the banks of thn Gadges. any other nirer, and adires: thme prayers to this god, receitos resects from nch natures for do ng RO His hearca, called Tarona lola, 13 800 miles in circumferene, ard 39 formed by Faral.m., the dirige achtert. In the catre 19 a 9732 canal of parc water Varun2, a] his qarea Tarun, et on a throsc of damol, surrounded br Samudra (tba ), Gach? (th Gargnal, az] o:Ec rrer gods and godle , As mells o be-dating Ercy menos of aroraal gratiboauon is to be mct with there ·1.18 APPENDIX I . when any particular work is to be done by the agency of fire, As the burmag of bricks, etc, lus vorship is performed, or when trial by ordeal is about to the place Some Brahmans are distinguished by the name of Sdgnska,' because they bse sacred fire in all the ceremonies in which this element is to be used, from the time of birth to the burthog of the body after death Swaha, the daughter of Kasyapa, wag married to Agni El 19 nime is repeated at the end of every incantation used at a burnt offering 13 Palana ( Find) He is the god of the winds and messenger of the gods His mother, Aditi, it 13 kaid, prayed to her husband that this son might be morc powerful than Indra Her request was granted , bat Indra hearing of this, entered the womb of Adits, and cut the fætus, first into seven, and then each part into seven others Thus P.ivana assumed forty nine formg* (the points of the compass) He as represented as a white man, suttag on a deer, with a flag on his right hand Pavana has no separate pablic festival, Dether image nor temple As one of the ten guardian dezties the earth, he is worshipped, however, at the commencement of every festival Water is also offered to him in the daily ceremonies of the Brakmans, and whenever a goat is offered to any deity, il service 25 pad to 32xzz2 under tho name of Vayu He presides 222 the north west, as'Agni in the south east region of the earth 14 Taruna (tle Ocean) 13 the god of the waters His image 13 painted white and he bits on a marine monster called Jalara, with a rope in his right From "13" + tai fire" The Ilindes bare forty Tine instead of thirty two po ots and the Turanz gite the above fable to account for the purnber + Orchain Tfia weapon called pasa (131) has this property, that whomsoever it ratches at binds so fast that he can never get lause All the goils, Yok hasai, etc, lears the use of this weapon ·OUTLIYE OF HIS DU BIYTHOLOGY 149 . run hand Varana's name 23 repeated daily in the servicc of the Brálımazs, but his im3ze is never made for worship, Dor has he any public service or temple Hc 13 Forshipped, however, as one of the guardian deities of the earth, and also be those who farm the Liles un Bengal before they go ozt a fi-hivy, and in times of drought people repeat his name and praises to obtain It is common at sach seasons, for Prahmans to et in CTOTA3 on the banks of the Ganges up any other river, and address their prayers to this god, receiring presents from rich Tatives for doing 50 His heaven, called Yaruna loka, is 800 mules in circunference, and as formed by Yisrakarma, the dirine architect Iu the centre 13 a grand canal of pure water Varuna, and his qnoen Tarani, sit on a thronc of diamonds, surrounded by Samulra (the sea), Gung (the Ganges), and other river gods and godde:ses, as well. 3 other deities Every means of sensual gratification is to be met with there 15 The Planels and other Teatenl, Dolies They are all regarded as the objects of divine vorshup by lier Todas, and are the subjects of adoration under vanous fym Schcal form3 Thus, Barz, the sun, u represented by a figura punted red, holding in each band a water lily, and nding 10 a chariot drawn by seven yellow horeng As ope of the planet, be 13 Torshipped only at gicat fcetirals Le mara tu regarde 1 a. simply anather form of Surya. Pari, along with Soma, or Chandra (the moon), Mangala (Hars), Buddha (Jfercury), Trihaspati (Jupiter), Sukra (Venus), Sial (Caturn), gisc manet t» the different days of the track among the Indus (ruz Kariter, Sowbar, Vangaltar, cte), and are respectively the special of pots of worship on each of those days The cols ollit ul-tual di. rinities we seed mestion are- The name Farina Fizos "Le cho thut wth) furtigd.Troy the root or ·150 APPENDEX IG 16 Lakshmi, the goddess of prosperity, who is said to hare been obtained by Vishnu at the churning of the sea, and with whom, like Venus, the gods were all enamoured, especially Siva She is worshipped in every Hindu famıly four times a year And, 17 Saraswati, the goddess of learning, the daughter of Brakmi, and wife of Vishnu Every Hindu who is able to read and write celebrates her worship, especially on the 5th day of the moon in Magha (Jan-Feb ) II-OY THE INFERIOR CELESTIAL BEINGS Intermediate, as it were, between gods and men, and either the enemies, or the companions and friends, of both, are certain bezags which, accupying, as they do, an important place in the legends and poems of both the classical and more vulgar and modern Hindu inters, deserve a passing notice in connection with Sanskrit Literature These are, 1 The Asuras, or Giants They were the offspring of Kaśyapa, the progenitor alle of gods and men, by his different wives They bear a resemblance to tho litans of Grecian mythology, and stories of their wars with the gods abound in the Puranas Indra, Vishna, Kartika, and Durga are distinguished amos; the Hindu deities for their e conflicts with these henge As Jupiter was represented as aiming the thunderbolt in his nght hand against a giant under his feet, 80 Durga, in her images, appears aiming the spear in her night band agaitist an Asura under her feet. A story is told at length, in the Vahabharata, of the churning of a sea of milk by the gods and Asuras Mount Mandara was taken as the ·OUTLISE OF HINDU UITHOLOGY 101 la3th, poison -buming strk, round which the serpent Tasyka sas trapped to whul at mth. The gods then tsok bold of the band, and the Asures of the tail of the surpent, but Fishna prerailel on the Litter to change place with the godz As the rolt of their charning tbere arow from the ez, first, ti e clmplant Ararata, afterwards in successtha, the gem Kanstatha, the horse Tchaiskı ray the tree Parijata, tarjotels, the fooddess Lakshmi, and, Full of 21279 at t. 3, the gois applied to Sira, who, to save th™ Torld from a strankan, drank PP thr perma, receitas no otber injury than a blue mari ca biz throat, from which circunstance 13 derred on of his fasoant enth , lillanta 1e "he blae throated." Then came up the water of inmortality The gds (520 millions in Damb-) and t5 untL3 Leiras ex claume the boon, bat while the latter rent to tatar in the sacred tream, to prepare these set for the h Is drauztet, th gods dark up rearly the ti bolo of the Extar 0gm laura, howere, contrired by trokers that a little, ani tramo in mortal, rut Tubnuu cut off bla bad. Afirwards the instalasi head and trank became the award ng and deding in, ander tb names of Páls and Ker ·OUTLINE OF HINDU JTTHOLOGY 153 her name till she appears to him, and a.ks that be lhes for She remains with him durc; the night, and departs next com 20. lezring with hın presents to a large amomt, trich, horerer, he must expend dext dar, or they will all evaporate If the Torbipper wishes to go to any place in the three world, tbe Susika tale, h.on there m a moment If, after cobatiting with a Vajzka, ke cohabit with any other female, the Dayika immediately destroys him . 5 Th. Yallas are the servants of Kurera, the god of riches, and fly through the world preserving the wealth of men Kurers 15 worshipped at the festiral of Lakshmi, and at all other great festivals, but he has no separate feat, image, oz teraple The Payana relates that Karera, by prayer to Brahma, along with religious austerities, obtained Lanka (Ceylon), the very mire of those streets 13 gold. Here he reigned till Lama dispozzesed him Brahma also gave him the chariot Po_bpala, which had the property of espansion and of going bererer the charioteer Vished. From Lanka, Kurera went to Yount Kailas, where be is suppo-ed still to remain. 6 The Pusatlag . are goblins, messengers of the gods, who guard the sacred places, the resorts of pignung, austy thousand guard the Ganges from the approach of the profane 7 The other Serrants of the Godt, of infenor order, are the Gadghalas, the Siddas the Bhuta, and the Charanas. Besides thich, there are several orders of female attendants, especially on Darya and Sira, 23, the Yonus, Dabia, Kakipis, Sabuis, Phutinis, and Pretins ·151 ATPFDJT 4 III -OY THE AFITXRIS AD TFPRESTRIAL DFITIIS Some of these aro rorshipped with more show than any of tho celestial deities, while the records of their explots constituto the principal themes of the morc popular llindu literatare 1 Krishna Ile was one of the incunations of Vishnu, the olject of Thich was the destruction of the hinge Stupila and Kansa, an 1 & number of giants 113 birth place was Jathari Iis father was lasu desa a Kshatriya, tus mother Devall hanca eeeking to destroy bum when an infant, his father fled to the Torest pindi rani, and concepled him in tho house of Nanda, bence ho is somctimes called the son of anda The images of Krishna represcot lim as a black man, holding a flate to his mouth with both 11s han ly, his mistrcas Radha standing on his lcft any stories are recorded of Kashna 1a the l'uranus, but his bistory and character are best boorn, both to fundus and European, from their being set forth so fully in the celebrated work--sotten in the Braj Bhaha (a dialect of the Hindi language)—the Prem Ságar, by Sri Lallu Tall Kab which has been translated into English by Captain Hollings and Pro fessor Lastwick In his infanoy he is said to have deprired a giantess of her breath who had poisoned her breast beforo ving him to such Nanda & wife, one day, when looking into his mouth had a vier there of the threo worlds, with Brahma, Vishnu and Sira Bitting on their thrones At eight years of ago he tool up Mount Govardhana an his arms and held it as an umbrella over the hcads of the villagers and their cattle during a dreadful storm with which the angry Ling of heaven was overwhelming them he created a number of cattle and also of children, to re place those which Brahma bad stolen from Vrindáreza, he destroyed a large hydra which had poisoned the waters of the Yamuna (Jamna) he seduced the wife of Ayana ghosha, a ·156 ΑΓΡΕΝΟΙΣ 3 Jaggannatha' (ruls "Juggernath") This is another, and perhaps the most famous form of Krishna The image has no legs and only stumps of arms The head and legs are very large At the festival, the Brahmans adorn him with silver or golden hands Krishna having been accidentally killed by Angada, a hunter, he left the body to rot under a trec Somc pious persons, howeper, collected the bones of Krishna and placed them in a box There they remained till King Indra dhumna (a great ascetic) was directed by Vishnu to form the image of Jaggannathi, and put into its belly these bones of Krishna Višvakarma (the • architect of the gods) undertook to prepare it, on condition that he should be left undisturbed till its completion The impatient king, however, after fifteen days, went to the spot, on which Visva karma desisted from his work, and left the god without hands or feet The King was much disconcerted, but on praying to Brahmí, he promised to make the image famous in its present shape Indra dhuana then invited all the gods to be present at the setting up of this image Brahma himself acted as lugh priest, and gave eyes and a soul to the god, which completely established the fame of Jaggannatha This image is said to lic in a pool, near the famous temple at Jaggannátha kshetra (se Janganath's field), near the town of Purí in Orissa, commonly called by the English, Juggemath's Pagoda There are many other temples to Jagannatha in Dengal and other part of India besides that in Orissa, built by rich men works of merit, and endowed with lands, villages, and money, at which the worship of the god is performed every morning and evening There are two great annual festivals in honour of the god, yiz , tho Snán pátra? in the month Jyasthn (May June) and the Rath yatrá' in the following month, Asapha These are crerywhere most numerously attended, but especially those celebrated & "The Lord of the World • Or játo's ·158 APPENDIX I on his head IIe holds in one hand a bow, in the other an arrow, and has a bundle of arrows slun, at his back The birth of Rima forms the seventh of the Hindu incarnatons On the birth day of this god the Hindu merchants begin their new year's accounts, 1 € on the ninth day of the increase of the moon in Chaitra (March April) At the time of death many Hindus write the name of Rama on the breast and fore head of the dying person, with carth taken from the banks of the Ganges, and as they follow the corpse to the Snasan, or place of burning, they repeat the formula Kam nam bachata har, " the name of Ram sares') believing that, through the efficacy of this name, the deceased, instead of being dragged to lama to be judged, wall immediately ascend to beaven The tilah, or mark, put on the forehead by the disciples of Rama resembles a trident The Ramahuts, a class of mendicants in press likewise, on different parts of their bodies, Rama's name and the figure of his foot The worship paid to him is much the same as that to Krishna An annual festival is held on his burth day The Dolyatra (or swinging festival) is also celebrated on that day, and kert as a fxt, when his three brothers, Bharata, Lakshmana, and Sha tranga, are also worshipped Many small temples are erected to hus honour 5 Vis alarma as the son of Brahma and the architect of the gods His image 19 painted white, has three eyes, holds a club in his right hand, wears 1 crori, a necklace of gold, and rings on his wrists He presides over the arts, manufactures etc The worship of Višvakarma is celebrated four times a year by all artificers, to obtain success in their business The cere monics may be performed either by night or by day, before any Implement of trade On these occasions the worshippers make a feast to their neighbours on as liberal a scale as their means will allow ·OUTLINE OF HINDU VYTTIOLOGY 159 6 Kuma' dera—the Indian Cupid Ho was the son of Brahma and 15 represented as a beautiful youth, holding in his hand a bow and arrow of flowers He 19 always supposed to be accompanied by his wife Rati," by sprog personified, the cuckoo, the humming bee, and gentle breezes, and is represented as wandering through the three world: The image of this god is never made in Bengal, but on the 13th day of the moon's increase in Chartra az-annual festival is held, when the ceremonics are performed before the Silgrama, an ammonite stone, considered as the emblem of Vishnu When a prido leares her father's house to go to her husband for the first time petitions are addressed to this god for children, and for happuess in the married state IV-PRINCIPAL FEMALE TERRESTRIAL DEITIES 1 Sita, the daughter of Janaha, hing of lithild and the wife of Lamn, who is always worslapped along with her husband She 19 represented as a yellos roman, covered with jewels 2 Radha, who was the wife of Agapa ghosha, a cow ford of Gokula, there Kreina resided in his youth Through Taraí, a procuresa, he aduced Radha, and took her to a forest, near the lamun, where they continued till Krishna left her to malo war against Kans. 3 Tolmint and Sal ja Lhuma The e tere the most distinguished sires of Knshna HIC had as othera, lat u alsass asexualed with his mistres, ILU., and not with his lawſul mires TH"deure, love : Ta prun." 3 ·100 APPENDIX I 4 Subhadra Vus the sister of Jaggapatha, and is always worshipped with her brother, and placed sith him in his temples -DELFIED RITERS Among the objects of Hindu worship, certain risers occupied a very important place, bůth ag male and female dırıaties--(Nada and Vadi) The worlup of these rivers is performed at certain auspicious scasons as declared in the Sastra, and at some of the great festivals Certain particular parts of these rivers aro held peculiarly sacred, and draw great numbers of devotees 29 tha sources of tho Ganges, the union of the Ganges, the Yamun. and the Saraswati, at Pragát (Allahabıd), the brinckung of thus united river into three streams at Tnvéni, tho embouchuro of the Gangcs, etc Theso waters aro used for food, medicine, bathing religious cremonies, etc and, formerly, wlien a Hindu hing was crofracu, they were poured upon his head ag a part of the ceremonial of his consccration ·OUTLINE OF HINDU MYTHOLOGY 161 Van luluar in heaven, and Gangz on earth, and Bhogirati 10 patala The Hindus particularly choose the banks of this nirer for their forshup, 23 the ment of works performed here, accord 10g to the Sastras, 13 greatly augmented in the months of Vaišáka, Jyuzhthal, hartika, and lagha, the ment is greater than in other months, as at the full moon in these months it is still more enhanced The Paranas declare that the eght, the name, or the touch of Gaoga, takes aws all ein, however heinous, that thinking of Gang, at a úistance, 13 suficient to remore the tain of ezo, bat bathing in it has blessing surpass 205 al imagination The Indus are, consequently, rery anxious to die in sight of the Ganges, that their sids may be washed away at the last moments A person in his last agonics 23 frequently draged from his bed and friends, and carried, 2n the hottest or the coldest weather, from whatever distance, to the riser side, there he lies, if a poor man, without covering day and night till he exc9 With the panys of death upon luo be us place up to the middle in the water and drenched with at Leares of the fulası plant aro also put into his mouth, while bis relations call upon him to repeat, and repeat for him, the names of Rama, Ilan, Maragans, Brahm.2, Gangs, etc For a person to die in the house, and not on the nirer eide, us considered, not only a great misfortune, but a cause of infamy Dead bodies are brought by relations to be burat near the niret, add when they cannot bring the whole body, it 15 Dot uncomteon to bring a 80 le lone so throw it into the Ter, in the bope that it wala help to care the soul of the deceased Some persons cten drowa themselves 10 tbe Ganges, in the Euro aod crtain bope of ascension to hesten Os account of the scncration in which the natur of this nrer 1: huid, it is used in English Courts of Justice to stear bron, as the Koran in the case of the Jusalas and the Bible ia that of Chns110$, bu many respectable Hindus refuse to be Tort in thus way, alloring that the Sutras forbid them in these cases to touch the water of the Ganges, and some base eten ·162 APPENDLY Modelos refused to contest causes, in which large sums were at stake, from fear of being obliged to take this oath 2 Other Deified Rivers Many of the Indian Myers, besides the Ganges, are esteemed sacred and receive religious worship, though nono to such an ettent 23 at We way weption especially the Brahmaputtra, Godavaru, Narmada for Narbada), and the Vaitaraní (in Orissa), the bathing in which, at certain stated seasons, 18 esteemed an act of great religious merit VI LOTIER OBJECTS OF DIVINE WORSHIP L But not only are certain ruers esteemed holy and defed by the Hindus, numerous animals, plants, and even stones, eto, are held in reverence by them, and recento divine bonours, especially (among animals) 1 The Cow Brahma, it 19 gand, created Brahmans and the cow at the same time, the former to read the formulas and the latter to afford milk, and hence ghi (clarified butter) for the burat offerings The gods, by partaking of the burnt-offerings, are said to enjoy exquisite pleasure, and men, by eating ghz, destroy their sins The cow is called the mother of the gods, and 18 declared by Brahmá to be a proper object of worship 2 The Monkey The black faced monkey Hanuman, the son of Parapa, by Adaná, a female monkey, is believed to be an incardation of Sira Ho us especially, worshippel on their birth days by Hindus, in order to obtain long life. Ia some temples his image is set up alone, apd others with that of Rána and Sita, and worshipped daily, the worship of lama beid, always preceded by a few ceremonies in honour of Hanumaa ·OUTLINE OF DJYDU MYTHOLOGY 163 3 The Dog Though mentioned in the Hababharata as an unclean animal, yet, as carrying hala Bharrira, a form of Siva, the dog, too, re cerves worship along with me master 4 The Srigula (Shakal or "jackal ") is especially adored by all the Forshippers of Durga, this goddess having assumed the form of that animal when she carried the child Krishna over the Yamuna ia his flight from king Kansa 5 The Garuda (or Garura) a fabulous animal, with the head and wings of a bird, and the body of a man He is the cart of Ishnu, and was the offsprioz of Käsyapa (progenitor of gods and men), by his wife Tinata IIe 13 worshipped at the great festivals before the 20ages of Vishnu 6 Aruna, the elder brother of Garuda, is the charioteer of Sury, and worshipped with his master IL19 image is that of a man without thighs 7 The Sankars chilla, or "eagle of Coromandel"-commonls called the Drábmanı kite 19 considered as an incarnation of Darga, and therefore worship ped by the Ilindus, ko boy to it sheperer at passes them 8 The Khanjana, or rater wa tail, 1s esteemed as a form of Sira, on account of the mark on its throat, supposed to resemble the sacred Salgrama 9 The Peacoch, the Gcore, and the Owl are worshipped at the festival of Kurtila, Brahma, and LoLehrs respectares ·165 APPENDIX II. ON THE HINDU CASTES AND RELIGIOUS SECTS Sccu frequent allusion 23 made in all Sanskrit works to the Castes and Religious Sects of the Kidus, that the editor has deemed it adrzsable to append a fer remarks on cach of these subjects . 1-OP THE FOUR CASTES The word caste, a corruption of the Portuguese casta ("a breed"), 19 & term which has been adopted to denote the dif ferent divisions of Hindu society It corresponds to the Sapslarit and Ilındı terms Jah (ETH) or Ját (TA), meaning "birth," or "race," and Parna (ai), or carne (ac), or baran (977), denoting "colour," or "tribe" The distinction of Hindus into castes 13 powhere referred to in the early 1 edic writings, and is erdeatly the 1orention of the Brahmans of a comparatitely later period The four great castes are the Druhmans,' the Kihatnyas,' the M'aiſyas,' and the Sudras, bat each of these includes many subdirisions From T " to lactease" or "be great," incarnations, es 11 were, of Brahmi, the great fret cause From a "*1*uz." " destruction," + " to presente, senybe who Estes the oppressed * From Tuto eales," 1.4, Le who enters Eelds Wilson), or on barness (Ward) *From "to pan'y" (Filsa), or from ITF "to go to, " or "tale refere ez, " ring the Bushman (Ward).

·HINDU CASTIS AVD RELIGIOUS SECTS 167 or nombers of plies, of the thread. It is from over the left shoulder, dext the skin, and extending half wat down the night thigh The investitore generally takes place among the Brahmacs at about eight years of age, among the Kshatrys at eleven, aad amoag the Varsyas at twelve, and most, 10 any case, de performed before fifteen The ceremoot is coneidered the "grond Virth" of the Hindu (rrhence the term "twice born" applied coprcially to the Brahmans', and a boy cannot be Sarried til at tales place hingg gorerdors, and all intrasted *th ciril and military affair, in general belong to the Kshatrışa caste, while the Vals 25 are properly the farmers and merchants of the ladd Or late years, howerer, Brahmaps are of on to be met with occupyias all these situatioge, as well as those which more peculiarls belong to thcm There has been a wonderful lorering of Brahmanical prde wid dignity cace the coequcst of the country by European While thousands are still attached to the temples, and gaat on the revenues of eccle*13stical larde, great numbers are closed in courts of justice, as clerks, interpreters, etc, or, as pandils, 10 as stang furcig cry in the stady of the lantare, an l any ale ore to be met with as merchants accountants, and csen as farmers and soldiers But s'ill as a class, they stand, by up! vcrsal acknowledgment, the firm in llinduskocicts The question hasoften Leen alet--18 Casic a ciril or religious sostitutioa? Practicalls, at 205 rate it is boti, tut mineatly thic la cr Thc disc 100s it establishes arı of dirisc dente, and tlc fubjects of sacred record Its effects cpi all soul relations are immediate and direct, bat without the religious clementit could not have retained its rizality m loss, and ·168 APPENDIX II quence of which none of his class would afterwards associato sith bım, becauso he had thercby forfeited the prisileges of his caste The result was that soon after he put the muzzle of a musict to big bcad and blew out bis braas-Serçral buildings were on fire at ono time, at Madras, and threatened a general conflagration of the city There were several wells near at hand, but the Brahmans forbade the uso of water, lest a person of lower caste than themselves should approach, and thus polluto them If a Brahman brcals caste, it may be regained by lrm, but at enormous expense, and by the performance of the most disgusting cerimonials and penances Theso depend, lowerer, very much on the rank and wealth of the out caste From twenty to thirty thousand pounds have again and again been pad in order to obtain restoration to Brahmanic caste And often, of course, at as quite impracticablo II -OF TIE RELIGIOUS SECTS! There are five greut sects esteemed orthodox to one or other of winch every Hindu belongs unless he 13 & professed dissenter These are the Vaishnava, the Salra the Sakta the Saura, and the Ganapatya of these, horrever, only the three first are now popular, prevailing respectively in the north west (with Mattri and Lucknow as centres) in and about Benáres, and in Bengal These sects were probably orginally defined by Sankara Acharya about eight or mne centuries ago This great reformer, after overthrowing all the sects he decmed heretical, allowed his fol lowers to be divided into the five modern sects above specified The worshippers of Vishnu Siva, and Sakti (i e, Devi, alias Parvatı), viewed as the adherents of the respective sects thence 1 Abridged from Prof H I Yilson learned Sketch of the Religtous Sects of the II ndús in vols Iy1 and yu of the As atc Researches * The women however all over the north west as well as in the more southern and easterly provinces are devoted to the worst p of Devi (the special object of Sakta adozation) and her temples abound in all the rural districts ·170 APPENDIX IT When old and infirm, they settlo down in some previously existing Hath, or establish one of their own Tho Hacks, Asthals, or Alaras, as the monastic residences are called, are scattered over the whole country They vary in structure and size, according to the property or wealth of the owner, but they generally comprehend a set of huts or chambers for the Vahant, or superior, and his permanent pupils, a temple, sacred to the deity whom they worship or the Samadhı, or shrine of the founder of the sect, or some eminent teacher, and a Dharma Sula, one or more sheds or buildings for the accommoda tion of the mendicants or travellers who may visit the dlath Ingress and egress is free to all indced a restraint upon personal liberty as in the monasteries and contents of the Christian Church, seems never to have entered into the conception of any of the religious legislators of the Hindus The number of resident chelas, or disciples, under the control of a Mal ant, varies from three or four to thirty or forty, but there are always, besides a number of vagrant or out members of the community The Alxhant is usually selected from among the senior or more pro ficent chelas (a) Div[81043 AND DOCTRINES OF THE VASTAVA SECT: Of the Vaishnavas, Professor Wilson enumerates upwards of twenty Sampraday 7s, or sects, rach of which he ticats of ato considerable length Of these however, there are but four, which, being generally regarded as the principal and most popular, need here be particularly described These are the Ramanujás, the Ramínandis, the Kabir Panthis, and the Khakis I of the Srl (1 e Lakshml) Sampradáyas or Ramonujas This sect was founded about the middle of the 12th century ?Ts account does not refer to the stretly orthodox worali ppers of Vishnu, but to the sectares and d senters who are not edhrely guided by the Vedas Bastras, and Puranas but by certaia parts of them only ·172 ARTEA DIX IT light After that, as a bill of cl 15 may be moulicd into various 'forms, so the groser substances of the deity became manifest 10 the elements and their combinations The forms into which tho diriac matter 19 thus dirided, arc perraded by a portion of the sime ritility which belongs to the great cause of all, but which is distinct from his fpiritual or otherial essence I'cre then, again, the Ramánujns oppose the Vedantibas, who ideatify the Paramalma and Jirulnxi, or ætherial and vital spirit This vitality, though endlessly difusible, 19 imperishable and eternal, and tho matter of tho universe, as beips the same in substance with the Supreme Being, is alıbc withou begroning or cod Purushottania, or Máruyana, having create man and animals through the instrumentality of those subordinate agents whom he willed into cxistence for that purpose, still retained the supreme authority of the nitro 80 that the Ramanajas assert thrce predicates of the universe, comprchending tho deity It consists of Chit, or spint, Achat, or matter, and Israra, or God or the enjoyer, the thing eDjoged, and the ruler and controller of both .Besides his primary and secondary form as the Creator and creation, the deity has assumed, at different times, particular forms and appearances for the bencfit of his creatures or has been, visibly present amongst men in five modifications,-un hıs Archa, objects of sorship, as images, etc , in the Vibharas, or Avataras, as the fish, boar, etc , in certain forms called Vyuhas, f of which four are enumerated, riz Yasudeva or Krishna, Balarana Pradyumna, and Aniruddha, fourthly, in the Sukshma form, which, when perfect, comprises six qualities, víz, erraja, absence of human passion, Limrityu immortality, l'iſoka, exemption from care or pain, tighatsa, absence of natural wants, satya kama, and satyasanlalpa, the love and practise of truth, and fifthly, as the antaratma, or antarjámi, the human soul or individualised spirit These are to be worshipped sertatim as the ministrant ascends in the scale of perfection , -adoration is, therefore, five abhrgamanan, cleansing and purifying the temples, images, etc , upadanam, providing flowers and perfumes for rela- Ho 19, fold TLZ ·HINDU CASTES AD EELIGIOUS SECTS 173 87073 nte3, 11/4, the presentation of sanh off-ring-blosl-offer- 1973, it may be observed, benz uniformis produbited by all the, Varshnıras), scadhja/1, conating the rosary and repeatioz the rames of the disinity or any of his forms, and yoga, the effort to tute with the deity The reward of these arts 13 eleration to the seat of Fishnu, and enjoymeat of like state with his own, interpreted to be perpetual residence in Taikuntha, or Thna's hearen, in a condinon of pure ecstacy and eucal rapture The worship of the follovers of Padmanaja 13 addressed to Vishnu and Lak me, and to their respective incarnations, ether singly or conjuntls T Sn Vaishnasa vorship, in the north of India, 13 pot rery r-pular, and the eact is rather of a speculature than rantical catare The teachers are asaally Brahmar.3, but the disciples mas be of any caste Bezdes the temples appropriated to Vishnu and his consort and their several forms, inclaring those of Knehna and Rama and those which are celebrated as objects of pilgrimage, images of metal or stone are usually set up in the hou-es of the private members of this sect, which are daily worshippel, and the temples and direllings are all decorated with the Salagrana Etone and Tula plant The most striking peculiarities in the practices of this sect, are the individual preparation, and scrapuloas prisacy of their meals they must not eat in cotton garmeats, but, baring bathed, must put on woollen or silk, the teachers allow their select pupils to a sast them, but in general, all the Pamanujaz cool for themselves, and should the meal, during this process, or whilst they are eating, attraet even the looks of a smager, the opera tion is instantly stopped and the hands bored in the ground A similar delicacy in this respect prevails amonget some other classes of Hindus, especially the Rajput families, but is not crned to so preposterons an extent The chief ceremony of initiation in all Hindu sects 13 the communication by the teacher to the disciple of the Jantra,' * The Blattr3, and That (or part of the forehead) are never bestowed ca tay person of impare barth.

·174 APPENDIX 13 which generally consists of the name of some deity, or a short address to him, it is communicated in a whisper, and never lightly made known by the adept to profane ears The Mantra of the Ramánuja sect 13 said to be the six syllable Mantra-Om Namaya namah, or "Om, salutation to Rama" Another distinction amongst sects, but merely of a cıvıl cha racter, 18 the term or terms with which the religious members salute each other when they meet, or in which they are ad dressed by the lay members This among the Ramanujas is the phrase Dásosm (ETH) or Désoham (ETHITE), “I am your slave,” accompanied with the Pranan or slight inclination of the head, and the application of the joined Trands to the forehead To the Acharyas, or supreme teachers of this sect, the rest perform the Ashtanga Dandarat, or "prostration of the body, with the application of eight parts" (the forehead, breast, hands, knees and insteps of the feet) to the ground The Hindu sects are usually discriminated by various fantas tical strenks on their faces breaats and arms for this purpose, all the Vaishnavas employ especially a white earth called Gopr chandana, which, to be of the purest description, should be brought from Dyaraba,' being said to be the soul of a pool at that place, in which the Gopis drowned themselves when they heard of Krishna s death The common Gopichandana, however, is nothing but a magnesian or calcareous clay The marks of the Ramanujas are two perpendicular white lines drawn from the root of the hair to the commencement of each eye brow, and a transverso streak connecting them across the root of the nose in the centre in a perpendicular streak of red, made with red Sanders, or Rola a preparation of rice, tarnierie, and lime (or alum) with acid, they have also patches of Gopichandana, with a central red streab, on the breast and each upper arm tho « marks are supposed to represent the Sunli, Chalra, Gada, and Padma (or shell, discus, club and lotus) which Vishnu bears in his four hands, whilst the central streak 19 Sn or Lakshmi' 1 On the West coast of Gujerat The eficacy of these marks is great from the Kási Khand wo learn tbat Yama or Pluto spares those who wear them, for in them no blu exists ·HINDU CASTES AND RELIGIOUS SECTS 175 . Sorde hare these objects carved on wooden stampe with which they impress the emblems on their bodies, and others carry their doctrines so far as to have the parts cicatrized with heated metallic models of the objects they propose to represent, but this 19 not regarded as a creditable practice besides these marks, they wear a necklace of the wood of the Tulası, and carry a rwary of the seeds of the samcplant or of the Lotus The Ramanajag are not very numerous in the north of India, where they are better known as Sri Vaishnavas, they are decidedly hostile to the Sazra sect, and are not on very friendly terms with the modern wotaries of Krishui, although they recogmuse that deity as ru incarnation of Vishnu 2 Rámanandis or Ramauats . The followers of Ramanand are much better known than those of Rámánuja in upper Hindustan, they are usually con sidered as a branch of the Ramanuja sect, and address their devotions peculiarly to Ríma Chandra, and the divine mapifestations connected with Vishnu is that incarnation, as Sita, Lakshmana and Hanuman The schism of Iamanand originated in the resentment of an affront offered him by his fellow disciples and sanctioned by his teacher The residence of Rámáband was at Benres, at the Pancha Ganga ghat, where a Jath or monastery of his tollowers 19 sud to have cxisted, but to have been destroyed by some of the Musalmán princes at present there is merely a stone platform in the vicinity, bearing the supposed impression of his feet, but there are many Maths of his followers, of celebrity, at Benares, the Panchayat, or council, at which city is the chief authority amongst the Ramitate in upper India As they maintain the superionty of Ráma, in the present or Kali Yug, they are collectively known as Ramawats, although the same variety prevails amongst them, as amongst the laminujas, as to the exclusive or collective worship of the male and ·176 APPENDIX U 1 female members of this incarnation, « e of Ráma and Sitá, singly, or jointly, as Sita Rama Individuals of them pay particular veneration to some of the other forms of Vishnu, and they hold in like estimation as the Ramanujas and every Vaishnava sect the Salagram stone and Telsi plant, their forms of worship correspond with those of the Hindus generally, but some of the mendicant members of the sect, who are very numerqus, and are usually known as Jarrages, or Foraktas, consider all forms of adoration superfluous, beyond the incessant invocation of the name Krishna and Ratna The practices of this sect are of a Jess precise nature than those of the Ramanujas, it being the wed object of the founder to release his disciples from those fetters which he had found so inconvenient, in allusion to this, indeed, he gave, it 19 said, the appellation Aradhuta, or "Liberated," to his scholars, and they admit no particular observances with respect to eating or bathing, but follow their own inclination, or comply with the common practice in these respects The initiatory Mantra 19 sazd to be Sri Rama--the salutation 19 Jaja Sri Rama, Jaya Rama of Sita Ram their marks are the same as those of the preceding, except that the red perpendicular streak on the forehead is varicd in shape and extent, at the pleasure of the individual, and 19 generally narrower than that of the Ramánnjas Various sects are considered to be but branches of the Ra. mánandı Taishnaias, and their founders are asserted to have been amongst his disciples of these disciples, twelve are particularische as the most eminent, some of whom hare given origin to reli glous distinctions of great celebrity, and, although their doctrines ato often very different from those of Ramanand, yet the popular tradition 13 80 far corroborated, that they maiatain an amable intercouree with the followers of Ramunand and with each other There are three different lists of these twelve disciples which One is found in Ince's Suections, a second in tho lihalta Mála, and Dr, Wilson gives a third All agree, however, in naming Kabir, the wcayer, Radas, the chamár, or curner, do not agree ·178 APPE DIXIT tho"]hakta Jíli'), Sur D19'an 1 Tulasi D. (to who«o poctical talents the late version of it is largely in lebtcl), and Jayalera, who c rongg laro been translated by Gtr 1 Jonct Besides the legendury tales of the celebrated writer Tulasi D19, whoso forks cxerciso more influence upon the great body of tho Slırlu populating than the whole rolamınous scrics of Sanskrit compositions, to have other notices of him collected from his own works or preserved by tradition, that differ from them in somo respects From these it appears that Tulasi Dus Tas a brahman of the Sarsanah branch anla natıre of II vípur, ncar Chitrakufr, when amired at matnnty he-scftled at Beníres and held the ofico of Dou in to the Rijt of thái city JIus spirtual perceptor ag Jagandith Dus, he followel hus teacher to Co Farlhan, but afterwaris returned to Benárcs and thero com emenccd hug Ilindi version of the Ilimágana in the year of Samat 1631, when he was thirty one years of age Besides this work, which is lughly popular, Tulasi Das is the author of a Salsayd, or collection of 100 stao zas on various subjects, and of a great variety of hymns, as Ragar Kavits and Padas, in honour of Rama anıl Sitá Tulasí Das continued to resido at Benares horo ke buut a temple to Sita lume and founded a Vath ad joining both of which are still in existence, he died in the year of the Samyat era 1680, or AD 1621 in the reign of Jehangir - the legendary storyt thercfore of his intercourse with Shah Jchan 18 consequently an anachronism The ascetic and mendicant followers of Ram'ínand, known induscriminately as Ramunandis or Rumuats are by far the most numerous class of sectaries in Gangetic India, in Lengál they are comparatively few beyond that prosince and as far 13 Alla habad although perhaps the most numerous they field in in fluence and wealth to ti e Sura branches especially to the Ithus from that place however they predominate, and either by them T Th s popular d cant muscu bháji 128 also bo five years old 1. + and of all these moets ·DIDU CISTES XD RELIGIOUS SECTS 179 selves or their kindred dirisiony almost engtose the whole of tho country along the Ganges and Jamuna, in the district of Xgra they alone constituto scvcn tenths of the ascetic population The Ramunandis hare rery numerous notaries, but they are clucfly from the poorer and inferior classes, with the exception of tho Rajputs and military Brahmans, amongst whom the poctical Works of Sur Das and Tulasi Dis maintain the prc eminenco of Mam and his Bhalts Kabir Panthes Amongst the twelve disciples of Rámanand, the most cele brated of all and one who seems to have produced, directly or directly, a greater effect on tho state of popular belief that any other, was Kabir With an unprecedented boldness lio assailed the whole system of idolatrous worship, and ridiculed the learning of the Pandits and doctrines of the Sustras, in a style peculiarly well suited to the geons of his countryssen, to whom he oddressed himself, whulst ho also directed hug compositions to tho Blusalman as well as to the lindu faith, and with equal screnty attacked the Mulla and the Quran Tho effect Ius lessons, as confined to his immediate followers, will be shown to have been considerable, but their indirect effect has been still greater, several of the popular sccts being little more than ramifications om his stock, whilst Mapak Sháb, the only findu reformer who has established a national faith, appears to have been chiefly indebted for his religious notions to his predecessor Kabir This Bect therefore clairas particular attention The account of his birth 200 Life are foued in the Bhalta Malá All traditions concer in making Kabír the disciple of Rimínand, although Farious stories surc aurrated of the method by which he obtained that distinction and overcame the objec tions started to him as a nan of low caste, or according to very general belief, of the Muhammad.in persuanon 1 1 The Musalmans (though on very antenable ground) claimed him as one of their faith This occasioned a contest at the death of Kadir--the las ·160 AFIDI 11 It 18 ctclinzls probable that Kabir flourished abattleteginning of the 19th century and it is also not unlikely that ) is innorations were connected with the previous cxı rtions of 11 minund, conecrucntly that tcachu? Buat luate hrad about the end of the 11th The Kal (r l'anthis 17 consequence of their master having beca the reputed disciple of lumbaand, an l of their pasios more rcpect to Itsau, thua thother mezcrs of the Irudu tra, arc always included amongst tho lashnarz sccts, am maintain with most of them, the Humitats copocially, Inerals intercourse and political alliance It 15 no part of a fath, boteres, to torp aay Indu deils, or to Obcrc ROT of the ntes or acro .monials of tho Ilindus, wlicther orthodox or schismatical, such of their members as are living in the torld conform outranlls to all tho usages of their tnl and caste, and rotre of them cron pretend to worshup the usurl diripitics, though thes 29 coacidcrol as going rather further than is just fiable Those, howerer, bo larc abandoned the fitters of society, abstain from all tho orli mary practices, and address their homage, cluciis in chanting hymes, crclusively to the intsillo Kallr they uso no Mantra nor fixed form of salutation, they have no peculiar moic of dres, and sodio of them go nearly naked, without objecting, lovercr, to clothe themelses, in order to appear dressed where clobbing 13 considered decent or respectful The Mahants car a small silk car, the frontal marks, if rorn, are usually those of the Vasslanara sccts, or they make a streal with Sandal or Go pachandan along the ndgo of the nose, a nechlace and rosary of Tulasi are also worn by them, but all these outsari signs are conudcrel of no importance, and the inward man is the oply T following of this sect ·182 ATTENDIN II. intelligible, 11 onls imparcol to thosc pupils whose eludics arc considered to approach perfection This great authority amongst thro Kabir Panthis is written ja very harmonious rers, it rather 125cighs against other systems than explains its own, and it is perhaps imposible to derive from it ans satisfactory conclusion as to the real doctnors or Kavir cobull non proces lo stato the doctrines of Kabir nccording to the authority of tlc Sull Vidhan The Sulh lidhin is sur puoscil to be aildressed by Sabit himself to Iliammalas, bus chief pupil, and follower of Limunand a doctrines, it's said to be uc worh of Srutoopil, the first of Kabir s disciples From this authority it oppears, that alu ugh the Kabír l'anthis hayo withdruwn, in such a very essential point os Torship, from the Jindu communion, they atill preserve abundant testiges of their primitiro sonrce, and that their notions aro10 dubstance the smo as thoso of the l'aur:into sects, especially of the Vaish rasa dirion They admst of but one God, the creator of tho world, and in opposition to the I cd.sata polions of the absenco of crery quality and form, they assert that be has body, formed of the five clements of matter, and that he has mind, endowed with the three finnas, or qualities of being of course of incffable purity and irresistible porter, he is free from the defects of human nature, and can assumo what particular shape ho will, 10 all other respects he does not differ from man, and the puro mas, tho Sádk of the Kabít sect, s kts living resemolance, and after death is biß associate and equal, he is eternal without end or beginning, a$ ia fict are the material elements of which ho consists and of which all things aro made, residing in him beforc they took their present form, as the parts of the tree abide 10 the seed, or as flesh blood and bone may be considered to be present in the seminal fluid From the latter circumstance and the iden tity of their essential nature, proceeds the doctrine that God and man are not only the same, but that they are both in the same mander, everything that lires and mores and has its being Other sects have adopted these phrases literally, but the followers of Kabir do not mean by them to deny the individuality of bezog, ·HINDU CISTES AND PELIGIOUS SECTS 185 2 Bhago Das, the author of the Bijek, his successors reside at Dhanauti 3 Narayan Das, and 4 Churaman Das these two were the sons of Dharma Das, a merehant of the Kasaundhya tribe, of the Sn Vaishnava sect, and one of Kabir's first and most important converts, his residence was at Bandho, near Jabbalpur, where the math of his posterity long remained The Lahants were family men, thence termed Bans gurus The line of Narayan Das is extinct, and the present successor of Churaman being the son of a concubine, is not acknowledged as a Mahant by all the other branches 5 Jaggo Das, this Gaddı, or pillow at Kattak 6 Jıvan Das, the founder of the Setnamı sect, to whom we shall again have occasion to advert 7 Kamal_Bombay the followers of this teacher practise the Yoga 8 Tak Salı - Baroda 9 Gyaní,--Majjhni, near Sahasram 10 Stheb Das,-Kattak his followers are called Mala, Panthus 11 Nityanand 12 Kamal Nad these two settled somewhere in the Dekhan There are also some popular and perhaps local distinctions of the sect, as Hansa Kabırís, Dana Kabırıs, and Mangrels Kaburis Of these establishments, the Kabir Chaura at Bepares is pre Eminent in dignity, and constantly visited by wandering members of the scct At a grand meeting there 35 000 Kabir Pantbis of the monastic and mendicant class are said to have collected There is no doubt that the Kabir Panthis, both clerical and lay, are very numerous in all the provinces of upper and central Iodia, excert perhaps in Bengal itself The qusker like spint of the sect, their abhorrence of all violence, ther regard for truth. and the unobtrusiveness of their opinions render them very inoffensive members of the state, their mendicants also never solicit alıns, and in this capacity erep they are less obnoxious than the many religious Fagrants, rhon the rank soil of Hindu super- ·186 APTENDIX Y The 1 suition and the chervation operation of an Indian climate pleatıfully cogcoder 1 XXdlis Tius dir191on of the Vaishnara9 19 generalls derired, thou, not imacdiately, from, Námánand, and 19 tundoubtedly connect 10 its polity and practice with hrs peculiar followers puted founder 29 21),41 disciplo of Krishinadas, trhom somo accouz mako tho disciple of Asinand (or Tahtunand), the disciplo Tá mapand They are generally confounded with Balrigs They are d tio guished from other disbnaras, by the Spilcation of clay a ashes to their droeg or persons, those who resido in fixed csta lushncats geacralis dresa liko other Vaishnaras, but those w lead a wandering life, 60 either naked or ncarly a, erean their bodies with tho pale grey mixture of ashes and carth, a mzal108 in this state an appearance very incompatible with t mild and decent character of the Vaishnava scct in general, t Khákıs also frequently wear the Jaga or braided hair Many Khákis are established about Farakab£d, bat their pri cipal seat in this part of India is at Hanuman garb, near Ayo him in Oude, the Samadhi, or spiritual throne of the founder, said to be at Jaipur, the term Samádbi' at phed to it, howeyi would seem to indicate that they bury their dead 5 Jaluh Dasts Maluk Das was Gifth in descent from Ramánand, being t immediate disciple of Kıl baba The modifications of the Vais para doctripes introduced by Maluk Das, appear to have be little more than the pame of the teacher and a shorter streak Jed in the forehead, in one respect indeed there is an impo tant distinction between these and the Ramánandi ascetros, 'teachers of the Malak Dasts appear to bé of the secular orde A Samad: 18 properly the tomb of a Joc who from religious motir has submitted to be buried alive ·HINDU CASTES AND PELIGIOUS SECTS 187 Their chief au. Grihasthas or house holders whilst the others are all coenobites, the doctrines, however, are e coptually the same thority is the Bhagavad Gita, they have also some Hindi Sulhas and Fishnu Padas attributed to their founder, as aly a work in the same language entitled the Das Patan The followers of this sect are said to be pumerous in particnlar districts, especially among the trading and servile classes, to the former of which the founder belonged 'The pndupal establishment of the Valuk Dass is at Kaſa Manikpur, the birth place of the founder, and sbill occupied by his descendants Besides this there are six other Haths belongiog to this sect, at Alahabad, Benare , Brindaban, Ayodhya, Lucknotard Jagannath, which last 13 of great repute, as rendered sacred by the death of Valul Das! 6 Dadu Panthi Its His This class is one of the indirect ramifications of the Pamanandı stock, and is always included in the Varshpara schismg founder 18 said to have been a pupil of one of the Kabur Panth, teachers, and to be fifth in descent from Ramanand The worship as addressed to lama, but it 9 Testricted to the Japa, or repetition of his name, and the Rama intended is the deity negatively described in the Vedanta theology temples and images are prohibited Dada flourished, if the list of his reli gous de-cent be accurate, aboat the year <p 1600, at the end of Akbar's reise, or in the beginnug of that of Jehanger Followers vear no peculiar frontal mark nor riala, bat carry a rosars, and are further distinguished by a peculiar sort of cap, a round wbute cap according to come, but according to others, one with four comers, and a flap bangug down behind, which 1t 13 essential that each man bould manufacture for himself The Dadu Pantbis are of three classes, the Firaltas, who are religioas characters go bare beaded, and hare but one garment. and one water pot, the Nagas, urbo carry arte, much they are Balul Das is suprosed to have lived danas the latter part of the reiro of Akbar and down to the commencement of that of Aurangzeb-or from 200 to 20 years to ·HINDU CASTE AND RELIGIOTS SECT> 169 the Veda , who, hotrerer, admitted disciples from the Brah hanical caste onls, and considered the state of the Sinnſus, et ascetie, as Essential to the computation of his doctrines Vallabha Acharya ras & Euccessor of the atore le as 3 Sannyası, and tanght early in the sixteenth century He re ided onynalls at Gobul, a villamos on the left, bank of the Yamuna, about three cos to the east of Wathura. After remaining there some time, be travelled through India P3 a gulgrim There is a Barthal (or station) of bus amorgt the Ghats of Jattra, and about two miles from the fort of Chupar 13 a place called his well After this peregrination, Vallabba returned to Brndaban The Wabubharat and Bhagarat do not recommend the special worship of knna es distinct from Vishna, but the Brahma Catartta Purána clams supremang fo- Kn hoa Thus, ther, 15 their text book Amougst other articles of the new creed, Tallabha introdured one which is rather singular for a Iudu religious innovator or reformeer He taught that poration formed to part of sanctity, and that it was the duty of the teacher and his disciples to worship their deity, not an nudity and budger, but in cols apparel and choice food, not in sohtade and mortification, but in the pleasures of society and the egjoyment of the world. The Gosains, or teachers, are almost always family mea, as Tas the foonder Vallabha The followers of the order are especially oumerous amongst the mercantile commanty, and the Gosains themselves are often largely engaged also in maintaining a connection amount the commercial establishments of remote parts of the country, as they are con gtantis travelling over India, under pretenee of pilgrimage, and thus reconnle the profits of trade with the benefits of doration, The practices of the sect are of a similar aracter wzth tho-e of other regalar Torshippers Echt times a day the image of the boy Krishng either in the house or temple 13 syo-shipped The mark on the forehead corsists of two red perpendicular lines, meeting in a semicircle oa the top of the Eoce, and Laris: trawl misf.co Letreat ther Thohohet se 3 ·IIINDU CASTES AND NELIGIOTS SECTS 191 . of India, the Sadakadi Sampradasis, or limátrats, one of the primary Vaishnara disisions, the Taishnaras of Bengal followers of Chaitanya, many of whom are settled at Brndaban, the Radha Vallabhís, adorers of Radha exclosirely, the Sakhi Bharas, rho rear women's clothes, cte, the Charan Dasus, Larischandía, Sadhna Pabthis, and Madharis Dr Wilson concludes by describing the real meanings of the words Sannyasi, Yairing, and Nága. He also peals of sects which arc ball Muharendadan, as the followers of Sheikh Hadar, who, although they credit the dirige mission of Muhammad, disregard the established forms of the Musalman futh, cho bhang, and go Dild, emearing the bodies with ashes and twisting the hair into the Jatá, etc The naked sectaries are always the most de graded and violent in their muncrs (8) OP TIL Sarra SECTS The priacipal of those rere founded or confirmed by the cele brated commentator on the Vedas, Sankara Acharys, who con tendel that Sura sas pre-eminest among the gods The Sairas, terefore, worelıp Wahades as the Supreme Beidz, and deny the rdepxndent existence of Vishnu and o'bur duties The Sutas arc all worshippers of Sir and Pharani coa Joiatis, and they adon the lipga or compound time of the god and folders There are no exclusite Torshippers of Sıra besides thyr Kect of naked gymoreoplasets called Logis, af] the exclusro adorers of the goddess are the multas The adoration of Siva is not so popular in opper Indä as it is in the south 15:lson conjectures that this may ano from the rule an unattractive enblem in which he geocralls appears, the mrstic purr e of which is little unders al or rounded thc Antoilutel and rulzar, aal which oft nothing to lateret tho ·. 192 AIREDIT II. feclings or cocite tho imagination Yo lewenis orc recordci of (lus dcity of a poctic an! I 125107 character, ani, aborc all, such legends as aro barmted in the l'urinas and Tantra, kare biot beca presented to tho Ilindus 10 ang accctablo share Tbo Sıras harc no work, as tho Vohingyas 14 any of the common dualcok, in which the actions of Sira, in any of his forang, aro celebrated Corrceponding to tho absence of multipliul forms of this divinity as objects of worship, and to tho want of works hich attack importance to particular manifestations of tho farourte god, the people can scarcely bo sad lo bo dırılel into different sccts, any further than as they may late certain religious mendicants für their spiritual guidcs stunl dirisions of tho worshippers of Sira are almost restricted to the religious per sonages, collected sometimes 10 opalent and numerous associations, but, for the grcator part, detached few, and anckzent. Tlcro aro no teachers of ancient repute but Sankan Icharsa, and luns doctrincs are too philosophical and speculative to hare made him popular * The worship of Sifa continucs, in fact, to be what it appears to havo been from a remote period, the religion of the Druhmaņas Sambhu (Mahadev) is declared by Japu to be the presiding deity of the Druhmanical order, and the greater number of them, particularly those who practise the rites of the Yedag, or who profess the study of the Sustras receivo Siva as their tutelary deity, Trear hus insignia, and worship the Lingi, either in temples, in their houses or on the side of a sacred stream, providing an the latter casc, extempore emblems kneaded out of the mud or clay of the rivers bed The example of the Brahmins, and tho practices of ages, maintain the veneration universally offered to the type of Siva, but it 19 not the prevailing nor the popular condition of the Hindu fath along the banks of the Ganges"! As atic Ttescarches rol. Itu P 170 The above op don 19 true in ·HIIDU CASTES 4D RELIGIOUS SECTS 193 The following are the principal sects belongog to the Sura class I The Dandıx and Dasnanus It 13 customary to consider these tro orders as forming but one dirision The classification is not in crery instance correct but the practices of the two are, in many instances, blended, and both denominations are accurately applicable to the same inde vidaal It will not be necessary, therefore, to demate from the ordinary entemeration The Dandis properly so called, and the Trıdandis of the Vaishnaras, are the only legitimate representa tires of the fourth Asrama (T) or mendicant life, inºo which the Hindu is to enter after passing through the previous Blagas of student, householder, and hermit It 19 not necessary, however; to have gone throagh the whole of the previous career, as the Brahman may pass from any one of the first orders to the He is then to take up his staff and waterpot, to denre from berging such a portion of food as is sufficient for his mere sustenance, and to dorote the remainder of his days to hols study and prous meditation Adopting as a generul guide, the rules of original works, the Dandı is distinguished by cartridg a small dand (EG), or wand, with several processes or projections from it, and a piece of cloth dyed truth red ochre in which the Bráhmadical cord is supposed to be enshrined, attached to it. He shares hus hair and beard wears obis a cloth round his lips, and subsists upon fooi obtuned reads dreered from the houses of the Brahmans once a day only, which he deposits in the small clar pot that he carries alsars with him IIe should live alone, and near to, but not within a city, but this rulo is rarely oberrod, and, in general, the Dandis are found in cities, collected, like cther mendicante in Maths The Dandı has no particular time or mode of worshı, but spends bts • timo in meditation, or in practices corresponding with those of last at once af.. 1 13 ·194 APPENDIX II • the Yoga, and in the etudy of tho Velánta works, cspecially according to the comments of Sankaracharya A, that teacber wag an incarbation of Sıra, the Danılis rererence that deity and his incarnations in preference to the other members of tho Inad, whence they aro included among his rotanes, and they so far admit the distinction as pot un frequently to bear the Sura mark upon the forchead, salcaring at Tith the Tripundra (frys) tnplo tranverse lino (9, made with the Fibhute (farfa), or ashes which should be taken from the fire of an ignihotra Bráhman, or they may be the nyhcs of burnt cow'dung from an oblation offered to the god They also adopt the initiating Jantra of all the Suita classes, cither the fire os st. gyllablo Jantra, Mamah, or Om Namah, Siaya (TH fuery or THTA fiata) The genuino Dindi however, is not vecessarily of the Sura or any other sect, and in their establishments it will be l.sually forind that they profess to adore Nerguna (fatju) or Meranjana (C) the deity devoid of attributo or passion The Dands, who are rather practical than speculative, and who have little pretence to the appellation beyond the epithet and outward signs of the order, are those most correctly included among the Sura sects Amongst these, the worship of Siva as Bhairara, is the prevailing form and, in that case, part of the ceremony of initiation consists in inflicting a small 10cision on tho inner part of the knee, and drawing the blood of the novice as an acceptible offeriog to the god The Dandis of erery description, have also a peculio mode of disposing of their dead putting them, into coffing and burying them, or, when practicable, committing them to sorue sacred stream The reason of this ia their being prohibited the use of fire on any account Any Hindu of the three first classes may become Saunyasí or Dandı or zu these degenerate days a Hindu of any casto may adopt the life and emblems of this order Such are sometimes met with us also are Brahmans who without connecting them selves with any community, assume the character of this class of mendicants Theso constitute the Dandis simply so termed and are regarded as distinct from the primitive members of the order, ·IN DU CASTES AND RELIGIOUS PECTS 195 asions to whom the appellation of Daśoamis is also applied, and who admit none but Brahmans into their fraternity The Daénami Dandis, rho are regarded as the descendants of the original members of the fraternity, are said to refer their ongin to Sapkara Acharya an indindual who appears to have performed a part of some importance in the religious history of Hindustan All accounts concur in representing Sankara as leading an cvatic life and engaging in successful controversy with various sects, whether of the Saiva, Vaishnava, or less orthodox per- Towards the close of his life, he repaired as far as Kashmir, and seatsd bimself, after triomphing over various Opponents, on the throne of Saraswafı He next went to Badarikásrama, and finally to Kedarnath, in the Himalaya, where he digl at the early are of thirty two The spiritual descendants of Sankara, in the first degree, are vanously named by different authorities but nsually agree in the number Hc is said to have had four principal disciples, who, in the popular tradition, are called Padmapada, Hasti malaka, Sureswara or Vandada, and Trotaka. of these, the first had two papils Tirtha and Asrama, the second, Vana and Aranya, the third had three, Sarasıalı, Puri, and Bharath, and the fourth had also three, Giri or Gir, Parrala, and Sagara These, which being all significant terms were no doubt adopted names constitute collectively the appellation Dascamí, or the ten named, and when & Brahman enters into either class, he attaches to his own denomination that of the class of which he becomes a member, as Turtha, Parí, Gır, etc The greater portion of the ten classes of mendicants thus descended from Saphora Kcharya, hare failed to retain their purity of character, and an only pown by their epithets as members of the ongual orůcr Thero arc but three and part of a fourth, mendicant classes, or those called Tutha, or Indra, Xeramı, Saraswati, and Bharati, . i Sre Ser account of min Anatt Restarbes Tolim., p. 177, ard vol nl p 636 Also, 11.500 I'reface to his Eustnit D ctionary for the age 19 nhich he lived ·HIVDU CASTES IVD RELIGIOUS SECTS 197 2 The Fog's, or Jogus (Tit) The Dandis are to the Salsa sects what the followers of Ramiobja are to those of the Vaishnasa faith, and a like parallel may be drawn between the disciples of Ramanand and those of Goraksath, or the Kanplaça Jogis , the first par being properly restricted to the Brahmanical order, intended chiefly for meo of Icarolas, the two latter admitting members fram cery descrip tion of people, and paszessin a more attractive popular character The term Jogi w properly applicable to the followers of the Yoga or Pantaujala school of philosophy, which, amongst other tenets, maintained the practicability of acquinos, eren in life, entire command ofer clementary matter, by means of certain ascetic practices In the present day, pone lay claim to perfection, and their pretensions are usually confined to a partial command orer their own physical and mental faculties These are evinced in tho performance of lot mummeries, or julio trichs, which cheat the rulgar into a belief of their powers The principal mode in which the Yoga takes a popular skape in upper India is probably of comparatively recent origia This 13 the sect of Kuaphatá Jogis, who acknowledge as their founder a teacher named Gorakhnath, traces of whom are found in Gorakh Ishetra, at Teshawar, and in the district and town of Gorakhpur, whero also crists a temple and religion) establishment of his followers They hold also in Teneration a plaža near Dwaraka named Coralhkhetr, and a carCrO or subterraneous passage at llandwár According to the authontics of this sect, Gorakh 13 lat one of Dincewinent teachers, or latbs Ortho perfect Yog's, or Siddhar, cigbts four are enumerated The Yor's of Gorakhnáth are sually called Káaphatus, from Laring their cars lored and rings Laserted in them at the time of Ice Tarl on the land, J Colebrooke : Essays 19 Tol L of the 1912 Ywartber. * Eace Ara e Pescartes, rol It, P 186, for Lustrat... The onna 1ł the ima u there stored to be ucien Erori bois from tbe cancha etc ·198 APPENDIX 17 + their initiation They may be of any caste, they live as ascetics, either singls or in Haths S1r is the object of their worship tlice officiate, indeed, as the priests of that daty in some placea, especially at the celebrated Lat, or staff, of Bhairava, at Benares ſhey mark the forehead with a transverse lae of ashes and smear the body with the same, they dress in carous styles, but za travelling usually wear a cap of patch Fork and garment dsed with red ochre Some fear a simplo Dhoti, or cloth round the loins The term Josl, an popular acceptation, is of almost as general application as Sannyasi and Varug, and 14 as difficult to fis ats import upon any individual class besides the hauphits, the ragrants, no called, following usually the dictates of their own capnce as to worship and belief, and often, it may be conceired. employing the character as a ficre plea for lazy livelihood. The Jogis are indeed, particularly distinguished amongst the different mendicant characters, by adding to their religious personification more of the mountcbanl than any others Biost of the religious mendicants, it is true, deal ia fortune telling, interprctation of dreams, and palmistry They are often crapiries and profess to care diseases with specific drugs or with charms an 1 spells But, besides these accomplıslıments the Jogius frequently musical, and plans and sings, ho also initiates abimals into his business ·HINDU CASTES, AND RELIGIOUS SECTS 199 Tanetics of this class of mendicants, however, cannot be specified, they are all errants, fixed residences, or Maths, of any Jogis, except the Káophatas, rarely occurring 3 The Jangamas or Lingayats-( # "locomotıre") Onc of the formas in which the Linga worship appears, is that of the Lingayate, Lingivants, or Jangames, theessential characteristic of which is wearing thoemblem on some part of the dress or person The trpe 13 of a small size, made of copper or silver, and is com monly worn suspended 21 a case, rouod the neck, or sometimes lied in the turbati *In common with the Surag generally, the Jaogamas smear their foreheads with Vibhutı, wear necklaces, and carry rosaries made of the Rudraksha sced The clerical members of the sect usually stain their garments with red ochre They are not numerous in apper India and are rarely enconntered cicept as mendicants, leading about a bull, the living type of landı, the bull of Sira, decorated with housings of various colours and strings of lauri shells The conductor carries a bull in uus hand, and, thus accompanıcd goes about from place to place, subsisting upon alms? In upper India there are no popular works current of this sect and the only authority 19 a Icarded Bhishya, or comment by Milansha, on the Sutras of lass, a orl not often met with, and being in Sanskrit, unintelligible to the multitude Bcades the Jangana prest of hedarnath, An opulent establish incat of them cxists at Denáreg Its wealth anses from a number of houses, occursio a considerable space, called thc Jangan BAR The title to the property is $31d to be a grant to the Janganas, regularly executed by Van Singh, and prescrred of a correr plate 4 The Paramhanss1--1975 "the berl," "derotre") According to the introduction to the Drralasa lahárakya, by ! Ste fa fa let areas of 15 ket za te losof ID, Asuste le kar, TOL. 114, P 195 ·200 APPEYDIS II a Dandi author, Vaikunth: Puri, the Sannyası 1$ of four kinds the fiufichara (oft,"tortoise' ), Bahuduha, Tansa, and Paranhans — the difference between whora, however, is only tho graduated intensity of their self mortification and profound abstraction The Paramhansa 18 the most cminent of these gradations, and is the ascetic who is solely occupied with tho investigation of Brahma, or spirit, and who is cqually indifferent to pleasure or pain, insensible of beat or cold, and incapable of satiety or want Agrceably to this definition, individuals are sometimes met with, who pretend to have attained such a degree of perfection In proof of at they go naked in all weather never speab, and never indicate any natural wont That 19 brought to them as alms or food, by any person, 18 received by the attendants, whom their supposed sluchaty, or a confederation of interest rattaches to them, and by these attendants they are fed and served on all occasions, as if they were as helpless as infants It may be gupposed that not unfrequently there 18 much knavery in this helplessness, but there are many Hindus whose simple enthusiasm oduces them honestly to practise such self denial, and there is little risk in the attempt, as the credulity of their countrymen, or rather countrywomen, will, in most places, talo care that their wants are amply supplied These devotees are usually acluded amongst the Sira ascetics, but it may be doubted whether the classification is correct 5 The Aghorus (U12) The same profession of indifference to the world characterises the Aghori as the Paramhansa, but he seeks occasion for its display, and demands alms as a reward for its exhibition The original Aghori worship seems to have been that of Desi in some of her terrific forms and to have required even human victims for its performance In imitation of the formdable aspect under which the goddess was worshipped, the appearance Perhaps so called because he retires inta huself ·HIYDU CASIES AND PELIGIOUS SECTS 201 530 of her votary was rendered as hidecas as possible, and he wand and waterpot rere a staff set with bones, and the upper half of a skull The practices were of a similar nature, and flesh and spintuous liquors constituted at wll the diet of the aclept The regular worship of this sect has long since been soppressed, and the onls traces of it now left are presented by a few disgust- 19g wretches, who, whilst they profess to have adopted its tenets, inake them a mere plea for extortiog alme In proof of their indifference to worldly objects, they eat and drink whaterer is given to them, even ordare and carrion They smear their bodies also with excrement, and carry it about with them in a wooden cup or ekull, ether to brallor it, of by so dog they can get a few pice, or to throw it upon the persons, or into the hou es, of those who refuse to comply with their demands They also, fora the sade parpose, infict gashes on their limbs, that the crime of blood may rest opon the head of the recusant, and they have a variety of similar disgusting desices to extort money from the timid and credulous Hindus They are, fortunately pot numerous, and arc vuiversally detested and feared 6 Urddhrabohus ( ETF) i Alaf Julhus ( FITTED) 8 Nabhu (77) The Urudhrabahos extend one or both anns above the head till they remain of themselves thus elevated. They also close the tist, and the nails being necesarily suffered to grow, male their way between the metacarpal bones, and completely perforate the hand They are solitary mendicants, 13 are all of this descrip tion, and never have any fixed abode They sub«ist upon alms Vsus of them so naled, but some wear & wrapper stained with ochre They usually ngumc the Furs marks and twist their hair so as to project from the forchead, ja imitation of the Jaţa of Sirs.' + 1 The Tes T Phill prates that be mit mone 20 in a rilare bo wil once been in 14tic of thu kızd for years bat a: last brought down bus arat br soficouag it with gii ·202 ATTE DIY IT' Thic Xklímulhís bold up their faces to the sky, till the macies of the back of tho neck become contractou, and retain it in that position They Fear the Jafs and allose the beard and whiskers to grow, smearing the body with ashes, BoBe Tear coloured girmcats Tho Maklís derer cut thetr finger pails The Gudayas () These are so named from a pan of metal thich they carts about with them, and in which they have a small firs, for the purpose of burnips scated woods at the lauses of the persons from whom they receive alms Theso alms they do not solicit . further than by repeating the word lakk ( WE or W, 12 "nrasıble') expressite of the indescriballo nature of the deity They haro a peculiar garb, wearing a large round cap and a long frock or coat, stained with ochro clay Somo also wear ring, Ito the Kanplatá Jols, or a cylinder of wood passed through tbo lobo of the car, which they term the Khechari Judra, the seal or symbol of the deity, of him who morcs 2n the hcarcos 10 The Suhhasas (ES) These are distinguished by carrying a stich three spaas in length They dress in a car and sort of petticoat stained with ochrey earth, spearing their bodies rith ashes, and wear earnings of the Rudraksha seed They also rear over the left shoulder a Darrow piece of cloth dyed with ochre and twisted, in place of the Janéu, or Brahmanical thread 11 The Rulharas (EB) These are of similar habits and appearance, but they do not carry the stick Dor wear the Rudraksha earrings, but in their place metallic ones These two classes agree with the preceding in the watchword, exclaiming Alalh as they pass along The terim 18, however, used by other mendicants ·JINDU CASTE. AND BELIGIOUS SECTS 203 12 The Ukharas (BEG) These are said to be members of either of the precedios classes, who driok spirtuous liquors and eat meat They appear to be the refuse of the three preceding mendicant classes, who, in general are said to be of mild and inoffensive manners .13 The Karalongis (agitan These are vagabonds of little credit, except sometimes amongst the most ignorant partious of the community They are not often met with, they go naked, and to mark their trumph orer sensual desires, affix an iron nog and chain on the male organ; they $10 professedly worshippers of Siva 14 The Sannyası ( FT) 15 The lairagis (art) 16 The Aradhutos () Although the terms Sanofusi and Vairagi aro 10 a great measure restricted amongst the Vaishnaras to peculiar classes, the same limit can scarcely be adopted with regard to the Surns All the scuts except the Subgogi Alin are, so far, Sannsasis, or excluded from the world, as not to admit of moned teachers, a circumstance far from being uncommon, B3 we have seen, amongst the more refined followers of Vishna Most of the Sura sects, indeed, are of a very infunor descnption to those of the Vaishnaras Besues the individuals who adopt the Dandaprabana ("holding the alalt), and are unconnected with the Dišunis, there is a scct of derotees who remun through lifo members of the condi tion of the Brahmachári, or student These are also regarded as Sanngásı, and where the term is used in a dcforte scosc, these telre hunds, riz the Dandus, Brahmacharu, and ten Drinum orders, are implied In general homems, the forma Sanogasí, as well as Aradhula ani tlakhnami expresses all thr Sur3 clasy of meadicants, ciceph perkates, tbc Jogis ·HINDU CASTES AND LELIGIOUS PECTS 20 Any of the female deitice may be the object of the Sulta Torship, and the term Şilti comprehends thern all, but the homage of the Saktas 13 almost restricted to the wife of Sıra apd to Sira Linself as identical with his consort The worship of Deri is of considerable antiquity and populants The adoration of Vindhyaranni, near Mirzapur, has exysted for more than ecten centures, and that of Jwalamukhi, at Nagarkyt, very early attracted Muhammadan persecution Thece places still retain their reputation, and are objects of pilgrimage to despot Kuodus, especially on the 8th of the months of Chaitra and Kartık Her great festival, the Dashra, is in the west of Inds marked by no particular hogour, whil t its celebration in Bengal, under the name of Durga Puja, occupies ten days of prodigal expenditure There is a mela erery year at the temple of Deri, in Etawah, a village near Agra, when buffaloe , goatz, fruits, etc , are offered, the former being mostis slain Esers village almost has a little mound of earth or Fery small temple, containing a shapeless stone, daubed red, which they call Ban Khandi Deri This, howerer, 1 chiefly worshipped by the women In fact, the women are the chief, if not the only, worshippers of Devi 10 the North West Provinces The chief of the sakta eects are 1, The Dalshinax or Dhalkas When the worship of any goddess is performed in a public manner, and agreeably to the Tadık or Patránh ritual it does not comprehend the impare practice thich are atınbnted to the Vanus In this form it is called the Dalshina orright hand form of worship 'The pure balt, or offering, presented by these consists of grain, mub, and sogar, but kids are often offered to Deri in her terrific forts This is, however, considered rather heterodox 2 T). Vénus or Tamacharis The Vamuis mean the left hand worshippers, or those who adopt a ritual contrary to that is usual, and to that indeed, ·. 200 APPENDIX II. they dare publicly aros The object of the worship is, by th Teverenco of Deví, who is one with Siva, to obtain supernatur? powers in this lifo, and to be identified altcr dcath with $18a ani Suleti. According to tho immediato object of the worshipper i the particular form of worship; but all the fortos reqairo the us of some or all of the five Mak.írus or words whoso first letter 19 (F). मद्य मामय मत्स्यञ्च मुद्रा मैथुनमेवच । Hartana H514776 ATTACH "Winc, flesh, fish, mystical gesticulations, and coition are th fivefold Jakára which talcs away all sin !! This Worship is celebrated by men and women in the dead c Snight! (a) MISCELLANEOUS Sects 1. The Saurapatas, or Sauras These worship Súrya-patı, the Sun-god, only. There are bu few of them, and they scarcely differ from the rest of the Hindu in their general observances. The Tulaka 19 made in a particula manner, with red sandal, and the necklace should be of crystal These are their chief peculiarities, besides vinch they eat one meal without salt on every Sunday and each Sankrántı, or thi sun's entrance into a sign of the zodiac. they cannot eat eithe until they have beheld the sun, so that it is fortunate that they Inhabit his native regions 2 The Ganapatyas These are worshippers of Ganesy, or Ganapatı, and can scarcely be considered as a distinct sect All the Hindús in fact worship this deity as the obviator of difficulties and impediments, and never commence any work, or set off on a journey, withou invoking his protection Some, however, pay him more par 1 See a full account of these orgies in the works of Ward and Wilson ·ANSDU CASTES AVD RELIGIOUS SECTS ARDU 207 30 ticular deroboa than the resting and these are the only pemots to whom the classifica 103 may be considered applicable Ganes, however, it 13 telesed, is beter exclusels venerated, and the Torship, when it is rud, 1 addred to some of his formal? This image 23 placed over many door tas3, and erery book un Hinds commences with that the “ Adoration to the Blessed Ganesa 3 The Sikhs, or Nanat Shahus, are classed ander veren distinctions 1 Udáu, religvis characters, who lire in contents.. 2 Gany Bakhshis, not numeroas, or of any note 3 Ramrayıs, not common in Hindustan 4 Sztbr, Shyhís, great gamblers, drunkards, and theres 5 Govind Sinhis Th13 13 the not important dizon of the Sikhs, being in fact, the political association to which or to the nation generally, the name Sibh is applied Their faith is widely different from the quiehism of lanak, and wholly of a orldls aarlike spınt. The sword is used by them both against Muhammadans and Hindus 6 Mirmals, these like the Udası3, go nearly naked 7 danas, naked beggars, scho abstain from the use of arms ► 4 The Jains The history and doctrines of this sect are set forth at consider able length by Professor Wilson, in his “Sketch' But as they bave already been noticed in the body of this troch (p 106), we Content ourselves with merely mentioning them bere among the Religious sects, and for further information regarding them as well as several other sects of minor importance (as the Baba Lalls Fadhs etc), must refer the cunous reader to the learned work from which we have already so largely quoted ·200 APPLYDIX II they daro publicly aroy The object of the worship is, by the rerfrence of Desi, who is ono with Siva, to obtain supernatural potvers ia this life, and to be identified after death with Siriand Sukut According to the immediato object of tho worshipper is the particular forn of worship, but all the fortas requiro the uso of somo or all of tho fire Mlakiras or words whose first letter 19 m मध मामथ मत्यच मुद्रा मेथुनमेवच । मकारपटकञ्चैव महापातक नाशनम् । "Winc, flesh, fish, mystical gesticulations, and coition aro the fivefold Walára which takes away all sın"? This worship is celebrated by men and women in the dead of Sught' (a) MISCELLANEOUS SECTS 1 The Saurapatas, of Sauras These Worship Surya patı, the Sun god, only There are but few of them and they scarcely differ from the rest of the Hindus 1n their general observances The Tilaka is made in a particular manner, with red sandal, and the necklace should be of crystal These are their chief peculiarities besides which they eat one meal without salt on every Sunday and each Sankrantı, or the suns entrance into a sign of the zodiac they cannot eat either until they have beheld the sun, so that it is fortunate that they. inhabit his native regions 2 The Ganapalyaz These are worshippers of Ganese or Ganapati and can scarcely be considered as a distinct sect All the Hindus in fact worship this deity as the obviator of difficulties and impediments and never commence any work or set off on a journey, without in yoking his protection Somc, however, pay him more par 1 See a full account of these orgies in the works of Ward and Watson ·+ HINDU CASTES AND RELIGIOUS SECTS 207 530 ticular devotion than the rest, and these are the only persons to whom the classification may be considered applicable Ganesa, however, it 19 believed, is nerer exclusively venerated, and the Worship, when it is paid, is addressed to some of his forms This image is placed over many door ways, and every book in Hindi commences with ITŪTA TH. "Adoration to the blessed Ganesa" 3 The Sikhs, or Nanak Shahrs, are classed ander seven distinctions 1 Udásis, religious characters, who live in contents 2 Gang Bakhshis, not numerous, or of any note 3 Ramrayıs, not common in Hindustan 4 Szthre,Shahıs, great gamblers, drunkards, and thieves 5 Govind Sinhis This is the most important division of the Silhs, being in fact, the political association to which or to the nation generally, the name Sıb 13 applied Their fath is widely different from the quietism of Nanak, and wholly of a worldly als warlıke spirit The sword is used by them both against Muhammadans and Hindus 6 Nırmalas, these, like the Udasis, go nearly naled 7 Nagas, naked beggars, who abstain from the use of arms > 4 The Jains The history and doctrines of this sect are set forth at consider able length by Professor Tilson, in bis “Sketch' But as they have already been noticed in the body of this work (p 106), me content ourselves with merely mentioning them here among the Religious sects, and for further information regarding them, as well as sereral other sects of mizor zmportance (25 the Bába Lalıs, Sadbs ete ), must refer the curious reader to the learned Worl from which we have already so largely quoted