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·Includes the famous Essay on
Miracles
ÖD.
1.-AN INQUIRY CONCERNING
TAN UNDE STARDING
HUME'S
ESSAYS
II.-AN INQUIRY CONCERNING
THE PRINCIPLES OF MORALS
(issueD FOR THE RATIONALIST PRESS ASSOCIATION, LIMITED)
WATTS & cp.,
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Nos. 26 and 27 of this series comprise Haeckel's.
“THE EVOLUTION OF MAN”

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·255
FUBLIC
LIBRARY
MA!
is d. 1902
JU, !!
HUME'S ESSAYS
I.-AN INQUIRY CONCERNING HUMAN UNDERSTANDING
II.-AN INQUIRY CONCERNING THE PRINCIPLES OF MORALS

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·HUME'S ESSAYS
1.--AN INQUIRY CONCERNING HUMAN
UNDERSTANDING
II.-AN INQUIRY CONCERNING THE
PRINCIPLES OF MORALS
WITH A BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE AUTHOR,
BY CHARLES T. GORHAM
ſissUED FOR THE RATIONALIST PRESS ASSOCIATION, LIMITED]
WATTS & Co.,
17. JOHNSON'S COURT, FLEET STREET, LONDON, E.C.
1906

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·CONTENTS AN INQUIRY CONCERNING HUMAN UNDERSTANDING SECT. PAGE BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH 7 I. OF THE DIFFERENT SPECIES OF PHILOSOPHY II II. OF THE ORIGIN OF IDEAS 16 III. OF THE ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS 18 IV. SCEPTICAL DOUBTS CONCERNING UNDERSTANDING THE OPERATIONS OF THE 19 V. SCEPTICAL SOLUTION OF THESE DOUBTS 26 VI. OF PROBABILITY n 32 37 VII. OF THE IDEA OF NECESSARY CONNECTION VIII. OF LIBERTY AND NECESSITY 42 IX. OF THE REASON OF ANIMALS 52 X. OF MIRACLES 54 XI. OF A PARTICULAR PROVIDENCE AND OF A FUTURE STATE 63 XII. OF THE ACADEMICAL OR SCEPTICAL PHILOSOPHY 70 AN INQUIRY CONCERNING THE PRINCIPLES OF MORALS I. OF THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF MORALS 79 II. OF BENEVOLENCE 82 - 84 - '93 96 III. OF JUSTICE IV. OF POLITICAL SOCIETY V. WHY UTILITY PLEASES VI. OF QUALITIES USEFUL TO OURSELVES VII. OF QUALITIES IMMEDIATELY AGREEABLE TO OURSELVES VIII. OF QUALITIES IMMEDIATELY AGREEABLE TO OTHERS IX. CONCLUSION 104 III 116 119 APPENDICES 126 130 1. CONCERNING MORAL SENTIMENT II. OF SELF-LOVE III. SOME FARTHER CONSIDERATIONS WITH REGARD TO JUSTICE IV. OF SOME VERBAL DISPUTES 133 137

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·MAJU, MOW RAH 2557** PUBLIC LIBRARY MAJU Estd. 1902. 257, BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH was on > EDINBURGH has given birth to many dis- blows of fortune. This greatness and tinguished soris, and not the least ainong elevation of soul is to be found only in them was David Hume. His life ex- study and contemplation." A boy who tended over the greater part of that could write like that was certain to have sceptical eighteenth century of which he something to say for himself when he was perhaps the finest type. In its first became a man. And in these moneyquarter he was born ; in its last. he died. grubbing dâys his life has a lesson for His parents were living for a time in the most of us. capital, where Hume born After a few terms at Edinburgh Uni- April 26th, 1711. The father, who came versity, Hume attempted the legal proof the good old stock of the Humes or fession. That was by no means to his Homes, had a little estate in Berwick taste, so he went home to Ninewells, the shire, just within the Scottish border, and, fainily property, plunged into study for as he died while his three children were six years, and then tried commercial life, young, the property was inherited by with a similar result. A letter written David's elder brother. Mrs. Huine, a (but apparently never sent) to a London daughter of Sir David Falconer, appears physician about this time gives a very to have had a modest opinion of her frank account of Humne's thoughts and second son's abilities, considering him a feelings while he was thus "finding his good-natured but uncommon weak. fcet." The idea then occurred to him to minded creature. It is not recorded secure some peaceable retreat in France, when this maternal judgment was de- where he might study to his heart's livered ; but, as Hume was alınost a content; and, having a slender patrimony, middle-aged man before he carned what "I resolved,” he says, "to make a very could fairly be termed an income, the rigid frugality supply my deficiency of good lady had some reason for thinking fortune, to maintain unimpaired ny indethat David was, for a Scotchman, not very pendence, and to regard every object as well fitted to make his way in the world. contemptible except the improvement of His genius, however, did not lie on the my talents in literature.” surface ; he was an unusually studious Time proved the young philosopher's and really precocious boy, and it is wisdom. From 1734 to 1737 Hume lived perhaps surprising that he was not in France, and of these years the prindestined by the family to " wag his pow cipal fruit was the Treatise of Human in a pulpit.” Evidently Mrs. Hume did Nature, the first two volumes of which not consider him brilliant enough for appeared in 1739, and the third a year or that. His youthful bent was towards so later. The public did not accord it a "divine philosophy," and few men have hearty welcome, though it had the honour remained more constant to their first of being cut up" by a discerning critic, love. But even at sixteen he realised who, while ruthlessly exposing its faults, the fleeting nature of human happiness: recognised its extraordinary promise. "My peace of mind is wot sufficiently Hume in later life lainented the shortconfirmed by philosophy to withstand the comings of his earliest work; but, as ·inore 8 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH Professor Huxley remarks, considering sopher, scarcely noticing the 'militäry that it was planned before the author was operations then in progress, and describtwenty-one, and composed before he had ing Cologne without mentioning its cathereached the age of twenty-five, it is dral. The numerous principalities of probably the most remarkable philo- Germany astonished him. “We have sophical work that has ever been written. had,” he remarks rather wittily, Its object was to carry to its logical con masters than many of these princes have clusions the system initiated by Locke subjects.” It is a shrewd forecast that, if and Descartes, to place knowledge on a Germany were but united, it would be the foundation not of hypothesis and inven- greatest power in the world ! tion, but of fact and experience. Hume's Hume returned to London in 1749, and views concerning the value of experience, about this time was plunged into deep the origin of mental impressions, the sorrow by the death of his mother. A relations of cause and effect, and many pious friend, Mr. Boyle, finding him in other questions of philosophy, have had tears, assured Hume he would not have immense weight with later thinkers, and suffered such grief had he not "thrown have constituted the basis of modern off the principles of religion.” Huxley's speculation. comment on the anecdote is : “Mr. Boyle's In 1740 Hume fornied a valuable friend- experience of mankind must have been ship with Adam Smith, then a youth small if he had not seen the firmest of of seventeen, whose intellectual promise believers overwhelmed with grief at a like induced Hume to send him a copy of the loss, and as completely inconsolable." Treatise. In the following year the While Hume was abroad the famous Essays, Joral and Political, were pub- Inquiry Concerning Iluman Understandlished. These are not merely admirably ing was published; but, in the stir then written, but contain many instances of being caused by Middleton's Free Inquiry, original and sagacious thought. the work attracted little notice. During An engagement as companion to a the next two years Hume resided at young nobleman of deficient intellect Ninewells, busily engaged upon the turned out unfortunately for Hume, Inquiry Concerning the Principles of though not through any fault of his. Morals, published in 1751, the Political Shortly afterwards he became secretary, Discourses, which appeared in the followand later Judge Advocate, to General St. ing year, and the Dialogues on Natural Clair, and saw a little of the pomp and Religion. The last of these underwent circunstance of a very inglorious war. frequent revision, and was not issued till The salary was that of a respectable after the author's death. In this work clerk, but the experience was valuable to the processes of religious faith are analysed the future historian. The expedition was with wonderful subtlety, and, though the intended for Canada, but was suddenly thinker of to-day may consider that Hume diverted to the coast of France. With concedcs too much to theism and its better luck it inight perhaps have captured argument from design, he will recognise a town; but the proceedings werc ill the sympathy and penetration with which managed, and the forces very willingly the views of the three speakers are exreturned home. pressed. The Discourses take a high In 1748 Hume again went abroad, this rank in political wononiy, anticipating as time as secretary and aide-de-camp to they did many of the chief doctrines of General St. Clair, who had been entrusted Adam Smith's classic work, The Wealth with a mission to the Austrian court at of Nations, published twenty-four years Turin. Huine's letters come evince all later. later. The Inquiry Concerning Morals, the mental detachment of the true philo- which Hume considered his best work, ·BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH endeavours, with fair success, to adjust the England were in 1759 issued in London, claims of reason and feeling. Its domi- where Hume resided for nearly twelve nant idea may be termed utility inter- months. preted by sentiment. Here, again, Hume In 1763 Hume was asked by Lord anticipated a great thinker, of the next Hertford to join his embassy to France, century, John Stuart Mill, in advocating with the promise of the secretaryship, not merely the pursuit of individual good, With some reluctance the philosoplier tore but the well-being of the race at large. himself away from his books, the salary The Morals and the Understanding con of £1,000 a year probably turning the prise the whole of the Treatise, re-written scale. The friendship of a nobleman well in the light of Hume's later mental known for virtue and piety was not to be growth. He was, surely without just despised, and a pension of $200 a year reason, a little ashamed of the Treatise, was a handsome addition to the means and would gladly have suppressed it, Hume had been steadily accumulating. though so good a judge as Professor When his diplomatic duties were over Huxley doubts whether the maturer pro Hume was appointed Under Secretary of ductions are any substantial improve- State for Scotland, an office which he ment upon the earlier one. Hume him- held for two years, and on retiring he self desired that the works comprised in found himself “very opulent," with an the present volume should "alone be income of £1,000 per annum--a happy regarded as containing his philosophical condition which would no doubt have sentiments and principles." modified his mother's opinion of his Hume was now over forty years of age. 'capacity had she been living. He had preserved his independence, he had The remainder of Hume's life was lived up to the ideals of his youth, and his passed in the venerable city which he frugality lad enabled him to accumulate loved so well. He built himself a house something over £1,000. On the interest in Edinburgh, and lived peacefully and of this he was prepared to live ; his wants happily in the society of cultivated and were few, he had his books, his mind was congenial friends. For London and its at its best, his love of study was as keen people Hume had a hearty dislike, and He settled in Edinburgh, in a thought the taste for literature was extinct set of rooms in one of the vast houses of among the “barbarians who inhabit the the Old Town. In 1752 he was elected banks of the Thames." He longed to Librarian of the Faculty of Advocates, see the American colonies in revolt, the with a small salary, but the command of national bankruptcy of the English, a large library. The salary he handed internal rebellion, and a few other trifics over to a poor blind poet, named Black- of that sort. Perhaps, after all, these lock, in whom he for long took a most asperities were not very deeply rooted in generous interest. Dr. Carlyle wrote: Hume's kindly nature. Like Burke a “To ту certain knowledge he gave few years later, he became alarmed at the every farthing of his salary to persons in progress of democratic ideas, and disdistress." His great ambition was now, trusted the rude strength of an ignorant with the aid of the Advocates' Library, to people, while paying little heed to the write a History of England, and in 1754 misgovernment which rendered it forappeared the first volume, which, aftermidable. the public wrath had cooled down a little, During the last year or two of his life had but an indifferent sale. The second Hume suffered from an internal disorder, volume was published two years later, the from which he died on August 25th, 1776, Natural History of Religion in 1757; and less than two months after the American two more volumes of dhe History of colonies had gratified his wish. He was as ever.

·IO Yet 110 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH buried, as he had desired, on the famous agreeable source of what is callal, wit in Calton Hill of Edinburgh, in the presence his raillery to mortify; and, therefore, far other men. It never was the meaning of of a large crowd of people, some of from offending, it seldom failed to please and whom, says Huxley, seem to have delight even those who were frequently the anticipated for his body the fate appro- objects of it; there was not, perhaps, any one of all his great and amiable qualities which priate to the remains of wizards and contributed more to endeąr his conversation. necromancers,” the £6,000 which And that gaiety of temper, so agreeable in Hume possessed le disposed of among society, but which is so often accompanied his relatives and friends, a sum being with frivolous and superficial qualities, was in him certainly' attended with the most left for building a bridge over the river severe application, the most extensive learnnear Ninewells. ing, the greatest depth of thought, and a Hume's life had in it more than the capacity in every respect the most comprecommon share of happiness. hensive. Upon the whole, I have always considered him, both in his lifetime and man ever met death with a more calm since his death, as approaching as nearly to and manly resignation. His physician, the idea of a perfectly wise and virtuous Dr. Black, in a letter to Adain Smith, man as perhaps the nature of human frailty will permit. related that Hume “continued to the last to be perfectly sensible, and free from Hume was a representative sceptic, much pain or feelings of distress. He at once the spiritual son of Locke and never dropped the smallest expression of the spiritual father of Kant, and the inrpatience; but when he had occasion founder of modern Agnosticism. The to speak to the people about him, always mysterious nexus between the mind of did it with affection and tenderness....... man and the material world he never He died in such a happy composure of claimed the ability to discover. If he mind that nothing could exceed it." declined to admit that we can ever know The following tribute from the pen of the ultimate truth, he also declined to Adam Smith himself is so unaffectedly affirm that we know nothing. As Prosincere that it can scarcely be omitted : fessor Knight has said : Hume's was Thus died our most excellent and neverrather the scepticism which stood apart, to-be-forgotten friend, concerning whose and finally declined to speculate on ultiphilosophical opinions men will, no doubt, mate problems, feeling that the entire judge variously, everyone approving or condemning them according as they happen region was one of haze.” That is the to coincide or disagree with his own, but scepticism of the wise, the scepticism concerning whose character and conduct which stands on the impregnable rock there can scarce be a difference of opinion. of fact and truth. Yet in the present His temper, indeed, seemed to be more happily balanced, if I may be allowed such year a Christian writer, who is old an expression, than that perhaps of any enough to know better, lias stigmatised other man I have ever known. Even in the it as the “blind and stupid infidelity of lowest state of his fortune his great and Hume.” The present volume, which necessary frugality never hindered him from exercising upon proper occasions acts both comprises the most mature examples of of charity and generosity. It was a frugality Hume's philosophical thought, may help founded not upon avarice, but upon the love to enlighten the public as to the truth of of independency. The extreme gentleness that charge. Hume stands high in the of his nature never weakened either the firmness of his mind or the steadiness of long line of great thinkers who have his resolutions. His constant pleasantry done more for the intellectual progress of was the genuine effusion of good nature and good humour, tempered with delicacy humanity than liuinanity at large realises. and modesty, and without even the slightest tincture of malignity, so frequently the dis- CHARLES T. GORHAM, ·Tahib Estd. 1902 9564** 265 HOWRAH AN INQUIRY CONCERNING .HUMAN UNDERSTANDING SECTION I. OF THE DIFFERENT SPECIES OF PHILOSOPHY MORAL philosophy, or the science of human nature as a subject of speculation, human nature, may be treated after two and with a narrow scrutiny examine it, different manners ; each of which has its in order to find those principles which peculiar merit, and may contribute to the regulate our understanding, excite our entertainment, instruction, and reforma- ,sentiments, and make us to approve or tion of mankind. The one considers blame any particular object, action, or man chiefly as born for action, and as behaviour. They think it a reproach to influenced in his measures by taste and all literature that philosophy should not sentiment ; pursuing one object, and yet have fixed, beyond controversy, the avoiding another, according to the value foundation of morals, reasoning, and which these objects seem to possess, and criticism; and should for ever talk of according to the light in which they truth and falsehood, vice and virtue, present themselves. As virtue, of all beauty and deformity, without being able objects, is allowed to be the most valuable, to determine the source of these distincthis species of philosophers paint her in tions. While they attempt this arduous the most amiable colours; borrowing all task, they are deterred by no difficulties ; helps from poetry and eloquence, and but, proceeding from particular instances treating their subject in an easy and to general principles, they still push on obvious manner, and such as is best their inquiries to principles more general, fitted to please the imagination and and rest not satisfied till they arrive at engage the affections. They select the those original principles by which, in most striking observations and instances every science, all human curiosity, must from common life; place opposite char- be bounded. Though their speculations acters in a proper contrast ; and alluring seem abstract, and even unintelligible to us into the paths of virtue by the views common readers, they ain at the approof glory and happiness, direct our steps bation of the learned and the wise, and in these paths by the soundest precepts think themselves sufficiently compensated and most illustrious examples. They for the labour of their whole lives if make us feel the difference between vice they can .discover some hidden truths and virtue ; they excite and regulate our which may contribute to the instruction sentiments; and, so they can but bend of posterity. our hearts to the love of probity and true It is certain that the easy and obvious honour, they think that they have fully philosopiy will always, with the generattained the end of all their labours. ality of mankind, have the preference The other species of philosophers con above the accurate and abstruse, and by sider man in the light of a reasonable many will be recommended not only as rather than an active being, and endeavour more agreeable, but more useful, than the to form his understanding more than other. It enters more into common life; cultivate his manners. They regard' moulds the heart and affections; and, by ·12 OF THE DIFFERENT SPECIES OF PHILOSOPHI' Over our are touching those principles which actuate where the sciences flourish than to be men, reforms their conduct, and brings entirely destitute of all relish for those the nearer to that model of perfection noble entertainments. The most perfect which it describes. On the contrary, the character is supposed to lie between those abstruse philosophy, being founded on a extremes; retaining an equal ability and turn of mind which cannot enter into taste for books, company, and business ; business and action; vanishes when the preserving in conversation that discern. philosopher leaves the shade and comes ment and delicacy which arise 'froin into open day; nor can its principles polite letters; and in business, that easily retain any influence probity and accuracy which the conduct and behaviour. The feelings of natural result of a just philosophy. In our heart, the agitation of our passions, order to diffuse and cultivate so accomthe veheinence of our affections, dissipate plished a character, nothing can be more all its conclusions, and reduce the pro- useful than compositions of the easy style found philosopher to a mere plebeian. and manner, which draw not too much This also must be confessed, that the from life, require no deep application or most durable as well as justest fame has retreat to be comprehended, and send been acquired by the easy philosophy, back the student among mankind full of and that abstract reasoners seem hitherto noble sentiments and wise precepts, to have enjoyed only a momentary repu- applicable to every exigence of human tation, fronr the caprice or ignorance of life. By means of such compositions, their own age, but have not been able to virtue becomes amiable, science agreesupport their renown with more equitable able, company instructive, and retirement posterity. It is easy for a profound entertaining. philosopher to commit a mistake in his Man is a reasonable being, and, as subtle reasonings; and one mistake is, such, receives from science his proper the necessary parent of another, while he food and nourishment. But so narrow pushes on his consequences, and is not are the bounds of human understanding deterred from embracing any conclusion that little satisfaction can be hoped for in by its unusual appearance, or its contra this particular, either from the extent or diction to popular opinion. But a philo- security of his acquisitions. Man is a sopher who purposes only to represent sociable no less than a reasonable being. the common sense of mankind in inore But neither can he always enjoy company beautiful and more engaging colours, if agreeable and amusing, or preserve the by accident he falls into error, goes no proper relish for them. Man is also an farther ; but, renewing his appeal to active being; and from that disposition, sense and the natural senti as well as from the various necessities of ments of the inind, returns into the right human life, must subinit to business and path, and himself from any occupation. But the mind requires some dangerous illusions. The fame of Cicero relaxation, and cannot always support its flourishes at present; but that of Aristotle bent to care and industry. It seems, is utterly decayed. La Bruyère passes then, that nature has pointed out a mixed the seas, and still maintains his reputa kind of life as most suitable to the huinan tion. But the glory of Malebranche is race, and secretly admonished them to confined to his own nation and to his allow none of these biasses to drau: too own age. And Addison, perhaps, will much, so as to incapacitate them for be read with pleasure when Locke shall other occupations and entertainments. be entirely forgotten. Indulge your passion for science, says The mere philosopher is a character she, but let your science be human, and which is cominonly but little acceptable such as may have a direct reference to in the world, as being supposed to con action and society. Abstruse thought tribute nothing either to the advantage and profound researches I prohibit, and or pleasure of society; while he lives will severely punish by the pensive melanremote from communication with man choly which they introduce, by the kind, and is wrapped up in principles and endless uncertainty in which they involve notions equally remote from their com you, and by the cold reception which prehension. On the other hand, the mere your pretended . discoveries shall meet ignorant is still more despised ; nor is with, when communicated. Be a philoanything deemed a surer sign of an sopher ; but, antidst all your philosophy, illiberal genius in an age and nation be still a nian. cominon secures ·OF THE DIFFERENT SPECIES OF PHILOSOPHY 13 *Were the generality of mankind con of them nearer their perfection, and tented to prefer the easy philosophy to renders them more subservient to the abstract and profound, without interests of society. And though a philothrowing any blame or contempt on the sopher may live remote from business, latter, it might not be improper, perhaps, the genius of philosophy, if carefully to comply with this general opinion, and cultivated by several, inust gradually allow every man to enjoy, without opposi- diffuse itself throughout the whole tion, his own taste and sentiment. But society, and bestow a similar correctness as the matter is often carried farther, on every art and calling. The politician even to the absolute rejecting of all pro- will acquire greater foresight and subfound reasonings, or what is commonly tlety in the subdividing and balancing of called metaphysics, we shall now proceed power; the lawyer more inethod and to consider what. can reasonably be finer principles in his reasonings; and pleaded in their behalf. the general more regularity in his We may begin with observing that one discipline, and more caution in his plans considerable advantage which results and operations. The stability of modern from the accurate and abstract philo- governments above the ancient, and the sophy is its subserviency to the easy accuracy of modern philosophy, have and humane, which, without the former, improved, and probably will still improve, can never attain a sufficient degree of by similar gradations. exactness in its sentiments, precepts, or Were there no advantage to be reaped reasonings. All polite letters are nothing from these studies, beyond the gratificabut pictures of human life in various tion of an innocent curiosity, yet ought attitudes and situations; and inspire us not even this to be despised ; as being with different sentiments, of praise or one accession to those few safe and harinblame, admiration or ridicule, according less pleasures which are bestowed on the to the qualities of the object which they human race. The sweetest and most set before us. An artist must be better 'inoffensive path of life leads through the qualified to succeed in this undertaking avenues of science and learning; and who, besides a delicate taste and a quick whoever can either remove any obstrucapprehension, possesses accurate tions in this way, or open up any new knowledge of the internal fabric, the prospect, ought so far to be esteemed a operations of the understanding, the benefactor to mankind. And though workings of the passions, and the various these researches may appear painful and species of sentiment which discriminate fatiguing, it is with some minds as with vice and virtue. How painful soever this some bodies, which, being endowed with inward search or inquiry may appear, it vigorous and florid healtli, require severe becomes, in some measure, requisite to exercise, and reap a pleasure from what, those who would describe with success to the generality of mankind, may seem the obvious and outward appearances of burdensome and laborious. Obscurity, life and manners. The anatomist pre- indeed, is painful to the mind as well as sents to the eye the most hideous and to the eye; but to bring light from disagreeable objects; but his science is obscurity, by whatever labour, must needs useful to the painter in delineating even be delightful and rejoicing. a Venus or an Helen. While the latter But this obscurity in the profound and employs all the richest colours of his art, abstract philosophy is objected to, not and gives his figures the most graceful only as painful and fatiguing, but as the and engaging airs, he must still carry inevitable source of uncertainty and error. his attention to the inward structure of Here, indeed, lies the justest and most the human body, the position of the plausible objection against a considerable muscles, the fabric of the bones, and the part of metaphysics, that they are not use and figure of every part or organ. properly a science, but arise either from Accuracy is, in every case, advantageous the fruitless efforts of human vanity, to beauty, and just ſeasoning to delicate which would penetrate into subjects sentiment. 'In vain would we exalt the utterly inaccessible to the understanding, one by depreciating the other. or from the craft of popular superstitions, Besides, we may observe, in every art which, being unable to defend themselves or profession, even those which most on fair ground, raise these intangling concern life or action, that a spirit of brambles to cover and protect their weakaccuracy, however acquired, carries all Chaced from the open country, an ness.

·14 OF THE DIFFERENT SPECIES OF PHILOSOPHY these robbers fly into the forest, and lie superstition, renders it in a manner in wait to break in upon every unguarded impenetrable to careless reasoners, and avenue of the mind, and overwhelm it gives it the air of science and wisdom. with religious fears and prejudices. The Besides this advantage of rejecting, stoutest antagonist, if he remit his watch after deliberate inquiry, the most uncertain a moment, is oppressed. And many, and disagreeable part of learning, there through cowardice and folly, open the are many positive advantages which gates to the enemies, and willingly result from an accurate scrutiny into the receive them with reverence and sub- powers and faculties of human nature. mission, as their legal sovereigns. It is remarkable concerning the opera- But is this a sufficient reason why tions of the mind that, though most philosophers should desist from such intimately present to us, yet, whenever researches, and leave superstition still in they become the object of reflection, they possession of her retreat ? Is it not seem involved in obscurity; nor can the proper to draw an opposite conclusion, eye readily find those lines and boundaries and perceive the necessity of carrying the which discriminate and distinguish them. war into the most secret recesses of the The objects are too fine to remain long in enemy?. In vain do we hope that men, the same aspect or situation, and must from frequent disappointment, will at last be apprehended in an instant by a superior abandon such airy sciences, and discover penetration, derived from nature and the proper province of human reason. improved by habit and reflection. It For, besides that many persons find too hecomes, therefore, no inconsiderable part sensible an interest in perpetually recalling of science barely to know the different such topics ; besides this, I say, the operations of the mind, to separate them motive of blind despair can never reason from each other, to class them under ably have place in the sciences; since, their proper heads, and to correct all that however unsuccessful former attempts seeming disorder in which they lie inay have proved, there is still room to involved when made the object of reflechope that the industry, good fortune, or tion and inquiry. This talk of ordering improved sagacity of succeeding genera- and distinguishing, which has no merit tions may reach discoveries unknown to when performed with regard to external former ages. Each adventurous genius bodies, the objects of our senses, rises in will leap at the arduous prize, and find its value when directed towards the himself' stimulated, rather than dis- operations of the mind, in proportion to couraged, by the failures of his prede- the difficulty and labour which we meet cessors; while he hopes that the glory of with in performing it. And if we can go achieving so hard an adventure is reserved no farther than this mental geography, for him alone. The only method of or delineation of the distinct parts and freeing learning at once from these powers of the inind, it is at least a satisabstruse questions is to inquire seriously faction to go so far; and the more obvious into the nature of human understanding, this science may appear (and it is and show, from an exact analysis of its means obvious), the more contemptible powers and capacity, that it is by no still must the ignorance of it be esteemed means fitted for such remote and abstruse in all pretenders to learning and philosubjects. We must submit to this fatigue, sophy. in order to live at ease ever after ; and Nor can there remain any suspicion must cultivate true metaphysics with that this science is uncertain and chimesome care, in order to destroy the false rical, unless we should entertain such a and adulterate. Indolence, which, to scepticism as is entirely subversive of some persons, affords a safeguard against all speculation, and even action. It cannot this deceitful philosophy, is, with others, be doubted that the mind is endowed with overbalanced by curiosity; and despair, several powers and faculties, that these which at some moments prevails, may powers are distinct from each other, that give place afterwards to sanguine hopes what is really distinct to the immediate and expectations. Accurate and just perception may be distinguished by reflecreasoning is the only catholic remedy, tion; and, consequently, that there is a fitted for all persons and all dispositions ; truth and falsehood in all propositions on and is alone able to suhvert that abstruse this subject, and a truth and falsehood philosophy, and metaphysical jargon which lie not beyond the compass of which is being mixed up with popular human understanding. There are many no ·OF THE DIFFERENT SPECIES OF PHILOSOPHY 15 obvious distinctions of this kind, such as upon such a supposition ? Moralists have those between the will and understanding, hitherto been accustomed, when they conthe imagination and passions, which fall sidered the vast multitude and diversity within the comprehension of every human of those actions that excite our approba. creature ; and the finer and more philo- tion or dislike, to search for some common; sophical distinctions are no less real and principle on which this variety of senticertain, though more difficult to be com ments might depend. And though they prehended. Some instances, especially have sometimes carried the matter too jate ones, of success in these inquiries far by their passion for some one general may give us a juster notion of the certainty principle, it must, however, be confessed and solidity of this branch of learning. that they are excusable in expecting to And shall we esteem it worthy the labour find some general principles into which of a philosopher to give us a true system all the vices and virtues were justly to be of the planets and adjust the position and resolved. The like has been the endeavour order of those remote bodies, while we of critics, logicians, and even politicians. affect to overlook those who, with so much Nor have their attempts been wholly success, delineate the parts of the mind, unsuccessful ; though perhaps longer in which we are so intimately concerned ? time, greater accuracy, and more ardent But may we not hope that philosophy, application may bring these sciences still if cultivated with care and encouraged nearer their perfection. To throw up at by the attention of the public, may carry once all pretensions of this kind may it's researches still farther, and discover, justly be dcerned more rash, precipitate, at least in some degree, the secret springs and dogmatical than even the boldest and principles by which the human and most affirmative philosophy that has mind is actuated in its operations ? Astro ever attempted to impose its crude dictates nomers had long contented themselves and principles on mankind. with proving from the phenomena the. What though these feasonings contrue inotions, order, and magnitude of cerning human nature seem abstract and the heavenly bodies, till a philosopher at of difficult comprehension? This affords last arose who seemis, from the happiest no presumption of their falsehood. On reasoning, to have also determined the the contrary, it seems impossible that laws and forces by which the revolutions what has hitherto escaped so many wise of the planets are governed and directed. and profound philosophers can be very The like has been performed with regard obvious and easy. And, whatever pains to other parts of nature. And there is these researches cost us, we may think 110 reason to despair of equal success in ourselves sufficiently rewarded not only our inquiries concerning the mental in point of profit, but of pleasure, if by powers and economy, if prosecuted with that means we can make any addition to equal capacity and caution. It is pro our stock of knowledge in subjects of bable that one operation and principle of such unspeakable importance. the mind depends on another, which, But as, after all, the abstractedness of again, may be resolved into one more these speculations is no recommendation, general and universal. And how far but rather a disadvantage to them, and these researches may possibly be carried as this difficulty may perhaps be surit will be difficult for us before, or even mounted by care and art and the avoiding after, a careful trial exactly to determine. of all unnecessary detail, we have, in the This is certain, that attempts of this kind following, inquiry, attempted to throw are every day made even by those who some light upon subjects from which philosophise the most negligently. And uncertainty has hitherto deterred the nothing can be more requisite than to wise and obscurity the ignorant. Happy enter upon the enterprise with thorough if we can unite the boundaries of the care and attention ; that, if it lie within different species of philosophy by reconthe compass of human understanding, it ciling profound inquiry with clearness may at last be happily achieved ; if not, and truth with novelty! And still more it may, however, be rejected with some happy if, reasoning in this easy manner, confidence and security. This last con we can undermine the foundations of an clusion surely is not desirable, nor ought abstruse philosophy, which seems to have it to be embraced too rashly. For how hitherto served only as a shelter to supermych must we diminish from the beauty stition and a cover to absurdity and and value of this species of philosophy error!

·16 OF THE ORIGIN OF IDEAS SECTION II. OF THE ORIGIN OF IDEAS EVERYONE will readily allow that there is The other species want a name.in our a considerable difference between the per- language, and in most others; I suppose, ceptions of the mind when a man feels because it was not requisite for any but the pain of excessive leat, or the pleasure philosophical purposes to rank them of noderate warmth, and when he after- under a general term or appellation. Let wards recalls to his memory this sensa us, therefore, use a little freedom, and fion, or anticipates it by his imagination. call them impressions; employing that These faculties may mimic or copy the word in a sense somewhat different from perceptions of the senses; but they never the usual. By the term impression, then, can entirely reach the force and vivacity I mean all our more lively perceptions, of the original sentiment. The utmost when we hear, or see, or feel, or love, or we say of them, even when they operate hate, or desire, or will. And impressions with greatest vigour, is that they repre- are distinguished from ideas, which are sent their object in so lively a manner the less lively perceptions of which we that we could almost say we feel or sce are conscious when we reflect on any of it. But, except the mind be disordered those sensations or movements above by discase or madness, they never can mentioned. arrive at such a pitch of vivacity as to Nothing at first view may seem more render these perceptions altogether undis- unbounded than the thought of man, tinguishable. All the colours of poetry, which not only escapes all human power however splendid, can never paint natural and authority, but is not even restrained objects in such a manner as io make the within the limits of nature and reality. description be taken for a real landskip. To form monsters, and join incongruous The most lively thought is still inferior to shapes and appearances, costs the imagithe dullest sensation. nation no more than to conceive the most We may observe a like distinction to natural and familiar objects. And while run through all the other perceptions of the body is confined to one planet, along the mind. A. man in a fit of anger is which it creeps with pain and difficulty, actuated in a very different manner from the thought can in an instant transport one who only thinks of that emotion. If us into the most distant regions of the you tell me that any person is in love, I universe, or even beyond the universe, easily understand your meaning, and into the unbounded chaos where nature form a just conception of his situation, is supposed to lie in total confusion. but never can mistake that conception What never was seen, or heard of, may for the real disorders and agitations of yet be conceived ; nor is anything beyond the passion. When we reflect on out ihe power of thought, except what implies past sentiments and affections, our thought an absolute contradiction. is a faithful mirror, and copies its objects But though our thought seems to truly; but the colours which it employs possess this unbounded liberty, we shall are faint and dull in comparison of ihose lind, upon a nearer examination, that it in which our original perceptions were is really confined within very narrow clothed. It requires no nice discernment limits, and that all this creative power or metaphysical head to mark the dis- of the mind amounts to no more than tinction between them. the faculty of compounding, transposing, Here, therefore, we may divide all the augmenting, or diminishing the materials perceptions of the mind into two classes afforded us by the senses and experience. or species, which are distinguished by When we think of a golden mountain, their different degrees of force and we only join two consistent ideas, gold vivacity. The less forcible and lively are and mountain, with which commonly denoininated thoughts or ideas. fornierly acquainted. A virtuous horse we were ·OF THE ORIGIN OF IDEAS 17 e can conceive, because, from our own passion that belongs to his species, yet we feeling, we can conceive virtue; and this find the same observation to take place in we may unite to the figure and shape of a less degree. A man of mild manners a horse, which is an animal familiar to can form no idea of inveterate revenge or us. In short, all the materials of thinking cruelty; nor can a selfish heart easily are derived either from our outward or conceive the heights of friendship and inward sentiment; the mixture and com- generosity. It is readily allowed that position of these belongs alon to the other beings may possess many senses mind and will. Or, to express myself in of which we can have no conception, philosophical language, all our ideas or because the ideas of them have never been more feeble perceptions are copies of our introduced to us in the only manner by impressions or more lively oncs. which an idea can have access to the To prove this, the two following argu mind—to wit, by the actual feeling and ments will, I hope, be sufficient. First: sensation. when we analyse our thoughts or ideas, There is, however, one contradictory however compounded or sublime, we phenomenon which may prove that it is always find that they resolve themselves not absolutely impossible for ideas to into such simple ideas as were copied from arise independent of their correspondent a precedent feeling or sentiment. Even impressions. I believe it will readily be those ideas which, at first view, seem allowed that the several distinct ideas of the most wide of this origin are found, colour which enter by the eye, or those upon a nearer scrutiny, to be derived of sound which are conveyed by the ear, from it. The idea of God, as meaning are really different from each other, an infinitely intelligent, wise, and good though, at the same time, resembling. Being, arises from reflecting on the Now, if this be true of different colours, it operations of our own mind, and aug must be no less so of the different shades menting, without limit, those qualities of the same colour ; and each shade of goodness and wisdom. We may produces a distinct idea, independent of prosecute this inquiry to what length we the rest. For, if this should be denied, it please, where we shall always find that is possible, by the continual gradation of every idea which we examine is copied shades, to run a colour insensibly into from a similar impression. Those who what is most remote from it; and if you would assert that this position is not will not allow any of the means to be universally true nor without exception different, you cannot, without absurdity, have only one, and that an easy, method deny the extremes to be the same. Supof refuting it-by producing that idea pose, therefore, a person to have enjoyed which, in their opinion, is not derived his sight for thirty years, and to have from this source. It will then be incum become perfectly acquainted with colours bent on us, if we would maintain our of all kinds except one particular shade of doctrine, to produce the impression, or blue, for instance, which it never has been lively perception, which corresponds to it. his fortune to meet with. Let all the Secondly: if it happen, from a defect different shades of that colour except that of the organ, that a man is not suscep single one be placed before him, descendtible of any species of sensation, we ing gradually from the deepest to the always find that he is as little susceptible lightest, it is plain that he will perceive a of the correspondent ideas. · A blind man blank where that shade is wanting, and can form no notion of colours ; a deaf will be sensible that there is a greater man of sounds. Restore either of them distance in that place between the conthat sense in which lie is deficient; by tiguous colours than in any other. Now, opening this new inlet for his sensations I ask whether it be possible for him, from you also open an inlet for the ideas, and his own imagination, to supply this defihe finds no difficulty in conceiving these ciency, and raise up to himself the idea of objects. The case is the same if the that particular shade, though it had object proper for exciting any sensation never been conveyed to him by his senses? has never been applied to the organ. A I believe there are few but will be of Laplander or negro has no notion of the opinion that he can ; and this may serve relish of wine. And though there are as a proof that the simple ideas are not few or no instances of a like deficiency in always, in every instance, derived from the mind where a person has never felt or the correspondent impressions, though is wholly incapable of a sentiment or this instance is so singular that it is ·18 OF THE ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS searcely worth our observing, and does On the contrary, all impressions--thatés, not merit that for it alone we should alter all sensations, either outward or inward our general maxim. are strong and vivid ; the limits between Here, therefore, is a proposition which them are more exactly determined; nor is not only seems in itself simple and intelli- it easy to fall into any error or mistake gible, but, if a proper use were made of it, with regard to them. When we entermight render every dispute equally intelli- tain, therefore, any suspicion that a gible, and banish all that jargon which philosophical term is employed without has so long taken possession of meta any meaning or idea (as is but too physical reasonings and drawn disgrace frequent), we need but inquire, from what upon them. All ideas, especially abstract impression is that supposed idea derived ? ones, are naturally faint and obscure : And if it be impossible to assign any, this the mind has but a slender hold of them; will serve to confirm our suspicion. By they are apt to be confounded with other bringing ideas into so clear a light we resembling ideas; and when we have, may reasonably hope to remove all disoften employed any term, though without pute which may arise concerning their a distinct meaning, we are apt to imagine nature and reality. it has a determinate idea annexed to it. I .--. ! It is probable that no more was meant by those who denied innate ideas than that all ideas were copies of our impressions, though it must be confessed that the terms which they employed were not chosen with such caution, nor so exactly defined, as to prevent all mistakes about their doctrine. For what is meant by innate? If innate be equivalent to natural. then all the perceptions and idcas of the mind must be allowed to be innate or natural, in whatever sense we take the latter word, whether in opposition to what is uncommon, artificial, or miraculous. If by innate be meant contemporary to our birth, the dispute scems to be frivolous; nor is it worth while to inquire at what time thinking begins, whether before, at, or after our birth. Again, the word idea seems to be commonly taken in a very loose sense by Locke and others, as standing for any of our perceptions, our sensations and passions, as well as thoughts. Now, in this sense I should desire to know what can be meant hy asserting that self-love, or resentment of injuries, or the passion between the sexes is not innate? But admitting these terms, impressions and ideas, in the sense above explained, and under. standing by innate what is original or copied from no precedent perception, then may we assert that all our impressions are innate and our ideas not innate. To be ingenuous. I inust own it to be my opinion that Locke was betrayed into this question by the Schoolmen, who, making use of undefined terms, draw out their disputes to a tedious length, without ever touching the point in question. A like anbiguity and circumlocution seem to run through that philosopher's reasonings on this as well as most other subjects. SECTION III. OF THE ASSOCIATION OF ideås It is evident that there is a principle of different ideas which succeeded each connection between the different thoughts other. Were the loosest and freest conor ideas of the rnind, and that, in their versation to be transcribed, there would appearance to the memory or imagina- immediately be observed something which tion, they introduce each other with a connected it in all its transitions. Or, certain degree of method and regularity. where this is wanting, the person who In our more serious thinking or discourse broke the thread of discourse might still this is so observable that any particular inform you that there had secretly thought which breaks in upon the regular revolved in his mind a succession of tract or chain of ideas is immediately thought which had gradually led him remarked and rejected. And even in our from the subject of conversation. Among wildest and most wandering reveries different languages, where nay, in our very dreams--we shall find, if cannot suspect the least connection or we reflect, that the imagination ran not communication, it is found that the words altogether at adventures, but that there expressive of ideas the most compounded was still a connection upheld among the do yet nearly correspond to each other, a even we ·DOUBTS CONCERNING OPERATIONS OF UNDERSTANDING 19 certain proof that the simple ideas, com introduces an inquiry or discourse conprehended in the compound ones, were cerning the others;and if we think of a bound together by some universal prin- wound we can scarcely for bear reflecting ciple, which had an equal influence on on the pain which follows it.3 But that all mankind. this enumeration is complete, and that Though it be too obvious. to escape there are no other principles of association observation, that different ideas are con except these, may be difficult to prove to nected together, I do not find that any the satisfaction of the reader, or even to a philosopher has attempted to enumerate man's own satisfaction. All we can do in or class all the principles of association such cases is to run over several instances a subject, however, that seems worthy of and exaniine carefully the principle which curiosity. To me, there appear to be binds the different thoughts to each other, only three principles of connection among never stopping till we render the prinideas--namely, resemblance, contiguity in ciple as general as possible. The more tiine or place, and cause or effect. instances we examine, and the more care That these principles serve to connect we employ, the more assurance shall we ideas will. not, I believe, be much acquire that the enumeration which we doubted. A picture naturally leads our form from the whole is complete and thoughts to the original ;' the mention of entire. one apartment in a building naturally 1 Resemblance. 2 Contiguity. 3 Cause and effect. 4 For instance, contrast or contrariety is also a connection among ideas; but it may, perhaps, be con. sidered as a mixture of causatio: and resemblance. Where two objects are contrary, the one destroys the other--that is, the cause of its annihilation ; and the idea of the annihilation of an object implies the idea of its former existence. SECTION IV. SCEPTICAL DOUBTS CONCERNING THE OPERATIONS OF TIIE UNDERSTANDING or Part I. strated by Euclid would for ever retain their certainty and evidence. ALL the objects of human reason Matters of fact, which are the second inquiry may naturally be divided into two objects of human reason, are not ascerkinds-to wit, relations of ideas and tained in the same manner ; nor is our matters of fact. Of the first kind are evidence of their truth, however great, of the sciences of geometry, algebra, and a like nature with the foregoing. The arithmetic, and, in short, every affirma- contrary of every matter of fact is still tion which is either intuitively or demon- possible, because it can never imply a stratively certain. That the square of the contradiction, and is conceived by the hypotenuse is equal to the squares of the mind with the same facility and distincttwo sides, is a proposition which ex ness as if ever so conformable to reality. presses a relation between these figures. That the sun will not rise to-morrow is no That three times five is equal to the half of less intelligible a proposition, and implies thirty expresses a relation between these no more contradiction, than the affirmanumbers. Propositions of this kind are tion that it will rise. We should in vain, discoverable by the mere operation of therefore, attempt to demonstrate its thought, without dependence on what falsehood. Were it demonstratively false, is anywhere existent in the universe. it would imply a contradiction, and could Though there never were a circle or never be distinctly conceived by the mind. triangle in nature, the truths demon It may, therefore, be a subject worthy ·20 DOUBTS CONCERNING OPERATIONS OF UNDERSTANDING of curiosity to inquire what is the nature must inquire how we arrive at theknow of that evidence which assures us of any ledge of cause and effect, real existence and matter of fact beyond I shall venture to affirm, as a general the present testimony of our senses or the proposition which admits of no exception, records of our memory. This part of that the knowledge of this relation is not, philosophy, it is observable, has been little in any instance, attained by reasonings cultivated, either by the ancients or a priori, but arises entirely from experimoderns; and therefore our doubts and ence, when we find that any particular errors in the prosecution of so important objects are constantly conjoined with each an inquiry may be the more excusable other. Let an object be presented to a while we march through such difficult man of ever so strong natural reason and paths without any guide or direction. abilities, if that object be entirely new to They may even prove useful, by exciting him he will not be able, by the inost curiosity and destroying that implicit accurate examination of its sensible faith and security which is the bane of qualities, to discover any of its causes all reasoning and free inquiry. The dis- or effects. Adam, though his rational covery of defects in the common philo- faculties be supposed, at the very first, sophy, if any such there be, will not, I entirely perfect, could not have inferred presume, be a discouragement, but rather from the fluidity and transparency of an incitement, as is usual, to attempt water that it would suffocate him, or from something more full and satisfactory than the light and warmth of fire that it would has yet been proposed to the public. consume him. No object ever discovers All reasonings concerning matter of by the qualities which appear to the fact seem to be founded on the relation of senses either the causes which produced cause and effect. By means of that rela- it or the effects which will arise from it ; tion alone we can go beyond the evidence nor can our reason, unassisted by experiof our memory and senses. If you were ence, ever draw any inference concerning to ask a man why he believes any matter real existence and matter of fact. of fact which is absent--for instance, that This proposition, that causes and effects his friend is in the country or in France are discoverable not by reason, bu by he would give you a reason; and this experience, will readily be admitted with reason would be some other fact, as a regard to such objects as we remember to letter received from him, or the know- have once been altogether unknown to us, ledge of his former resolutions and since we must be conscious of the utter proinises. A man finding a watch or any inability which we then lay under of foreother machine in a desert island would telling what would arise from them. conclude that there had once been men in Present two smooth pieces of marble to that island. All our reasonings concern a man who has no tincture of natural ing fact are of the same nature. And philosophy; he will never discover that here it is constantly supposed that there is they will adhere together in such a a connection between the present fact and as to require great force to that which is inferred from it. Were separate them in a direct line, while they there nothing to bind them together, the make so small a resistance to a lateral inference would be entirely precarious. pressure. Such events as bear little The hearing of an articulate voice and analogy to the common course of nature rational discourse in the dark assures us are also readily confessed to be known of the presence of some person. Why? only by experience ; nor does any man Because these are the effects of the human imagine that the explosion of gunpowder make and fabric, and closely connected or the attraction of a lodestone could ever with it. If we anatomise all the other be discovered by arguments a priori. In reasonings of this nature, we shall find like inanner, when an effect is supposed that they are founded on the relation of to pend upon an intricate machinery or cause and effect, and that this relation is secret structure of parts, we make no either near or remote, direct or collateral. difficulty in altributing all our knowledge Heat and light are collateral effects of of it to experience. Who will assert that fire, and the one effect may justly be he can give the ultimate reason why milk inferred from the other. or bread is proper nourishment for a man, If we would satisfy ourselyes, therefore, not for a lion or a tiger ? concerning the nature of that evidence But the sanic truth may not appear, at which assures us of matters of fact, we first sight, to have the same evidence with manner ·ence. DOUBTS CONCERNING OPERATIONS OF UNDERSTANDING 21 regard to events which have become operation of that cause. When I see, for familiar to us from our first appearance in instance, a billiard-ball moving in a the world, which bear a close analogy to straight line towards another, even supthe whole course of nature, and which pose motion in the second ball should by. are supposed to depend on the simple accident be suggested to me as the result qualities of objects, without any secret of their contact or impulse, may I not structure of parts. We are apt to imagine conceive that a hundred different events that we could discover these effects by the inight as well follow from that cause ? mere operation of our reason without May not both these balls remain at experience. We fancy that, were we absolute rest? May not the first ball brought on a sudden into this world, we return in a straight line, or leap off from could at first have inferred that one the second in any line or direction ? All billiard-ball would communicate motion these suppositions are consistent and conto another upon impulse, and that we ceivable. Why, then, should we give the needed not to have waited for the event in preference to one, which is no more conorder to pronounce with certainty con sistent or conceivable than the rest ? All cerning it. Such is the influence of our reasonings a priori will never be able custom that, where it is strongest, it not to show us any foundation for this preferonly covers our natural ignorance, but even conccals itself, and seems not to take In a word, then, every effect is a place, merely because it is found in the distinct event from its cause. It could highest degree. not, therefore, be discovered in the cause, But to convince us that all the laws of and the first invention or conception of it, nature, and all the operations of bodies a priori, must be entirely arbitrary. And, without exception, are known only by even after it is suggested, the conjunction experience, the following reflections may of it with the cause must appear equally perhaps suffice. Were any object pre- arbitrary, since there are always many sented to us, and were we required to other effects which to reason must seen pronounce concerning the effect which fully as consistent and natural. In vain, will result from it without consulting past therefore, should we pretend to determine observation, after what manner, I beseech any single event, or infer any cause or you, must the mind proceed in this opera effect, without the assistance of observation? It must invent or imagine some tion and experience. event, which it ascribes to the object as its Hence, we may discover the reason why effect; and it is plain that this invention no philosopher who is rational and modest must be entirely arbitrary. The mind has ever pretended to assign the ultimate can never possibly find the effect in the cause of any natural operation, or to show supposed cause by the most accurate distinctly the action of that power which scrutiny and examination. For the effect produces any single effect in the universe. is totally different from the cause, and, It is confessed that the utmost effort of consequently, can never be discovered in it. human reason is to reduce the principles Motion in the second billiard-ball is a quite productive of natural phenomena to a distinct event from motion in the first; nor greater simplicity, and to resolve the is there anything in the one to suggest the many particular effects into a few general smallest hint of the other, A stone or causes by means of reasonings from piece of metal raised into the air and left analogy, experience, and observation. without any support immediately falls. But as to the causes of these general But, to consider the matter a priori, is causes we should in vain attempt their there anything we discover in this situa discovery, nor shall we ever be able to tion which can beget the idea of a down- satisfy ourselves by any particular explicaward rather than an upward, or any other tion of them. These ultimate springs motion, in the stone or metal ? and principles are totally shut up from And as the first imagination or inven- hupan curiosity and inquiry. Elasticity, tion of a particular effect in all natural gravity, cohesion of parts, communicaoperations is arbitrary where we consult tion of motion by impulse--these are not experience, so must we also esteem probably the ultimate causes and printhe supposed tie or connection between ciples which we ever discover in nature ; the cause and effect, which binds them and we may.esteem ourselves sufficiently together and renders it impossible that happy if, by accurate inquiry and reasoning, any other effect could result from the we can trace up the particular phenomena ·** DOUBTS CONCERNING OPERATTONS OF UNDERSTANDING to, or near to, these general principles. tolerable satisfaction with regard to tha The most perfect philosophy of the question first proposed. Each solution natural kind only staves off our ignorance still gives rise to a new question as a little longer, as, perhaps, the most difficult as the foregoing, and leads us on perfect philosophy of the moral or meta to farther inquiries. When it is asked; physical kind serves only to discover What is the nature of all our reasonings larger portions of it. Thus, the observa. concerning matter of fact? the proper tion of human blindness and weakness is answer seems to be that they are founded the result of all philosophy, and meets us on the relation of cause and effect. When at every turn, in spite of our endeavours again it is asked, What is the foundation to elude or avoid it. of all our reasonings and conclusions con- Nor is geometry, when taken into the cerning that relation? it may be replied assistance of natural philosophy, ever in one word, Experience. But if we still able to remedy this defect, or lead us carry on our sifting humour, and ask, into the knowledge of ultimate causes, by What is the foundation of all conclusions all that accuracy of reasoning for which from experience this implies a new it is so justly celebrated. Every part question, which may be of more difficult of mixed mathematics proceeds upon solution and explication. Philosophers the supposition that certain laws are that give themselves airs of superior established by nature in her operations; wisdom and sufficiency have a hard task and abstract reasonings are employed when they encounter persons of inquisieither to assist experience in the dis- tive dispositions, who push them from covery of these laws or to determine every corner to which they retreat, and their influence in particular instances, who are sure at last to bring them to where it depends upon any precise degree some dangerous dilemma. The best of distance and quantity. Thus, it is a expedient to prevent this confusion is to law of motion, discovered by experience, be modest in our pretensions, and even that the moment or force of any body in to discover the difficulty ourselves before inotion is in the compound ratio or pro it is objected to us. By this means we portion of its solid contents and its may make a kind of merit of our very velocity; and, consequently, that a small ignorance. force may remove the greatest obstacle or I shall content myself in this section raise the greatest weight if by any con with an easy task, and shall pretend only trivance or machinery we can increase the to give a negative answer to the questioni velocity of that force so as to make it an here proposed. I say then that, even overmatch for its antagonist. Geometry after we have experience of the operations assists us in the application of this law by of cause and effect, our conclusions from giving us the just dimensions of all the that experience are not founded on reasonparts and figures which can enter into ing, or any process of the understanding. any species of machine ; but still, the This answer we must endeavour both to discovery of the law itself is owing explain and to defend." merely to experience, and all the abstract It must certainly be allowed that nature reasonings in the world could never lead has kept us at a great distance from all us one step towards the knowledge of it. her secrets, and has afforded us only the When we reason a priori, and consider knowledge of a few superficial qualities merely any object or cause as it appears of objects, while she conceals from us to the mind, independent of all observa- those powers and principles on which the tion, it never could suggest to us the influence of those objects entirely depends. notion of any distinct object, such as its Our senses inform us of the colour, effect, much less show us the inseparable weight, and consistence of bread, but and inviolable connection between them. neither sense nor reason can ever inforın A man must be very sagacious who could us of those qualities which fit it for thọ discover by reasoning that crystal is the nourishment and support of a human effect of heat, and ice of cold, without being body. Sight or feeling conveys an idea previously acquainted with the operation of the actual motion of bodies; but as to of these qualities. that wonderful force or power which would carry on a moving body for ever PART II. in a continued change of place, and which bodies never lose but by communicating But we have not yet attained any it to others, of this we cannot form the .

·more DOUBTS CONCERNING OPERATIONS OF UNDERSTANDING mosto distant conception. But, notwith- duce that reasoning. The connection standing this ignorance of natural powers! between these propositions is not intuitive. and principles, we always presuine, when There is required a medium which may we see like sensible qualities, that they enable the mind to draw such an inference, have like secret powers, and expect that if, indeed, it be drawn by reasoning and effects similar to those which we have argument. What that medium is, I must experienced will follow from them. If a confess, passes my comprehension; and body of like colour and consistence with it is incumbent on those to produce it that bread, which we have formerly cat, who assert that it really exists, and is he presented to us, we make no scruple the origin of all our conclusions conof repeating the experiment, and fore- cerning matter of fact. see with certainty like nourishment and This negative argument must certainly, support. Now this is a process of the in process of time, become altogether mind or thought, of which I would convincing if many penetrating and able willingly know the foundation. It is philosophers shall turn their inquiries allowed on all hands that there is no this way, and no one be ever able to known connection between the sensible discover any connecting proposition or qualities and the secret powers, and, con intermediate step which supports the sequently, that the mind is not led to form understanding in this conclusion. But, such a conclusion concerning their con as the question is yet new, every reader stánt and regular conjunction by anything may not trust so far to his own penetrawhich it knows of their nature. As to tion as to conclude, because an argument past experience, it can be allowed to give escapes his inquiry, that therefore it does direct and certain information of those not really exist. For this reason it may precise objects only, and that precise be requisite to venture upon a period of time, which fell under its difficult task, and, enumerating all the cognisance ; but why this experience branches of human knowledge, endeavour should be extended to future times, and to show that none of them can afford such to other objects which, for aught we an argument: knaw, may be only in appearance similar, All reasonings may be divided into two this is the main question on which I kinds--namely, demonstrative reasoning, would insist. The bread which I formerly or that concerning relations of ideas, and eat nourished me; that is, a body of moral reasoning, or that concerning such sensible qualities was at that time matter of fact arſd existence. That there endued with such secret powers; but does are no demonstrative arguments in the it follow that other bread must also case seems evident, since it implies no nourish me at another time, and that like contradiction that the course of nature sensible qualities must always be attended inay change, and that an object, secmwith like secret powers? The conse- ingly like those which we have experiquence seems nowise necessary. At least, enced, may be attended with different or it must be acknowledged that there is contrary effects. May I not clearly and here a consequence drawn by the mind; distinctly conceive that a body falling that there is a certain step taken; a pro- from the clouds, and which in all other cess of thought, and an inference which respects resembles snow, has yet the taste wants to be explained. These two pro. of salt, or feeling of fire ? Is there any positions are far from being the same; more intelligible proposition than to T have found that such an object has always affirm that all the trees will flourish in been attended with such an effect, and I December and January and decay in May foresee that other objects, which are in and June ? Now whatever is intelligible, appearance similar, will be attended with and can be distinctly conceived, implies similar effects. I shall allow, if you please, no contradiction, and can never be proved that the one proposition may justly be false by any demonstrative argument or inferred from the other; I know, in fact, abstract reasoning a priori. that it always is inferred. But if you If we be, therefore, engaged by arguinsist that the inference is made by a ments to put trust in past experience, chain of reasoning, I desire you to pro- and make it the standard of our future judgment, these arguments must be The word "power" is here used in a loose and probable only, or such as regard matter would give additional evidence to this argument. See of fact and real existence, according to the division above mentioned. But that Sect. % ·24 POUBTS CONCERNING OPERATIONS OF UNDERSTANDING there is no argument of this kind must nection between the sensible qualities and appear if our explication of that species the secret powers ; this, I must confess, of reasoning bo admitted as solid and seems the same difficulty, couched in satisfactory. We have said that all argu dillerent terms. The question still recurs, nients concerning existence are founded on what process of argument this infer. on the relation of cause and effect; that ence is founded? Where is the medium, our knowledge of that relation is derived the interposing ideas, which join proposientirely from experience; and that all our tions so very wide of cach other? It is experiinental conclusions proceed upon the confessed that the colour, consistence, and supposition that the future will be conform- other sensible qualities of bread appear able to the past. To endeavour, there not of themselves to have any connection fore, the proof of this last supposition by with the secret powers of nourishment probable arguments, or arguments regard- and support. For otherwise we could ing existence, must be evidently going in infer these secret powers from the first a circle, and taking that for granted appearance of these sensible qualities, which is the very point in question. without the aid of experience, contrary to In reality, all arguments from experi- the sentiment of all philosophers, and cnce are founded on the similarity which contrary to plain matter of fact. Here, we discover among natural objects, and then, is our natural state of ignorance by which we are induced to expect effects with regard to the powers and influence similar to those which we have found to of all objects. How is this remedied by follow from such objects. And though esperience? It only shows us a number none but a fool or madman will ever of uniform effects resulting from certain pretend to dispute the authority of experi objects, and teaches us that those parence, or to reject that great guide of ticular objects at that particular cime human life, it may surely be allowed a were endowed with such powers and philosopher to have so much curiosity at Jurces. When a new object endowed with least as to examine the principle of human similar sensible qualities is produced, nature which gives this mighty authority we expect similar powers and forces, to experience, and makes us draw advan and look for a like cffect. From a body tage from that similarity which nature of like colour and consistence with bread has placed among different objects. From We expect like nourishment and support. causes which appear similar we expect But this surely is a step or progress of similar effects. This is the sum of all the mind which wants to be explained. our experimental conclusions. Yow it When a man says, I have found in all seems evident that, if this conclusion were past instances such sensible qualities conformed by reason, it would be as perfect joiner with such secret powers; and when at first, and upon one instance, as after he says, Similar sensible qualities will ever so long a course of experience. But alaways be conjoined with similar secret the case is far otherwise. Nothing so pozers, he is not guilty of a tautology, like as eggs; no onc, on account of nor are these propositions in any respect this appearing similarity, expects the the same. You say that the one prosame taste and relish in all of them. It position is an inference from the other. is only after a long course of uniform But you must confess that the inference experiments in any kind that we attain a is not intuitive ; neither is it demonstra. firm reliance and security with regard to tive. Of what nature is it, then ? To a particular event. Now, where is that say it is experimental is begging the process of reasoning which from one question. For all inferences from experiinstance draw's a conclusion so different ence suppose as their foundation that the froni that which it infers from a hundred future will resemble the past, and that instances that are nowise different from similar powers will be conjoined with that single one ? This question I pro similar sensible qualities. If there be pose as much for the sake of information any suspicion that the course of nature as with an intention of raising difficulties, may change, and that the past may be I cannot find, I cannot imagine, any such no rule for the future, all experience reasoning. But I keep my mind still becomes useless, and can give rise to no open to instruction, if anyone will vouch inference or conclusion. It is impossible, safe to bestow it on me. therefore, that any arguments from experi- Should it be said that from a nurpber ence can prove this resemblance of the of uniformn experiments we infer a cun past to the future, since all these arguments ·DOUBTS CONCERNING OPERATIONS OF UNDERSTANDING 25 refutes my ance. åre founded on the supposition of that such a subject, there may still remain a resemblance. Let the course of things suspicion that the enumeration is not be allowed hitherto ever so regular, complete or the examination not accurate. that alonc, without some new argument But with regard to the present subject, or inference, proves not that for the future there are some considerations which scem it will continue so. In vain do you preto remove all this accusation of arrogance tend to have learned the nature of bodies or suspicion of nistake. from your past experience. Their secret It is certain that the most ignorant and nature, and consequently all their effects stupid peasants-nay infants, nay even and influence, may change without any brute beasts-improve by experience, and change in their sensible qualities. This learn the qualities of natural objects by happens sometimes, and with regard to observing the effects which result from some objects. Why may it happen them. When a child has felt the sensaalways, and with regard to all objects ? tion of pain from touching the flame of a What logic, what process of argument, candle, he will be careful not to put his secures you against this supposition ? hand near any candle, but will expect a My practice, you say, Joubts. similar effect from a cause which is But you mistake the purport of my ques- similar in its sensible qualities and appeartion. As an agent, I am quite satisfied If you assert, therefore, that the in the point; but as a philosopher, who understanding of the child is led into this has some share of curiosity, I will not conclusion by any process of argument or say scepticism, I want to learn the founda- ratiocination, I may justly require you to tion of this inference. No reading, 10 produce that argument; nor have you inquiry, has yet been able to remove my any pretence to refuse so equitable a difficulty, or give me satisfaction in á demand. You cannot say that the argumatter of such importance. Can I do ment is abstruse, and may possibly better than propose the difficulty to the escape your inquiry, since you confess public, even though, perhaps, I have that it is obvious to the capacity of a small hopes of obtaining a solution ? mere infant. If you hesitate, therefore, We shall, at least, by this means be a moment, or if, after reflection, you prosensible of our ignorance, if we do not duce any intricate or profound argument, augment our knowledge. you, in a manner, give up the question, I must confess that a man is guilty of and confess that it is not reasoning which unpardonable arrogance who concludes, engages us to suppose the past resembling because an argument has escaped his the future, and to expect similar effects own investigation, that therefore it does | from causes which are, to appearance, not really exist. I must also confess similar. This is the proposition which I that, though all the learned for several intended to enforce in the present section. ages should have employed themselves in If I be right, I pretend not to have made fruitless search upon any subject, it may any mighty discovery. And if I be wrong, still, perhaps, be fish to conclude posi- I must acknowledge myself to be, indeed, tively that the subject must, therefore, a very backward scholar, since I cannot pass all human comprehension. Even now discover an argument which, it seems, though we examine all the sources of our was perfectly familiar to me long before knowledge, and conclude them untit for i I was out of my cradle. - ·26 SCEPTICAL SOLUTION OF THESE DOUBTS SECTION V. scepticAL SOLUTION OF THESE DOUBTS sage and to Our Our Own Part I. is, nor can be, carried to too high a degree. It is surprising, therefore, that The passion for philosophy, like that for this philosophy, which in almost every religion, seems liable to this inconvenie instance must be harmless and innocent, ence that, though it aims at the correc should be the subject of so much groundtion of our manners and extirpation of less reproach and obloquy. But, perhaps, our vices, it may only serve, by imprudent the very circumstance which renders it so management, to foster a predominant innocent is what chiefly exposes it to the inclination, and push the mind with more public hatred and resentment. By flatdetermined resolution towards that side iering no irregular passion, it gains few which already draws too much by the partisans. By opposing so many vices bias and propensity of the natural lemper. and follies, it raises to itself abundance It is certain that, while we aspire to the of enemies, who stigmatise it as libertine, magnanimous firmness of the philosophic profane, and irreligious. endeavour confine Nor need we fear that this philosophy, pleasures altogether within while it endeavours to limit our inquiries minds, we may at last render our philo. no common life, should ever undermine sophy, like that of Epictetus and other the reasonings of common life, and carry Stoics, only a more refined system of its doubts so far as to destroy all action as sellishness, and reason ourselves out of well as speculation. Nature will always all virtue as well as social enjoyment. maintain her rights, and prevail in the While we study with attention the vanily end over any abstract reasoning whatof human lile, and turn all our thoughts soever. Though we should conclude, for towards the empty and transitory nature instance, as in the foregoing section, that of riches and honours, we are, perhaps, in all reasonings from experience there is all the while flattering our natural india á stop taken by the mind which is not lence, which, hating the bustle of the supported by any argument or process of world and drudgery of business, secks a the understanding, there is no danger pretence of reason to give itself a full and that these reasonings, on which almost uncontrolled indulgence. There is, how- all knowledge depends, will ever be ever, one species of philosophy which affected by such a discovery. If the mind seems little liable to this inconvenience, be not engaged by argument to make and that because it strikes in with no this step, it must be induced by some disorderly passion of the human mind, other principle of cqual weight and nor can mingle itself with any natural authority, and that principle will preaffection or propensity; and that is the serve its influence as long as human academic or sceptical philosophy. The nature remains the same. What that academics always talk of doubt and principle is may well be worth the pains suspense of judgment, of danger in of inquiry. hasty determinations, of confining to very Suppose a person, though endowed narrow bounds the inquiries of the under with the strongest faculties of reason and standing, and of renouncing all specula- reflection, to be hrought on a sudden tions which lie not within the liinits of into this world, he would, indeed, immecominon life and practice. Nothing, diately observe a continual succession of therefore, can be more contrary thar such objects, and one event following another; a philosophy to the supine indolence of but he would not be able to discover anythe mind, its rash arrogance, its lofty thing farther. He would not, at first, by pretensions, and its superstitious credulity. any reasoning, be able to reach the idea Every passion is mortified by it, except of cause and effect, since the particular the love of truth; and that passion dever powers by which all natural operations ·SCEPTICAL SOLUTION OF THESE DOUBTS 27 are performed never appear to the senses; and flame, for instance, wetght and nor is it reasonable to conclude, merely solidity--we are determined by custom because one event in one instance pre- alone to expect the one from the appearcedes another, that therefore the one is the ance of the other. This hypothesis seems cause, the other the effect. Their conjunc even the only one which explains the tion may be arbitrary and casual. There difficulty--why we draw from a thousand may be no reason to infer the existence of instances an inference which we are not one from the appearance of the other. able to draw from one instance that is in And, in a word, such a person, without 110 respect different from them. Reason more experience, could never employ his is incapable of any such variation. The conjecture or reasoning concerning any conclusions which it draws from conmatter of fact, or be assured of anything sidering one circle are the same which it beyond what was immediately present to would form upon surveying all the circles his memory and senses. in the universe. But no nian, having Suppose, again, that he has acquired seen only one body move after being more experience, and has lived so long, in impelled by another, could infer that every the world as to have observed familiar other body will move after a like impulse. objects or events to be constantly con All inferences from experience, therefore, joined together, what is the consequence are effects of custom, not of reasoning.' of this experience ? He immediately infers the existence of one object from the appearance of the other. Yet he has not, i Nothing is more useful than for writers, even on moral, political, or physical subjects, to distinguish by all his experience, acquired any idea between reason and experience, and to suppose that or knowledge of the secret power by from each other. The former are taken for the mere these specics of argumentation are entirely different which the one object produces the other ; nor is it by any process of reasoning he ing a priori the nature of things, and examining the is engaged to draw this inference. Butd particular principles of science and philosophy. The still he finds himself determined to draw latter are supposed to be derived entirely from sense it. And though he should be convinced and observation, by which we learn what has actually resulted from the operation of particular objects, and that his understanding has no part in the arc thence able to infer what will for the future operation, he would nevertheless continue result from them. Thus, for instance, the limitations and restraints of civil government and a legal constituin the same course of thinking. There is tion may be defended either from reason, which, reflect. some other principle which determines ing on the great frailty and corruption of human him to form such a conclusion. nature, teaches that no man can safely be trusted with unlimited authority; or from experience and history, This principle is Custom, or Habit. which inform us of the enormous abuses that ambition, For, wherever the repetition of any parin every age and country, has been found to make of ticular act or operation produces a proso imprudent a confidence. The same distinction between reason and experience is maintained in all our pensity to renew the same act or opera deliberations concerning the conduct of life ; while the tion without being impelled by any experienced statesman, general, physician, or chant is trusted and followed, and the unpractised reasoning or process of the understanding, novice, with whatever natural talents endowed, we always say that this propensity is the neglected and despised. Though it be allowed that effect of custom. reason may form very plausible conjectures with By employing that regard to the consequences of such a particular conduct word we pretend not to have given the in such particular circumstances, it is still supposed ultimate reason of such a propensity. imperfect without the assistance of experience, which is alone able to give stability and certainty to the maxims We only point out a principle of human derived from study and reflection. But, notwithstandnature which is universally acknowing that this distinction be thus universally received both in the active and speculative scenes of lifc, I shall ledged, and which is well known by its not scruple to pronounce that it is at bottoin erroneous effects. Perhaps we can push our in -at least superficial. If we examine those arguments quiries no farther, or pretend to give the which in any of the sciences above mentioned are supposed to be the mere effects of reasoning and reflection, cause of this cause, but must rest con they will be found to terminate at last in some general tented with it as the ultimate principle principle or conclusion for which we can assign no reason but observation and experience. The only which we can assign of all our conclu difference betwcen them and those maxims which aro sions from experience. It is sufficient vulgarly esteemed the result of pure experience is that the former cannot be established without some process satisfaction that we can go so far, without of thought and some reflection on what we have repining at the narrowness of our faculties observed in order to distinguish its circumstances and because they will carry us no farther. trace its consequences, whereas in the latter the experi- And it is certain we here advance a very enced event is exactly and fully familiar to that which we infer as the result of any particular situation. The intelligible proposition at least, if not a history of a Tiberius or a Nero makes us dread a like true one, when we assert that after the tyranny were our monarchs freed from the restraints of laws and segates. But the observation of any fraud or constant conjunction of two objects-heat cruelty in privato life is sufficient, with the aid of a little mer- ·28 SCEPTICAL SOLUTION OF THESE DOUBTS or a Custoni, then, is the great guide of reasonings would be merely hypothetical; human life. It is that principle alone and, however the particular links might which renders our experience useful to us be connected with cach other, the whole and makes us expect for the future a chain of inferences would have nothing to similar train of events with those which support it, nor could we ever by its means have appeared in the past. Without the arrive at the knowledge of any real influence of custom we should be entirely existence. If I ask why you believe any ignorant of every matter of fact beyond particular matter of fact which you relate, what is immediately present to the you must tell me some reason, and this memory and senses. We should never reason will be some other fact connected know how to adjust means to ends, or to with it. But as you cannot proceed after employ our natural powers in the produc- this manner in infinitum, you must at last tion of any effect. There would be an terminate in some fact which is present to end at once of all action, as well as of the your memory or senses, or must allow chief part of speculation. that your belief is entirely without founda- But here it may be proper to remark tion. that, though our conclusions from experi What, then, is the conclusion of the ence carry us beyond our memory and whole natter? A simple one, though, it senses and assure us of matters of fact must be confessed, pretty remote from which happened in the most distant the common theories of philosophy. All places and most remote ages, yet some beliet of matter of fact or real existence is fact must always be present to the senses derived merely from some object present or memory from which we inay first pro to the memory senses, and ceed in drawing these conclusions. A customary conjunction between that and man who should find in a desert country some other object. Or, in other words, the remains of pompous buildings would having found, in many instances, that conclude that the country had in ancient, any two kinds of objects-flame and heat, times been cultivated by civilised inhabi snow and cold-have always been contants; but did nothing of this nature joined together; if flame or snow he occur to him he could never form such an presented anew to the senses the mind is inference. We learn the events of former carried by custom to expect heat or cold, ages from history; but then we must and to believe that such a quality does peruse the volumes in which this instruc- exist, and will discover itself upon a tion is contained, and thence carry up our nearer approach. This belief is the inferences from one testimony to another, necessary result of placing the mind in till we arrive at the cye-witnesses and such circumstances. It is an operation of spectators of these distant events. the soul when we are so situated as unword, if we proceed not upon some fact avoidable as to feel the passion of love present to the memory or senses, our when we receive benefits, or hatred when we meet with injurics. All these operathought, to give us the same apprehension, while it tions are a species of natural instincts, serves as an instance of the general corruption of which no reasoning or process of the buman nature, and shows us the danger which we must thought and understanding is able either incur by reposing an entire confidence in mankind. both cases it is experience which is ultimately the to produce or to prevent. foundation of our interence and conclusion. There is At this point it would be very allowable no man so young and unexperienced as not to have formed from observation for us to stop our philosophical researches. many general and just maxims concerning human affairs and the conduct of In most questions we can never make a life ; but it must be confessed that when a man cuine's single step farther; and in all questions w put these in practice he will be extremely liable to error till time and farther experience both enlarge thesc we must terminate here at last after our maxims and teach him their proper use and application. most restless and curious inquiries. But In every situation or incident there are many particular still our curiosity will be pardonable, and seemingly minute circumstances which the man of greatest talent in at first apt to overlook, though on perhaps commendable, if it carry us on to them the justness of his conclusions, and consequently still farther researches and make us the prudence of his conduct, entirely depend; Sot to mention that to a young beginner the general observaexamine more accurately the nature of tions and maxims occur not always on the proper this belief and of the customary conjuncoccasions, nor can be immediately applied with duc tion whence it is derived. By this means calmness and distinction. The truth is, an unexperi. enced reasoner could be no reasoner at all were he we may meet with some explications and absolutely unexperienced; and when we assign that analogies that will give satisfaction--at character to anyone we mean it onl in a comparative least to such as love the abstract sciences, sense, and suppose him possessed of experience in a smaller and more imperfect degree. and can be entertained with speculations In a In ·SCEPTICAL SOLUTION OF THESE DOUBTS 29 a nore our which, however accurate, may still retain that which is rejected were it not for a degree of doubt and uncertainty. As to some sentiment which distinguishes the readers of a different taste, the remaining one from the other. If I see a billiardpart of this section is not calculated for ball moving towards another on a smooth them; and the following inquiries may table I can easily conceive it to stop upon well be understood, though it be neglected. contact. This conception implies no contradiction, but still it feels very different PART II. froin that conception by which I represent to myself the impulse and the communi- Nothing is more free than the imagina- cation of motion from one ball to another. tion of man; and, though it cannot Were we to attempt a definition of this exceed that original stock of ideas fur- sentiment, we should perhaps find it a nished by the internal and external very difficult, if not an impossible, task, senses, it has unlimited power of mixing, in the same manner as if we should compounding, separating, and dividing endeavour to define the feeling of cold or these ideas in all the varieties of fiction passion of anger to a creature who never and vision. It can feign a train of events had any experience of these sentiments. with all the appearance of reality, ascribe Belief is the true and proper name of this to them a particular time and place, con- feeling, and no one is ever at a loss to ceive them as existent, and paint them know the meaning of that term, because out to itself with every circumstance that every man is every moment conscious of belongs to any historical fact which it the sentiment represented by it. It may believes with the greatest certainty. not, however, be iniproper to attempt a Wherein, therefore, consists the differ- description of this sentiment; in hopes we ence between such a fiction and belief? may, by that means, arrive at some It lies not merely in any peculiar idea analogies which may afford which is annexed to such a conception as perfect explication of it. I say, then, that coinmands assent, and which is belief is nothing but a more vivid, lively, wanting to every known fiction. For, as forcible, firm, steady conception of an the mind has authority over all its ideas, object than hat the imagination alone is it could voluntarily annex this particular ever able to attain. This variety of terms, idea to any fiction, and consequently be which may seem so unphilosophical, is able to believe whatever it pleases, con intended only to express that act of the trary to what we find by daily experience. mind which renders realities, or what are We can, in our conception, join the head taken for such, more present to us than of a man to the body of a horse, but it is fictions, 'causes them to weigh more in not in our power to believe that such an the thought, and gives them a superior animal has ever really existed. influence on the passions and imagina- It follows, therefore, that the difference tion. Provided agree about the between fiction and belief lies in some thing, it is needless to dispute about the sentiment or feeling which is annexed to terms. The imagination has the comthe latter, not to the former, and which mand over all its ideas, and can join depends not on the will, nor can be com and mix and vary them in all the manded at pleasure. It must be excited ways possible. It may conceive fictitious by nature, like all other sentiments, and objects with all the circumstances of inust arise from the particular situation in place and time. It may set them, in which the mind is placed at any para manner, before our eyes in their ticular juncture. Whenever any object is true colours just as they might have presented to the memory or senses, it existed. But as it is impossible that this immediately, by the force of custom, faculty of imagination can of itself reach carries the imagination to conceive that belief, it is evident that belief consists not object which is usually conjoined to it; in the peculiar nature or order of ideas, and this conception is attended with a but in the manner of their conception and feeling or sentiment different from the in their feeling to the mind. I confess loose reveries of the fancy. In this that iv is impossible perfectly to explain consists the whole nature of belief. For, this feeling or manner of conception. We as there is no matter of fact which we may make use of words which express believe so firmly that we cannot conceive something near it. But its true and the contrary, there would be no difference proper name, as we observed before, is between the conception assented to and belief, which is a term that everyone we ·SCEPTICAL SOLUTION OF THESE DOUBTS sufficiently understands in common life. Otherwise it would have been able to And in philosophy we can go no farther attain? This seems to be the case with than assert that belief is something felt by that belief which arises from the relation the mind which distinguishes the ideas of of cause and effect. And if the case be the judgment from the fictions of the the same with the other relations or prinimagination, It gives them more weight ciples of associations, this may be estaband influence ; makes them appear of lished as a general law which takes place greater importance; enforces them in the in all the operations of the mind. mind; and renders them the governing We may therefore observe, as the first principle of our actions. I hear at present, experiment to our present purpose, that for instance, a person's voice with whom upon the appearance of the picture of an I am acquainted, and the sound comes as absent friend, our idea of him is evidently from the next roon. This impression enlivened by the resemblance, and that of my senses immediately conveys niy every passion which that idea occasions, thought to the person, together with all wheiher of joy or sorrow, acquires new the surrounding objects. I paint them force and vigour. In producing this out to myself as existing at present, with effect, there concur both a relation and a the same qualities and relations of which present impression. Where the picture formerly knew them possessed. These bears him no esemblance-at least was ideas take faster hold of my mind than not intended for him-it never so much as ideas of an enchanted castle. They are conveys our thought to him. And where very different to the feeling, and have a it is absent as well as the person, though much greater influence of every kind, citler the mind may pass from the thought of to give pleasure or pain, joy or sorrow. the one to that of the other, it feels its Let us, then, take in the whole compass idea to be rather weakened than enof this doctrine, and allow that the livened by that transition. We take a sentiment of belief is nothing but a con- pleasure in viewing the picture of a friend ception more intense and steady than when it is set before us, but when it is what attends the mere fictions of the removed rather choose to consider him imagination, and that this manner of con- directly than hy reflection in an image ception arises from a customary conjunc. which is equally distant and obscure. tion of the object with something present The ceremonies of the Roman Catholic to tbe meniory or senses. I believe that religion may be considered as instances of it will not be difficult, upon these supposi- the same nature. The devotees of that tions, to find other operations of the mind superstition usually plead, in excuse for analogous to it, and to trace up these the nummeries with which they were phenomena to principles still upbraided, that they feel the good effect general, of those external motions and postures We have already observed that nature and actions in enlivening their devotion has established connections among par- and quickening their fervour, which ticular ideas, and that no sooner one idea otherwise would decay if directed entirely occurs to our thoughts than it introduces to distant and immaterial objects. We its correlative, and carries our attention shadow out the objects of our faith, say towards it by a gentle and insensible they, in sensible types and images, and movement. These principles of connec render them more present to us by the tion or association we have reduced to immediate presence of these types than it tbree-namely, resemblance, contiguity, is possible for us to do merely by an and causation, which are the only honds intellectual view and contemplation. tliat unite our thoughts together and Sensible objects have always a greater beget that regular train of reflection or influence on the fancy than any other, and discourse which, in a greater or less this influence they readily convey to those degree, takes place among mankind. ideas to which they are related, and which Now, here arises a question on which the they resemble. I shall only infer from solution of the present difficulty will these practices and this reasoning that depend. Does it happen in all these the effect of resemblance in cnlivening relations that when one of the objects is the ideas is very comnion; and as in presented to the senses or incinory the every case a resemblance and a present mind is not only carried to the conception impression must concur, we are abunof the correlative, but reaches a steadier dantly supplied with experiments to prove and stronger conception of it than what the reality of the foregoing principle. niore ·SCEPTICAL SOLUTION OF THESE DOUBTS 31 We may add force to these experiments than any of those by which we learn the by others of a different kind in considering reality of his existence. the effects of contiguity, as well as of Suppose that the son of a friend who resemblance. It is certain that distance had been long dead or absent were prediminishes the force of every idea, and that, sented to us, it is evident that this object upon our approach to any object, though would instantly revive its correlative idea, it does not discover itself to our senses, it and recall to our thoughts all past operates upon the mind with an influence intimacies and familiarities in more lively which imitates an immediate impression. colours than they would otherwise have The thinking on any object readily trans- appeared to us. This is another phenoports the mind to what is contiguous ; menon which seems to prove the prinbut it is only the actual presence of an ciple above mentioned. object that transports it with a superior We may observe that in these phenovivacity. When I am a few miles from mena the belief of the correlative object is home, whatever relates to it touches me always presupposed, without which the more nearly than when I am two hundred relation could have no effect. The infiuleagues distant, though even at that ence of the picture supposes that we distance the reflecting on anything in the belicte our friend to have once existed. neighbourhood of my friends or family Contiguity to home can never excite our naturally produces an idea of them. But ideas of home unless we belicve that it as in this latter case both the objects of really exists. Now, I assert that this the mind are ideas, notwithstanding there belief, where it reaches beyond the is an easy transition between them, that menory or senses, is of a similar nature, transition alonc is not able to give a and arises from similar causes, with the superior vivacity to any of the ideas, for transition of thought and vivacity of conwant of soine immediate impression.". ception here explained. When I throw a No one can doubt but causation has the piece of dry wood into a fire iny mind is same influence as the other two relations immediately carried to conceive that it of resemblance and contiguity. Super- augments, not extinguishes, the flame. stitious people are fond of the rel of This transition thought from the cause saints and holy men, for the same reason to the effect proceeds not from reason; it that they seck after types or images--in derives its origin altogether from custom order to enliven their devotion and give and experience. And as it first begins them a more intimate and strong concep from an object present to the senses, it tion of those exemplary lives which they renders the idea or conception of fame desire to initate. Now, it is evident that more strong and lively than any loose, one of the best relics which a devotee floating reverie of the imagination. That could procure would be the handiwork of idea arises immediately. The thought a saint; and if his clothes and furniture moves instantly towards it, and conveys are ever to be considered in this light, it is to it all that force of conception which is because they were once at his disposal derived from the inipression present to and were moved and affected by him, in the senses. When a sword is levelled at which respect they are to be considered as my breast, does not the idea of wound and imperfect effects, and as connected with pain strike me more strongly than when a him by a shorter chain of consequences glass of wine is presented to me, even though by accident this idea should occur after the appearance of the latter object ? “Naturane nobis, inquit, datum dicam, an errore But what is there in this whole matter to quodam, ut, cum ca loca videamus, in quibus memoria dignos viros accepcrimus multum esse versatos, magis cause such a strong conception except movcamur, quam siquando corum ipsoruin aut facta only a present object and a customnary audiamus aut scriptum aliquod legamus?. Velut ego transition to the idea of another object, Venit enim mihi Plato in mentem, quem accepimus primum hic disputare solituin: cuius which we have been accustomed to conetiam illi hortuli propinqui non memoriam solum mihi join with the former ? This is the whole Afferunt, sed ipsum videntur in conspectu meo hic punere. llic Speusippus, hic Xenocrates, hic cius operation of the inind in all our conclu-. auditor Polemo; cuius ipsa illa sessio fuit, quam sions concerning matter of fact and videmus. Equidem ctiam curiam nostram, llostiliam existence; and it is a satisfaction to find dico, non hanc novam, quae mihi minor csse videtur postquam est inaior, solebam intuens, Scipionem, some analogies by which it may be Catonem, Laclium; postrum vero in priinis avum explained. The transition from a present cogitarc. Tanta vis admonitionis est in locis; ut non object goes in &ll cases give strength and sine causa ex his memoriac deducta sit disciplina."- Cicero De Finibus, Lib. v. solidity to the related idea. nunc moveor.

·32 OF PROBABILITY Here, then, is a kind of pre-established like cffccts froin like causes and viox versa, harmony between the course of nature is so cssential to the subsistence of all and the succession of our ideas; and, human creatures, it is not probable that though the powers and forces by which it could be trusted to the fallacious deducthe former is governed be wholly unknown tions of our reason, which is slow in its to us, yet our thoughts and conceptions operations; appears not in any degree have still, we find, gone on in the same during the first years of infancy; and at train with the other works of nature. best is, in every age and period of human Custom is that principle by which this litc, extremely liable to error and mistake. correspondence has been effected, so It is more conformable to the ordinary necessary to the subsistence of our species wisdom of nature to secure so necessary and the regulation of our conduct in an act of the mind by some instinct or erery circumstance and occurrence of mechanical tendency, which may be infalhuman life. Had not the presence of an lible in its operations, may discover itself object instantly excited the idea of those at the first appearance of life and thought, objects commonly conjoined with it, all and may be independent of all the laboured our knowledge must have been limited to deductions of the understanding. As the narrow sphere of our meinory and nature has taught us the use of our senses, and we should never have been linibs without giving us the knowledge able to adjust means to ends, or employ of the muscles and nerves by which they our natural powers cither to the pro are actuated, so has she implanted in us ducing of good or avoiding of evil. an instinct which carries forward the Those who delight in the discovery and thought in a correspondent course to that contemplation of final causes have here which she has established among external ample subject to employ their wonder objects, though we are ignorant of those and admiration. powers and forces on which this regular I shall add, for a further confirmation course and succession of objects totally of the foregoing theory, that as this depends. operation of the mind, by which we inter SECTION VI. OF PROBABILITY: Though there be no such thing as chance higher degree of belief or assent to that in the world, our ignorance of the real side in which we discover the superiority. cause of any event has the same influence If a die were marked with one ligure or on the understanding, and begets a like number of spots on four sides, and with species of belief or opinion. another figure or number of spots on the There is certainly a probability which two remaining sides, it would be more arises from a superiority of chances on probable that the former would turn up any side; and according as this superiority ihan the latter; though, if it had a thouincreases, and surpasses the opposite sand sides marked in the same manner, chances, the probability receives a pro- and only one sidi different, the probaportionable increase, and begets still a bility would be inuch higher, and our 1 Jir. Locke divides all arguments into demonstrative and probable. In this view, we must say that it is only probable all men must dit, or that the sun will rise tomorrow. But to contorm our language more to common we, we ought to divide arguments into demonstrations, proofs, and probabilities; by proufs meaning such arguments from experieruc is leave no room for doubt or opposition.

·OF PROBABILITY 33 belief or expectation of the event more causes in the particular structure of parts steady and secure. This process of the have prevented the operation. Our thought or reasoning may seem trivial reasonings, however, and conclusions and obvious; but to those who consider concerning the event are the same as if it more narrowly it may, perhaps, afford this principle had no place. Being determatter for curious speculation. mined by custom to transfer the past to It seems evident that when the mind the future, in all our inferences where the looks forward to discover the event, which past has been entirely regular and may result from the throw of such a die, uniform we expect the event with the it considers the turning up of each par- greatest assurance, and leave no room ticular side as alike probable; and this is for any contrary supposition. But where the very nature of chance-to render all different effects have been found to follow the particular events comprehended in it from causes which are to appearance entirely equal. But finding a greater exactly similar, all these various effects number of sides concur in the one event must occur to the mind in transferring than in the other, the mind is carried the past to the future, and enter into our more frequently to that event, and meets consideration when we determine the probit oftener, in revolving the various possi- ability of the event. Though we give bilities or chances on which the ultimate the preference to that which has been result depends. This concurrence of found most usual, and believe that this several views in one particular event effect will exist, we must not overlook begets immediately, by an inexplicable the other effects, but must assign to each contrivance of nature, the sentiment of of them a particular weight and authority belief, and gives that event the advantage in proportion as we have found it to be over its antagonist which is supported more or less frequent. It is more probby a smaller number of views and recurs ( able, in almost every country in Europe, less frequently to the mind. If we allow that there will be frost some time in that belief is nothing but a firmer and January than that the weather will constronger conception of an object than tinue open throughout the whole month, what attends the mere fictions of the though this probability varies according imagination, this operation may perhaps to the different climates, and approaches in some measure be accounted for. The to a certainty in the more northern kingconcurrence of these several views or doms. Here then it seems evident that glimpses imprints the idea more strongly when we transfer the past to the future, the imagination; gives it superior in order to determine the effect which force and vigour; renders its influence will result from any cause, we transfer all on the passions and affections the different events in the same proporsensible ; and, in a word, begets that tion as they have appeared in the past, reliance or security whicle constitutes the and conceive one to have existed a nature of belief and opinion. hundred times, for instance, another ten The case is the same with the proba- times, and another once. As a great bility of causes as with that of chance. number of views do here concur in one There are some causes which are entirely event, they fortify and confirm it to the uniform and constant in producing a imagination, beget that sentiment which particular effect, and no instance has we call belief, and give its object the ever yet been found of any failure or preference above the contrary event, which irregularity in their operation. Fire has is not supported by an equal number of always burned, and water suffocated experiments, and recurs not so frequently every human creature. The production to the thought in transferring the past to of motion by impulse and gravity is an the future. Let anyone try to account universal law, which has hitherto admitted for this operation of the mind upon any of no exception. But there are other of the received systems of philosophy, causes which have been found more and he will be sensible of the difficulty. irregular and uncertain ; nor has rhubarb For my part, I shall think it sufficient it always proved a purge, or opium a the present hints excite the curiosity of soporific, to everyone who has taken these philosophers, and make them sensible how medicines. It is true, when any cause defective all common theories are in fails of producing its usual effect, philo- treating of suah curious and such sublime sophers ascribe this not to any irregularity subjects. in nature, but suppose that some secret. 011 more ·3+ OF THE IDEA OF NECESSARY CONNECTION SECTION VII. OF THE IDEA OF NECESSARY CONNECTION arc PART I. steps which lead to the conclusion much fewer than in the sciences which treat of The great advantage of the mathematical quantity and number. In reality, there sciences ahove the moral consists in this, is scarcely a proposition in Euclid so that the idcas of the foriner, being simple as not to consist of more parts sensible, are always clear and determinate, than are to be found in any moral reason. the smallest distinction between them is l ing which runs not into chimera and immediately perceptible, and the same conceit. Where we trace the principles terms are stiu expressive of the same of the human mind through a few steps, ideas, without ambiguity or variation. we may be very well satisfied with our An oval is never mistaken for a circle, progress, considering how soon nature nor an hyperbola for an ellipsis. The throws a bar to all our inquiries concerning isosceles and scalenum are distinguished causes and reduces us to an acknowby boundaries more exact than vice and ledgment of our ignorance. The chief virtue, right and wrong. If any term be obstacle, therefore, to our improvement detined in geometry, the mind readily of in the moral or metaphysical sciences is itself substitutes on all occasions the, the obscurity of the ideas and ambiguity definition for the terın defined. Or even of the terms. The principal difficulty in when no definition is employed, the object the mathematics is the length of inferitself may be presented 10 the senses, and ences and compass of thought requisite by that ineans he steadily and clearly to the forming of any conclusion. And, apprehended. But the finer sentiments perhaps, our progress in natural philoof the mind, the operations of the under- sophy is chietly retarded by the want of standing, the various agitations of the proper experiments and phenomena, which passions, though really in themselves often discovered by chance, and distinct, easily escape us, when surveyed cannot always be found when requisite by reflection; nor is it in our power to even by the most diligent and prudent recall the original object as often as we inquiry: As moral philosophy seems have occasion to conten:plate it. Ambi- hitherto to have received less improveguity, by this means, is gradually intro- ment than either geometry or physics, duced into reasonings; similar we may conclude that, if there be any objects are readily taken to be the same, difference in this respect among these and the conclusion becomes at last very sciences, the difficulties which obstruct wide of the premises. the progress of the of the former require One may safely, however, affirm that, if superior care and capacity to be surwe consider these sciences in a proper; mounted. light, their advantages and disadvantages There are no ideas which occur in ncarly coinpensate each otlier, and reduce metaplıysics morc obscure and uncertain both of them to a state of equality. If than those of power, force, energy, or the mind, with greater facility, retains necessary connection, of which it is every the ideas of geometry clear and deter monient necessary for us to treat in all minate, it must carry on a much longer our disquisitions. We shall, therefore, and more intricate chain of reasoning, endeavour in this section to fix, if posand compare ideas much wider of cach sible, the precise ireaning of these terms, other, in order to reach the abstruser and thereby remove some part of that truths of that science. And if moral obscurity which is so much complained ideas are apt, without extreme care, to of in this species of philosophy, fall into obscurity and confusion, the It seems a proposition which will not inferences are always mach shorter in admit of much dispute, that all our ideas these disquisitions, and the intermediate are nothing but copies of our inpressions, our ·our OF THE IDEA OF NECESSARY CONNECTION 35 or, in other words, that it is impossible ticular instance of cause and effect anyfor us to think of anything which we have thing which can suggest the idea of power not antecedently felt either by our external or necessary connection. or internal senses. I have endeavoured From the first appearance of an object, to explain and prove this proposition, and we never can conjecture what effect will have expressed my hopes that, by a result from it. But were the power or proper application of it, men may reach energy of any cause discoverable by the a greater clearness and precision in mind, we could foresee the effect, even philosophical reasonings than what they without experience, and might at first have hitherto been able to attain. Com. pronounce with certainty concerning it plex ideas may, perhaps, be well known by mere dint of thought and reasoning. by definition, which is nothing but an In reality, there is no part of matter. enunieration of those parts or simple that does ever by its sensible qualities ideas that compose them. But when we discover any power or energy, or give us have pushed up definitions to the most ground to inagine that it could produce simple ideas, and find still some ambi- anything, or be followed by any other guity and obscurity, what resource are object which we could denominate its we then possessed of? By what inven- effect. Solidity, extension, motion-these tion can we throw light upon these ideas, qualities are all complete in themselves, and render them altogether precise and and never point out any other event which determinate to intellectual view ? may result from them. The scenes of Produce the impressions or original senti- the universe are continually shifting, and ments from which the ideas are copied. one object follows another in an uninter- These impressions are all strong and rupted succession ; but the power or force sensible. They adinit not of ambiguity. which actuates the whole machine is They are not only placed in a full light entirely concealed from us, and never themselves, but may throw light on their discovers itself in any of the sensible correspondent ideas which lic in obscurity. qualities of body. And by this means we may, perhaps, fact, heat is a constant attendant of attain a new microscope or species of fame; but what is the connection between optics, by which in the moral sciences the them we have no room so much as to most ininute and most simple ideas may conjecture or imagine. It is impossible, be so enlarged as to fall readily under our therefore, that the idea of power can be apprehension, and be equally known with derived from the contemplation of bodies che grossest and most sensible ideas that in single instances of their operation, can be the object of our inquiry. because bodies' ever discover any To be fully acquainted, therefore, with power which can be the original of this the idea of power or necessary connecidea.' tion, let us examine its impression; and, Since, therefore, external objects, as in order to find the impression with they appear to the senses, give us no greater certainty, let us search for it in idea of power or necessary connection by all the sources from which it may possibly their operation in particular instances, be clerived. let us see whether this idea be derived When we look about us towards external from reflection on the operations of our objects, and consider the operation of own minds, and be copied from any causes, we are never able in a single internal impression. It may be said that instance to discover any power or neces we are every moment conscious of internal sary connection; any quality which binds power, while we feel that by the simple the effect to the cause, and renders the one command of our will we can move the an infallible consequence of the other. organs of our body or direct the faculties We only find that the one does actually, of our mind. An act of volition produces in fact, follow the other. The impulse motion in our limbs, or raises a new idea of one billiard-ball is attended with in our imagination. This influence of the motion in the second. This is the whole that appears to the outwart senses. The • Mr. Locke, in his chapter “Of Power," says that, mind feels no sentiment or inwand impres finding from experience that there are several new sion from this succession of objects. Conproductions in matter, and concluding that there must somewhere be a power capable of producing them, we sequently there is not in any single par arrive at last by this reasoning at the idea of power. But no reasoning can ever give us a new, original, simple idea, as this philosopher himself confesses. 1 Section II. This, therefore, can never be the origin of that idea. no ·36 OF THE IDEA OF NECESSARI CONNECTION never will we know by consciousness. Hence pendent of experience, why the authority we acquire the idea of power or energy, of will over the organs of the body is and are certain that we ourselves and all circumscribed within such particular other intelligent beings are possessed of limits. Being in that case fully acquainted power. This idea, then, is an idea of with the power or force by which it reflection, since it arises from reflecting operates, we should also know why its on the operations of our own mind and influence reaches precisely to such on the command which is exercised by boundaries and no further. will both over the organs of the body and A man suddenly struck with palsy in ficulties of the soul. the lege or arm, or who had newly lost We shall proceed to examine this pre those members, frequently endeavours at tension, and first with regard to the first to move them and employ them in influence of volition over the organs of their usual offices. Ilere he is as much the body. This influence, we may observe, conscious of power to command such is a fact which, like all other natural limbs as a man in perfect lealth is conevents, can be known only by experience, scious of power to actuate any member and can never be foreseen from any which remains in its natural state and apparent energy or power in the cause condition. But consciousness which connects it w the effect, and decei Consequently, neither in the renders the one an infallible consequence one case nor in the other are we cler of the other. The motion of our body conscious of any power. We learn the follows upon the command of our will. intluence of our will from experience Of this we are every moment conscious. alone. Ind experience only teaches us But the means by which this is effected, how one event constantly follows another, the energy by which the will performs so without instructing us in the secret conextraordinary an operation-of this we nection which binds them together and are so far from being iminediately con renders them inseparable. scious that it must for ever escape our Thirdly, we learn from anatomy that most diligent inquiry. the immediate object of power in volun- For, first, is there any principle in all tary motion is not the member itself nature inore mysterious than the union of which is moved, but certain muscles and soul with body, by which a supposed nerves and animal spirits, and, perhaps, spiritual substance acquires such an intlu something still more minute and more ence over a material one that the most unknown, through which the motion is refined thought is able to actuate the successively propagated ere it reach the grossest matter? Were we empowered member itself whose motion is the immc. by a secret wish to remove mountains or diate object of volition. Can there be a control the planets in their orbit, this more certain proof that the power by extensive authority would not be more which this whole operation is performed, extraordinary nor more beyond our com so far from being directly and fully known prehension. But by consciousness we by an inward sentiment or consciousness, perceived any power or energy in the is to the last degree mysterious and uninwill, we must know this power; we must telligible? Ilere the mind wills a certain know its connection with the effect; we crent. Immediately another event, unmust know the secret union of soul and known to ourselves and totally different body, and the nature of both these sub from the one intended, is produced. This Stances by which the one is able to event produces another, equally unknown, operate in so many instances upon the till at last, through a long succession, the other. desired event is produced. But if the Secondly, we are not able to move all original power were felt, it must be thc organs of the body with a like known. Were it known, its effect also authority, though we cannot assign any must be known, since all power is relareason besides experience for so remark tive to its effect. And vice versa, if the able a difference between one and the effect be not known'the power cannot be other. Why has the will an influence known nor folt. How, indeed, can we over the tongue and fingers, not over the he conscious of a power to move our heart and liver? This question would limbs when we have no such power, but never embarrass us were we conscious of only that to move certain animal spirits, a power in the former cars, not in the which, though they produce at last the lalier. We should then perceive', ' inde motion of our limbs, yet operate in such ·OF THE IDEA OF NECESSARY CONNECTION 37 a manner as is wholly beyond our com felt, nor known, nor even conceivable by prehension ? the mind. We only feel the event- We may, therefore, conclude from the namely, the existence of an idea, consewhole, I hope without any temerity, quent to a cominand of the will. But the though with assurance, that our idea of manner in which this operation is perpower is not copied from any sentiment formed, the power by which it is proor consciousness of power within our duced, is entirely beyond our compreselves, when we give rise to animal hension. motion or apply our limbs to their proper Secondly, the command of the mind use and office. That their motion follows over itself is limited, as well as its comthe command of the will is a matter of mand over the body; and these limits are common experience, like other natural not known by reason, or any acquaintance events. But the power or energy by with the nature of cause and effect, but which this is effected, like that in other only by experience and observation, as in natural events, is unknown and incon- all other natural events and in the operaceivable.' tion of external objects. Our authority Shall we, then, assert that we are con over our sentiments and passions is much scious of a power or energy in our own weaker than that over our ideas; and minds, when, by an act or command of even the latter authority is circumscribed our will, we raise up a new idea, fix the within very narrow boundaries. Will mind to the contemplation of it, turn anyonc pretend to assign the ultimate it on all sides, and at last dismiss it reason of these boundaries, or show why for some other idea when we think that the power is deficient in one case, not in we have surveyed it with sufficient accu another? racy? I believe the same arguments will Thirdly, this self-command is very prove that even this command of the will different at different times. A man in gives us no real idea of force or energy. health possesses more of it than one First, it must be allowed that when we languishing with sickness. We are more know a power we know that very circum- masterof our thoughts in the morning than stance in the cause by which it is enabled in the evening ; fasting than after a full to produce the effect, for these are sup- meal. Can we give any reason for these posed to be synonymous. We must, there. variations except experience? Where, fore, know both the cause and effect, and then, is the power of which we pretend to the relation between them. But do we be conscious ? Is there not here, either pretend to be acquainted with the nature in a spiritual or material substance, or of the human soul and the nature of an botlı, some secret mechanism or structure idea, or the aptitude of the one to produce of parts upon which the effect depends, the other? This is a real creation, a and which, being entirely unknown to us, production of something out of nothing, renders the power or energy of the will which implies a power so great that it equally unknown and incomprehensible? may seem at first sight beyond the reach Volition is surely an act of the mind of any being less than infinite. At least, with which we are sufficiently acquainted. it must be owned that such a power is not Reflect upon it. Consider it on all sides. Do you find anything in it like this ! It may be pretended that, the resistance which we creative power by which it raises from mect with in bodies obliging us frequently to exert our nothing a new idea, and, with a kind of force and call up all our power, this gives us the idea of force and power. It is this nisus, or strong endeavour, fiat, imitates the omnipotence of its of which we are conscious, that is the original impres- Maker-if I may be allowed so to speak sion from which this idea is copied. But, first, we attribute power to a vast mumber of objects where we -who called forth into existence all the never can suppose this resistance or exertion of force various scenes of nature ? So far from to take place; to the Supreme Being, who never meets being conscious of this energy in the will, with any resistance; to the mind in its command over its ideas and limbs, in common thinking and motion, it requires as certain experience as that where the cffcct follows immediately upon the will of which we are possessed to convince us without any exertion or summing up of force; to inanimate matter, which is not capable of this sentithat such extraordinary effects do ever ment. Secondly, this sentiment of an endeavour to result from a simple act of volition. overcome resistance has no known connection with any event. What follows it we know by experience, The generality of mankind never find but could not know it a priori. It must, however, be any difficulty in accounting for the more confessed that the animal nisus, which we experience, common and familiar operations of nature though it can afford 110 accurate, precise idea of power, --such as the descent of heavy bodies, enters very much into that vulgar, inaccurate idea which is forined of it. the growth of plants, the generation of ·38 OF THE IDEA OF NECESSARY CONNECTION animals, or the nourishment of bodies by phers advancing still in their inquiries food; but suppose that in all these cases discover that, as we are totally ignorant they perceive the very force or cnergy of of the power on which depends the mutual the cause by which it is connected with operation of bodies, we are no less ignorant its effect, and is for ever infallible in its of that power on which depends the opera- . operation. They acquire by long habit tion of mind on body, or of body on niind; such a turn of mind that upon the appear nor are we able, cither from our senses or ance of the cause they immediately expect consciousness, to assign the ultimate prinwith assurance its usual attendant, and ciple in one case more than in the other. hardly conceive it possible that any other The same ignorance, therefore, reduces event could result from it. It is only on them to the same conclusion. They assert the discovery of extraordinary phenomena, that the Deity is the immediate cause of such as earthquakes, pestilence, and pro the union between soul and body; and digies of any kind, that they find them- that they are not the organs of sense, selves at a loss to assign a proper cause, which, being agitated by external objects, and to explain the manner in which the produce sensations in the mind; but that effect is produced by it. It is usual for it is a particular volition of our omnipotent men in such difficulties to have recourse Maker, which excites such a sensation in to some invisible intelligent principle'as consequence of such a motion in the organ. the inmediate cause of that event which In like manner, it is not any energy in surprises theni, and which, they think, the will that produces local motion in our cannot be accounted for from the common members. It is God himself who is powers of nature. But philosophers, who pleased to second our will, in itself carry their scrutiny a little farther, imme. impotent, and to cominand that motion diately perceive that, even in the most which we crroneously attribute to our faniiliar events, the energy of the cause is own power and eflicacy. Nor do philoas unintelligible as in the most unusual, 'sophers stop at this conclusion. They and that we only learn by experience the sometimes extend the same inference to frequent conjunction of objects, without the inind itself in its internal operations, being ever able to comprehend anything Our mental vision or conception of ideas like connection between them. Ilere, is nothing but a revelation made to us by then, many philosophers think themselves our Maker. When we voluntarily, turn obliged by reason to have recourse on all our thoughts to any object, and raise up occasions to the same principle, which its image in the fancy, it is not the will the vulgar never appeal to but in cases which creates that idea. It is the universal that appear miraculous and supernatural. Creator who discovers it to the mind and They acknowledge mind and intelligence renders it present to us. to.be, not only the ultimate and original Thus, according to these philosophers, cause of all things, but the immediate and everything is full of God. Not content sole cause of every event which appears with the principle that nothing exists but in nature. They pretend that ihose by his will, that nothing possesses any objects which are coinmonly denominated power but by his concession, they rob causes are in reality nothing but occasions, nature and all created beings of every and that the true and direct principle of power in order to render their dependence every effect is not any power or force in on the Deity still more sensible and immcnature, but a volition of the Supreme diate. They consider not that by this Being, who wills that such particular theory they diminish, instead of magnifyohjects should for ever hic conjoined with ing, the grandeur of those attributes each other. Instead of saying that one which they affect so much to celebrate. billiard-ball moves another by a force It argues surely more power in the Deity which it has derived from the author of to delegate a certain degree of power to nature, it is the Deity himself, they say, inferior creatures than to produce everywho, by a particular volition, moves the thing by his own immediaie volition. It second hall, being determined to this argues more wisdom to contrive at first operation by the impulse of the first ball the fabric of the world with such perfect in consequence of ihose general laws foresight that of itself, and by its proper which he has laid down to himself in the operation, it may serve all the purposes government of the universe.. But philoso- of providence, than if the great Creator were obliged every moment to adjust * Θεός από μηχανής. jus parts, and animate hy his breath ·OF THE IDEA OF NECESSARY CONNECTION 39 all the wheels of that stupendous from volition? All we know is our proinachine. found ignorance in both cases.' But if we would have a more philosophical confutation of this theory, perhaps PART II, the two following reflections may suffice. First, it seems to me that this theory But to hasten to a conclusion of this of the universal energy and operation of argument, which is already drawn out to the Supreme Being is too bold ever to too great a length. We have sought in carry conviction with it to a man suffi- vain for an idea of power or necessary ciently apprised of the weakness of human connection in all the sources from which reason and the narrow limits to which it It is confined in all its operations. Though appears that, in single instances of the we could suppose it to be derived. the chain of arguments which conduct to operation of bodies, we never can, by our it were ever so logical, there must arise utinost scrutiny, discover anything but a strong suspicion, if not an absolute one event following another, without being assurance, that it has carried us quite able to comprehend any force or power by beyond the reach of our faculties, when it which the cause operates, or any connecleads to conclusions so extraordinary, and tion between it and its supposed effect. so remote from common life and expe- The saine difficulty occurs in contemplata rience. We are got into fairyland long ing the operations of mind on bod ere we have reached the last steps of our wliere we observe the inotion of the latter theory; and there we have no reason to to follow upon the volition of the former, trust our common methods of argument, but are not able to observe or conceive or to think that our usual analogies and the tie which binds together the notion probabilities have any authority. Our and volition, or the energy by which the line is too short to fathom such immense mind produces this effect. The authority abysses. And, however we may flatter of the will over its own faculties and ideas ourselves that we are guided in every step is not a whit more comprehensible. So which we take by a kind of verisimilitude that, upon the whole, there appears not and experience, we may be assured that throughout all nature any one instance of this fancied experience lias no authority connection which is conceivable by us. when we thus apply it to subjects that lie All events scein entirely loose and separate. entirely out of the sphere of experience. One event follows another, but we never But on this we shall have occasion to can observe any tie between them. They touch afterwards.' secm conjoined, but never connected. And Secondly, I cannot perceive any force in as we can have no idea of anything which the arguments on which this theory is never appeared to our outward sense or founded. We are ignorant, it is true, of the manner in which bodies operate on "I necd not examine at length the vis inertice which each other. Their force or cnergy is is so much talked of in the new philosophy, and which entirely incomprehensible. But are we is ascribed to matter. We find by experience that a body at rest or in motion continues for ever in its not equally ignorant of the manner or present state till put from it by some new cause; and force hy which a mind, even the supreme that a body impelled takes as much motion from the mind, operates either on itself or on body? When we call this a vis inertia we only mark these impelling body as it acquires itself. These are facts. Whence, I beseech you, do we acquire facts, without pretending to have any idea of the inert any idea of it? We have no sentiment or power, in the same manner as wlien we talk of gravity we mean certain effects without comprchending, that consciousness of this power in ourselves. active puwer. It was never the meaning of Sir Isaac We have no idea of the Supreme Being Newton to rob second causes of all force or energy, but what we learn from reflection on our though some of his followers have endeavoured to establish that theory upon his authority. On the conown faculties. Were our ignorance, trary, that great philosopher had recourse to an ethereal therefore, a good reason for rejecting active fluid to explain his universal attraction; though he was so cautious and modest as to allow that it was anything, we should be led into that prin a mere hypothesis, not to be insisted on without more ciple of denying all energy in the Supreme experiments. I must confess that there is something in the fate of opinions a little extraordinary. Des- Being as much as in the grossest matter. cartes insinuated that doctrine of the universal and We surely comprehend as little the opera sole efficacy of the Deity without insisting on it. Maletions of one as of the other. Is it 1110rc branche and other Cartesians made it the foundation of difficult to conceive that motion may England. Locke, Clarke, and Cudworth never all their philosophy. It had, however, no authority in arise from impulse than that it may arise much as take notice of it, but suppose all along that matter has a real though subordinate and derived power. By what means has it become so prevalent I Section XII. among our modern metaphysicians? . SO ·40 OF THE IDEA OF NECESSARY CONNECTION inward sentiment, the necessary conclu- .of that idea. This is the sole difference sion seems to be that we have no idea of between one instance, from which we can connection or power at all, and that these never receive the idea of connection, and words are absolutely without any mean. a number of similar instances by which it ing, when employed either in philosophical is suggested. The first time a man saw reasonings or conimon life. the communication of motion by impulse, But there still remains one method of as by the shock of two billiard balls, lic avoiding this conclusion, and one source could not pronounce that the one event which we have not yet examined. When was connected, but only that it was conany natural object or event is presented it joined with the other. After he has is impossible for us by any sagacity or observed several instances of this nature penetration to discover, or even conjecture, he then pronounces them to be connected. without experience, what event will result What alteration has happened to give from it, or to carry our foresight beyond rise to this new idea of connection? that object which is immediately present Nothing but that he now feels these to the inemory and senses. Even after events to be connected in his imagination, one instance or experiment, where we and can readily foretell the existence of have observed a particular event to follow one from the appearance of the other. upon another we are not entitled form When we say, therefore, that one object a general rule, or foretell what will happen is connected with another we mean only in like cases; it being justly esteemed an that they have acquired a connection in unpardonable tenierity to judge of the our thought and give rise to this inference, whole course of nature from one single by which they become proofs of cach experiment, however accurate or certain. other's existence--a conclusion which is But when one particular species of event somewhat extraordinary, but which seems has always, in all instances, heen con founded on sufficient evidence. Nor will joined with another we make no longer its evidence be weakened by any general any scruple of foretelling one upon the diffidence of the understanding or scepappearance of the other, and of employing tical suspicion concerning every concluthat reasoning which can alone assure us sion which is new and extraordinary., No of any inatter of fact or existence. We conclusions can be niore agreeable to then call the one object cause, the other scepticism than such as make discoveries efficit. We suppose that there is some concerning the weakness and narrow connection between them; some power in limits of human reason and capacity. the one by which it infallibly produces the Ind what stronger instance can be other and operates with the greatest produced of the surprising ignorance and certainty and strongest necessity. weakness of the understanding than the It appears, then, that this idea of a present? For, surely, if there be any necessary connection among events arises relation among objects which it imports from a nuniber of similar instances which to us to know perfectly, it is that of cause occur of the constant conjunction of these and effect. On this tre founded all our events; nor can that idea ever be sug reasonings concerning matter of fact or gested by any one of these instances, sur existence. By means of it alone we attain veyed in all possible lights and positions. any assurance concerning objects which But there is nothing in a nunber of are removed from the present testimony instances different from every single of our memory and senses. The only instance which is supposed to be exactly immediate utility of all sciences is to teach similar, except only that after a repetition us how to control and regulate future of similar instances the mind is carried by events by their causes. Our thoughts habit upon the appearance of one event to and inquiries are, therefore, every moment expect its usual attendant, and to helieve employed about this relation. Yet so that it will exist. This connection, there in periect are the ideas which we form fore, which we feel in the mind, this concerning it that it is impossible to give customary transition of the imagination any just definition of cause, except what from one object to its usual attendant, is is drawn from something extrancous and the sentiment or impression from which foreign to it. Similar objects are always we form the idea of power or necessary conjoined with similar. Of this we have connection. Yothing farther is in the experience. Suitably to this experience, case. Contemplate the subject on all therefore, we may define a cause to be an sides ; you will never find any other origin object followed by another, and where all ·OF THE IDEA OF NECESSARY CONNECTION 41 the dojects similar to the first are followed To recapitulate, therefore, the reasonby objects similar to the second. Or in ings of this section, every idea is copied other words, where, ý the first object had from some preceding impression or sentinot been, the second never had existed. mnent, and where we cannot find any The appearance of a cause always conveys impression we may be certain that there the mind by a customary transition to the is no idea. In all single instances of the idea of the effect. Of this also we have operation of bodies or minds there is experience. We may, therefore, suitably nothing that produces any impression, to this experience, form another detinition nor consequently can suggest any idea of of cause, and call it an object followed by power or necessary connection. But when another, and whose appearance always many uniform instances appear, and the conveys the thought to that other. But same object is always followed by the same though both these definitions he drawn event, we then begin to entertain the from circumstances foreign to the cause, notion of cause and connection. We then we cannot remedy this inconvenience, or feel a new sentiment or impression, to attain any more perfect definition which wit, a customary connection in the may point out that circumstance in the thought or imagination between one cause which gives it a connection with its object and its usual attendant; and this effect. We have no idea of this connec sentiment is the original of that idea tion, nor even any distinct notion what it which we seek for. For as this idea is we desire to know, when we endeavour arises from a number of similar instances, at a conception of it. We say, for and not from any single instance, it must instance, that the vibration of this string arise from that circụmstance in which the is the cause of this particular sound. But number of instances differ from every what do we mean by that affirmation ? individual instance. But this customary We either mean that this vibration is connection or transition of the imaginafollowed by this sound, and that all simila' tion is the only circumstance in which vibrations have been followed by similar they differ. In every other particular sounds; or, that this vibration is followed they are alike. The first instance which hy this sound, and that upon the appearance we saw of motion communicated by the of one the mind anticipates the senses and shock of two billiard-balls (to return to forms immediately an idea of the other. this obvious illustration) is exactly similar We may consider the relation of cause instance that may at present occur and effect in either of these two lights; to us; except only that we could not at but beyond these we have no idea of it.' first infer one event froin the other, which we are enabled to do at present, after so According to these explications and definitions, the long a course of uniform experience. idea of power is relative as much as that of cause; and know not whether the reader will readily both have a reference to an effect, or some other event constantly conjoined with the former. When we apprehend this reasoning. I am afraid consider the unknoren circumstance of an object by that, should I multiply words about it, or which the degree or quantity of its effect is fixed and determined, we call that its power. And accordingly it throw it into a greater variety of lights, is allowed by all philosophers that the effect is the it would only become more obscure and ineasure of the power. But if they had any idea of intricate. In all abstract reasonings power as it is in itself, why could not they measure it in itself? The dispute whether the force of a body in there is one point of view, which if we motion be as its velocity or the square of its velocity ; can happily hit we shall go farther towards this dispute, I say, need not he decided by comparing illustrating the subject than by all the mensuration and comparison. As to the frequent use eloquence in the world. This point of of the words force, power, energy, etc., which every view we should endeavour to reach, and where occur in common conversation as well as in philosophy, that is no proof that we are acquainted in reserve the flowers of rhetoric for subjects any instance with the connecting, principle between which are more adapted to them. cause and effect, or can account ultimately for the production of one thing to another. These words, as commonly used, have very loose meanings annexe to have some such feelings whenever they transfer or them, and their ideas are very uncertain and confuscu. receive motion. With regard to energies which are No animal can put exteril bodies in motion without exerted without our annexing to them any idea of comthe sentiment of a nisus or endeavour; and every inunicated motion, we consider only the constant expeanimal has a sentiment or feeling from the stroke or rienced conjunction of the events; and as we feel a blow of an external object that is in motion. These customary connection between the ideas, we transfer sensations, which are merely aniinal, and from which that feeling to the objects, as nothing is more usual We can a priori draw no inference, we are apt to than to apply to external bodies every internal sensatransfer to inanimate objects, and to suppose that they tion which they occasion. to any I ·OF LIBERTY AND NECESSITY. SECTION VIII. OF LIBERTY AND NECESSITY Part I. whichi keep the antagonists still at a distance and hinder them from grappling It might reasonably be expected, in queswith each other. tions which have been canvassed and dis This has been the case in the longputed with great eagerness since the first disputed question concerning liberty and origin of science and philosoply, that the necessity, and to so remarkable a degree meaning of all the terms at least should that, it i be not much inistaken, we shall have been agreed upon among the dis find that all mankind, both learned and putants, and our inquiries, in the course ignorant, have always been of the same of two thousand years, been able to pass opinion with regard to this subject, and froin words to the true and real subject of that a few intelligible definitions would the controversy. For how easy may it immediately have put an end to the whole seem to give exact definitions of ihe terms controversy. I own that this dispute has employed in reasoning, and make these been so much canvassed on all hands, detinitions, not the mere sound of words, and has led philosophers into such a the object of future scrutiny and ex:unina- labyrinth of obscure sophistry, that it is tion?' But if we consider the matter more no wonder if a sensible reader indulgo narrowly we shall be apt to draw a quile his case so far as to turn a deaf ear to opposite conclusion. From this circum- the proposal of such a question, from which stance alone that a controversy has been he can expect neither instruction nor long kept on foot, and remains still entertainment. But the state of the undecided--we may presuine that there is argument here proposed may perlaps some ambiguity in the expression, and serve to renew his attention, as it has that the disputants affix different ideas to more novelty, promises at least some the terms employed in the controversy. decision of the controversy, and will not For as the faculties of the mind are sup- much disturb his ease by any intricate or posed to be naturally alike in every indi- obscure reasoning. viųual, otherwise nothing could be more I hope, therefore, to make it appear fruitless than to reason ordispute together, that all men have ever agreed in the it were impossible, if men aflix the same doctrine both of necessity and of liberty, ideas to their terms, that they could so according to any reasonable sense which long form different opinions of the same can be put on these terms, and that the subject, especially when they communi- ; whole controversy has hitherto turned cate their views, and each party turn them- merely upon words.. We shall begin with selves on all sides in search of arguments cxamining the doctrine of necessity, which may give them the victory over ; It is universally allowed that natter in their antagonists. It is true, if men all its operations is actuated by a necesattempt the discussion of questions which sary force, and that every natural effect is lie entirely beyond the reach of human so precisely determined by the energy of capacity, such as those concerning the its cause that no other effect in such para origin of worlds or the economy of the ticular circumstances could possibly have intellectual system or region of spirits, resulted from it. The degree and directhey may long beat the air in their fruit- tion of every motion is by the laws of less contests and never arrive at any nature prescribed with such exactness that determinate conclusion. But if the ques a living crcature may as soon arise from tion regard any subject of common life the shock of two bodies as motion in any and experience, nothing, one would think, other degree or direction than what is could preserve the dispute so long unde actually produced by it. Would we, there cided but some ambiguous expressions fore, forin a just and precise idea of ·OF LIBERTY AND NECESSITY 43 necefsity, we must consider whence that have been from the beginning of the idea arises when we apply it to the world, and still are, the source of all the operation of bodies. actions and enterprises which have ever It seems evident that, if all the scenes of been observed ainong mankind. Would nature were continually shifted in such a you know the sentiments, inclinations, manner that no two events bore any and course of life of the Greeks and resemblance to each other, but every Romans? Study well the temper and object was entirely new, without any actions of the French and English. You similitude to whatever had been seen cannot be much mistaken in transferring before, we should never in that case have to the former most of the observations attained the least idea of necessity, or of which you have made with regard to the a connection among these objects. We latter. Mankind are so much the same might say upon such a supposition that in all times and places that history informs one object or event has followed another; us of nothing new or strange in this parnot that one was produced by the other. ticular. Its chief use is only to discover The relation of cause and effect must be the constant and universal principles of utterly unknown to mankind. Inference human nature by showing men in all and reasoning concerning the operations varieties of circumstances and situations, of nature would from that moment be and furnishing us with materials from at an end, and the inemory and senses which we may form our observations remain the only canals by which the and become acquainted with the regular knowledge of any real existence could springs of human action and behaviour. possibly have access to the mind. Our These records of wars, intrigues, factions, idea, therefore, of necessity and causation and revolutions are so many collections of arises entirely from the uniformity observ- experiments by which the politician or able in the operations of nature, wliere moral philosopher fixes the principles of similar objects are constantly conjoined his science, in the same manner as the together, and the mind is determined by physician or natural philosopher becomes custom to infer the one from the appear- acquainted with the nature of plants, ance of the other. These two circum minerals, and other external objects by stances form the whole of that necessity the experiments which he forms concernwhich we ascribe to matter. Beyond the ing them. Nor are the earth, water, and constant conjunction of similar objects, other elements examined by Aristotle and and the consequent inference from one Hippocrates more like to those which at to the other, we have no notion of any present lie under our observation than the necessity or connection. men described by Polybius and Tacitus If it appear, therefore, that all mankind are to those who now govern the world. have ever allowed, without any doubt or Should a traveller returning from a far hesitation, that these two circumstances country bring us account of men take place in the voluntary actions of men wholly different from any with whom we and in the operations of mind, it must ever acquainted ; men who were follow that all mankind have ever agreed entirely divested of avarice, ambition, or in the doctrine of necessity, and that they revenge; who knew no pleasure but friend. have hitherto disputed merely for not ship, generosity, and public spirit; we understanding cach other. should immediately, from these circum- As to the first circuinstance, the con stances, detect the falsehood, and prove stant and regular conjunction of similar him a liar, with the same certainty as if events, we may possibly satisfy ourselves he had stuffed his narration with stories by the following considerations. It is of centaurs and dragons, miracles and universally acknowledged that there is prodigies. And if we would explode any a great uniformity among the actions of forgery in history we cannot make use of inen in all nations and ages, and that more convincing argument than to human nature remains still the same in prove that the actions ascribed to any its principles and operationsThe same person are directly contrary to the course motives always produce the same actions. of nature, and that no human motives in The same events follow from the same such circumstances could ever induce him Ambition, avarice, self-love, to such a conduct. The veracity of vanity, friendship, generosity, public Quintus. Curtius is as much to be susspirit: these passions, mixed in various pected when he describes the superdegrees, and distributed through society, natural courage of Alexander, by which an were a causes.

·44 OF LIBERTY AND NECESSITY we our he was hurried on singly to attack multi- still suppose a degree of uniformitf and tudes, as when he describes his super regularity. natural force' and activity, by which he Are the manners of men different in was able to resist them. So readily different ages and countries? We learn and universally do acknowledge thence the great force of custom and a uniformity in human motives and education, which mould the human mind actions, as well as in the operations of from its infancy and form it into a body. fixed and established character. Is the Hence, likewise, the benefit of that behaviour and conduct of the one sex very experience acquired by long life and a unlike that of the other? Is it thence we variety of business and company, in order become acquainted with the different to instruct us in the principles of human characters which nature has impressed nature and regulate our future conduct as upon the sexes, and which she preserves well as speculation. By means of this with constancy and regularity? Are the guide we mount up to the knowledge of actions of the same person much divermen's inclinations and motives from their sified in the different periods of his life, actions, expressions, and even gestures, from infancy to old age? This affords and again descend to the interpretation of room for many general observations contheir actions from our knowledge of their cerning the gradual change of our sentimotives and inclinations. The general ments and inclinalions, and the different observations treasured up by a course of maxins which prevail in the different experience give us the clue of human ages of human creatures. Even the nature, and teach us to unravel all its characters which are peculiar to each intricacies. Pretexts and appearances no individual have a uniformity in their longer deceive us. Public declarations influence, otherwise our acquaintance pass for the specious colouring of a cause. with the persons and our observation of And though virtue and honour be allowed their conduct could never teach us their their proper weight and authority, that dispositions, or serve to direct perfect disinterestedness, so often pre behaviour with regard to them. tended to, is never expected in multitudes I grant it possible to find some actions and parties, seldom in their leaders, and which seem to have no regular connection scarcely even in individuals of any rank with any known motives, and are excepor station. But were there no uniformity tions to all the measures of conduct which in human actions, and were every experihave ever been established for the government which we could form of this kind ment of men, But if we would willingly irregular and anomalous, it were impos- know what judgment should be formed of sible to collect any general observations such irregular and extraordinary actions, concerning mankind, and no experience, we may consider the sentiments comhowever accurately digested by reflection, nonly entertained with regard to those would ever serve to any purpose. Why is irregular events which appear in the the aged husbandman more skilful in his course of nature and the operations of calling than the young beginner, but external objects. All causes are not conbecause there is a certain uniformity in joined to their usual effects with like the operations of the sun, rain, and earth uniformity. An artificer who handles towards the production of vegetables, and only dead matter may be disappointed of experience teaches the old practitioner his aim, as well as the politician who the rules by which this operation is directs the conduct of sensible and intelligoverned and directed ? gent agents. We must not, however, expect that this The vulgar, who take things according uniformity of human actions should be to their first appearance, attribute the carried to such a length as that all men uncertainty of events to such an unin the same circumstances will always certainty in the causes as makes the act precisely in the same manner, without latter often fail of their usual influence, making any allowance for the diversity though they meet with no impediment of characters, prejudices, and opinions. in their operation. But philosophers, Such a uniformity in every particular is observing that almost in every part of found in no part of nature. On the con nature there is contained a vast variety of trary, from observing the variety of con- springs and principles which are hid by duct in different men, we are enabled to reason of their minuteness or remoteness, form a greater variety of maxims which find that it is at least possible the ·OF LIBERTY AND. NECESSITY 45 а contrariety of events may not proceed froin for, either by the person himself or by any contingency in the cause, but froin others, we 'know, in general, that the the secret operation of contrary causes. characters of inen are, to a certain This possibility is converted into certainty degree, inconstant and irregular. This is, by farther observation, when they remark in a manner, the constant character of that upon an exact scrutiny a contrariety human nature, though it be applicable, of effects always betrays a contrariety of in a more particular manner, to some causes, and proceeds from their mutual persons who have no fixed rule for their opposition. A peasant can give no better conduct, but proceed in a continued reason for the stopping of any clock or course of caprice and inconstancy. The watch than to say that it does not com internal principles and motives may monly go right; but an artist easily operate in a uniform manner, notwithperceives that the same force in the spring standing these seeming irregularities—in or pendulum has always the same influthe sanie manner as the winds, rain, ence on the wheels, but fails of its usual clouds, and other variations of the effect, perhaps by reason of a grain of weather are supposed to be governed by dust, which puts a stop to the whole steady principles, though not easily dismovement. From the observation of coverable by human sagacity and inquiry. several parallel instances, philosophers Thus it appears not only that the conform maxim thar the connection junction between motives and voluntary between all causes and effects is equally actions is as regular and uniform as that necessary, and that its seeming uncer between the cause and effect in any part tainty in some instances proceeds from of nature, but also that this regular conthe secret opposition of contrary causes. junction has been universally acknow- Thus, for instance, in the human body, ledged among mankind, and has never when the usual symptoms of health or been the subject of dispute, either in sickness disappoint our expectation, when philosophy or common life. Now, as it is medicines operate not with their wonted from past experience that we draw all powers, when irregular events follow inferences concerning the future, and as from any particular cause, the philo we conclude that objects will always be sopher and physician are not surprised at conjoined together which we find to have the matter, nor are ever tempted to deny, always been conjoined, it may seem superin general, the necessity and uniformity fluous to prove that this experienced of those principles by which the animal uniformity in human actions is a source economy is conducted. They know that whence we draw inferences concerning a human body is a mighty complicated them. But in order to throw the argumachine ; that many secret powers lurk ment into a greater variety of lights we in it, which are altogether beyond our shall also insist, though briefly, on this comprehension ; that to us it must often latter topic. appear very uncertain in its operations; The mutual dependence of men is so and that therefore the irregular events reat in all societies that scarce any which outwardly discover themselves can human action is entirely complete in be no proof that the laws of nature are itself, or is performed without some not observed with the greatest regularity reference to the actions of others, which in its internal operationsand government. are requisite to make it answer fully the The philosopher, if he be consistent, intention of the agent. The poorest must apply the same reasoning to the artificer who labours alone expects at actions and volitions of intelligent agents. least the protection of the magistrate to The most irregular and unexpected reso ensure him the enjoyment of the fruits of lutions of may frequently be his labour. He also expects that when he accounted for by those who know every carries his goods to market and offers particular circumstance of their character them at a reasonable price he shall find and situation. A person of an obliging purthasers, and shall be able, by the disposition gives a peevish answer; but money, he acquires, to engage others to he has the toothache, or has not dined. supply him with those commodities which A stupid fellow discovers an uncommon are requisite for his subsistence. In proalacrity in his carriage; but he has met portion as men extend their dealings, and with a sudden piece of good fortune. Or 'ender their intercourse with others more even when an action, as sometimes complicated, they always comprehend, in happens, cannot be particularly accounted their schemes of life, a greater variety of men ·46 OF LIBERTY AND NECESSITY voluntary actions, which they expect prisoner who has neither money nor from the proper motives, to co-operati interest discovers the impossibility of his with their own. In all these conclusion escape as well when he considers the they take their measures froin past expe obstinacy of the gaoler as the walls and rience, in the same nianner as in thei: bars with which he is surrounded, and, reasonings concerning external objects in all attempts for his freedom, chooses and firmly believe that men, as well as al rather to work upon the stone and iron of the elements, are to continue in thei the one than upon the inflexible nature of operations the same that they have eve: the other. The same prisoner, when confound them. A manufacturer reckon ducted to the scaffold, foresees his death upon the labour of his servants for the as certainly from the constancy and fidelity execution of any work as much as upor of his guards as from the operation of the tools which he employs, and would be the axe or wheel. His mind runs along equally surprised were his expectation a certain train of ideas. The refusal of disappointed. In short, this experimenta In short, this experimenta the soldiers to consent to his escape; the inference and reasoning concerning the action of the exccutioner; the separation actions of others enters so much into of the head and body ; bleeding, conhuman life that no man while awake is vulsive motions, and death. Here is a ever a moment without employing it. connected chain of natural causes and Have we not reason, therefore, to attirer voluntary actions, but the mind feels no that all mankind have always agreed in difference between them in passing from the doctrine of nece ecessity according to the one link to another, nor is less certain foregoing definition and explication of of the future event than if it were con. it? nected with the objects present to the Nor have philosophers erer entertained memory or senses by a train of causes a different opinion from the people in this cemented together by what we are pleased particular. "For, not to mention that 'to call a physical necessity. The same almost every action of their lite supposes experienced union has the same effect on that opinion, there are even few of the the mind, whether the united objects be speculative parts of learning to which it i motives, volition, and actions, or figure not essential. What would become ol and motion. We may change the name history had we not a dependence on the of things, but their nature and their veracity of the historian according to the operation on the understanding never experience which we have had of man- change. kind? How could politics he a science if W'ere a man, whom I know to be laws and forms of government had not a honest and opulent, and with whom I uniforın influence upon society? Where live in intimaic friendship, to come into would be the foundation of morals if par ny house, wlicre I am surrounded witli ticular characters had no certain or deter ny servants, I rest assured that he is not minate power to produce particular senti to stab me before he leaves it in order to ments, and if these sentiments had no ob me of my silver standish, and I no constant operation on actions ? And more suspect this event than the falling with what pretence could we employ our of the house itself, which is now, and criticism upon any poet or polite author if solidly built and founded. But he may we could not pronounce the conduct and have been seized with a sudden and sentiments of his actors either natural or unknown frenzy. So may a sudden carthunnatural to such characters and in such quake arisc, and shake and tumble my circumstances ? It seems almost impos jouse about my cars. I shall, therefore, sible, therefore, to engage cither in change the suppositions. I shall say science or action of any kind without hat I know with certainty that he is not acknowledging the doctrine of necessity, o put his hand into the fire and hold it and this inference froin motive to here till it be consumed. And this event voluntary actions, from characters to think I can foregell with the same conduct. issurance as that, if he throw himself And, indeed, when we consider how ut at the window and nicet with no aptly natural and moral evidence link bstruction, he will not remain a moment together, and form only one chain of uspended in the air. No suspicion of an argument, we shall make no scruple to inknown frenzy can give the least posallow that they are of the same nature ibility to the former event, which is so and derived from the same principles. A :ontrary to all the known principles of ·OF LIBERTY AND NECESSITY 45 noon causes. human nature. A man who at in words only, not in their real serftiment. leaves his purse full of gold on the pave Necessity, according to the sense in ment at Charing Cross may as well which it is here taken, has never yet expect that it will fly away like a feather been rejected, nor can ever, I think, be as that he will find it untouched an hour rejected, by any philosopher. It may only, after. Above one half of human reasons perhaps, be pretended that the mind can ings contain inferences of a similar nature, perceive in the operations of matter some attended with more or less degrees of farther connection between the cause and certainty proportioned to our experience effect, and connection that has not place of the usual conduct of inankind in such in voluntary actions of intelligent beings. particular situations. Now, whether it be so or not can only I have frequently considered what could appear upon examination, and it is in. possibly be the reason why all mankind, cumbent on these philosophers to inake though they have ever without hesitation good their assertion by defining or acknowledged the doctrine of necessity describing that necessity and pointing it in their whole practice and reasoning, out to us in the operations of material have yet discovered such a reluctance to acknowledge it in words, and have It would seem, indeed, that men begin rather shown a propensity in all ages to at the wrong end of this question conprofess the contrary opsion. The matter, cerning liberty and necessity when they I think, may be accounted for after the enter upon it by examining the faculties following manner. If we examine the of the soul, the influence of the underoperations of body, and the production standing, and the operations of the will. of effects from their causes, we shall find Let them first discuss a inore sinple that all our faculties can never carry us question--namely, the operations of body farther in our knowledge of this relation and of brute unintelligent matter, and than barely to observe that particular, try whether they can there form any idea objects are constantly conjoined together, ' of causation and necessity except that of and that the mind is carried, by a a constant conjunction of objects and customary transition, from the appearance subsequent inference of the mind from of one to the belief of the other. But, one to another. If these circumstances though this conclusion concerning human form in reality the whole of that neces. ignorance be the result of the strictest sity which we conceive in matter, and if scrutiny of this subject, men still entertain these circunstances be also universally a strong propensity to believe that they acknowledged to take place in the operapenetrate farther into the powers of nature, tions of the mind, the dispute is at an and perceive something like a necessary end ; at least, must be owned to be connection between the cause and the thenceforth merely verbal. But as long effect. When, again, they turn their as we will rashly suppose that we have reflections towards the operations of their some farther idea of necessity and causaown minds, and feel no such connection tion in the operations of external objects, of the motive and the action, they are at the same time that we can find nothing thence apt to suppose that there is a farther in the voluntary actions of the difference between the effects which result mind, there is no possibility of bringing from material force and those which arise the question to any determinate issue from thought and intelligence. But while we proceed upon so erroneous a being once convinced that we know supposition. The only method of undenothing farther of causation of any kind ceiving us is to inount up higher, to than merely the constant conjunction of examine the narrow extent of science objects, and the consequent inference of when applied to material causes, and to the mind from one to another, and finding convince ourselves that all we know of that these two circumstances are univer them is the constant conjunction and sally allowed to have place in voluntary inference above mentioned. We may, actions, we may be more easily led to perhaps, find that it is with difficulty we own the same necessity common to all are induced to fix such narrow limits to causes. And though this reasoning may human understanding. But we can aftercontradict the systems of many philo- wards find no difficulty when we come to sophers in ascribing necessity to the apply this doctrine to the actions of the determinations of the will, we shall find, will. For as it is evident that these have upon reflection, that they dissent from it a regular conjunction with inotives and ·98 OF LIBERTY AND NECESSITY some causes circumstances and characters, and as we only mean a power of acting or not acting, always draw inferences from one to the according to the determinations of the will other, we must be obliged to acknowledge --that is, if we choose to remain at rest, in words that necessity which we have we may; if we choose to move, we also already avowed in every deliberation of may. Now, this hypothetical liberty is our lives and in every step of our conduct universally allowed to belong to everyone and behaviour.' who is not a prisoner and in chains. But to proceed in this reconciling pro- Here, then, is no subject of dispute. ject with regard to the question of liberty Whatever definition We may give of and necessity, the most contentious ques. liberty, we should be careful to observe tion of metaphysics, the most contentious two requisite circumstances : first, that science, it will not require many words to it be consistent with plain matter of fact; prove that all mankind have ever agreed Secondly, that it be consistent with itself. in the doctrine of liberty as well as in If we observe these circumstances and that of necessity, and that the whole render our detinition intelligible, I am dispute, in this respect also, has been persuaded that all mankind will be found hitherto merely verbal. For what is of one opinion with regard to it. meant by liberty when applied to volun It is universally allowed that nothing tary actions? We cannot surely mean exists without a cause of its existence, that actions have so little connection with and that chance, when strictly examined, motives, inclinations, and circumstances is a mere negative word, and means not that one does not follow with a certain any real power which has anywhere a degree of uniformity from the other, and being in nature. But it is pretended that that one affords no inference by which we are necessary, some not can conclude the existence of the other. necessary. Here, then, is the advantage For these are plain and acknowledged of definitions. Let anyone define a cause matters of fact. By liberty, then, we can without comprehending as a part of the definition a necessary connection with its ' The prevalence of the dextrine of liberty may be effect, and let him show distinctly the accounted for from another cause--viz., a false sensa origin of the idea expressed by the definition or seeming experience which we have, or may have, of liberty or indifference in many of our actions. tion, and I shall readily give up the whole The necessity of any action, whether of matter or of controversy. But if the foregoing expliinind, is not, properly speaking, a quality in the agent. but in any thinking or intelligent being who may concation of the matter be received, this must sider the acmon; and it consists chiefly in the deter be absolutely impracticable. Had not mination of his thoughts to infer the existence of that objects a regular conjunction with each action from some preceding objects; as liberty, when opposed to necessity, is nothing but the want of that other, we should never have entertained determination, and a certain looseness or indifference any notion of cause and effect; and this which we feel in passing or not passing from the idea of one object to ihat of any succeeding one. Now we regular conjunction produces that infermay observe that, though in reflecting on human ence of the understanding which is the actions we seldom feel such a looseness or indifference, only connection that we can have any but are commonly able to infor them with considerable certainty from their motives, and from the dispositions comprehension of. Whoever attempts a of the agent, yet it frequently happens that in per definition of cause exclusive of these cir. forming the actions themselves we are sensible of something like it. And as all resembling objects are cumstances will be obliged either to readily taken for each other, this has been employed as employ unintelligible terms or such as a demonstrative and even intuitive proof of human liberty. We feel that our actions are subject to our are synonynious to the term which he will on most occasions, and imagine we feel that the endeavours to define.' And if the defini. will itself is subject to nothing, because, when by a tion above mentioned be admitted, liberty, denial of it we are provoked to try, we feel that it moves easily cvery way, and produces an image of when opposed to necessity, not to conitself (or a Velleïty: as it is called in the schools) even straint, is the same thing with chance, on that side on which it did not settle. This image or which is universally allowed to have no faint motion, we persuade ourselves, could at that time have been completed into the thing itsclf, because, existence. should that be denied, we find, upon a second trial, that at present it can. We consider not that the fantastical desire of showing liberty is here the motive of our • Thus, if a causc be dçfined that which produces actions. And it seems certain that, however we may anything, it is easy to observe that producing is imagine we feel a liberty within ourselves, a spectator synonymous to causing. In like manner, if a cause be can commonly infer our actions from our motives and defined that by which anything exists, this is liable to character, and even where he cannot he concludes, in For what is meant by these general, that he might, were he perfectly acquainted words by which ? Had it been said that a causc is that with every circumstance of our situation and temper, after which anything constantly exists, we should have and the most secret springs of our complexion and dis understood the terms. For this is, indeed, all we know pxnition. Now, this is the very essence of necessity, of the matter. And this constancy forms the very according to the foregoing doctrine. essence of ncccssity, nor have wc any other idea of it.

·OF LIBERTY AND NECESSITY 49 a or selves may PART II. but only in that with regard to material objects and causes. Nothing, therefore, There is no method of reasoning more can be more innocent, at-least, than this common, and yet none more blamable, doctrine. than in philosophicaldisputes to endeavour All laws being founded on rewards and the refutation of any hypothesis hy a pre- punishments, it is supposed, as a fundatence of its dangerous consequences to mental principle, that these motives have religion and morality. When any opinion a regular and uniform influence on the leads to absurdities it is certainly false; mind, and both produce the good and but it is not certain that an opinion is prevent the evil actions. We may give to false because it is of dangerous conse this influence what name we please, but quence. Such topics, therefore, ought as it is usually conjoined with the action entirely to be forborne, as serving nothing it must be esteemed a cause, and be to the discovery of truth, but only to looked upon as an instance of that necesmake the person of an antagonist odious. sity which we would here establish. This I observe in general, without pre The only proper object of hatred or tending to draw any advantage from it. vengeance is person creature I frankly submit to an examination of endowed with thought and consciousness; this kind, and shall venture to affirm that and when any criminal or injurious the doctrines, both of necessity and of actions excite that passion it is only by liberty, as above explained, are not only their relation to the person or connection consistent with morality, but are abso with him. Actions are, by their very lutely essential to its support. nature, temporary and perishing; and Necessity may be defined two ways, where they proceed not froin some cause conformably to the two definitions of in the character and disposition of the cause, of which it makes an essential person who performed them, they can part. It consists either in the constant neither redound to his honour if good, conjunction of like objects, or in the nor infaniy if evil. The actions theminference of the understanding from one be blamable, they may be object to another. Now, necessity in contrary to all the rules of morality &nd both these senses (which, indeed, are at religion, but the person is not answerable bottom the same) has universally, though for them; and as they proceeded from tacitly, in the schools, in the pulpit, and nothing in hin that is durable and in common life, been allowed to belong to constant, and leave nothing of that the will of man; and no one has ever nature behind them, it is impossible he pretended to deny that we can draw can, upon their account, become the inferences concerning human actions, object of punishment or vengeance. and that those inferences are founded on According to the principle, therefore, the experienced union of like actions with which denies necessity, and consequently like motives, inclinations, and circum causes, a man is as pure and untainted stances. The nly particular in which after ha ng committed the most horrid anyone can differ is that either perhaps he crime as at the first moment of his birth; will refuse to give the name of necessity nor is his character anywise concerned in to this property of human actions—but, his actions, since they are not derived as long as the meaning is understood, í from it, and the wickedness of the one hope the word can do no harm--or that never be used as a proof of the he will maintain it possible to discover depravity of the other. something farther in the operations of Men are not blamed for such actions as matter. But this, it must be acknow- they perform ignorantly and casually, ledged, can be of no consequence to whatever may be the consequences. morality or religion, whatever it may be Why--but because the principles of these to natural philosophy or metaphysics. actions are only momentary, and termi- We may here be mistaken in asserting nate in them alone? Men are less blamed that there is no idea 8f any other neces for such actions as they perform hastily sity or connection in the actions of body. and unpremeditatedly than for such as But surely we ascribe nothing to the proceed" from deliberation. For what actions of the mind but what everyone reason-but because a hasty temper, docs and must readily allow of. We though a constant cause or principle in change no circumstance in the received the mind, operates only by intervals, and orthodox system with regard to the will, infects not the whole character? Again, Cin ·50 OF LIBERTY AND NECESSITY repentance wipes off every crime if fixed, that Being, either finite or infinite, attended with a reformation of life and who produces the first is likewise the manners. How is this to be accounted author of all the rest, and must both bear for-but by asserting that actions render the blame and acquire the praise which a person criminal inerely as they are belong to them. Our clear and unalter. proofs of criminal principles in the mind; able ideas of morality establish this rule and when, by an alteration of these prin upon unquestionable reasons when we ciples, they cease to be just proofs, they examine the consequences of any human likewise cease to be criminal ? But, action; and these reasons must still have except upon the doctrine of necessity, greater force when applied to the volitions they never were just proofs, and conse and intentions of a Being infinitely wise quently never were criminal. and powerful. Ignorance or impotence It will be equally easy to prove, and may be pleaded for so limited a creature from the same argunients, that liberti, as man; but those imperfections have no according to that definition above men- place in our Creator. Ho foresaw, he tioned, in which all men agree, is also ordained, he intended all those actions essential to morality, and that no human of men which we su raslily pronounce actions, where it is wanting, are suscep criminal. And we must therefore contible of any moral qualities, or can be the clude cither that they are not criminal, or objects either of approbation or dislike. that the Deity, dot man, is accountable For, as actions are objects of our moral for them. But as either of these positions sentiment so far only as they are indica is absurd and impious, it follows that the tions of the internal character, passions, doctrine from which they are deduced and affections, it is impossible that they cannot possibly be true, as being liable to can give rise either to praise or blame all the same objections. An absurd conwhere they proceed not from these prin- sequence, if necessary, proves the original ciples, but are derived altogether from doctrine to be absurd, in the same manner external violence. as criminal actions render criminal the I pretend not to have obviated or original cause if the connection between removed all objections to this theory with them be necessary and inevitable. regard to necessity and liberty. I can This objection consists of two parts, foresee other objections, derived from which we shall examine separately-first, topics which have not here been treated that if human actions can he traced up of. It inay be sud, for instance, that, if hy a necessary chain to the Deity, they voluntary actions be subjected to the same can never he criiņinal, on account of the laws of necessity with the operations of infinite perfection of that Being from inatter, there is a continued chain of whom they are derived, and who can necessary causes, pre-ordained and pre- intend nothing but what is altogether determined, reaching from the original good and laudable. Or, secondly, if they cause of all to every single volition of be criminal, we must retract the attribute every human creature. No contingency of perfection which we ascribe to the anywhere in the universe, no indifference, Deity, and must acknowledge him to be no liberty. While we act we are at the the ultimate author of guilt and moral same time arted upon. The ultimate turpitude in all his creatures. Author of all our volitions is the Creator The answer tu the first objection seems of the world, who first bestowed motion ohvious and convincing. There are many on this immense machine, and placed all philosophers who, after an exact scrutiny beings in that particular position whence of all the phenomena of nature, conclude every subsequent event by an inevitable that the WHOLE, considered as one system, necessity must result. Human actions, is in every period of its existence ordered therefore, either can have no moral turpi- with perfect benevolence, and that the tude at all as proceeding froin so good a utmost possible happiness will, in the cause, or, if they have any turpituda, they end, result to all created beings without must involve our Creator in the same any mixture of positive or absolute ill or guilt while he is acknowledge to be misery. Every physical ill, say they, their ultimate cause and author. For, as makes an essential part of this benevolent a man who fired a mine is answerable for system, and could not possibly be removed all the consequences, whether the train he even by the Deity himself, considered as cmployed be long or short, so wlierever a a wise agent, without giving entrance continued chain of necessary causes is to greater ill or excluding greater good ·OF LIBERTY AND NECESSITY 51 which will result from it. From this What though philosophical meditations theory some philosophers, and the ancient establish a different opinion or conjecture; Stoics among the rest, derived a topic of that everything is right with regard to consolation under all afflictions, while they the WHOLE ; and that the qualities which taught their pupils that those ills under disturb society are, in the main, as benewhich they laboured were, in reality, goods ficial and are as suitable to the primary to the universe, and that to an enlarged intention of nature as those which more view, which could comprehend the whole directly promote its happiness and welsystem of nature, every event became an fare? Are such remote and uncertain ohject of joy and exultation. But, though speculations able to counterbalance the this topic be specious and sublime, it was sentiments which arise from the natural soon found in practice weak and ineffec- and immediate view of the objects? A tual. You would surely more irritate man who is robbed of a considerable sum, than appease a man lying under the does he find his vexation for the loss anyracking pains of the gout by preaching wise diminished by these sublime reflecup to him the rectitude of those general tions? Why, then, should his moral laws which produced the malignant resentment against the crime be supposed humours in his body and led them incompatible with them? Or, why should through the proper canals to the sinews not the acknowledgment of a real disand nerves, where they ow excite such tinction between vice and virtue be reconacute torinents. These enlarged views cilable to all speculative systems of philomay, for a moment, please the imagina- sophy, as well as that of a real distinction tion of a speculative man who is placed between personal beauty and deformity ? in ease and security; but neither can Both these distinctions are founded in they dwell with constancy on his mind, the natural sentiinents of the human even though undisturbed by the emotions mind. And these sentiments are not to of pain or passion; much less can they be controlled or altered by any philomaintain thicir ground when attacked by sophical theory or speculation whatsoever. such powerful antagonists. The affec The second objection admits not of so tions take a narrower and more natural casy and satisfactory an answer; nor is survey of their object, and by an economy it possible to explain distinctly how the more suitable to the infirmity of human Deity can be the mediate cause of all the minds regard alone the beings around us, actions of men without being the author and are actuated by such events as appear of sin and moral turpitude. These are good or ill to the private system. mysteries, which more natural and unas- The case is the same with moral as will sisted reason is very unfit to handle; and physical ill. It cannot reasonably be whatever systein she embraces, she must supposed that those remote considera- find herself involved in inextricable diffitions, which are found of so little eflicacy culties, and even contradictions, at every with regard to one, will have a inore step which she takes with regard to such powerful influence with regard to the subjects. To reconcile the indifference other. The mind of man is so formed and contingency of human actions with by nature that, upon the appearance prescience, or to defend absolute decrees, of certain characters, dispositions, and and yet free the Deity from being the actions, it immediately feels the senti- author of sin, has been found hitherto ment of approbation or blame; nor are to exceed all the power of philosophy. there any emotions more essential to its Happy, if she be thence sensible of her frame and constitution. The characters temerity when she pries into these which engage our approbation are chiefly sublime mysteries, and, leaving a scene such as contribute to the peace and so full of obscurities and perplexities, security of human society, as the char- return, with suitable modesty, to her true acters which excite blame are chiefly such and proper province--the examination of as tend to public detriment and disturb- common life-where she will find diffi- Whence it may reasonably be culties enough to employ her inquiries presumed that the moral sentiments arise without launching into só boundless an either mediately or immediately from a ocean of doubt, uncertainty, and contrareflection of these opposite interests. diction ! ance.

·52 OF THE REASON OF ANIMALS SECTION IX. OF THE REASON OF ANIMALS All our reasonings concerning matter of of the nature of fire, water, earth, stones, fact are founded on a .species of analogy, heights, depths, etc., and of the effects which leads us to expect from any cause which result from their operation. The the same events which we have observed ignorance and inexperience of the young to result from similar causes. Where the are here plainly distinguishable from the causes are entirely similar the analogy is cunning and sagacity of the old, who perfect, and the inference drawn from it have learned, by long observance, to avoid is regarded as certain and conclusive; what hurt theni, and to pursue what gave nor does ar man ever entertain a doubt, ease or pleasure. A horse that has been when he sees a piece of iron, that it will accustomed to the field becomes achave weight and cohesion of parts, as in quainted with the proper height which he all other instances which have ever fallen can leap, and will never attempt what under his observation. But where the exceeds his force and ability. An old objects have not so exact a similarity the greyhound will trust the more fatiguing analogy is less perfect, and the inference part of the chase to the younger, and will is less conclusive, though still it has some place himself so as to meet the hare in force in proportion to the degree of her doubles; nor arc thc conjectures similarity and resemblance. The ana which he forms on this occasion founded tomical observations forined upon one in anything but his observation and animal are, hy this species of reasoning, experience. extended to all animals; and it is certain This is still more cvident from the that when the circulation of the blood, effects of discipline and education on for instance, is clearly proved to have animals, who, hy the proper application place in one creature, as a frog, or fish, of rewards and punishments, may be it forms a strong presumption that the taught any course of action, and most same principle has place in all. These contrary to their natural instincts and analogical observations may be carried propensities. Is it not experience which farther, even to this science of which we renders a dog apprehensive of pain when are now Ircating; and any theory by you inenace him, or lift up the whip to which we explain the operations of the beat him? Is it not even experience understanding, or the origin and connecwhich makes him answer to his namic, tion of the passions in man, will acquire and inſer, from such an arbitrary sound, additional authority if we find that the that you mean himn rather than any of his same theory is requisite to explain the fellows, and intend to call himn when you same phenomena in all other animals. We pronounce it in a certain manner, and shall make trial of this, with regard to with a certain tone and accent? the hypothesis by which we have, in In all these cases we may observe that the foregoing discourse, endeavoured to the animal infers some fact beyond what account for all experimental reasonings; immediately strikes his senses, and that and it is hoped that this new point of this inference is altogether founded on vicw will serve to confirm all our former past experience, while the crcature expects observations. froin the present object the same conse- First, it seems evident that animals as quences which it has always found in men learn many things from its observation to result from similar experience, and infer that the same objects. events will always follow from the same Secondly, it is impossible that this causes. By this principle they become inference of the aninial can be founded on acquainted with the more obvious pro any process of argument or reasoning by perties of external objects, and gradually which he concludes that like events must from their birth treasure up a knowledge follow like objects, and that the course of well as ·OF THE REASON OF ANIMALS 53 nature will always be regular in its opera But, though animals learn many parts tions. For if there be in reality any argu of their knowledge from observation, ments of this nature, they surely lie too there are also many parts of it which they abstruse for the observation of such imper- derive from the original land of nature, fect understandings; since it may well which much exceed the share of capacity employ the utmost care and attention they possess on ordinary occasions, and of a philosophic genius to discover and in which they improve little or nothing, observe thein. Animals, therefore, are by the longest practice and experience. not guided in these inferences by reason- These we denominate instincts, and are ing ; neither are children ; neither are the so apt to admire as something very extragenerality of mankind in their ordinary ordinary, and inexplicable by all the disactions and conclusions; neither are philo- quisitions of human understanding. But sophers themselves, who, in all the active our wonder will, perhaps, cease or diminish parts of life, are, in the main, the same when we consider that the experimental with the vuigar, and are governed by the reasoning itself which we possess in same maxims. Nature must have pro common with beasts, and on which the vided some oti.er principle of more ready whole conduct of life depends, is nothing and more general use and application ; but a species of instinct or mechanical nor can an operation of such immense power that acts in us unknown to ourconsequence in life as tint of inferring selves; and in its chief operations is not effects from causes be trusted to the uncer- directed by any such relations or comtain process of reasoning and argumenta- parisons of ideas as are the proper objects tion. Were this doubtful with regard to of our intellectual faculties. Though the men, it seems to admit of no question with instinct be different, yet still it is an regard to the brute crcation; and, the con- instinct which teaches a man to avoid clusion being once firmly established in the fire, as much as that which teaches a the one, we have a strong presumption, bird with such exactness the art of incufrom all the rules of analogy, that it ought bation and the whole economy and order to be universally admitted without any of its nursery. exception or reserve. It is custom alone which engages animals from every object stances. It is therefore considered as a matter of that strikes their senses to infer its usual great importance to observe the consequences of things; and as one man may very much surpass attendant, and carries their imagination another in attention and memory and observation, this from the appearance of the one to conceive will make a very great difference in their reasoning. the other in that particular manner which 2. Where there is a complication of causes to produce any effect one mind may be much larger than another, we denominate belief No other explica- and better able to comprehend the whole system of tion can be given of this operation in all objects and to infer justly their consequences. 3. One the higher as well as lower classes of greater length than another. 4. Few men can think sensitive beings which fall under our long without running into a confusion of ideas and notice and observation." mistaking one for another; and there are various degrees of this infirmity, s. The circumstance on which the effect depends is frequently involved in other Since all reasoning concerning facts or causes is circumstances which are foreign and extrinsic. The derived merely from custoin, it may be asked how it separation of it often requires great attention, happens that men so much surpass animals in reason accuracy, and subtlety. 6. The forming of general ing, and one man so much surpasses another? Hlas maxims from particular observation is a very nice not the same custom the same influence on all ?. We operation, and nothing is more usual, from hastc or shall herc endeavour briefly to explain the great differ narrowness of mind which sees not on all sides, than ence in human understandings, after which the reason to coinmit mistakes in this particular. 7. When we of the difference between men and aninals will easily reason from analogies the man who has the greater be comprehended. 1. When we have lived any time, cxperience or the greater promptitude of suggesting and have been accustomed to the uniformity of nature analogies will be the better reasoner. 8. Biasses from we acquire a general habit by which we always transfer prejudice, education, passion, party, etc., hang more the known to the unknown, and conceive the latter to upon one mind than another. 9. After we have resemble the former. By means of this general habitual acquired a confidence in human testimony, books and principle we regard cven onc experiment as the founda conversation enlarge much more the sphere of one tion of reasoning, and expect a similar event with some man's experience and thought than those of another. degree of certainty where the experiment has been It would be easy to discover many other circumstances made accurately and free from all foreign circum that make a difference in the understandings of men.

·54 OF MIRACLES SECTION X. OF MIRACLES CUSCS. PART 1. Though experience he our only guide in reasoning concerning matters of fact, There is in Dr. Tulotson's writings an it must be acknowledged that this guide argument against the real presence, which is not altogether infallible, but in some is as concise and elegant and strong as cases is apt to lead us into errors. One any argument can possibly be supposed who in our climate should expect better against a doctrine so little worthy of a weather in any weck of Junc than in one serious refutation. It is acknowledged on of December' would reason justly and all hands, says that learned prelate, that conformably to experience; but it is the authority either of the Scripture or of certain that he may happen in the event tradition is founded merely in the testi- . to find himself mistaken. However, we mony of the Apostles, who were cyc- may observe that in such a case he would witnesses to those miracles of our Saviour have no cause to complain of experience, by which lic proved his divine mission because it commonly informs us before- Our evidence, then, for the truth of the hand of the uncertainty, hy that contrariety Christian religion is less than the evidence of events which we may learn from a for the truth of our senses; because, crep diligent observation. All effects follow in the first authors of our religion, it was mut with like certainty from their supposed no greater, and it is evident it must Some events are found in all diminish in passing from them to their countries and all ages to have been condisciples ; nor can anyone rest such con- stantly conjoined together. Others are fidence in their testimony as in the imme-'found' to have been more variable, and diate object of his senses. But a weaker sometimes to disappoint our expectations ; evidence can never destroy a stronger, so that, in our reasonings concerning and therefore, were the doctrine of the matter of fact, there are all imaginable real presence ever so clearly revealed in degrees of assurance, from the highest Scripture, it were directly contrary to the certainty to the lowest species of moral rules of just reasoning to give our assent evidence. to it. It contradicts sense, though both A wise man, therefore, proportions his the Scripture and tradition on which it helief to the evidence. In such concluis supposed to be built carry not such' sions as are founded on an infallible evidence with them as sense when they experience he expects the event with the are considered merely as external evi last degree of assurance, and regards his dences, and are not brought home to past experience as a full proof of the future everyone's bi east by the immediate opera- existence of that event. In other cases tion of the Iloly Spirit. he proceeds with more caution. He Nothing is so convenient as a decisive weighs the opposite experiments. He argument of this kind, which must at considers which side is supported by the least silence the most arrogant bigotry greater number of experiments; to that and superstition, and free us from their side he inclines with doubt and hesitaimpertinent solicitations. I flatter myself tion, and when at last he fixes his judgthat I have discovered an argument of a ment the cvidence exceeds not what we like nature, which, if just, will, with the properly call probability. All probability, wise and learned, be an everlasting check then, supposes an opposition of experito all kinds of superstitious delusion, and ments and observations, where the one consequently will be useful as long as the side is found to overbalance the other, For so long, 1 presume, and to produce a degree of evidence prowill the accounts of miracles and prodi- portioned to the superiority. A hundred gies be found in all history, sacred and instances or experiments on one side profane, and fifty on another afford a doubtful ·OF MIRACLES 55 expectation of any event; though a hundred this experience is not entirely uniform on uniforin experiments, with only one that any side, it is attended with an unavoidis contradictory, reasonably begets a pretty able contrariety in our judgments, and strong degree of assurance. In all cases with the same opposition and mutual we must balance the opposite experiments, destruction of argument as in every other where they are opposite, and deduct the kind of evidence. We frequently hesitate smaller number from the greater in order concerning the reports of others. We to know the exact force of the superior balance the opposite circumstances which evidence. cause any doubt or uncertainty, and when To apply these principles to a particular we discover a superiority on one side we instance, we may observe that there is no incline to it, but still with a diminution of species of reasoning more common, more assurance in proportion to the force of its useful, and even necessary to human life, antagonist. than that which is derived froin the testi. This contrariety of evidence in the mony of men and the reports of eye- present case may be derived from several witnesses and spectators. This species different causes : from the opposition of of reasoning, perhaps, one may deny to contrary testimony; from the character be founded on the relation of cause and or number of the witnesses ; from the effect. I shall not disputs about a word. manner of their delivering their testimony; It will be sufficient to oliserve that our or from the union of all these circumassurance in any argument of this kind is stances. We entertain a suspicion conderived from no other principle than our cerning any matter of fact when the observation of the veracity of human testi witnesses contradict each other; when mony, and of the usual conformity of facts they are but few or of a doubtful charto the reports of witnesses. It being a acter; when they have an interest in general inaxim that no ohjects have any what they affirm; when they deliver their discoverable connection together, and that testimony with hesitation, or, on the all the inferences which we can draw from contrary, with too violent asseverations. one to another are founded merely on our There are many other particulars of the experience of their constant and regular same kind which may diminish or destroy conjunction, it is evident that we ought the force of any argument derived from not to make an exception to this maxim human testimony. in favour of human testimony, whose Suppose, for instance, that the fact connection with any event seems in itself which the testimony endeavours to estabas little necessary as any other. Werc lish partakes of the extraordinary and the not the memory tenacious to a certain marvellous ; in that case, the evidence degree; had not men commonly an incli resulting from the testimony admits of a nation to truth and a principle of probity; diminution, greater or less, in proportion were they not sensible to shame when as the fact is more or less unusual. The detected in a falsehood—were not these, reason why we place any credit in I say, discovered by experience to be witnesses and historians is not derived qualities inherent in human nature, we from any connection which we perceive should never repose the least confidence a priori between testimony and reality, in human testimony: A man delirious or but because we are accustomed to find a noted for falsehood and villainy has no conformity between them. But when the manner of authority with us. fact attested is such a one as has seldom And as the evidence derived from wit. fallen under our observation, here is a nesses and human testimony is founded contest of two opposite experiences, of on past experience, so it varies with the which the one destroys the other as far as experience, and is regarded either as its force goes, and the superior can only proof or a probability, according as the operate on the mind by the force which conjunction between any particular kind remains. The very same principle of of report and any kind of object has been experience which gives us a certain found to be constant or variable. There degree of assurance in the testimony of are a number of circumstances to be witnesses gives us also, in this case, taken into consideration in all judgments another degree of assurance against the of this kind, and the ultimate standard by fact which they endeavour to establish, which we determine all disputes that may from which contradiction there necesarise concerning them is always derived sarily arises a counterpoise, and mutual from experience and observation. Where destruction of belief and authority.

·56 OF MIRACLES I should not believe such a story were it by water ; unless it be that these events told me by Cato was a proverbial saying are found agreeable to the laws of nature, in Roine, even during the lifetime of that and there is required a violation of these philosophical patriot.' The incredibility laws, or, in other words, a miracle, to of a fact, it was allowed, might invalidate prevent them? Nothing is esteemed a so great an authority. iniracle if it ever happen in the common The Indian prince who refused to course of nature. It is no miracle that a believe the first relations concerning the man seemingly in good health should die effects of frost reasoned justly, and it on a sudden, because such a kind of naturally required very strong testimony death, though more unusual than any to engage his assent to fiucts that arose other, has yet been frequently observed to from a state of nature with which he was happen. But it is a miracle that a dead unacquainted, and which bore so little man should come to life, because that analogy to those events of which he had has never been observed in any age or had constant and uniform experience. country. There must, therefore, be a Though they were not contrary to his uniforin experience against every miracuexperience, they were not conformable lous event, otherwise the event would not to it.? merit that appellation. And as a uniform But in order to increase the probability experience amounts to a proof, there is against the testimony of witnesses, let us here a direct ind full proof, from the suppose that the fact which they affirm, nature of the fact, against the existence of instead of being only marvellous, is really any miracle ; nor can such a proof be miraculous; and suppose also that the destroyed, the miracle rendered testimony, considered apart and in itself, credibio, but by an opposite proof which amounts to an entire proof-in that case is superior.' there is proof against proof, of which the The plain consequence is (and it is a strongest must prevail, but still with a general maxim worthy of our attention) diminution of its force in proportion to * that no testimony is sufficient to estabthat of its antagonist. lish a miracle unless the testimony be of A miracle is a violation of the such a kind that its falsehood would be nature; and as a firm and unalterable more miraculous than the fact which it experience has established these laws, the endeavours to establish; and even in proof against a miracle, from the very that case there is a mutual destruction of nature of the fact, is as entire as any arguments, and the superior only gives argument from experience can possibly be us an assurance suitable to that degree of imagined. Why is it more than probable force which remains after deducting the that all men must die ; that lead cannot inferior." When anyone tells me that he of itself remain suspended in the air; that saw a dead man restored to life I immefire consumes wood, and is extinguished diately consider with myself whether it be or i Plutarch, in l'ita Catonis, Sometimes an event may not, in itself, seem to be : No Indian, it is evident, could have experience that contrary to the laws of nature, and yet, if it were real, water did not freeze in cold climates. This is placing it might, hy reason of some circumstances, be denominature in a situation quite unknown to him, and it is nated a miracle, because, in fact, it is contrary to these impossible for him to tell a prior what will result from laws. Thus, if a person claiming a divine authority it. It is making a new experiment, the consequence of should command a sick person to be well, a healthful which is always uncertain. One may sometimes conman to fall down dead, the ciouds to pour rain, the jecture from analogy what will follow : hut, still, this is winds to blow-in short, shouid order many natural but conjecture. And it must be confessed that in the cvents which immediately follow upon his command, present case of freezing the event follows contrary to these might justly be esteemed miracles, because they ihc rules of analogy, and is such as a rational Indian are really in this case contrary to the laws of nature. would not louk for. The operations of cold upon For, if any suspicion remain that the event and comwater are not gradual according to the degrees of cold, mand concurred by accident, there is no miracle and no but whenever it coincs to the freezing-point the water transgression of the laws of nature. If this suspicion passes in a moment from the utmost liquidity to perfect be removed, there is evidently a miracle, and a transhardness. Such an event, therefore, inay bc denomi gression of these laws, because nothing can be more nated extraordinary, and requires a pretty strong contrary to nature than that the voice or command of testimony to render it credible to people in a warm a man should have sugli an influence. A miracle may climate. But, still, it is not miraculous, contrary to be accurately defined, a transgression of a law of nature by a particular volition of the Deity, or by the where all the circuinstances are the same. The inhabi interposition of some invisible agent. A miracle may tants of Sumatra have always seen water fluid in thcir cither be discoverable by men or not. This alters not own climate, and the freezing of their rivers ought to its nature and essence. The raising of a house or ship be deemed a prodigy.. But they never saw water in into the air is a visible miracle. The raising of a Muscovy during the winter, and therefore thcy cannot feather when the wind wants ever so little of a force reasonably be positive what would there be the consa requisite for that purpose is as real a miracle, though quence not so sensible with regard to us.

·OF MIRACLES 57 more probable that this person should mind observes not always the same rule ; either deceive or be deceived, or that the but when anything is affirmed utterly fact which he relates should really have absurd and miraculous it rather the more happened. I weigh the one miracle readily admits of such a fact upon account against the other, and according to the of that very circumstance which ought to superiority which I discover I pronounce destroy all its authority. The passion of my decision, and always reject the greater surprise and wonder arising from miracles, miracle. If the falsehood of his testimony being an agreeable enotion, gives a would be more miraculous than the event sensible tendency towards the belief of which he relates, then, and not till then, those events from which it is derived. can he pretend to command my belief or And this goes so far that even those who opinion cannot enjoy this pleasure imniediately, PART II. nor can believe those miraculous events of which they are informed, yet love to In the foregoing reasoning we have partake of the satisfaction at second hand supposed that the testimony upon which a or by rebound, and place a pride and delight miracle is founded may possibly amount in exciting the admiration of others. to an entire proof, and that the falschood With what greediness are the miracuof that testimony would be a real prodigy. lous accounts of travellers rece ed, their But it is easy to show that we have been descriptions of sea and land monsters, a great deal too liberal in our concession, their relations of wonderful adventures, and that there never was a miraculous strange men and uncouth manners! But cvent established on so full an evidence. if the spirit of religion join itself to the For, first, there is not to be found in all love of wonder there is an end of common history any miracle attested by a sufli sense, and human testimony, in these cient number of men of such unques circumstances, loses all pretensions to tioned good sense, education, and learn- authority. A religionist may be an ing as to secure us against all delusion in enthusiast, and imagine he sees what has themselves; of such undoubted integrity 110 rcality: he may know his narrative to as to place them beyond all suspicion of be false, and yet persevere in it, with the any design to deceive others; of such best intentions in the world, for the sake credit and reputation in the eyes of man of promoting so holy a cause ; or even kind as to have a great deal to lose in where this delusion has not place, vanity, case of their being detected in any false excited by so strong a temptation, hood, and at the same time attesting operates on him more powerfully than on facts performed in such a public manner the rest of mankind in any other circumand in so celebrated a part of the world as stances, and self-interest with equal force. to render the detection unavoidable--all His auditors may not have, and commonly which circumstances are requisite to give have not, sufficient judgment to canvass us a full assurance in the testimony of his evidence; what judgment they have they renounce by principle in these Secondly, we may observe in human sublime and mysterious subjects; or if nature a principle which, if strictly they were ever so willing to employ it, examined, will be found to diminish passion and a heated imagination disturb extremely the assurance which we might the regularity of its operations. Their from human testimony have in any kind credulity increases his impudence, and of prodigy. The maxim by which we his impudence overpowers their credulity, commonly conduct ourselves in Eloquence, when at its highest pitch, reasonings is that the objects of which leaves little room for reason or reflection, we have no experience resemble those of but, addressing itself entirely to the fancy which we have; that what we have found or the affections, captivates the willing to be most usual is always most probable; hearers and subdues their understanding. and that where there is an opposition of Happily, this pitch it seldom attains. arguments we ought to give the prefer- But what a Tully or a Demosthenes ence to such as are founded on the could scarcely effect over a Roman or greatest number of past observations. Athenian audience, every Capuchin, every But though, in proceeding by this rule, itinerant or stationary teacher, can perwe readily reject any fact which is form over the generality of mankind, and unusual and incredible in an ordinary in a higher degree, by touching such degree, yet, in advancing farther, the gross and vulgar passions, inen. our ·58 OF MIRACLES as The many instances of forged miracles usual propensity of mankind towards the and prophecies and supernatural events marvellous, and that, though this inclinawhich in all ages have either been tion may at intervals receive a check detected by contrary evidence, or which from sense and learning, it can never detect themselves by their absurdity, be thoroughly extirpated from human prove sufficiently the strong propensity nature. of mankind to the extraordinary and the It is strange, a judicious reader is apt marvellous, and ought reasonably to to say upon the perusal of these wonderbeget a suspicion against all relations of ful historians, that such prodigious events this kind." This is our natural way of never happen in our days. But it is thinking, even with regard to the most nothing strange, I hope, that men should common and most credible events. For lie in all ages. You must surely have instance, there is no kind of report which seen instances enough of that frailty. rises so easily and spreads so quickly, You have yourself heard many such especially in country places and pro- marvellous relations started, which, being vincial towns, those concerning treated with scorn by all the wise and marriages, insomuch that two young judicious, have at last been abandoned persons of equal condition never sec each even by the vulgar. Be assured that other twice but the whole neighbour- those renowned lies, which have spread hood immediately join them together. and flourished to such a monstrous height, The pleasure of telling a piece of news so arose from like beginnings; but, being interesting, of propagating it, and of sown in a more proper soil, shot up at being the first reporters of it, spreads the last into prodigies almost equal to those intelligence. And this is so well known which they relate. that no man of sense gives attention to It was a wise policy in that false these reports till he find them confirmed prophet Alexander-who, though now. by some greater evidence. Do not the forgotten, was once so famous-to lay the same passions, and others still stronger, first scene of his impostures in Paphlaincline the generality of mankind to gonia, where, as Lucian tells us, the believe and report, with the greatest people were extremely ignorant and vehemence and assurance, all religious stupid, and ready to swallow even the miracles ? grossest delusion. People at a distance, Thirdly, it forms a strong presumption who are weak enough to think the matter against all supernatural and miraculous at all worth inquiry, have no opportunity relations that they are observed chiefly.to of receiving better information. The abound among ignorant and barbarous stories come magnified to them by a nations ; or, if a civilised people has ever hundred circumstances. Fools are indusgiven admission to any of them, that trious in propagating the imposture; people will be found to have received them while the wise and learned are contented, from ignorant and barbarous ancestors, in general, to deride its absurdity, without who transmitted them with that inviolable informing themselves of the particular sanction and authority which always facts by which it may be distinctly attend received opinions. When refuted. And thus the impostor above menperuse the first histories of all nations, tioned was enabled to proceed, from his we are apt to imagine ourselves trans- ignorant Paphlagonians, to the enlisting of ported into some new world, where the votaries even among the Grecian philowhole frame of nature is disjointed, and sopliers, and men of the most eminent every clement performs its operations in a rank and distinction in Rome-nay, could different manner from what it does at engage the attention of that sage emperor present. Battles, revolutions, pestilence, Marcus Aurelius, so far as to inake him famine, and death are never the effect of trust the success of a military expedition those natural causes which we experience. to his delusive prophecies. Prodigies, omens, oracles, judgments, Tlie advantages are so great of starting quite obscure the few natural events that an imposture ainong an ignorant people are intermingled with them. But as the that, even though the delusion should be former grow thinner every page, in pro too gross to impose on the generality of portion as we advance nearer the en them (which, though seldom, is sometimes lightened ages, we soon learn that there the case), it has a much better chance for is nothing mysterious or supernatural in succeeding in remote countries than if the the case, but that all proceeds from the first scene had been laid in a city renowned we ·OF MIRACLES 59 for arts and knowledge. The most igno- the authority of Titus Livius, Plutarch, rant and barbarous of these barbarians Tacitus, and, in short, of all the authors carry the report abroad. None of their and witnesses, Grecian, Chinese, and countrymen have a large correspondence, Roman Catholic, who have related any or sufficient credit and authority to con miracle in their particular religion-I say, tradict and beat down the delusion. we are to regard their testimony in the Men's inclination to the marvellous has same light as if they had mentioned that full opportunity to display itself. And Mohammedan miracle, and had in express thus a story which is universally exploded terms contradicted it with the same cerin the place where it was first started tainty as they have for the miracle they shall pass for certain at a thousand miles relate. This argument may appear overdistance. But had Alexander fixed his subtle and refined, but is not in reality residence at Athens, the philosophers of different from the reasoning of a judge that renowned mart of learning had who supposes that the credit of two witimmediately spread throughout the whole nesses, maintaining a crime against any- Roman Empire their sense of the matter, one, is destroyed by the testimony of two -which, being supported by so great others, who affirm himn to liave been two authority, and displayed by all the force hundred leagues distant at the same of reason and eloquence, had entirely instant when the crinie is said to have opened the eyes of mankind. It is true been committed. Lucian, passing by chance through Paph One of the best attested miracles in all lagonia, had an opportunity of performing profane history is that which Tacitus this good office. But, though much to reports of Vespasian, who cured a blind be wished, it does not always happen that man in Alexandria by means of his spittle, every Alexander meets with a Lucian and a lame man by the mere touch of his ready to expose and detect his impostures. foot, in obedience to a vision of the god I may add as a fourth reason which Serapis, who had enjoined them to have diminishes the authority of prodigies, recourse to the emperor for these mirathat there is no testimony for any, even culous cures. The story may be seen in those which have not been expressly that fine historian,' where every circundetected, that is not opposed by an infinite stance seems to add weight to the testi-. number of witnesses, so that not only the mony, and might be displayed at large miracle destroys the credit of testimony, with all the force of argument and but the testimony destroys itself. To eloquence if anyone were now concerned make this the beiter understood, let us to enforce the evidence of that exploded consider that in matters of religion what and idolatrous superstition—the gravity, ever is different is contrary, and that it is solidity, age, and probity of so great an impossible the religions of ancient Rome, emperor, who, through the whole course of Turkey, of Siam, and of China sliould, of his life, conversed in a familiar manner all of them, be established on any solid with his friends and courtiers, and never foundation. Every iniracle, therefore, affected those extraordinary airs of divinity pretended to have been wrought in any assumed by Alexander and Demetrius; of these religions (and all of them the historian, a contemporary writer, abound in miracles), as its direct scope is noted for candour and veracity, and to establish the particular system to which withal the greatest and most penetrating it is attributed, so has it the same force, genius, perhaps, of all antiquity, and so though more indirectly, to overthrow free from any tendency to credulity that he every other system. In destroying a rival even lies under the contrary imputation of system it likewise destroys the credit of Atheism and profaneness; the persons those miracles on which that system was from whose authority he related the established, so that all the prodigies of miracle, of established character for judgdifferent religions are to be regarded as ment and veracity, as we may well presume, contrary facts, and the evidences of these eye-witnesses of the fact, and confirming prodigies, whether weak or strong, as their testimony after the Flavian family opposite to each other. According to this was despoiled of the empire, and could no method of reasoning, when we believe longer give any reward as the price of a any miracle of Mohammed or his suc lie. Utrumque, qui interfuere, nunc quoque we have for our warrant the testimony of a few barbarous Arabians. Hist., lib. v., cap. 8. Suetonius gives nearly the same and, on the other hand, we are to regard account in Vita Vesp. cessors ·60 OF MIRACLES memorant, postquam nullum mendacio ber of miracles ascribed to one person pretium. To which if we add the public than those which were lately said to have nature of the facts as related, it will been wrought in France upon the tomb of appear that no evidence can well be sup- Abbé Paris, the famous Jansenist, with posed stronger for so gross and so palp- whose sanctity the people were so long able a falsehood. deluded. The curing of the sick, giving There is also a memorable story related hearing to the deaf and sight to the by Cardinal de Retz, which may well blind were everywhere talked of as the deserve our consideration. When that usual effects of that holy sepulchre. But, intriguing politician fled into Spain to what is more extraordinary, many of the avoid the persecution of his enemies he miracles were immediately proved upon passed through Saragossa, the capital of the spot before judges of unquestioned Arragon, where he was shown, in the integrity, attested by witnesses of credit cathedral, a man who had served seven and distinction, in a learned age, and on years as a doorkeeper, and was well known the most eniinent theatre that is now in to everybody in town that had ever paid the world. Nor is this all; a relation of his devotions at that churchi. He had them was published and dispersed everybeen seen for so long a time wanting a where, nor were the Jesuits, though a leg, but recovered that limb hy the rub learned body, supported by the civil bing of holy oil upon the stump; and the magistrate, and determined' enemies to cardinal assures us that he saw him with those opinions in whose favour the two legs. This miracle was vouched by miracles were said to have been wrought, all the canons of the church, and the ever able distinctly to refute or detect whole company in town were appealed to them. Where shall we find such a numfor a confirmation of the fact, whom the ber of circumstances agreeing to the cardinal found by their zealous devotion corroboration of one fact? And what to be thorough believers of the miracle. have we to oppose to such a cloud of Here the relater was also contemporary witnesses but the absolute impossibility to the supposed prodigy; of an incredulous or miraculous nature of the events which and libertine character, as well as of great they relate ? And this surely, in the eyes frenius; the miracle of so singular it of all reasonable people, will alone be nature as could scarcely admit of a coun regarded as a sufficient refutation. terfeit, and the witnesses very numerous, Is the consequence just, because some and all of them in a manner spectators of human testimony has the utmost force the fact to which they gave their testimony and authority in some cases--when it Ind what adds mightily to the force of relates the battle of Philippi or Pharsalia, the evidence, and may double our surprise for instance that therefore all kinds of on this occasion, is that the cardinal him. testimony must in all cases have equal self, who relates the story, seems not to force and authority? Suppose that the give any credit to it, and consequently Caesarean and Pompeian factions had, cannot be suspected of any concurrence in each of them, claimed the victory in these the holy fraud. He considered justly that battles, and that the historians of each it was not requisite in order to reject a party had uniformly ascribed the advanfact of this nature to be able accurately to tage to their own side, how could mandisprove the testimony, and to trace its kind at this distance have been able to falsehood through all the circumstances determine between them? The conof knavery and credulity which produced trariety is equally strong between the it. He knew that, as this was commonly miracles related by IIerodotus or Plutarch altogether impossible at any small distance and those delivered by Mariana, Bede, or of time and place, so was it extremely any monkisha historian. difficult even whicre one was immediately The wise lend a very academic faith to present, by reason of the bigotry, igno- every report which favours the passion of rance, cunning, and roguery of a great the reporter; whether it magnifies his part of mankind. He therefore concluded, country, his famíly, or himself, or in any like a just reasoner, that such asi evidence other way strikes in with his natural carried falsehood upon the very face of it, inclinations and propensities. But what and that a miracle supported by any greater temptation than to appear a human testimony was more properly a missionary, a prophet, an ambassador subject of derision than of argument. from heaven? Who would not encounter There surely never was a greater num. many dangers and difficulties in order to ·OF MIRACLES 61 attain so sublime a character? Or if, by and knowing, are commonly too fine to the help of vanity and a lcated imagina- fall under the comprehension of the tion, a inan has first made a convert of vulgar. himself and entered seriously into the Upon the whole, then, it appears that delusion, who ever scruples to make use no testimony for any kind of miracle has of pious frauds in support of so holy and ever amounted to a probability, much less meritorious a cause ? to a proof; and that, even supposing it The smallest spark may here kindle amounted to a proof, it would be opposed into the greatest flame, because the by another proof-derived from the very materials are always prepared for it. nature of the fact which it would endea- The avidum genus auricularum,' the vour to establish. It is experience only gazing populace, receive greedily, with- which gives authority to human testiout examination, whatever soothes super mony, and it is the same experience which stition and promotes wonder. assures us of the laws of nature. When, How many stories of this nature have therefore, these two kinds of experience in all ages been detected and exploded in are contrary, we have nothing to do but their infancy? How many more have subtract the one from the other and embeen celebrated for a time, and have after brace an opinion, either on one side or the wards sunk into neglect and oblivion? other, with that assurance which arises Where such reports, therpfore, fly about, from the remainder. But, according to the solution of the phenomenon is obvious, the principle here explained, this suband we judge in conformity to regular traction, with regard to all popular experience and observation when we religions, amounts to an entire annihilaaccount for it by the known and natural tion; and therefore we may establish it principles of credulity and delusion. And as a maxim that no human testimony can shall we, rather than have recourse to have such force as to prove a miracle and so natural a solution, allow of a miraculous make it a just foundation for any such violation of the most established laws of system of religion. nature ? I beg the limitations here made may be I need not mention the difficulty of remarked, when I say that a miracle can detecting a falsehood in ariy private or never be proved so as to be the foundation even public history, at the place where it of a system of religion. For I own that, is said to happen, much more when the otherwise, there may possibly be miracles, scene is removed to ever so small a dis or violations of the usual course of nature, tance. Even a court of judicature, with of such a kind as to admit of proof from all the authority, accuracy, and judgment human testimony; though, perhaps, it which they can employ, find themselves will be impossible to find any such in all often at a loss to distinguish between the records of history. Thus, suppose all truth and falsehood in the nost recent authors, in all languages, agree that from actions. But the matter never comes to January ist, 1600, there was a total darkany issue if trusted, to the common ness over the whole earth for eight days; method of altercations and debate and suppose that the tradition of this extrafying rumours, especially when men's ordinary event is still strong and lively passions have taken part on either side. among the people ; that all travellers who In the infancy of new religions the return from foreign countries bring us wise and learned commonly esteen the accounts of the same tradition, without matter too inconsiderable to deserve their the least variation or contradiction, it is attention or regard. And when after evident that our present philosophers, wards they would willingly detect the instead of doubting the fact, ought to cheat, in order to undeceive the deluded receive it as certain, and ought to search multitude, the season is now past, and the for the causes whence it might be derived. records and witnesses which might clear The decay, corruption, and dissolution of up the matter have perished beyond re nature, is an event rendered probable by covery. so many analogies that any phenomenon No means of detection remain but those which seems to have a tendency towards which inust be drawn from the very testi that catastrophe comes within the reach mony itself of the reporters; and these, of human testimony, if that testimony be though always sufficient with the judicious very extensive and uniform, But suppose that all the historians who Lucret. treat of England should agree that un ·62 OF MIRACLES January 1st, 1600, Queen Elizabeth died ; make us form a general resolution never that both before and after her death she to lend any attention to it, with whatever was seen by her physicians and the whole specious pretence it may be covered. court, as is usual with persons of her Lord Bacon seems to have enibraced rank; that her successor was acknow- the same principles of reasoning. "We ledged and proclaimed by the Parliament; ought," says he, "to inake a collection or and that, after being interred a month, particular history of all monsters and she again appeared, resumed the throne, prodigious births or productions, and, in and governed England for three years; I a word, of everything new, rare, and must confess that I should be surprised extraordinary in nature. But this must at the concurrence of so many odd cir- be done with the most severe scrutiny, cumstances, but should not have the least lest we depart from truth. Above all, inclination to believe so miraculous an every relation must be considered as susevent. I should not doubt of her pre- picious which depends in any degree upon tended death, and of those other public religion, as the prodigies of Livy; and, circumstances that followed it; I should no less so, everything that is to be found only assert it to have been pretended, and in the writers of natural magic or alchemy, that it neither was, nor possibly could be, or such authors, who seem, all of them, real. . You would in in object to me to have an unconquerable appetite for the difficulty and almost impossibility of falsehood and fable.' deceiving the world in an aitair of such I am the better pleased with the method consequence ; the wisdom and solid judg of reasoning here delivered, as I think it ment of that renowned queen ; with the may serve to confound those dangerous little or no advantage which she could friends or disguised enemies to the Chrisreap from so poor an artifice. All this tian religion, who have undertaken to might astonish me; but I would still defend it by the principles of human reason. reply that the knavery and folly of men Our most holy religion is founded on are such common phenomena that I faith, not on reason; and it is a sure should rather believe the most extra method of exposing it to put it to such a ordinary events to arise from their con trial as it is by no means fitted to endure. currence than admit of so signal a viola. To make this more evident, let us examine tion of the laws of nature. those miracles related in Scripture, and, But, should this miracle be ascribed to not to lose ourselves in too wide a field, any new System of religion, men in all let us conting ourselves to such as we find ages have been so much imposed on by in the Pentateuch, which we shall examine, ridiculous stories of that kind that this according to the principles of these prevery circunstance would be a full proof tended Christians, not as the word or testiof a cheat, and sufficient, with all men of mony of God himself, but as the producsense, not only to make them reject the tion of a mere human writer and historian. fact, but even reject it without farther Here, then, we are first to consider a examination. Though the book, presented to us by a barbarous and whom the miracle is ascribed he, in this ignorant people, written in an age when case, Almighty, it does not, upon that they were still more barbarous, and in all account, become a whit more probable, probability long after the facts which it since it is impossible for us to know the relates, corroborated by no concurring attributes or actions of such a Being other testimony, and resembling those fabulous wise than from the experience which we accounts which cvery nation gives of its have of his productions in the usual origin. Upon reading this book we find course of nature. This still reduces us it full of prodigies and miracles. It gives to past observation, and obliges us to an account of a state of the world and compare the instances of the violation of of human nature entirely different from truth in the testimony of men with those the present ; of our fall froin that state ; of the violation of the laws of nature by of the age of man extended to near a miracles, in order to judge which of them thousand years ; 'of the destruction of the is most likely and probable. Aš the viola- world by a deluge ; of the arbitrary choice tions of truth are more common in the of one people as the favourites of heaven, testimony concerning religious miracles and that people the countrymen of the than in that concerning any other matter author; of their deliverance from bondage of fact, this must diminish very much the authority of the former testimony, and * Nov. Org., lib. ii., aph. ag.

·OF A PARTICULAR PROVIDENCE AND OF A FUTURE STATE 63 by prodigies the most astonishing imagin- foretell future events, it would be absurd able. I desire anyone to lay his hand to employ any prophecy as an argument upon his heart, and, after a serious con for a divine mission or authority from sideration, declare whether he thinks that heaven. So that, upon the whole, we the falsehood of such a book, supported may conclude that the Christian religion by such a testimony, would be more not only was at first attended with extraordinary and miraculous than all the miracles, but even at this day cannot miracles it relates, which is, however, be believed by any reasonable person necessary to make it be received according without one. Mere reason is insufficient to the measures of probability above to convince us of its veracity. And whoestablished. ever is moved by faith to assent to it is What we have said of miracles may be conscious of a continued miracle in his applied, without any variation, to pro own person, which subverts all the prinphecies; and, indeed, all prophecies are real ciples of his understanding, and gives him miracles, and as such only can be admitted a determination to believe what is most as proofs of any revelation. If it.did not contrary to custom and experience. èxceed the capacity of human nature to SECTION XI. OF A PARTICULAR PROVIDENCE AND OF A FUTURE STATE I was lately engaged in conversation with history of this bigoted jealousy with a friend who loves sceptical paradoxes; which the present age is so inuch infested. where, though he advanced many prin- Epicurus lived at Athens to an advanced ciples of which I can by no means approve, age in peace and tranquillity; Epicureans: yet, as they scein to be curious and to hear were even admitted to receive the sacersome relation to the chain of reasoning dotal character, and to officiate at the carried on throughout this inquiry, I altar in the most sacred rites of the shall here copy them from my memory as established religion. And the public accurately as I can, in order to submit encouragement of pensions and salaries them to the judgment of the reader. was afforded equally, by the wisest of all Our conversation began with my the Roman emperors, 3 to the professors admiring the singular good fortune of of every sect of philosophy. How philosophy, whichi, as it requires entire requisite such kind of treatment was liberty above all other privileges, and to philosophy in her early youth will chiefly flourishes from the free opposition easily be conceived if we reflect that even of sentiments and argumentation, received at present, when she may be supposed its first birth in an age and country of more hardy and robust, she bears with freedom and toleration, and was never much difficulty the inclemency of the cramped, even in its most extravagant seasons, and those harsh winds of calumny principles, by any creeds, concessions, or and persecution which blow upon her. penal statutes. For, except the banish You admire, says my friend, as the ment of Protagoras and the death of singular good fortune of philosophy what Socrates, which last event proceeded partly from other motives, there are scarcely 1 Ιιιciani συμπ, η Λαπίθαι. any instances to be met with in ancient a Luciani evvoûxos. 3 Luciani and Dio.

·64 OF A PARTICULAR PROVIDENCE AND OF A FUTURE STATE seems to result from the natural course of philosophical part of his audience, such as things, and to be unavoidable in every night be supposed capable of comprehendage and nation. This pertinacious ing his arguments. bigotry, of which you complain as so The matter would not be difficult upon fatal to philosophy, is really her offspring, such conditions, replicd he. And, if you who, after allying with superstition, please, I shall suppose myself Epicurus separates himself entirely from the interest for a moment, and make you stand for of his parent, and becomes Rer most the Athenian people, and shall deliver you inveterate eneny and persecutor. Specu such an harangue as will fill all the urn lative dogmas of religion, the present with white beans, and leave not a black occasions of such furious dispute, could one to gratify the malice of my advernot possibly be conceived or admitted in saries. the early ages of the world, when man Very well ; pray proceed upon these kind, being wholly illiterate, formed an suppositions. idea of religion more suitable to their I come hither, O ye Athenians, to justify weak apprehension, and composed their in your assembly what I maintairerlin tenets of such tales chiefly as were the my school, and I find myself impu. objects of traditional belief more than of by furious antagonists instead of reascr.- argument or disputation. After the first ing with calm and dispassionate inquirers. alarm, therefore, was over, which arose Your deliberations, which of right should from the new paradoxes and principles of be directed to questions of public good the philosophers, these teachers seem and the interest of the commonwealth, ever after, during the ages of antiquity, are diverted to the disquisitions of specuto have lived in great harınony with the lative philosophy; and these magnificent established superstition, and to have made but perhaps fruitless inquiries take place a fair partition of mankind between them of your more familiar but more useful —the former claiming all the learned and occupations. But so far as in me lies I wise, the latter possessing all the vulgar will prevent this abuse. We shall not and illiterate. here dispute concerning the origin and It seems then, say. I, that you leave government of worlds. We shall only politics entirely out of the question, and inquire how far such questions concern never suppose that a wise magistrate can the public interest. And if I can persuade justly be jealous of certain tenets of philo- you that they are entirely indifferent to sophy, such as those of Epicurus, which,, ihe peace of society and security of govern. denying a divine existence, and conse- | inent, I hope that you will presently send quently a providence and it future state, us back to our schools, there to examine seem to loosen in a great measure the at leisure the question the most sublime, tics of morality, and inay be supposed for but at the same time the most speculative that reason pernicious to the peace of of all philosophy. civil society. The religious philosophers, not satisfied I know, replied he, that in fact these with the tradition of your forefathers persecutions never in any age proceeded and doctrine of your priests (in which from calın reason, or froin experience of I willingly acquiesce), indulge a rash the pernicious consequences of philosophy, curiosity in trying how far they can estabbut arose entirely froin passion and preju- lish religion upon the principles of reason, dice. But what if I should advance and they thereby excite, instead of satisfarther and assert that, if Epicurus had fying, the doubts which naturally arise been accused before the people by any of from a diligent and scrutinous inquiry. the sycophants or informers of those days, They paint in the most magnificent he could casily have defended his cause colours the order, beauty, and wise and proved his principles of philosophy to arrangement of the universe; and then be as salutary as those of his adversaries, ask if such a glorious display of intelliwho endeavoured with such zeal to expose gence could proceed from the fortuitous hiin to the public hatred and jealousy? concourse of atonis, or if chance could I wish, said I, you would try your produce what the greatest genius can eloquence upon so extraordinary a topic, never sufficiently adinire. I shall not and make a speech for Epicurus which examine the justness of this argument. might satisfy, not the mob of Athens, if I shall allow it to be as solid as my you will allow that ancient and polite city antagonists and accusers can desire. It to have contained any inob, but the more is sufficient if I can prove from this very ·OF A PARTICULAR PROVIDENCE AND OF A FUTURE STATE 65 reasoning that the question is entirely no less skilful in stone and marble than speculative, and that when, in my philo in colours. The talents and taste dissophical disquisitions, I deny a providence played in the particular work before us : and a future state, I undermine not the these we may safely conclude the workfoundations of society, but advance prin man to be possessed of. The cause must ciples which they themselves, upon their be proportioned to the effect; and if we own topics, if ihey argue consistently, exactly and precisely proportion it, we must allow to be solid and satisfactory. shall never find in it any qualities that You, then, who are my accusers, have point farther or afford an inference conacknowledged that the chief or sole argu- cerning any other design or performance. ment for a divine existence (which I never Such qualities must be somewhat beyond questioned) is derived from the order of what is merely requisite for producing the nature; where there appear such marks effect which we examine. of intelligence and design that you think Allowing, therefore, the gods to be the it extravagant to assign for its cause authors of the existence or order of the either chance or the blind and unguided universe, it follows that they possess that ..uf r; atter. You allow that this is precise degree of power, intelligence, and turgiment drawn from effects to causes. benevolence which appears in their workfrom the order of the work you infer that inanship; but nothing farther can ever there must have been project and fore be proved except we call in the assistance thought in the workman. If you cannot of exaggeration and flattery to supply the make out this point, you allow that your defects of argument and reasoning. So conclusion fails, and you pretend not to far as the traces of any attributes at establish the conclusion in a greater present appear, so far may we conclude latitude than the phenomena of nature these attributes to exist. The supposiwill justify. These are your concessions. tion of farther attributes is mere hypo- I desire you to mark the consequences. thesis ; much more the supposition that When we infer any particular cause in distant regions of space or periods of from an effect we must proportion the one time there has been, or will be, a more to the other, and can never be allowed to magnificent display of these attributes ascribe to the cause any qualities but and a scheme of administration more what are exactly suflicient to produce the suitable to such imaginary virtues. We effect. A body of ten ounces raised in any can never be allowed to mount up from scale may serve as a proof that the coun the universe, the effect, to Jupiter, the terbalancing weight exceeds ten ounces, cause, and then descend downwards to but can never afford a reason that it infer any new eflect from that cause; as exceeds a hundred. If the cause assigned if the present effects alone were not for any effect be not sufficient to produce entirely wortlıy of the glorious attributes it, we must either reject that cause or add which we ascribe to that deity. The to it such qualities as will give it a just knowledge of the cause being derived proportion to the effect. But if we ascribe ly from the effect, they must be exactly to it further qualities, or aflirm it capable adjusted to each other; and the one can of producing other effects, we can only never refer to anything farther, or be the indulge the licence of conjecture, and foundation of any new inference and conarbitrarily suppose the existence of quali clusion. ties and energies without You find certain phenomena in nature. authority. You seek a or author. You The same rule holds wliether the cause imagine that you have found him. You assigned be brute, unconscious matter or afterwards become so enamoured of this a rational, intelligent being If the cause offspring of your brain that you imagine be known only by the effect, we never it impossible but he must produce someought to ascribe to it any qualities beyond thing greater and more perfect than the what are precisely requisite to produce present scene of things, which is so full the effect. Nor can we, by any rules of of ill and disorder. You forget that this just reasoning, return back from the cause superlatae intelligence and benevolence and inter other effects from it beyond those are entirely imaginary, or at least without by which alone it is known to us. any foundation in reason, and that you merely from the sight of one of Zeuxis's have 10 ground to ascribe to him any pictures, could know that he was also a qualities but what you see he has actually statuary or architect, and was an artist exerted and displayed in his productions. reason Or Cause No one, ·66. OF A PARTICULAR PROVIDENCE AND OF A FUTURE STATE Let your gods, therefore, O philosophers, torture your brain to justify the course be suited to the present appearances of of nature upon suppositions which, for nature, and presume not to alter these aught you know, may be entirely appearances by arbitrary suppositions, in imaginary, and of which there are to be order to suit them to the attributes which found no traces in the course of nature 2: you so fondly ascribe to your deities. The religious hypothesis, therefore, When priests and poets, supported by must be considered only as a particular your authority, O Athenians, talk of a method of accounting for the visible golden or silver age which preceded the phenomena of the universe; but no just present state of vice and misery, I hear reasoner will ever presume to infer from them with attention and with reverence. it any single fact, and alter or add to the But when philosophers, who pretend to phenomena in any single particular. If neglect authority and to cultivate reason, you think that the appearances of things hold the same discourse, I pay them not, prove such causes, it is allowable for you I own, the same obsequious submission io draw an inference concerning the existand pious deference. I ask: Who carried ence of these causes. In such coinplithem into the celestial regions; who cated and sublime subjects everyone admitted them into the councils of the should be indulged in the liberty of gods; who opened to them the book of conjecture and argument. But here you late, that they thus rastly aflirm that ought to rest. If you come backward, their deities have executed, or will and, arguing from your inferred causes, execute, any purpose beyond what has conclude that any other fact has existed, actually appeared ? If they tell me that or will exist, in the course of nature they have mounted on the steps or by the which may serve as a fuller display of gradual ascent of reason, and by drawing particular attributes, I must admonish: inferences from effects to causes, I still you that you have departed from the insist that they have aided the ascent of method of reasoning attached to the reason by the wings of imagination, present subject, and have certainly added otherwise they could not thus change something to the attributes of the cause their manner of inference and argue from beyond what appears in the effect; other. causes tu effects, presuming that a more wise you could never, with tolerable sense perfect production than the present world or propriety, add anything to the effect would be more suitable to such perfect in order to render it more worthy of the beings as the gods, and forgetting that they have no reason to ascribe to these Where, then, is the odiousness of that celestial beings any perfection or any doctrine which I teach in iny school, or, attribute but what can be found in the rather, which I examine in my gardens ? present world. Or what do you find in this whole ques- Hence all the fruitless industry to tion wherein the security of good morals account for the ill appearances of nature or the peace and order of society is in the and save the honour of the gods, while least concerned ? we must acknowledge the reality of that I deny a providence, you say, and evil and disorder with which the world Supreme Governor of the world, who so much abounds. The obstinate and guides the course of events and punishes intractable qualities of matter, we are the vicious with infamy and disappointtold, or the observance of general laws, or ment, and rewards the virtuous with some such reason, is the sole cause which honour and success in all their undercontrolled the power and benevolence of takings. But surely I deny not the Jupiter, and obliged him to create man course itself of events, which lies open to kind and every sensible creature so everyone's inquiry and examination. I imperfect and so unhappy. These attri- acknowledge that, in the present order of butes, then, are, it seeins, beforehand things, virtuo is attended with more taken for granted in their greatest lati peace of mind than vice, and meets with tude. And upon that supposition I own a more favourable reception from the that such conjectures may perhaps be world. I am sensible that, according to admitted as plausible solutions of the ill the past experience of mankind, friend. phenomena. 'But still I ask : Why take ship is the chief joy of human life, and these attributes for granted, or why moderation the only source of tranquillity ascribe to the cause any qualities but and happiness. I never balance between what actually appear in the effect? Why the virtuous and the vicious course of life, cause.

·OF A PARTICULAR PROVIDENCE AND OF A FUTURE STATE 67 but ain sensible that, to a well-disposed never can have reason to infer any attrimind, every advantage is on the side of butes or any principles of action in hiin, the former. And what can you say but so far as we know them to have been more, allowing all your suppositions and exerted and satisfied. reasonings? You tell me, indeed, that Are there any marks of a distributive this disposition of things proceeds from justice in the world? If you answer in intelligence and design. But, whatever the affirmative, I conclude that, since it proceeds from, the disposition itself, on justice here exerts itself, it is satisfied. which depends our happiness or misery, If you reply in the negative, I conclude and consequently our conduct and deport that you have then no reason to ascribe ment in life, is still the same. It is still justice, in our sense of it, to the gods. If open for me, as well as you, to regulate you hold a medium between affirmation my behaviour by my experience of past and negation, by saying that the justice events. And if you affirm that, while a of the gods at present exerts itself in part divine providence is allowed, and a but not in its full extent, I answer that supreme distributive justice in the uni you have no reason to give it any parverse, I ought to expect some more par ticular extent, but only so far as you see ticular reward of the good and punish it at present exert itself. ment of the bad beyond the ordinary Thus I bring the dispute, O Athenians, course of events, I here find the same to a short issue with my antagonists. fallacy which I have before endeavoured The course of nature lies open to my conto detect. You persist in imagining that, templation as well as to theirs. The if we grant that divine existence for which experienced train of events is the great you so earnestly contend, you may safely standard by which we all regulate our infer consequences from it, and adů conduct. Nothing else can be appealed something to the experienced order of to, in the field or in the senate. Nothing nature, by arguing from the attributes else ought ever to be heard of in the which you ascribe to your gods. You school or in the closet. In vain would seein not to remember that all your our limited understanding break through reasonings on this subject can only be those boundaries which are too narrow drawn from effects to causes, and that for our fond imagination. While we every argunient deduced from causes to argue from the course of nature and infer effects must of necessity be a gross a particular intelligent cause which first sophisin, since it is impossible for you to bestowed, and still preserves, order in the know anything of the cause but what you universe, we embrace a principle which have antecedently not inferred, but dis is both uncertain and useless. It is uncovered to the full in the effect. certain because the subject lies entirely But what must a philosopher think of beyond the reach of human experience. those vain reasoners wlio, instead of re It is useless because, our knowledge of garding the present scene of things as this cause being derived entirely froin the sole object of their contemplation, so the course of nature, we never, far reverse the whole course of nature as according to the rules of just reasoning, to render this life merely a passage to return back from the cause with any new something farther-- --a porch, which leads inference, or, making additions to the to a greater and vastly different building; and experienced a prologue, which serves only to introduce nature, establish any new principles of the piece and give it more grace and pro conduct and behaviour. priety? Whence, do you think, can such I observe (said I, finding he had finished philosophers derive their idea of the gods? his harangue) that you neglect not the From their own conceit and imagination artifice of the demagogues of old ; and, surely. For, if they derived it from the as you were pleased to make me stand present phenomena, it would never point for the people, you insinuate yourself into to anything farther, but must be exactly my favour by embracing those principles adjusted to them. That the divinity may to which you know I have always expossibly be endowed with attributes which pressed• a particular attachment. But, we have never scen exerted-inay be allowing you to make experience (as, ingoverned by principles of action which deed, I think you ought) the only standard we cannot discover to be satisfied : all of our judgment concerning this and all this will freely be allowed. But still this other questions of fact, I doubt not but, is mere possibility and hypothesis. We from the very shme experience to which can coinnon course of ·68 OF A PARTICULAR PROIIDENCE AND OF A FUTURE STATE you appeal, it may be possible to refute servation. But did we know man only this reasoning which you have put into from the single work or production which the mouth of Epicurus. If you saw, for we examine, it were impossible for us to instance, a half-finished building sur argue in this manner, because, our knowrounded with heaps of brick and stone ledge of all the qualities which we ascribe and mortar, and all the instruments of to him being in that case derived from masonry could you not infer from the the production, it is impossible they could effect that it was a work of design and point to anything further, or be the founcontrivance? And could you not return dation of any new inference. The print again from this inferred cause to infer of a foot in the sand can only prove, when new additions to the effect, and conclude considered alone, that there was some that the building would soon be finished figure adapted to it by which it was proand receive all the further improvements duced ; but the print of a human foot which art could bestow upon it? If you proves likewise, from our other expesaw upon the sea-shore the print of one rience, that there was probably another human foot, you would conclude that a foot which also left its impression, though man had passed that way, and that he eſlaced by time or other accidents. Here had also left the traces of the other foot, we mount from the effect to the cause; though effaced by the rolling of the sands and, descending again from the cause, or inundation of the waters. Why, then, inter alterations in the effect; but this is do you refuse to admit the same method not a continuation of the same simple of reasoning with regard to the order of chain of reasoning: We comprehend in nature? Consider the world and the this case a hundred other experiences and present life only as an imperfect building observations concerning the usual figure from which you can inter a superior intel and members of that species of animal, ligence; and, arguing from that superior without which this method of argument intelligence, which can leave nothing in must be considered as fallacious and perfect, wly may you not infer a more sophistical, finished scheme or plan which will The case is not the same with our receive its completion in some distant reasonings from the works of natu point of space or time? Are not these The Deity is known to us only by his methods of reasoning exactly similar ? productions, and is a single being in the And under what pretence you universe, not comprehended under any embrace the one while you reject the species or genus, from whose experienced other? attributes or qualities we can by analogy The infinite difference of the subjects, infer any attribute or quality in him. As replied he, is a suflicient foundation for the universe shows wisdom and goodness, this difference in my conclusions. In we infer wisdom and goodness. As it works of human art and contrivance it is shows a particular degree of these perallowable to advance from the effect to fections, we infer a particular degree of the cause, and, returning back from the them, precisely adapted to the effect cause, to form new inferences concerning which we examine. But further attrithe effect, and examine the altcrations butes, or further degrees of the same which it has probably undergone, or may attributes, we can never be authorised to still undergo. But what is the foundation infer or suppose by any rules of just of this method of reasoning? Plainly reasoning: Now, without some such this--that man is a being whom we know license of supposition, it is impossible by experience, whose motives and designs for us to argue from the cause or infer we are acquainted with, and whose pro- any alteration in the effect leyond what jects and inclinations have a certain con has immediately fallen under our observanection and coherence, according to the tion. Greater good produced by this laws which nature has established for the Being must still prove a greater degree government of such it creature. When, of goodness; a more impartial distributherefore, we find that any work has pru tion of rewards and punishments must coaded from the skill and industry of man proceed from a greater regard to justice -as we are otherwise acquainted with and equity. Livery supposed addition to the nature of the animal, we can draw il the works of nature makes an addition to hundred inferences concerning what may the attributes of the author of nature; be expected from him, and these inferences and consequently, being entirely unsupwill all be founded in experience and ob- ported by any reason or argument, can can ·OF A PARTICULAR PROVIDENCE AND OF A FUTURĖ STATE 69 never be admitted but as mere conjec- flattery and panegyric than of just reasonture and hypothesis.' ing and sound philosophy. All the philo- The great source of our mistake in this sophy, therefore, in the world, and all the subject, and of the unbounded licence of religion, which is nothing but a species conjecture which we indulge, is that we of philosophy, will never be able to carry tacitly consider ourselves as in the place us beyond the usual course of experience, of the Supreme Being, and conclude that or give us measures of conduct and he will on every occasion observe the same behaviour different from those which are conduct which we ourselves in his situa- furnished by reflections on common liſe. tion would have embraced as reasonable No new fact can ever be inferred from the and eligible. But, besides that the ordi- religious hypothesis; no event forescen nary course of nature may convince us or foretold; no reward or punishment that almost everything is regulated by expected or dreaded beyond what is principles and maxims very different from already known by practice and observaours besides this, I say, it must evidently tion. So that ny apology for Epicurus appear contrary to all rules of analogy to will still appear solid and satisfactory; reason from the intentions and projects of nor have the political interests of society men to those of a Being so diſferent and any connection with the philosophical so much superior. In human nature disputes concerning mctaphysics and there is a certain experienced coherence religion. of designs and inclinationis, so that when, There is still one circumstance, replied from any fact, we have discovered one 1, which you seem to have overlooked. intention of any inan, it may often be Though I should allow your premises, I reasonable from experience experience to infer must deny your conclusion. You conclude another, and draw a long chain of con that religious doctrines and reasonings clusions concerning his past or future can have no influence on life, because conduct. But this method of reasoning they ought to have no influence; never can never have place with regard to il considering that men reason not in the Being so remote and incomprehensible, same manner you do, but draw many who bears much less analogy to any consequences from the belief of a divino other being in the universe than the sun existence, and suppose that the Deity will to a waxen taper, and who discovers him- inflict punishments on vice and bestow self only by some faint traces or outlines, rewards on virtue beyond what appear in beyond which we have no authority to the ordinary course of nature. Whether ascribe to him any attribute or perfection. this reasoning of theirs be just or not is What we imagine to be a superior perfec no matter, Its influence on their life and tion may really be a defect. Or were it conduct must still be the same. And ever so much a perfection, the ascribing those who attempt to disabuse them of of it to the Supreme Being, where it such prejudices may, for aught I know, appears not to have been really exerted to be good reasoners, but I cannot allow the full in his works, savours more of them to be good citizens and politicians, since they free men from one restraint i In general, it may, I think, be established as a upon their passions and make the infringemaxim that, where any cause is known only by its ment of the laws of society, in one particular effects, it must be impossible to inter any new effects from that cause, since the qualities which respect, more easy and secure. are requisite to produce these new effects along with After all I may, perhaps, agree to your the former must either be different or superior or of more extensive operation than those which simply progeneral conclusion in favour of liberty, duced the effect wliencc alone the cause is supposed to though upon different premises from those We can never, therefore, have any on which you endeavour to found it. I reason to suppose the existence of these qualities. To say that the new effects proceed only from a continuathink that the State ought to tolerate tion of the same energy which is already known from every principle of philosophy; nor is there the first effects will not remove the difficulty: For, cven granting this to be the case (which can seklom bo an instance that any government has supposed), the very continuation and exertion of a like suffered in its political interests by such energy (for it is impossible it can be absolutely the indulgence. There indulgence. There is no enthusiasm ferent period of space and time, is a very, arbitrary among, philosophers; their doctrines are supposition, and what there cannot possibly be any not very alluring to the people; and no traces of in the effects from which all our knowledge of the cause is originally derived. Let the inferred cause restraint can be put upon their reasonbe exactly proportioned (as it should be) to the known ings but what must be of dangerous elfect, and it is impossible that it can possess any qualities from which new or dillcrent effects can be consequence to the sciences, and even to inferred. the State, by paving the way for persecution be known to us.

·OF THE ACADEMICAL OR SCEPTICAL PHILOSOPHY cause. and oppression in points where the gener- If experience and observation and ality of mankind are more deeply in- analogy be, indeed, the only guides which terested and concerned. we can reasonably follow in inferences of But there occurs to me (continued I).. this nature, both the effect and cause with regard to your main topic, a diffi inust bear a similarity and resemblance culty, which I shall just propose to you to other effects and causes, which we without insisting on it, lest it lead into know, and which we have found in many reasonings of too nice and delicate a instances to be conjoined with each other. nature. In a word, I much doubt whether I leave it to your own reflection to pursue it be possible for a cause to be known the consequences of this principle. I only by its effect (as you have all along sup- shall just observe that, as the antagonists posed), or to be of so singular and par- of Epicurus always supposed the universe, ticular a nature as to have no parallel and an effect quite singular and unparalleled, no similarity with any other cause to be the proof of a Deity, a cause no objcct that has ever fallen under our less singular and unparalleled, your observation. It is only when two species reasonings upon that supposition seein of objects are found to be constantly con at least to merit our attention. There is, joined that we can infer the one from the I own, some difficulty how we can ever other; and were an effect presented which return from the cause to the effect, and, wils entirely singular, and could not be reasoning from our ideas of the former, contprelended under any known species, inſer any alteration on the latter, or any 1 do not see that we could form any con addition to it. jccture or inference at all concerning its or SECTION XII. OF THE ACADEMICAL OR SCEPTICAL PIILOSOPHY Part I. natural question : What is meant by a sceptic? And how far is it possible to THERE is not a greater number of philo- push these philosophical principles of sophical reasonings displayed upon any doubt and uncertainty? subject than those which prove the exist There is a species of scepticisin, anteence of a Deity and refute the fallacies of cellent to all study and philosophy, which Atheists; and yet the most religious is much inculcated by Descartes and philosophers still dispute whether any others as a sovereign preservative against man can be so blinded as to be a specu error and precipitate judgment. It recomlative Atheist. How shall we reconcile mends an universal doubt not only of all these contradictions? The knights-errant our former opinions and principles, but who wandered about to clear the world of also of our very faculties, of whose dragons and giants never entertained the veracity, say they, we must assure ourleast doubt with regard to the existence selves by a chain of reasoning deduced of these monsters. from original principle which The Scepticis another enemy of religion, cannot possibly be fallacious or deceitful. who naturally provokes the indignation But neither is there any such original of all divines and graver philosophers, principle which has a prerogative above though it is certain that no man ever met others that are self-evident and conwith any such absurd creature, or con- vincing ; nor, if there were, could we versed with a man who had no opinion or advance a step beyond it but by the use principle concerning any subject either of of those very faculties of which we are action or speculation. This begets a very supposed to be already diflident. The soine ·OF THE ACADEMICAL OR SCEPTICAL PHILOSOPHY 71 an or Cartesian doubt, therefore, were it ever their evidence by reason and hy considera. possible to be attained by any human tions derived from the nature of the creature (as it plainly is not), would be medium, the distance of the object, and entirely incurable, and no reasoning could the disposition of the organ, in order to ever bring us to a state of assurance and render them, within their sphere, the conviction upon any subject. proper criteria of truth and falsehood. It must, however, be confessed that There are other more profound arguments this species of scepticism, when more against the senses which admit not of so moderate, may be understood in a very easy a solution. reasonable sense, and is a necessary It seems evident that men are carried, preparative to the study of philosophy, by by a natural instinct or prepossession, to preserving a proper impartiality in our repose faith in their senses, and that, judgments and wca caning our mind from without any reasoning, or even almost all those prejudices which we may have before the use of reason, we always imbibed from education or rash opinion. supposc external universe which To begin with clear and self-evident depends not on our perception, but would principles, to advance by timorous and exist though we and every sensible sure steps, to review frequently our con creature were absent annihilated. clusions and examine accurately all their Even the animal creation are governed consequences, though by these means we by a like opinion, and preserve this belief shall make both a slow and a short of external objects in all their thoughts, progress in our systems, are the only designs, and actions. methods by which we can ever hope to It seems also evident that when inen reach truth and attain a proper stability' follow this blind and powerful instinct of and certainty in our determinations. nature they always suppose the very There is another species of scepticism, images presented by the senses to be the consequent to science and inquiry, when external objects, and never entertain any men are supposed to have discovered suspicion that the one are nothing but either the absolute fallaciousness of their representations of the other. This very mental faculties or their unfitness to reach table, which we see white, and which we any fixed determination in all those feel hard, is believed to exist independent curious subjects of speculation about of our perception, and to be something which they are commonly employed. external to our mind, which perceives it. Even our very senses are brought into Our presence bestows not being on it; dispute by a certain species of philo our absence does not annihilate it. It sophers, and the maxims of common life preserves its existence uniform and entire, are subjected to the same doubt as the independent of the situation of intelligent most profound principles or conclusions beings who perceive or contemplate it. of metaphysics and theology. As these But this universal and primary opinion paradoxical tenets (if they may be called of all men is soon destroyed by the tenets) are to be met with in some philo test philosophy, which teaches us sophers, and the reſutation of thein in that nothing can ever be present to the several, they naturally excite our curiosity, mind , hut an image or perception, and and make us inquire into the arguments that the senses are only the inlets through on which they may be founded. which these images are conveyed, without I need not insist upon the more trite being able to produce any immediate topics employed by the sceptics in all intercourse between the mind and the ages against the evidence ofasense, such object. The table which we see seems to as those which are derived froin the diminish as we move farther from it; but imperfection and fallaciousness of our the real table, which exists independent of organis on numberless occasions; the us, suffers no alteration: it was, therefore, crooked appearance of an oar in water; nothing but its image which was present the various aspects of objects according to the mind. These are the obvious to their different distances; the double dictates of reason; and no man who images which arise from the pressing one reflects ever doubted that the existences eye ; with inany other appearances of which we consider when we say this house a' like nature. These sceptical topics, and that tree are nothing but perception's indeed, are only sufficient to prove that in the mind, and feeting copies or the senses alone are not implicitly to be representations of other existences which depended on, but that we must correct remain uniform and independent.

·72 OF THE „1CADEMICAL OR SCEPTICAL PHILOSOPHY So far, then, are we necessitated by This is a topic, therefore, in which reasoning to contradict or depart from the profounder and more philosophical the primary instincts of nature, and to sceptics will always triumph when they embrace a new system with regard to the endeavour to introduce an universal doubt 'evidence of our senses. But liere philo- into all subjects of human knowledge and sophy finds herself extremely embarrassed inquiry.... Do you follow the instincts and when she would justify this new system propensities of nature, may they say, in and obviate the cavils and objections of assenting to the veracity of sense? But the sceptics. She can no longer plead these lead you to believe that the very the infallible and irresistible instinct of perception or sensible image is the external nature, for that led us to a quite different object. Do you disclaim this principle in system, which is acknowledged fallible, order to embrace a more rational opinion and even erroneous. And to justify this that the perceptions are only representapretended philosophical system by a chain tions of something external? You here of clear and convincing argument, or even depart from your natural propensities and any appearance of argument, exceeds the more obvious sentinients, and yet are not power of all human capacity: able to satisfy your reason, which can By what argument can it be proved never find any convincing argument from that the perceptions of the mind must be experience to prove that the perceptions caused by external objects entirely dif are connected with any external objects. ferent from them, though resembling There is another sceptical topic of a them (if that he possible), and could not like nature, derived from the most proarise either from the energy of the mind found philosophy, which might merit our itself or froil the suggestion of some attention were it requisite to dive so deep invisible and unknowii spirit, or from in order to discover arguments and reasonsome other cause still more unknown to ings which can so little serve to any us? It is acknowledged that, in fact, serious purpose. It is universally allowed many of these perceptions arise not from by modern inquirers that all the sensible anything external, as in dreams, madness, qualities of objects, such as hard, soft, and other diseases. And nothing can be hot, cold, white, black, etc., are merely more inexplicable than the manner in secondary, and exist not in the objects which body should so operate upon mind themselves, but are perceptions of the as ever to convey an image of itself to a mind, without any external archetype or substance supposed of so different and model which they represent. If this be even contrary a nature. allowed with regard to secondary quali- It is a question of fact whether the ties, it must also follow with regard to the perceptions of the senses be produced by supposed primary qualities of extension external objects resembling them. Ilow and solidily; nor can the latter be any shall this question, be determined ? By vore entitled to that denomination than experience, surely, as all other questions the former. The idea of extension is of a like naturc. But licre experience is, entirely acquired from the senses of sight and must be, entirely silent. The mind and feeling; and if all the qualities perhas never anything present to it but the ceived by the senses be in the mind, not perceptions, and cannot possibly reach in the object, the same conclusion must any experience of their connection with reach the idea of extension, which is objects. The supposition of such a con- wholly dependent on the sensible idcas or nection is, therefore, without any founda- the ideas of secondary qualities. Nothing tion in reasoning. can save us from this conclusion but the To have recourse to the veracity of the asserting that the ideas of those primary Supreine Being in order to prove the qualities are attained by abstraction-an veracity of our senses is surely making a opinion which, if we examine it accurately, very unexpected circuit. If his veracity we shall find to be unintelligible, and even were at all concerned in this matter, our absurd. An extension that is neither senses would be entirely infallible, because tangible nor visilile cannot possibly be it is not possible that he can even deceive. conceived; and a tangible or visible exten- Not to mention that if the external world sion which is neither hard nor soft, black be once called in question, we shall be at nor white, is equally beyond the reach of a loss to find arguments by which we may human conception. Let any man try to prove the existence of that Being or any conceive a triangle in general, which is of his attributes. ! neither isosceles nor scalenum, nor has ·OF TYIE, ACADEMICAL OR SCEPTICAL PHILOSOPHY 73 any particular length or proportion of quences, as they are pompously displayed sides, and he will soon perceive the absur- by all geometricians and metaphysicians dity of all the scholastic notions with with a kind of triumph and exultation, regard to abstraction and general ideas." A real quantity, infinitely less than any Thus the first philosophical objection to finite quantity, containing, quantities the evidence of sense or to the opinion of infinitely less than itself, and so on in external existence consists in this, that infinituin : this is an edifice so bold and such an opinion, if rested on natural prodigious that it is too weighty for instinct, is contrary to reason, and, if any pretended demonstration to support, referred to reason, is contrary to natural because it shocks the clearest and most instinct, and at the same time carries no natural principles of human reason.' But rational evidence with it to convince an what renders the matter more extraimpartial inquirer. The second objection ordinary is that these seemingly absurd goes farther, and represents this opinion opinions are supported by a chain of as contrary to reason; at least, if it be a reasoning the clearest and most natural ; principle of reason that all sensible quali nor is it possible for us to allow the ties are in the mind, not in the object. premises without admitting the conse- Bereave matter of all its intelligible quali- quences. Nothing can be inore convincties, both primary and secondary, you in ing and satisfactory than all the conclua manner annihilate it, and leave only a sions concerning the properties of circles certain unknown, inexplicable something and triangles ; and yet, when these are as the cause of our perceptions-a notion once received, how can we deny that the so imperfect that no sceptic will think it angle of contact between a circle and its worth while to contend against it. tangent is infinitely less than any rectilineal angle; that as you may increase the Part II. diameterofthecircle in infinitum this angle of contact becomes still less, even in It may seem a very extravagant attempt infinitum; and that the angle of contact of the sceptics to destroy reason by argubetween other curves and their tangents ment and ratiocination ; yet is this the may be infinitely less than those between grand scope of all their inquiries and dis- any circle and its tangent, and so on in putes. They endeavour to find objections infinitum.? The demonstration of these both to our abstract reasonings and to principles seems as unexceptionable as those which regard matter of fact and that which proves the three angles of a existence. triangle to be equal to two right ones, The chief objection against all abstract though the latter opinion be natural and reasonings is derived from the ideas of casy, and the former big with contradicspace and time-ideas which, in common tion and absurdity. Reason here seems life and to a careless view, are very clear to be thrown into a kind of amazement and intelligible, but when they pass and suspensc, which, without the suggesthrough the scrutiny of the profound tions of any sceptic, gives her a diffidence sciences (and they are the chief object of of herself and of the ground on which she these sciences) alford principles which treads. She sees a full light which illuseem full of absurdity and contradiction. minates certain places; but that light No priestly dogmas, invented on purpose borders upon the most profound darkness. to tame and subdue the rebellious reason And between these she is so dazzled and of mankind, ever shocked common sense confounded that she scarcely can promore than the doctrine of the infinite nounce with certainty and assurance condivisibility of extension, with its conse- cerning any one object. • This arguinent is drawn from Dr. Berkeley, and, indeed, most of the writings of that very ingenious author form the best lessons of scepticism which are to be found either among the ancient or modern philosophers, Bayle not excepted. He professes, however, in his title-page (and undoubtedly with great truth), to have composed his book against the sceptics as well as against the atheists and freethinkers. But that all his arguinents, though otherwise intended, are in reality merely sceptical, appears from this, that they admit of no answer and produce no conviction. Their only effect is to cause that momentary anazement and irresolution and confusion which is the result of scepticism. senses, are absolutely indivisible, and consequently must be allowed by mathematicians to be infinitely less than any rcal part of extension; and yet nothing appears inore certain to reason than that an infinite number of them composes an infinite extension. How much more an infinite number of those infinitely small parts of extension which are still supposed infinitely divisible.

·74 OF THE ACADEMICAL OR SCEPTICAL PHILOSOPHY. The absurdity of these bold determina- in common life we reason every moment tions of the abstract sciences seems to concerning fact and existence, and cannot becoine, if possible, still more palpable possibly subsist without continually emwith regard to time than extension. An ploying this species of argument, any infinite nuinber of real parts of time popular objections derived froni thence passing in succession, and exhausted one must be insufficient to destroy that eviafter another, appears so evident a con dence. The great subverter of Pyrrhontradiction that no man, one should think, ism, or the excessive principles of sceptiwhose judgment is not corrupted, instead cism, is action and employment and the of being improved, by the sciences would occupations of common life. These prinever be able to admit of it. ciples may flourish and triumph in the Yet still reason inust remain restless schools, where it is indeed difficult, if not and unquiet, even with regard to that impossible, to refute them. But as soon scepticism to which she is driven by these as they leave the shade, and, by the preseeming absurdities and contradictions. sence of the real objects which actuate How any clear, distinct idea can contain our passions and sentiments, are put in circumstances contradictory to itself or to opposition to the more powerful prinany other clear, distinct idea is absolutely ciples of our nature, they vanish like incomprehensible, and is, perhaps, as smoke, and leave the inost determined absurd as any proposition which can be sceptic in the same condition as other formed. So that nothing can be more mortals. sceptical or inore full of doubt and hesita The sceptic, therefore, had better kecp tion than this scepticism itself, which within his proper sphere, and display. arises from some of the paradoxical con those philosophical objections which arise clusions of geometry, or the science of from more profound researches. Here he quantity, seems to have ample matter of triumpli, The sceptical objections to moral evi- while he justly insists that all our evidence dence, or to the reasonings concerning for any matter of fact which lies beyond matter of fact, are either popular or philo- the testimony of sense or memory is desophical The popular objections are rived entirely from the relation of cause derived from the natural weakness of and effect; that we have no other idea of human understanding, the contradictory this relation than that of two objects opinions which have been entertained in which have been frequently conjoined todifferent ages and nations, the variations gether; that we have no argument to of our judgment in sickness and health, convince us that objects which have, in youth and old age, prosperity and adver our experience, been frequently consity; the perpetual contradiction of cach joined will likewise, in other instances, particular man's opinions and sentiments, ho conjoined in the same manner; and with many other topics of that kind. It that nothing leads us to this inference but is needless to insist farther on this head. custom or a certain instinct of our nature, These objections are but weak. For, as which it is indeed difficult to resist, but which, like other instincts, may be falla- ... It seems to me not impossible to avoid these absur. cious and deceitful. While the sceptic dities and contradictions, if it be admitted that there is no such thing as abstract or general ideas, properly insists upon these topics he shows his speaking, but that all general ideas arc, in reality, parforce, or rather, indeed, his own and our ticular ones, attached to a general term, which recalls, weakness, and seems, for the time at upon occasion, other particular ones that resemble, in certain circumstances, the idea present to the mind. least, to destroy all assurance and con- Thus, when the terin "horse" is pronounced, we imme viction. These arguments might be disdiately,figure to ourselves the idea of a black or a played at greater length if any durable that term is also usually applied to animals of other good or benefit to society could ever be colours, figures, and sizes, these ideas, though not expected to result from them. actually present to the imagination, are casily recalled, and our reasoning and conclusion procced in the same For liere is the chief and most conway, as if they were actually present. If this be founding objectionato excessive scepticism, admitted (as seenis reasonable), it follows that all the ideas of quantity upon which mathematicians reason that no durable good can ever result from are nothing but particular, and such as are suggested it while it remains in its full force and by the senses and imagination, and, consequently, vigour. We need only ask such a sceptic, cannot be infinitely divisible. It is sufficient to have dropped this hint at present, without prosecuting it What his meaning is And what he proany larther. It certainly concerns all lovers of science poses by all these curious researches? He not to expuse themselves to the ridicule and contempt of the ignorant by their conclusions, and this seems is immediately at a loss, and knows the readiest solution of these difficulties. not what to answer. A Copernican or ·OF THE ACADEMICAL OR SCEPTICAL PHILOSOPHY 75 Ptolemaic, who supports each his different inclined; nor have they any indulgence system of astronomy, may hope to pro- for those who entertain opposite sentiduce a conviction which will remain con ments. To hesitate or balance perplexes stant and durable with his audience. A their understanding, checks their passion, Stoic or Epicurean displays principles and suspends their action. They are, which may not be durable, but which therefore, impatient till they escape from have an effect on conduct and behaviour. a state which to them is so uneasy, and But a Pyrrhonian cannot expect that his they think that they could never remove philosophy will have any constant infiu-themselves far enough froin it by the ence on the nrınd; or, if it had, that its violence of their affirniations and obstinacy influence would be beneficial to society. of their belief. .But could such dog- On the contrary, he must acknowledge, matical reasoners become sensible of the if he will acknowledge anything, that all strange-infirmities of human understandhuman life must perish were his principles ing, even in its most perfect state, and universally and steadily to prevail. All when most accurate and cautious in its discourse, all action, would immediately determinations, such a reflection would cease, and men remain in a total lethargy naturally inspire them with more modesty till the necessities of nature, unsatisfied, and reserve, and diminish their fond put an end to their miserable existence. opinion of themselves and their prejudice It is true, so fatal an event is very little to against antagonists. The illiterate inay be dreaded. Nature is always too strong reflect on the disposition of the learned, for principle. And though a Pyrrhonian who, amid all the advantages of study may throw himself or others into a and reflection, are commonly still diffident momentary amazement and confusion by in their determinations ; and if any of the his profound reasonings, the first and learned be inclined, from their natural most trivial event in life will put to flight temper, to haughtiness and obstinacy, a all his doubts and scruples, and leave him small tincture of Pyrrhonism might abate the same, in every point of action and their pride, by showing them that the few speculation, with the philosophers of advantages which they may have attained every other sect, or with those wlio never over their fellows are but inconsiderable concerned themselves in any philosophical if compared with the universal perplexity researches. When he awakes from his and confusion which is inherent in human dream he will be the first to join in the nature. In general, there is a degree of laugh against himself, and to confess doubt and caution and modesty which, in that all his objections are mere amusc all kinds of scrutiny and decision, ought ment, and can have no other tendency for ever to accompany a just reasoner. than to show the whimsical condition of Another species of mitigated scepticism inankind, who inust act and reason and which may be of advantage to mankind, believe, though they are not able, by and which may be the natural result of their most diligent inquiry, to satisfy the Pyrrhonian doubts and scruples, is the themselves concerning the foundation of limitation of our inquiries to such subjects these operations, or to remove the objec- as are best adapted to the varrow capacity tions which may be raised against them. of human understanding. The imagination of man is naturally sublime, delighted PART III. with whatever is remote and extraordinary, and running, without control, There is, indeed, a more mitigated scep- into the most distant parts of space and ticism, or academical philosophy, which time in order to avoid the objects which may be both durable and useful, and custom has rendered too familiar' to it. which may, in part, be the result of this A correct judgment observes a contrary Pyrrhonism, or excessive scepticism, when method, and, avoiding all distant and its undistinguished doubts are, in some high inquiries, confines itself to common measure, corrected by cominon sense and life, and to such subjects as fall under réflection. The greater part of mankind daily practice and experience, leaving the are naturally apt to be affirmative and more sublime topics to the embellishment dogmatical in their opinions; and while of poets and orators, or to the arts of they see objects only on one side, and priests and politicians. To bring us to have no idea of any counterpoising argu- so salutary a determination nothing can ment, they throw themselves precipitately be more serviceable than to be once into. the principles to which they are thoroughly convinced of the force of the ·76 OF THE ACADEMICAL OR SCEPTICAL PHILOSOPIIY it to us. Pyrrhonian doubt, and of the impossi- injustice to be a violation of property. bility that anything but the strong power This proposition is, indeed, nothing but a of natural instinct could free us from it. more imperfect definition. It is the same Those who have a propensity to philo- case with all those pretended syllogistical sophy will still continue their rescarcles, reasonings which inay be found in every because they reflect that, besides the other branch of learning except the immediate pleasure attending such an sciences of quantity and number; and occupation, philosophical decisions are these may safely, I think, be pronounced nothing but the reflections of common the only proper objects of knowledge and life methodiscd and corrected. But they demonstration. will never be tempted to go beyond All other inquiries of men regard only common life so long as they consider the matter of fact and existence, and these imperfection of those friculties which they are evidently incapable of demonstration. employ, their narrow reach, and their Whatever is may not be. No negation of inaccurate operations. While we cannot a fact can involve a contradiction. The give a satisfactory reason why we believe, non-existence of any being, without after a thousand experiments, that a exception, is as clear and distinct an idea stone will fall or fire burn, can we ever as its existence. The proposition which satisfy ourselves concerning any determi affirms it not to be, however false, is no nation which we may form with regard to less conceivable and intelligible than that the origin of worlds and the situation of which aflirms it to be. The case is difnature from and to eternity? ferent with the sciences, properly so This narrow limitation, indeed, of our called. Every proposition which is not inquirics is in every respect so reasonable true is there confused and unintelligible. that it suffices to make the slightest That the cube root of sixty-four is equal examination into the natural powers of to the half of ten is a false proposition, the human mind, and to compare them and can never be distinctly conceived. with their objects, in order to recommend But that Cæsar, or the angel Gabriel, or We shall then find what are the any being never existed may be a false proper subjects of science and inquiry, proposition, but still is perfectly conceiv- It scems to me that the only objects of able, and implies no contradiction. the abstract science or of demonstration The existence, therefore, of any hcing are quantity and number, and that all can only be proved by arguments from its attempts to extend this more perfect cause or its effect, and these arguments species of knowledge beyond these bounds are founded entirely on experience. If are more sophistry and illusion. As the we reason a priori, anything may appear component parts of quantity and number able to produce anything. The falling of are entirely similar, their relations become in pebble may, for aught we know, extinintricate and involved, and nothing can guish the sun, or the wish of a man be more curious, as well as useful, than control the planets in their orbits. It is lo trace, by a variety of mediums, their oily experience which teaches us the equality or inequality through their nature and bounds of cause and effect, different appearances. But as all other and enables us to infer the existence of ideas are clearly distinct and different one object from that of another.' Such is from each other, we can never advance the foundation of inoral reasoning, which farther, by our utmost scrutiny, than to forms the greater part of human knowobserve this diversity, and, by an obvious ledge, and is the source of all human reflection, pronounce one thing not to be action and behaviour. another. Or, if there be any difficulty in Moral reasonings are either concerning these decisions, it proceeds entirely from particular or general facts. All deliberathe undeterminate mcaning of words, tions in life regard the former, as also all which is corrected by juster definįtions. disquisitions in history, chronology, geo- That the square of the hypothenuse is equal graphy, and astronomy. to the squares of the other two sides cannot The sciences which treat of general be known, let the terms be ever so exactly defined, without a train of reasoning and 1 That impious maxiin of the ancient philosophy, Ex nihilo nihil fit, by which the creation of matter was inquiry. But to convince us of this proexcluded, ceases to be a maxim according to this philoposition, that where there is no property sophy. Not only the will of the Supreme Being may there can be no injustice, it is only necescreate matter, hut, for aught we know a priori, the will of any other being might create it, or any other cause sary to define the terms and explain.' that the most whimsical inagination can assign.

·OF THE ACADEMICAL OR SCEPTICAL PHILOSOPHY 77 facts are politics, natural philosophy, and endeavour to fix its standard, we physic, chemistry, etc., where the quali- regard a new fact to wit, the general ties, causes, and effects of a whole species tastes of mankind, or some such fact, which of objects are inquired into. may be the object of reasoning and Divinity or theology, as it proves the inquiry. existence of a Deity and the immortality When we run over libraries, persuaded of souls, is composed partly of reasonings of these principles, what havoc must we concerning particular, partly concerning make? If we take in our hand any general facts. It has a foundation in volume of divinity or school metaphysics, reason so far as it is supported by expe- for instance, let us ask, Does it contain rience. But its best and most solid foun- any abstract reasoning concerning quantity dation is faith and divine revelation. or number? No. Does it contain any Morals and criticism are not so properly experimental reasoning concerning matter objects of the understanding as of taste of fact and existence No. Commit it and sentiment. Beauty, whether moral then to the flames, for it can contain or natural, is felt more properly than nothing but sophistry and illusion. perceived: Or if we reason concerning it,

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·AN INQUIRY CONCERNING THE PRINCIPLES OF MORALS SECTION I. OF THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF MORALS GENERA DISPUTES with men pertinaciously obsti- he must observe that others are suscepnate in their principles are, of all otliers, tible of like impressions. The only way, the most irksome, except, perhaps, those therefore, of converting an antagonist of with persons entirely disingenuous, who this kind is to leave him to himself. For, really do not believe the opinions they finding that nobody keeps up the controdefend, but engage in the controversy versy with him, it is probable that he from affectation, from a spirit of opposi- will, at last, of himself, from nere wearition, or from a desire of showing wit and ness, come over to the side of common ingenuity superior to the rest of mankind. sense and reason. The same blind adherence to their own There has been a controversy started arguments is to be expected in both; the of late, much better worth examination, same contempt of their antagonists, and concerning the general foundation of the same passionate vehemence in en morals—whether they be derived from forcing sophistry and falsehood. And as reason or from sentimient; whether we reasoning is not the source whence either attain the knowledge of them by a chain disputant derives his tenets, it is in vain of argument and induction, or by an to expect that any logic which speaks not immediate feeling and finer internal sense; to the affections will ever engage him to whether, like all sound judgment of truth embrace sounder principles. and falsehood, they should be the same Those who have denied the reality of to every rational intelligent being ; moral distinctions may be ranked among whether, like the perception of beauty the disingenuous disputants, nor is it and deformity, they be founded entirely conceivable that any human creature on the particular fabric and constitution could ever seriously believe that all charm of the human species. acters and actions were alike entitled to The ancient philosophers, though they the affection and regard of everyone. often affirm that virtue is nothing but The difference which nature has placed conforınity to reason, yet, in general, between one man and another is so wide, seem to consider morals as deriving their and this difference is still so much existence from taste and sentiment. On farther, widened by education, example, the other hand, our modern inquirers, and habit, that, where the opposite ex- though they also talk much of the beauty trenes come at once under our appre- of wirtue and deformity of vice, yet have hension, there is no scepticismi so scrupu- commonly endeavoured to account for lous, and scarce any assurance so deter- these distinctions by metaphysical reasonmined, as absolutely to deny all distinctionings, and by deductions from the most between them. Let a man's insensibility abstract principles of the understanding. be ever so great, he must often be touched Such confusion reigned in these subjects with the images of Right and Wrong; that an opposition of the greatest conseand let his prejudices be ever so obstinate, quence could prevail between one system or ·So OF THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF MORALS and another, and even in the parts of · The end of all moral speculations is to almost each individual system ; and yet teach us our duty, and, by proper reprenobody, till very lately, was ever sensible sentations of the deformity of vice and of it. The elegant Lord Shaftesbury, beauty of virtue, beget corresponding who first gave occasion to remark this habits, and engage us to avoid the one distinction, and who, in general, adhered and embrace the other. But is this ever to the principles of the ancients, is not him to be expected from inferences and conself entirely free from the same confusion. clusions of the understanding, which of It must be acknowledged that both themselves have no hold of the affections, sides of the question are susceptible of or set in motion the active powers of specious arguments. Moral distinctions, men? They discover truths; but where it may be said, are discernible by pure the truths which they discover are inreason, else whence the many disputes different, and beget no desire or aversion, that reign in common life, as well as in they can have no influence on conduct philosophy, with regard to this subject-- and behaviour. What is honourable, the long chain of proot's often produced what is fair, what is becoming, what is on both sides; the examples cited, the noble, what is generous, takes possession authorities appealed to, the analogies of the heart, and animates us to embrace employed, the fallacies detected, the in and inaintain it. What is intelligible, ferences drawn, and the several conclu what is evident, what is probable, what is sions adjusted to their proper principles ? true, procures only the cool assent of the Truth is disputable, not taste; what understanding, and, gratifying a specuexists in the nature of things is the lative curiosity, puts an end to our restandard of our judgment; what each searches. man feels within himself is the standard Extinguish all the warm feelings and of sentiment. Propositions in geometry prepossessions in favour of virtue, and may be proved, systems in physics may all disgust or aversion to vice-render be controverted; but the harmony of men totally indifferent towards these disverse, the tenderness of passion, the tinctions--and morality is no longer a brilliancy of wit, must give immediate practical study, nor has any tendency to pleasure. No man reasons concerning regulate our lives and actions. another's beauty, but frequently concern These arguments on each side (and ing the justice or injustice of his actions. many more might be produced) are so In every criminal trial the first object of plausible that I am apt to suspect they the prisoner is to disprove the facts may, the one as well as the other, be alleged, and deny the actions imputed to solid and satisfactory, and that reason him ; the second to prove that, even if and sentiment concur in almost all moral these actions were real, they might he determinations and conclusions. The justified as innocent and lawful. It is final sentence, it is probable, which proconfessedly by deductions of the under nounces characters and actions aniable standing that the first point is ascer or odious, praiseworthy or blamable; tained; how can we suppose that a that which stamps on them the mark of different faculty of the inind is employed honour or infamy, approbation or censure; in fixing the other? that which renders morality an active On the other hand, those who would principle, and constitutes virtue our happiresolve all moral determinations into ness and vice our misery-it is probable, sentiment may endeavour to show that it say, that this final sentence depends on is impossible for reason ever to draw con some internal sense or feeling which clusions of this nature. To virtue, say nature has made universal in the whole they, it belongs to be amiable, and vice specics. For what else can have an inodious. This forms their very nature or fluence of this nature? But, in order to essence. But in reason or argumenta pave the way for such a sentiment, and tion distribute these different epithets to give a proper discernment of its object, it any subjects, and pronounce beforehand is often necessary, we find, that much that this must produce love, and that reasoning should precede, that nice dishatred? Or what other reason can we tinctions be made, just conclusions drawn, ever assign for these affections but the distant comparisons formed, complicated original fabric and formation of the relations examined, and general facts human mind, which is naturally adapted fixed and ascertained. Some species of to receive them? beauty, especially the natural kinds, on I ·MAJU TUR! IC LIBRAS MĀJU, HOW RALY OF THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF MORALS 81 their first appearance command our affec- to him, and whether such or such an tion and approbation; and where they imputation would proceed from a friend fail of this effect it is impossible for any or an enemy. The very nature of lanreasoning to redress their influence, or guage guides us almost infallibly in formadapt thenı better to our taste and senti- ing a judgment of this nature; and as ment. But in many orders of beauty, every tongue possesses one set of words particularly those of the finer arts, it is which are taken in a good sense, and requisite to employ much reasoning in another in the opposite, the least acquaintorder to feel the proper sentiment; and a ance with the idiom suffices, without any false relish may frequently be corrected reasoning, to direct us in collecting and by argument and reflecsion. There are arranging the estimable or blamable just grounds to conclude that moral qualities of men. The only object of beauty partakes much of this latter species, reasoning is to discover the circumstances and dentands the assistance of our intel on both sides which are common to these lectual faculties, in order to give it a suit- qualities; to observe that particular in able influence on the human mind, which the estimable qualities agree on But though this question concerning the one hand, and the blamable on the the general principles of morals be curious other; and thence to reach the foundation and important; it is needless for us at of ethics, and find those universal prinpresent to employ farther care in our ciples from which all censure or approresearches concerning it. For if we can bation is ultimately derived. As this is a be so happy, in the course of this inquiry, question of fact, not of abstract science, as to discover the true origin of morals, we can only expect success by following it will then easily appear how far either the experimental method, and deducing sentiment or reason enters into all deter- general maxims from a comparison of minations of this nature.' In order to particular instances. The other scientific attain this purpose, we shall endeavour method, where a general abstract printo follow a very simple method--we shall ciple is first established and is afterwards analyse that complication of mental quali- branched out into a variety of inferences ties which form what, in common life, and conclusions, may be more perfect in we call personal merit; we shall consider itself, but suits less the imperfection of every attribute of the mind which renders human nature, and is a common source a man an object either of esteem and of illusion and mistake in this as well affection, or of hatred and contempt; as in other subjects. Men every habit or sentiment or faculty which, cured of their passion for hypotheses and if ascribed to any person, implies either systems in nalural philosophy, and will praise or blame, and inay enter into any hearken to no argunients but those which panegyric or satire of his character and are derived from experience. It is full The quick sensibility which, time they should attempt a like reformaon this head, is so universal among man tion in all moral disquisitions, and reject kind gives a philosopher sufficient assur every system of ethics, however subtle or ance that he can never be considerably ingenious, which is not founded on fact mistaken in framing the catalogue, or and observation. incur any danger of misplacing the objects We shall begin our inquiry on this of his contemplation; he needs only head by the consideration of the social enter into his own breast for a moment, virtues, benevolence and justice. The and consider whether or not lie should explication of them will probably give us desire to have this or that quality ascribed an opening by which the others may be accounted for. 1 See Appendix I. Estd. 1992 are now manners.

·OÈ BENEVOLENCE SECTION II. OF BENEVOLENCE • Part I. there being nothing eminent in that case to compensate for the want of them, It may be esteemed, perhaps, a super or preserve the person from our severest fluous task to prove that the benevolent hatred as well as contempt. A high or softer affections are estimable, and, ambition, an elevated courage, is apt, wherever they appear, engage the appro- says Cicero, in less perfect characters, to bation and goodwill of mankind. The degenerate into a turbulent ferocity. epithets sociable, gooil-natureid, humane, The more social and softer virtues are merciful, grateful, friendly, generous, there chiefly to be regarded. These are beneficent, or their equivalents, are known always good and amiable.' in all languages, and universally express The principal advantage which Juvenal the highest merit which human nature is discovers in the extensive capacity of the capable of attaining. Where these ani- human species is that it renders our able qualities are attended with birth and benevolence also more extensive, and power and eminent abilities, and display gives us larger opportunities of spreading themselves in the good government or our kindly influence than what are inuseful instruction of mankind, they seem dulged to the inferior creation.? It must, even to raise the possessors of them above indeed, be confessed that by doing good the rank of human nature, and make them only can a man truly enjoy the advantages approach in some measure to the divine. of being eminent. His exalted station Esalted capacity, undaunted courage, of itself but the more exposes him to prosperous success: these may only danger and tempest. His sole prerogaexpose a hero or politician to the envy tive is to afford shelter to inferiors, who and ill-will of the public; but as soon repose themselves under his cover and as the praises are added of humane and protection. beneficent; when instances are displayed But I forget that it is not iny present of lenity, tenderness, or friendship; envy business to recommend generosity and itself is silent, or joins the general voice benevolence, or to paint in their true of approbation and applause. colours all the genuine charms of the When Pericles, the great Athenian social virtues. These, indeed, sufficiently statesman and general, was on his death- engage every heart on the first apprehenbed, his surrounding friends, deeming sion of them; and it is difficult to abstain him now insensible, began to indulge from some sally of panegyric, as often as their sorrow for their expiring .patron by they occur in discourse or reasoning. enumerating his great qualities and But our object here being more the successes, his conquests and victories, the speculative than the practical part of unusual length of his administration, and morals, it will suffice to remark (what his nine trophies erected over the enemies will readily, I believe, be allowed), that of the Republic. You forget, cries the no qualities are more entitled to the dying hero, who had heard all, you general goodwill and approbation of forget the most eminent of my praises, mankind than beneficence and humanity, while you dwell so much on those vulgar friendship and gratitude, natural affecadvantages in which fortune had a princi- tion and public spirit, or whatever propal share. You have not observed that no ceeds from tender sympathy with citizen has ever yet worn mourning on my others and a generous concern for our account.' kind and species. These, wherever they In mien of more ordinary talents and appear, seem to transfuse themselves, in capacity, the social virtues become, if a manner, into each beholder, and to call possible, still more essentially requisite; * Cic., De Officiis, lib. i. 1 Plut., in Pericle. a 2 Sat. xv., 139 et seq.

·OF BENEVOLENCE 83 forth, in their own behalf, the same contemplated with pleasure and approba. favourable and affectionate sentiments tion. An experienced eye is here sensible which they exert on all around. to many excellences which escape persons ignorant and uninstructed. PART II. Can anything stronger be said in praise of a profession, such as merchandise or We may observe that in displaying the manufacture, than to observe the advanpraises of any humane, beneficent man tages which it procures to society; and is there is one circumstance which never not a monk and inquisitor enraged when fails to be amply insisted on-namely, we treat his order as useless or pernicious. the happiness and satisfaction derived to to mankind ? society from his intercourse and good The historian exults in displaying the offices. To his parents, we are apt to benefit arising from his labours. The say, ., he endears himself by his pious writer of romance alleviates or denies the attachment and duteous care still more bad consequences ascribed to his manner than by the connections of nature. His of composition. children never feel his authority but In general, what praise is implied in when, employed for their advantage, the simple epithet useful! What reproach With him ihe ties of love are consolidated in the contrary.! by beneficence and friendship. The tics Your gods, says Cicero,' in opposition. of friendship approach, in a fond obser to the Epicureans, cannot justly claiin yance of each obliging office, to those of any worship or adoration, with whatever love and inclination. His domestics and imaginary perfections you may suppose dependants have in him a sure resource, them endowed. They are totally useless and no longer dread the power of fortune and inactive. Even the Egyptians, whom but so far as she exercises it over him. you so much ridicule, never consecrated From him the hungry receive food, the any animal but on account of its utility: naked clothing, the ignorant and sloth The sceptics assert,” though absurdly; ful skill and industry. Like the sun, an that the origin of all religious worship inferior minister of providence, he cheers, was derived from the utility of inanimate invigorates, and sustains the surrounding objects, as the sun and moon, to the supworld. port and well-being of mankind. This is If confined to private life, the sphere of also the common reason assigned by hishis activity is narrower; but his influence torians for the deification of eminent is all benign and gentle. If exalled into heroes and legislators.3 a higher station, mankind and posterity To plant a tree, to cultivate a field, to reap the fruit of his labours. beget children: meritorious acts, accord- As these topics of praise never fail to be ing to the religion of Zoroaster. employed, and with success, where we In all determinations of morality this would inspire esteem for anyone, may it circumstance of public utility is ever not thence be concluded that the utility principally in view; and wherever disresulting from the social virtues formis putes arise, either in philosophy or comat least a part of their merit, and is one mon life, concerning the bounds of duty, source of that approbation and regard so the question cannot, by any means, be universally paid to them? decided with greater certainty than by When we recommend even an animal ascertaining, un any side, the true inor a plant as useful and beneficial, we terests of mankind. If any false opinion, give it an applause and recommendation embraced from appearances, has been suited to its nature; as, 'on the other found to prevail, as as farther hand, reflection on the baneful influence experience and sounder reasoning have of any of these inferior beings always given us juster notions of human affairs, inspires us with the sentiment of aversion. we retract our first sentiinent and djust The eye is pleased with the prospect of anew the boundaries of moral good and cornfields and loaded vineyards, horses evil. grazing, and flocks pasturing; but flies Giving alms to conimon beggars is the view of briars and brambles, affording naturally praised, because it seems to shelter to wolves and serpents. A inachine, a piece of furniture, a vest- 1 De Nat. Deor., lib. 1. ment, a house well contrived for use and • Sext. Emp. Adversus Math., jib. viii. conveniency, is so far beautiful, and is 3 Diod. Sic., passim. soon ·was been supposed the source of every corrups better appear from future disquisitions ; 84 OF JUSTICE carry relief to the distressed and indigent; fore, universally regarded as a vice, and but when we observe the encouragement an object of declamation to all thence arising to idleness and debauchery, satirists and severe moralists. Those we regard that species of charity rather who prove, or attempt to prove, tlmt such as a weakness than a virtuc. refinements rather tend to the increase of Tyrannicide, or the assassination of industry, civility, and arts regulate anew usurpers and oppressive princes, was our moral as well as political sentiments, highly estolled in ancient times, because and represent as laudable or innocent it both freed mankind from many of these what had formerly been regarded as monsters and seemed to keep the others pernicious and blamable. in awe whom the sword and poniard Upon the whole, then, it seems undenicould not reach. But, history and ex able that nothing can bestow more merit perience haring since convinced us that on any human creature than the senti- This practice increases the jealousy and ment of benevolence in an eminent degree; cruelty of princes, a Timoleon and a and that a part at least of its nicrit arises Brutus, though treated with indulgence from its tendency to promote the interests on account of the prejudices of their times, of our species, and bestow happiness on now considered as very improper human society. We carry our view into models for imitation. the salutary, a sequences of such a Liberality in princes is regarded as a charncter and disposition; and whatever mark of beneficence, but when it occurs has so benign an influence, and forwards that the homely bread of the honest and so desirable an end, is beheld with comindustrious is often thereby converted into placency and pleasure. The social virtues delicious cates for the idle and the prodi- are never regarded without their benefigal, we soon retract our heedless praises. cial tendencies, nor viewed as barren and The regrets of a prince for having lost unfruitful. The happiness of mankind, a day were noble and generous; but had the order of society, the harmony of he intended to have spent it in acts of families, the mutual support of friends, generosity to his greedy courtiers, it was are always consiuered as the result of better lost than misemployed after that their genile dominion over the breasts of Luxury, or a refinement on the pleasures Ilow considerable a part of their merit and conveniences of life, hazl not long we ought to ascribe to their utility will tion in goverument, and the immediate as well as the reason why this circumcause of faction, sedition, civil wars, and stance has such a command over our the total loss of liberty. It was, there esteem and approbation." are manner. nen. i Sect. Ill. and IV. Sect. V. SECTION III. OF JUSTICE Part 1. beneficial consequences of this virtuc are .the sole foundation of its mcrit ; this pro- That justice is useful to society, and con- position, being more curious and imsequentlythat part of its merit at least portant, will better deserve our examinamust arise from that consideration, it tion and inquiry. would be a superfluous undertaking to Let us suppose that nature has bestowed prove. That public utility is the sole origin on the human race such profuse abundance of justice, and that reflections on the of all external conveniences that without ·OF JUSTICE 85 any uncertainty in the event, without any be used by the inhabitants, and the foriner care or industry on our part, every indi- be found with difficulty, and in very small vidual finds himself fully provided with quantities. whatever his most voracious appetites can Again, suppose that, though the neceswant, or luxurious imagination wish or sitics of the hunian race continue the same desire. His natural beauty, we shall as at present, yet the mind is so enlarged suppose, surpasses all acquired orna and so replete with friendship and genesnients; the perpetual clemency of the osity that every man has the utmost seasons renders useless all clothes or tenderness for every man, and feels no covering; the raw herbage affords him more concern for his own interest than for the niost delicious fare, the clcar fountain that of his fellows; it seems evident that the richest beverage. No laborious occu the use of justice would in this case be pation required, no tillage, no navigation. suspended by such an extensive benevo- Music, poetry, and contemplation form lence, nor would the divisions and barriers his sole business; conversation, mirth, and of property and obligation have ever been friendship his sole amusement. thought of. Why should I bind another It scems evident that in such a happy by a decd or promise to do me any good state every other social virtue would oflice when I know that he is already flourish, and receive Tenfold increase; prompted by the strongest inclination to but the cautious, jealous virtue of justice seck my happiness, and would, of himself; would never once have been dreamed of. perform the desired service ; except the For what purpose make a partition of Irurt he thereby receives be greater than goods where everyone has already more the benefit accruing to me, in which case than enough? Why give rise to property he knows that, from my innate humanity where there cannot possibly be any injury? and friendship, I should be the first to Why call this object mine when, upon the oppose myself tohisimprudent generosity? seizing of it by another, I need but stretch Why raise landmarks between my neighout my hand to possess myself of what is bour's field and mine when my heart has equally valuable ? Justice in that case, made no division between our interests, being totally useless, would be an idle but shares all his joys and sorrows with ceremonial, and could never possibly have the same force and vivacity as if originally place in the catalogue of virtues. my own ? Every man, upon this supposi- We sce, even in the present necessitous tion, hcing a second self to another, condition of mankind, that wherever any would trust all his interests to the disbenefit is bestowed by nature in an un cretion of every man, without jealousy, limited abundance we leave it always in without partition, without distinction. common among the whole human race, And the whole human race would form and make no subdivisions of right and only one family, where all would lie in property. Water and air, though the and be used freely without most necessary of all objects, are not regard to property; but cautiously too, challenged as the property of individuals; with as entire regard to the necessities of nor can any man commit injustice by the each individual as if our own interests most lavish use and enjoyment of these were most intimately concerned. blessings. In fertile extensive countries, In the present disposition of the human with few inhabitants, land is regarded on heart it would, perhaps, be difficult to the same footing, and no topic is so much find complete instances of such enlarged insisted on by those who defend the affections ; but still we may observe that liberty of the seas as the unexhausted use the case of families approaches towards of them in navigation. Were the advan it; and the stronger the mutual benevotages procured by navigation as inex lence is among the individuals, the nearer haustible, these reasoners had never had it approaches, till all distinction of proan adversaries to refute; nor had any perty be, in a great measure, lost and claims ever been advanced of a separate, coiffounded among them. Between marexclusive dominion over the ocean. ried persons the cement of friendship is It may happen in some countries, at by the laws supposed so strong as to some periods, that there be established a abolish all division of possessions, and property in water, none in land,' if the has often, in reality, the force ascribed to latter be in greater abundance than can it. And it is observable that during the ardour of new enthusiasms, when every Genesis, chaps. xiii. and xxi. principle is inflamed into extravagance, Common ·86 OF JUSTICE as the community of goods has frequently rapaciousness prevail, such a disregard been attempted; and nothing but ex to equity, such contempt of order, such perience of its inconveniences, from the stupid blindness to future consequences, returning or disguised selfishness of men, must immediately have the most could make the imprudent fanatics adopt tragical conclusion, and must terminate anew the ideas of justice and of separate in destruction to the greater number, and property. So true is it that this virtue in a total dissolution of society to the rest. derives its existence entirely from its He, meanwhile, can have no other necessary use to the intercourse and social expedient than to arm himself, to whomstate of mankind. ever the sword he seizes, or the buckler, To make this truth more evident, let us may belong; to make provision of all reverse the foregoing suppositions, and, mcans of defence and security; and, his carrying everything to the opposite ex particular regard to justice being no treme, consider what would be the effect longer of use to his own safety of that of these new situations. Suppose a of others, he must consult the dictates of society to fall into such want of all com self-preservation alone, without concern mon necessaries that the utinost frugality for ihose who no longer merit his care and industry cannot preserve the greater and attention. number from perishing, and the whole When any man, even in political froin extreme misery; it will readily, I society, renders himself by his crimes believe, be admitted that the strict laws obnoxious to the public, he is punished of justice are suspended in such a press by the laws in his goods and personing emergence, and give place to the that is, the ordinary rules of justice are, stronger motives of necessity and self with regard to him, suspended for a preservation. Is it any crime, after a moment, and it becomes equitable to shipwreck, to seize whatever means or inflict on him, for the benefit of society, instrument of safety one can lay hold of, what otherwise he could not suffer with. without regard to former limitations of out wrong or injury. property? Or if a' city besieged were The rage and violence of public warperishing with hunger, can we imagine what is it but a suspension of justice ihat men will see any means of preserva- among the warring parties, who perceive tion before theni, and lose their lives from that this virtue is now no longer of any a scrupulous regard to what, in other use or advantage to them? The laws of situations, would be the rules of equity war, which then succeed to those of and justice? The use and tendency of equity and justice, are rules calculated that virtue is to procure happiness and for the advantage and utility of that parsecurity by preserving order in society: ticular state in which men but where the society is ready to perish placed. And were a civilised nation enfrom extreme necessity no greater evil gaged with barbarians, wlio observed no can be dreaded from violence and in- rules even of war, the former must also justice, and every man may now provide suspend their observance of them, where for himself by all the means which pru- they no longer serve to any purpose, and dence can dictate or hunianity permit. must render every action or rencounter as The public, even in less urgent necessities, bloody and pernicious as possible to the opens granaries without the consent of first aggressors. proprietors, as justly supposing that the Thus, the rules of equity or justice authority of magistracy may, consistent depend entirely on the particular state with equity, extend so far; but were any and condition in which men are placed, number of men to assemble without the and owe their origin and existence to that tie of laws or civil jurisdiction, would utility which results to the public from an equal partition of bread in a faininc, their strict and regular observance. though effected by Reverse, in any considerable circumviolence, he regarded as criminal or stance, the condition of men; produce injurious ? extreme abundance or extreme necessity; Suppose likewise that it should be a implant in the human breast perfect virtuous man's fate to fall into the society moderation and humanity, or perfect of ruffians, remote from the protection of rapaciousness and malice : by rendering laws and government; what conduct justice totally useless, you thereby totally must he embrace in that melancholy destroy its essence, and suspend its obligasituation ? He sees such a' desperate tion upon mankind, are now Wer and even ·OF JUSTICE 87 : un-. The common situation of society is a war of all against all was the result of medium amidst all these extremes. We men's untamed selfishness and barbarity.' are naturally partial to ourselves and to Whether such a condition of human our friends, but are capable of learning the nature could ever-exist, or, if it did, could advantage resulting from a more equitable continue so long as to merit the appellaconduct. Few enjoyments are given us tion of a state, may justly be doubted. from the open and liberal hand of nature ; Men are necessarily born in a familybut by art, labour, and industry we can society at least, and are trained up by extract them in great abundance. Hence their parents to some rule of conduct and the ideas of property become necessary in behaviour. But this must be admitted, all civil society; hence justice derives its that, if such a state of mutual war and usefulness to the public; and hence alone violence was evet real, the suspension of arises its merit and moral obligation. all laws of justice, froin their absolute Ttrese conclusions are so natural and inutility, is a necessary and infallible obvious that they have not escaped even consequence. the poets in their descriptions of the The more we vary our views of human felicity attending the golden age or the life, and the newer and more unusual the reign of Saturn. The seasons, in that lights are in which we survey it, the more first period of nature, were so temperate, shall we be convinced that the origin if we credit these agreeable fictions, that here assigned for the virtue of justice is there was no necessity for men to provide real and satisfactory. themselves with clothes and houses as 3 Were there a species of creatures security against the violence of heat and intermingled with men, which, though cold; the rivers flowed with wine and rational, were possessed of such inferior inilk; the oaks yielded honey, and nature strength, both of body and mind, that spontaneously, produced her greatest they were incapable of all resistance, and delicacies. Nor were these the chief could never, upon the highest provocaadvantages of that happy age. Tempests tion, make us feel the effects of their were not alone removed from nature, but resentment; the necessary consequence, those inore furious tempests were I think, is that we should be bound by known to human breasts which now the laws of humanity to give gentle cause such uproar and engender such usage to these creatures, but should not, confusion. Avarice, ambition, cruelty, properly speaking, lie under any restraint selfishness, were never heard of; cordial of justice with regard to them, nor could affection, compassion, sympathy, were the they possess any right or property, excluonly movements with which the mind was sive of such arbitrary lords. Our interyet acquainted. Even the punctilious course with them could not be called distinction of mine and thine was banished society, which supposes a degree of from anong the happy race of mortals, equality; but absolute command on the and carried with it the very notion of property and obligation, justice and i 'This fiction of a state of nature as a state of war injustice. was not first started by Mr. Hobbcs, as is commonly This poetical fiction of the golden age is imagined. Plato endeavours to refute an hypothesis in some respects of a piece with the very like it in the second, third, and fourth books De Republica. Cicero, on the contrary, supposes it certain philosophical fiction of the state of nature, and universally acknowledged in the following passage. only that the former is represented as the Quis enim vestrum, judiccs, ignorat, ita naturam most charming and most peaccable conrerum tulisse, ut quodam tempore homincs, nondum neque naturali neque civili jure descripto, fusi per dition which can possibly be imagined, agros ac dispersi vagarentur tantumque haberent whereas the latter is painted out as a quantum manu ac viribus, per caedem ac vulnera, aut eripere aut retinere potuissent ? Qui igitur primi state of mutual war and violence, attended virtute et consilio praestanti cxtiterunt, ii perspecto with the most extrenie necessity. On the genre humanae docilitatis atque ingenii, dissipatos umum in locum congregarunt, cosque ex feritatc illa first origin of mankind, we are told, their ad justitiam ac mansuetudinem transduxcrunt. Tumi ignorance and savåge nature were so res ad communem utilitatem, quas publicas appellamus, prevalent that they could give no mutual :um conventicula hominum, quae postea civitates nominatae sunt, tum domicilia conjuncta, quas urbes trust, but must each depend upon himself dicamus, invento et divino et humano jure moenibus and his own force or cunning for protection and security. No law was heard of ; tate, et illam immanem, nihil tam interest quam JUS Horum utro uti nolimus, altero cst no rule of justice known; no distinction utenduin. Vim volumus extingui. Jus valeat necesse of property regarded ; power was the est, idi est, judicia, quibus omne jus continetur. Judicia displicent, aut nulla sunt. Vis dominetur necesse est. only nieasure of right; and a perpetual Haec vident omnes.' Pro Sext., $42.

·83 OF JUSTICE as one side, and servile obedience on the sexes to be established in nature, a family otlier. Whatever we covet, they must immediately arises, and, particular rules instantly resign. Our permission is the being found requisite for its subsistence, only tenure by which they hold their these are immediately embraced, though possessions, our compassion and kind- without comprehending the rest of manness the only check by which they curb kind within their prescriptions. Supour lawless will; and as no inconvenience pose that several families unite together ever results from the exercise of a power into one society, which is totally disso firmly established in nature, the res- joined from all others, the rules which traints of justice and property, being preserve peace and order enlarge thentotally useless, would never have place in selves to the utmost extent of that society, so unequal a confederact. but, becoming then entirely useless, lose This is plainly the situation of men their force when carried one step farther. with regard to animals; and how far But, again, suppose that several distinct these may be said to possess reason I societies maintain a kind of intercourse leave it to others to determine. The for mutual convenience and advantage,- great superiority of civilised Europeans boundaries of justice still grow larger in above barbarous Indians tempted us to proportion to the largeness of men's imagine ourselves on the same footing vicws and the face of their mutual conwith regard to them, and made us throw nections. I listory, experience, reason, off all restraints of justice, and even of sufliciently instruct us in this natural humanity; in our treatment of them. In progress of human sentiments, and in the many nations the female sex are reduced gradual enlargement of our regards to to like slavery, and are rendered in- justice in proportion we become capable of all property in opposition to acquainted with the extensive utility of their lordly masters. But ihough the that virtue. males, when united, have in all countries PART II. buclily force suflicient to maintain this severe tyranny, yet such are the insinua If we examine the particular laws by tion, address, and ch ms of eir fair which justice is directed and property conrpanions that women are commonly determined, we shall still be presented able to break the confederacy and share with the same conclusion. The good of with the other sex in all the rights and mankind is the only object of all these privileges of society. laws and regulations. Not only is it Were the human species so framed by requisite for the peace and interest of nature that each individual possessed society that men's possessions should be within himself every faculty requisite both separated, but the rules which we follow for his own preservation and for the in making the separation are such as can propagation of his kind; were all society best he contrived to serve farther the and intercourse cut off between man and interests of society. man by the primary intention of the We shall suppose that a creature, Supreme Creator, it seems evident that so possessed of reason, but unacquainted solitary a heing would be as much in with human nature, deliberates with capable of justice as of social discourse himself what rules of justice or property and conversation. Where mutual regards would hest promote public interest and and forbearance serve to no manner of establish peace and security among man, purpose, they would never direct the kind. His most obvious thought would conduct of any reasonable man. The be to assign the largest possessions to headlong course of the passions would be the most extensive virtue, and give every checked by no reflection on future conse one the power of doing good, proporquences. And as cach man is here sup- tioned to his inclination. In a perfect posed to love himself alone, and to theocracy, where a being infinitely inteldepend only on himself and his own ligent governs by particular volitions, this activity for safety and happiness, he rule would certainly have place, and would on every occasion, to the utmost might serve to the wisest purposes. But of his power, challenge the preference were inankind to execute such a law, so above every other being, to none of which great is the uncertainty of merit, both he is bound by any ties either of nature from its natural obscurity and from the or of interest. self-conceit of each individual, that no But suppose the conjunction of the determinate rule of conduct would ever ·OF JUSTICE 89 more result from it, and the total dissolution of may seem, they are really at bottom society must be the immediate conse impracticable, and, were they not so, quence. Fanatics may suppose that would be extremely pernicious to hụinan dominion is founded on grace, and that society. Render.possessions ever so equal; saints alone inherit the earth ; but the civil nien's different degrees of art, care, and magistrate very justly puts these sublime industry will immediately break that theorists on the same footing with equality. Or, if you check these virtues, common robbers, and teaches them by you reduce society to the most extreme the severest discipline that a rule which, indigence, and, instead of preventing in speculation, may seen the most advan- want and beggary in a few, render it tageous to society may yet be found, in unavoidable to the whole community. practice, totally pernicious and destruc- The most rigorous inquisition, too, is tive. requisite to watch every inequality on its That there were religious fanatics of first appearance, and the inost severe this kind in England during the Civil jurisdiction to punish and redress it. Wars we learn from history, though it is But, besides that so much authority must probable that the obvious tendency of soon degenerate into tyranny, and be these principles excited such liorror in exerted with great partialities, who can mankind as soon obliged the dangerous possibly be possessed of it in such a enthusiasts to renounce, or at least con situation as is here supposed ? Perfect ceal, their tenets. Perhaps the Levellers, cquality of possessions, destroying all who claimed an equal distribution of subordination, weakens extremely the property, were a kind of political fanatics, authority of magistracy, and must reduce which arose from the religious species, all power nearly to a level, as well as and more openly avowed their preten property. sions, as carrying a plausible We may conclude, therefore, that in appearance of being practicable in them- order to establish laws for the regulation selves as well as useful to human society. of property we must be acquainted with It must, indeed, be confessed that the nature and situation of man, niust nature is so liberal to mankind that, were reject appearances, which niay be false all her presents equally divided among though specious, and must search for the species and improved by art and those rules which are on the whole most industry, every individual would enjoy all useful and beneficial. Vulgar sense and the necessaries and even most of the slight experience are sufficient for this comforts of life, nor would ever be liable purpose, where men give not way to too to any ills but such as might accidentally selfish avidity or too extensive enthusiasm. arise from the sickly fraine and constitu Who sees not, for instance, that whattion of his body. It must also be con ever is produced or improved by a man's fessed that wherever we depart from this art or industry ought for ever to be equality we rob the poor of more satisfire- secured to him, in order to give encouragetion than we add to the rich, and that the ment to such useful habits and accomslight gratification of a frivolous vanity in plishments; that the property ought also one individual frequently costs more than to descend to children and relations for bread to many families, and even pro the same useful purpose ; that it may be vinces. It may appear withal that the alienated by consent in order to beget rule of equality, as it would be highly that commerce and intercourse which is useful, is not altogether impracticable, but so beneficial to human society; and that has taken place, at least in an imperfect all contracts and promises ought caredegree, in some republics, particularly fully to be fulfilled, in order to secure that of Sparta, where it was attended, it mutual trust and confidence, by which the is said, with the most beneficial conse- general interest of mankind is so much quences. Not to mention that the promoted ? agrarian laws, so frequently claimed in Examine the writers on the laws of Rome, and carried into execution in nature, and you will always find that, many Greek cities, proceeded, all of them, whatever principles they set out with, from a general idea of the utility of this they are sure to terminate here at last, principle. and to assign as the ultimate reason for But historians, and every rule which they establish the consense, may inform us that, however venience and necessities of mankind. A specious these ideas of perfect cquality concession thus extorted in opposition to. even common ·90 OF JUSTICE systems has inore authority than if it had natural justice according to the particular been made in prosecution of them. convenience of each community, The What other reason, indeed, could writers 'laws have, or ought to have, a constant: ever give why this must be mine and that reference to the constitution of governyours, since uninstructed nature surely ment, the manners, the climate, the relie. never made any such distinction? The gion, the coinmerce, the situation of each objects which receive those appellations society. A late author of genius as well are, of themselves, foreign to us; they as learning has prosecuted this subject are totally disjoined and separated from at large, and has established from these us, and nothing but the general interests principles a system of political knowledge of society can form the connection. which abounds in ingenious and brilliant Sometimes the interests of society may thoughts, and is not wanting in solidity." require a rule of justice in a particular What is a man's property? Anything case, but may not determine any par which it is lawful for him, and for him ticular rule among several which are alone, to use. But what rule have 'we by all equally beneficial. In that case the which we can distinguish these objects ? slightest analogies are laid hold of, in Here we must have recourse to statutes, order to prevent that indifference and customs, precedents, analogies, and a ambiguity which would be the source of hundred other circumstances, some of perpetual dissension. Thus possession which are constant and inflexible, some alone, and first possession, is supposed to variable and arbitrary. But the ultimate convey property where nobody else has point in which they all professedly terany preceding claim and pretension. ininate is the interest and happiness of Many of the reasonings of lawyers are of human society. Where this enters not this analogical nature, and depend on into consideration nothing can appear very slight connections of the iinagina- more whimsical, unnatural, and even tion. superstitious, than all or most of the laws Does anyone scruple, in extraordinary of justice and of property. cases, to violate all regard to the private property of individuals, ai fice to • The author of L'Esprit des Loix. This illustrious public interest a distinction which had writer, however, scts out with a different theory, and been established for the sake of that insupposes all right to be founded on certain rapports or relations, which is a system that, in my opinion, never terest? The safety of the people is the will be reconciled with true philosophy. Father Malebranche, as far as I can Icarn, was the first that started supreme law; all other particular laws this abstract theory of morals, which was afterwards are subordinate to it and dependent on adopted by Cudworth, Clarke, and others; and as it And if, in the common course of things, cxcludes all sentiment, and pretends to found everythey be followed and regarded, it is only top con reason, it has not wanted followers in this philo- See Section I., Appendix I. With regard because the public safety and interest to justice, the virtue here treated of, the inference commonly demand so equal and impartial against this theory scems short and conclusive. Property is allowed to be dependent on civil laws; civil an adininistration. laws are allowed to have no other object but the Sonetimes both ility and analogy interest of society. This, therefore, must be allowed to be the sole foundation of property and justice ; oot fail, and leave the laws of justice in total to mention that pur obligation itself to obey the uncertainty. Thus it is highly requisite magistrate and his laws is founded on nothing but the that prescription or long possession should interests of society. If the idcas of justice sometimes do not follow the dispositions of civil law, we shall convey property ; but what number of find that these cases, instead of objections, are condays or inonths or years should be sufli- firmations of the theory delivered above. Where a civil law is so perverse as to cross all the interests cient for that purpose it is impossible for of society it loses all its authority, and men judge by reason alone to determine. Civil laws the ideas of natural justice which are conformable to here supply the place of the natural code, those interests. Sometimes, also, civil laws, for useful purposes, require a ceremony or form to any deed, and and assign different terms for prescrip where that is wanting their decrees run contrary to the tion, according to the different utilities usual tenour of justice; but one who takes advantage proposed by the legislator. Bills of exof such chicanes is not commonly regarded as an honest man. Thus the interests of socicty require that conchange and promissory notes, by the laws tracts be fulfilled, and there is not a inorc material of most countries, prescribe sooner than article either of natural of civil justice. But the omission of a trifling circumstance will often, by law, invalibonds, and mortgages, and contracts of a date a contract, in foro humano, but not in foro con. more formal nature. scientiae, as divines express theinsclves. In these In general we may observe that all cases the magistrate is supposed only to withdraw his power of enforcing the right, not to have altered the questions of property are subordinate to right. Where his intention extends to the right, and the authority of civil laws, which extend, is conformable to the interests of society, it never fails to alter the right- a clear proof of the origin of justico restrain, modify, and alter the rules of and of property, as assigned above. it.

·91 OF JUSTICE Those who ridicule vulgar superstitions, applicable to justice; nor is it possible, in and expose the folly of particular regards the one case more than in the other, to to meats, days, places, postures, apparel, point out in the object that precise quality have an easy task while they consider or circumstance, which is the foundation all the qualities and relations of the of the sentiment. objects, and discover no adequate cause But there is this material difference for that affection or antipathy, veneration between superstition and justice--that the or horror, which have so mighty an in- former is frivolous, useless, and burdenfluence over a considerable part of man some; the latter is absolutely requisite kind. A Syrian would have starved rather to the well-being of mankind and existence than taste pigeon; an Egyptian would of society. When we abstract from this not have approached bacon. But if these circunstance (for it is too apparent ever species of food be examined by the senses to be overlooked), it must be confessed of sight, smell, or taste, or scrutinised by that all. regards to right and property the sciences of chemistry, medicine, or seem entirely without foundation, as physics, no difference is ever found much as the grossest and most vulgar belween them and any other species, nor superstition. Were the interests of society can that precise circumstance be pitched nowise concerned, it is as unintelligible on which may afford a just foundation for why another's articulating certain sounds the religious passion. A fowl on Thurs- implying consent shouldchange the nature day is lawful food; on Friday, abominable. of my actions with regard to a particular Eggs in this house and in this diocese are object as why the reciting of a liturgy by permitted during Lent; a hundred paces a priest, in a certain habit and posture, farther, to eat them is a damnable sin. should dedicate a heap of brick and This earth or building yesterday was pro- timber, and render it, thenceforth and for fane; to-day, by the muttering of certain ever, sacred. - words, it has become holy and sacred. Such reflections as these, in the inouth of I It is evident that the will or conscnt alone never a philosopher, one may safely say, are transfers property, nor causes the obligation of a promise (for the same reasoning extends to both); but too obvious to have any influence, be the will must be expressed by words or signs, in order cause they must always, to every man, to impose a tie upon any man. The expression, being occur at first sight; and where they pre- becomes the principal part of the promise; nor will a once brought in as subservient to the will, soon vail not of themselves they are surely inan be less bound by his word though he secretly give obstructed by education, prejudice, and a different direction to his intention, and withhold the assent of his mind. But though the expression inakes, passion, not by ignorance or inistake. on most occastons, the whole of the promise, yet it It may appear to a careless view, or does not always so; and one who should make use of any expression of which he knows not the meaning, rather a too abstracted reflection, that and which he uses without any sense of the consethere enters a like superstition into all the quences, would not certainly be bound by it. Nay, sentiments of justice, and that, if a man though he know its incaning, yet if he use it in jest only, and with such signs as evidently show that he has expose its object, or what we call property, no serious intention of binding himself, he would not to the same scrutiny of sense and science, lie under any obligation of performance; but it is he will not, bay the most accurate inquiry, will, without any contrary signs. Nay, even this we necessary that the words be a perfect expression of the find any foundation for the difference must not carry so far as to imagine that one whom, made by moral sentiment. I may lawby our quickness of understanding, we conjecture, from certain signs, to have an intention of deceiving us, is fully nourish myself from this tree; but not bound by his expression or verbal promise, if we the fruit of another of the same species, accept of it; but iust limit this conclusion to those cases where the signs are of a different nature from ten paces off, it is criminal for me to those of deceit. All these contradictions are easily touch. Had I worn this apparel an hour accounted for, if justice arise entirely from its usefulness ago, I had merited the severest punish- hypothesis. It is remarkable that the moral decisions to society, but will never be explained on any other ment; but a man, by pronouncing a few of the Jesuils and other relaxed casuists were con magical syllables, has now rendered it fitmonly forined in prosecution of such subtleties of reasoning as are here pointed out, and proceed as much for my use and service. Were this house fron the habit of scholastic refinement as from any placed in the neighbouring territory, it corruption of the heart, if we may follow the authority had been inmoral for ine to dwell in it; of Mons. Bayle. Sec his Dictionary, article “Loyola. And why has the indignation of mankind risen so high but, being built on this side the river, it against these casuists but because everyone perceived is subject to a different municipal law, that human society could not subsist were such practices authorised, and that morals must always be handled and by its becoming mine I incur no with a view to public interest more than philosophical blame or censure. The same species of regularity? If the secret direction of the intention, reasoning, it may be thought, which so said cvery mun of sense, could invalidate a contract, where is our security? And yet a metaphysical schoolsuccessfully exposes superstition is also man might think that where an intention was supposed ·92 OF JUSTICE These reflections are far from weaken- employed about objects of the greatest ing the obligations of justice, or diminish- intricacy and nicest discernment. For ing anything from the most sacred atten when a definition of property is required, tion to property. On the contrary, such that relation is found to resolve itself into sentiments must acquire new force from any possession acquired by occupation, by the present reasoning For what stronger industry, by prescription, by inheritance, foundation can be desired or conceived by contract, etc. Can we think that for any duty than to observe that human nature, by an original instinct, instructs us society, or even human nature, could not in all these methods of acquisition ? subsist without the establishment of it, These words, too, inheritance and and will still arrive at greater degrees of contract," stand for ideas infinitely comhappiness and perfection the more inviol- plicated; and to define them exactly a hun, able the regard is which is paid to that dred volunies of laws and a thousand duty ? volumes of comnicntators have not been The dilemma seems obvious. As justice found sufficient. Does nature, whose evidently tends to promote public utility instincts in men are all simple, embrace and to support civil society, the sentiment such complicated and artificial objects, of justice is either derived from our reflect- and create a rational creature without ing on hat tendency, or-like hunger, trusting anything to the operation of his thirst, and other appetites, resentment, reason? love of life, attachment to offspring, But even though all this were admitted, and other passions-arises from a simple it would not be satisfactory. Positive original instinct in the human breast laws can certainly transfer property. Is which nature has implanted for like it by another original instinct that we salutary purposes. If the latter be the recognise the authority of kings and case, it follows that property, which is the Senates, and mark all the boundaries of object of justice, is also distinguished by their jurisdiction ? Judges, too, even a simple original instinct, and is not ascer- though their sentence be erroneous and tained by any argument or reflection. illegal, must be allowed, for the sake of But who is there that ever heard of such peace and order, to have decisive authority, an instinct? Or is this a subject in which and ultimately to determine property. new discoveries can be made? We may Have we original, innate ideas of prætors as well expect to discover in the body new and chancellors and juries? Who sees senses which had before escaped the obser not that all these institutions arise merely vation of all mankind. from the necessities of human society? But, farther, though it seems a very All birds of the same species in every simple proposition to say that nature by age and country built their nests alike. an instinctive sentiment distinguishes In this we see the force of instinct. Men property, yet in reality we shall find that in different times and places frame their ihere are required for that purpose ten houses differently. Here we perceive the thousand different instincts, and these influence of reason and custom. A like inference may be drawn from comparing to be requisite, if that intention really had not place, no the instinct of generation and the instituconsequence ought to follow, and no obligation be tion of property. imposed. The casuistical subtletics may not begreater than the subtleties of lawyers, hinted at above; but as How great soever the variety of munithe former arc pernicious, and the latter innocent and cipal laws, it must be confessed that their even necessary, this is the reason of the very different reception they încet with from the world. It is a chief outlines pretty regularly concur, doctrine of tlic Church of Roinciliat the priest, by it because the purposes to which they tend secret direction of his intention, (!!) invalidate any sacrainent. This position is derived from a strict ind are everywhere exactly similar. In like rezuiar prosecution of the obvious truth that empty manner, all houses have a roof and walls, words alonc, without any meaning ur intention in the windows and chimneys, though diversified speaker, can never be attended with any clfcct. If the same conclusion de tot admitted in reasonings: con in their shape, figure, and materials. The cerning civil contracts, where the affair is allowed to be purposes of the latter, directed to the conof so much less conscquence than the eternal sulvation of thousands, it proceeds entirely from men's sense of veniences of humar life, discover not more the danger and inconvenience of the doctrine in the plainly their origin from reason and reflec- And we may thence observe that, how lion than do those of the former, which ever positive, arrogant, and dogmatical any superstition may appear, it never can convey any thorough point all to a like end. persuasion of the reality of its objects, or put them, in I need not mention the variations which any degree, on a balınce with the common incidents of life, which we learn from daily observation and all the rules of property receive from experimental reasoning. the finer turns and connections of the former case.

·OF POLITICAL SOCIETY 93 imagination, and from the subtleties and entirely useless, can anyone conceive that abstractions of law topics and reasonings. it ever should have obtained in society? There is no possibility of reconciling this Thus we seem, upon the whole, to have observation to the notion of original attained a knowledge of the force of that instincts. principle here insisted on, and can deter- What alone will beget a doubt concern mine what degree of esteem or moral ing the theory on which I insist is the approbation may result froin reflections influence of education and acquired habits, on public interest and utility. The necesby which we are so accustomed to blame sity of justice to the support of society is injustice that we are not, in every instance, the sole foundation of that virtue; and conscious of any immediate reflection on since no moral excellence is more highly the pernicious consequences of it. The esteemed, we may conclude that this cirviews the most familiar to us are apt, for cumstance of usefulness has in general that very reason, to escape us; and what the strongest energy and most entire we have very frequently performed from command over our sentiments. It must, certain motives we are apt likewise to therefore, be the source of a considerable continue mechanically, without recalling part of the merit ascribed to humanity, on every occasion the reflections which benevolence, friendship, public spirit, and first determined us. The convenience, or other social virtues of that stamp; as it is rather necessity, which leads to justice is the sole source of the moral approbation so universal, and everywhere points so paid to fidelity, justice, veracity, integrity, much to the same rules, that the habit and those other estimable and useful takes place in all societies, and it is not qualities and principles. It is entirely without some scrutiny that we are able to agreeable to the rules of philosophy, and ascertain its true origin. The matter, even of conimon reason, where any prinhowever, is not so obscure but that even ciple has been found to have a great force in common life we have every moment and energy in one instance, to ascribe to recourse to the principle of public utility, it a like energy in all simnilar instances. and ask : What must become of the world This, indeed, is Newton's chief rule of if such practices prevail? How could philosophising.' society subsist under such disorders.? Were the distinction or separation of possessions I Principia, Lib. iii. SECTION IV. OF POLITICAL SOCIETY Itad every man sufficient sagacily to per- | is, of itself, a sufficient restraint ? Why ceive at all times the strong interest which crcate magistrates where there never binds hiin to the observance of justice and arises any disorder or iniquity? Why equity, and strength of mind suflicient to abridge our native freedom when, in persevere in a steady adherence to a every instance, the utmost exertion of it general and a distant interest in opposi- is found innocent and beneficial ? It is tion to the allurements of present pleasure evidwit that, iſ government were totally and advantage, there had never, in that useless, it never could have place, and case, been any such thing as government that the sole foundation of the duty of or political society, but each man, follow- allegiance is the advantage which it proing his natural liberty, had lived in entire cures to society by preserving peace and peace and harmony with all others. What order among inankind. need of positive law where natural justice When a number of political societies ·94 OF POLITICAL SOCIETY are erected and maintain a great inter- requires the combination of parents for course together, a new set of rules are the subsistence of their young, and that immediately discovered to be useful in combination requires the virtue of chastity that particular situation and accordingly or fidelity to the marriage bed. Without take place under the title of Laws of such a utility it will readily be owned that Nations. Of this kind are the sacredness such a virtue would never have been of the persons of ambassadors, abstaining thought of." from poisoned arms, quarter in war, with An infidelity of this nature is much others of that kind, which are plainly more pernicious in women than in men. calculated for the advantage of states and Hence thelaws of chastity are much stricter kingdoms in their intercourse with each over the one sex than over the other. other. These rules have all a reference to The rules of justice, such as prevail generation, and yet women past childamong individuals, are not entirely sus bearing are no more supposed to be pended among political societies. All exempted from them than those in the princes pretend a regard to the rights of flower of their youth and beauty. General other princes; and some, no doubt, with rules are often extended beyond the prinout hypocrisy. Alliances and treaties are ciple whence they first arise, and this in every day made between independent all matters of taste and sentinient. It is States, which would only be so much a vulgar story at Paris that, during the waste of parchment if they were not rage of the Mississippi, a hump-backed found by experience to have some infiu fellow went every day into the Rue de ence and authority. But here is the dif- Quincempois, where the stock-jobbers ference between kingdomsandindividuals. met in great crowds, and was well paid Human nature cannot by any means sub for allowing them to make use of his sist without the association of individuals, hump as a desk in order to sign their and that association never could have contracts upon it. Would the fortune place were no regard paid to the laws of which he raised by this expedient make equity and justice. Disorder, confusion, hinf a handsome fellow, though it be conthe war of all against all, are the neces fessed that personal bcauty arises very saryconsequences of such a licentious much from ideas of utility ? The imagi. conduct. But nations can subsist without nation is influenced by associations, of intercourse. They may even subsist in ideas, which, though they arise at first some degree under a general war.. The from the judgment, are not easily altered observance of justice, thougli useful by every particular exception that occurs among them, is not guarded by so strong to us. To which we may add, in the prea necessity as among individuals, and the sent case of chastity, that the example of moral obligation holds proportion with the the old would be pernicious to the young, usefulness. All politicians will allow, and and that women, continually foreseeing most philosophers, that reasons of State that a certain time would bring them the may, in particular emergencies, dispense liberty of indulgence, would naturally with the rules of justice and invalidate advance that period, and think more any treaty or alliance where the strict lightly of this whole duty so requisite to observance of it would be prejudicial in a society. considerable degree to either of the contracting parties. But nothing less than • The only solution which Plato gives to all the the most extreme necessity, it is conohjections that might be raised against the community of women established in his imaginary commonwealth fessed, can justify individuals in a breach is, Κάλλιστα γαρ δή τούτο και λέγεται και λελέξεται, of promise or an invasion of the properties ότι το μεν ωφέλιμον καλόν, το δε βλαβερών αισχρόν. of others. Scite enim istud et dicitur et licetur, id quod utile sit In a confederated commonwealth, such honestum esse, quod auteni inutile sit turpe esse. De Rep., lib. V., p. 457, ex edit. Ser. And this maxim will as the Achacan Republic of old, or the admit of no doubt where public utility is concerned, Swiss Cantons and United Provinces in which is Plato's meaning. And, indecd, to what other modern times, as the league has here a purpose do all the ideas of chastity and inodesty serve ? Nisi utile est quod facinus, frustra est gloria, says peculiar utility, the conditions of union Phaedrus. Καλόν των βλαβερών ουδέν, says Pluhave a peculiar sacredness and authority, tarch, de vitioso pudore. 'Nihil eorum quae dainosa and a violation of them would be regarded sunt, pulchrum est. The same was the opinion of the as no less or even as more criminal than Stoics. Φασιν ουν οι Στωικοί αγαθόν είναι ωφέλειαν ή ουχ έτερον ωφελείας, ωφέλειαν μεν λέγοντες την any private injury or injustice. The long and helpless infancy of man dpetny kal Thy o novdalay zpâčlv. Sext. Emp., lib. iii., cap. 2o.

·OF POLITICAL SOCIETY 95 as nor Those who live in the same family have Constancy in friendships, attachments, such frequent opportunities of licence of and familiarities is commendable, and is this kind that nothing could prevent im- requisite to support trust and good correpurity of manners, were marriage allowed spondence in society. But in places of among the nearest relations, or any inter- general though casual concourse, where course of love between them ratified by the pursuit of health and pleasure brings law and custota. Incest, therefore, being people promiscuously together, public pernicious in a superior degree, has also conveniency has dispensed with this à superior turpitude and moral deformity maxim, and custom there promotes an annexed to it... unreserved conversation for the time by What is the reason why, by the Athenian indulging the privilege of dropping laws, one might marry a half-sister by afterwards every, indifferent acquaintthe father, but not by the mother ? Plainly ance without breach of civility or good this : the manners of the Athenians were manners. so reserved that a man was never per Even in societies which are established mitted to approach the women's apart on principles the inost immoral and the ment, even in the same family, unless most destructive to the interests of the where he visited his own inother. His general society, there are required certain step-mother and her children were rules, which a species of false honour, as inuch sliut up from him as the woman of well as private interest, engages the memany other fainily, and there was as little bers to observe. Robbers and pirates, it danger of any criminal correspondence has often been reinarked, could not mainbetween them. Uncles and nieces, for a tain their pernicious confederacy did they like reason, might marry at Athens; but not establish a new distributive justice neither these, half-brothers and among themselves, and recall those laws sisters, could contract that alliance at of equity which they have violated with Ronie, where the intercourse was more the rest of mankind. open between the sexes. Public utility is “I hate a drinking companion," says the cause of all these variations. the Greek proverb, “who never forgets." To repeat to a inan's prejudice any The follies of the last debauch should be thing that escaped hini in private conver buried in eternal oblivion in order to give sation, or to make any such use of his full scope to the follies of the next. private letters, is highly blanded. The Among nations where immoral free and social intercourse of minds must gallantry, if covered with a thin veil of be extremely checked where no such rules inystery, is, in some degree, authorised by. of fidelity are established. custom, there immediately arise a set of Even in repeating stories, whence we rules calculated for the conveniency of can foresee no ill consequences to result, that attachment. The famous court or the giving of one's author is regarded as parliament of love in Provence formerly a piece of indiscretion, if not of immorality. decided all difficult cases of this nature. These stories, in passing from hand to In societies for play there are laws hand, and recciving all the usual varia required for the conduct of the game, and tions, frequently come about to the persons these laws are different in each game. concerned, and produce animositics and The foundation, I own, of such societies quarrels among people whose intentions is frivolous; and the laws are, in a great are the most innocent and inoffensive. measure, though not altogether, capri- To pry into secrets, to open or even cious and arbitrary. So far is there a read the letters of others, to play the spy material difference between them and the upon their words and looks and actions ; rules of justice, fidelity, and loyalty. The what habits more inconvenientin society? general societies of men are absolutely What habits of consequence more blam requisite for the subsistence of the species; able ? and the public conveniency, which regu- This principle is also the foundation of lates morals, is inviolably established in most of the laws of good manners; a kind th nature of man and of the world in of lesser morality, calculated for the case which he lives. The comparison, thereof company and conversation. Too much fore, in these respects, is very imperfect. or too little ceremonyare both blamed, and We may only learn from it the necessity everything which promotes ease without of rules wherever men have any interan indecent familiarity is useful and course with each other. laudable. They cannot even pass each other on an ·96 WHY UTILITY PLEASES the road without rules. Waggoners, much as to murder each other without coachmen, and postilions have principles statutes and maxims, and an idea, of by which they give the way, and these justice and honour. War has its laws as arc chiefly founded op.mutual case and well as peace; and even that sportive convenience. Sometimes also they are kind of war carried on among wrestlers, arbitrary--at least, dependent on a kind boxers, cudgel-players, gladiators, is of capricious analogy, like many of the regulated by fixed principles. Common reasonings of lawyers. interest and utility beget infallibly a To carry the matter farther, we may standard of right and wrong among the observe that it is impossible for men so parties concerned. 1 That the lighter machine qield to the heavier, and, in machines of the same kind, that the empty yield to . the londed : this rule is founded on convenience. That those who are going to the capital take place of those who are coming from it: this seems to be founded on some idea of the dignity of the great city, and of the preference of the future to the past, Fromn like reasons, among foot-walkers the right hand entitles a man to the wall, and prevents justling, which peaccable people find very disagreeable and inconvenient. SECTION V. WHY UTILITY PLEASES PART I. a human .creature, for whose service the fabric was intended. What wonder, then, It seems so natural a thought to ascribe that a man whose habits and conduct are to their utility the praise which we bestow hurtful to society and dangerous or peron the social virtues that one would expect nicious to everyone who has an intercourse to meet with this principle everywhere in with him, should on that account be an moral writers as the chief foundation of objectof disapprobation, and communicate their reasoning and inquiry. In common to every spectator the strongest sentiment life we may observe that the circumstance of disgust and hatred.' of utility is always appealed to; nor is it But perhaps the difficulty of accounting supposed that a greater culogy can be given to any man than to display his : We ought not to imaginc, because an inanimate usefulness to the public and enumerate object may be useful as well as a man, that therefore it ought also, according t8 this system, to inerit the the services which he has performed to appellation of virtuous. The sentiments excited by mankind and society. What praise, even utility are in the two cases very different; and the one is mixed with atfection, esteem, approbation, ctc., and of an inanimate form, if the regularity not the other. In like manner, an inanimate object may and elegance of its parts destroy not its have good colour and proportions as well as a human figure. But can we ever be in love with the foriner ? fitness for any uscſul purpose! Ind how There are a numerous set of passions and sentiments satisfactory an apology for any dispropor- of which thinkinys, rational beings are, by the original tion or seeming deformity if we can show constitution of nature, the only proper objects, and though the very same qualities be transferred to an insensible, inanimate being, they will not cxcite the tion for the use intended! A ship appears same sentiments. The beneficial qualities of herbs and minerals are, indeed, sometimes callcd their virtues, inore beautiful to artist, or but this is an effect of the caprice of language which moderately skilled in navigation, where ought not to be regarded in reasoning. For thoug! its is wide and swelling beyor: its there be a species of approbation attending even inaniprow mate objects when beneficial, yet this sentiment is so poop, than if it were framed with a precise weak and so different from that which is directed to geometrical regularity, in contradiction to bencficent magistrates or statesmen that they ought not to be ranked under the same class or appellation, all the laws of mechanics. A building A very small variation of the object, even where the whose doors and windows were exact same qualities are preserved, will destroy a sentiment. squares would hurt the cye by that very Thus the same beauty transferred to a different sex excites no amorous passion where nature is not proportion, as ill adapted to the figure of extremely perverted, the ne an one ·WHY UTILITY PLEASES 97 for these effects of usefulness, or its as the public utility of these virtues is the contrary, has kept philosophers from chief circuinstance whence they derive admitting them into their systems of their merit, it follows that the end which ethics, and has induced them rather to they have a tendency to promote must be employ any other principle in explaining some way agreeable to us, and take hold the origin of moral good and evil. But it of some natural affection. It must please, is no just reason for rejecting any prin either from considerations of self-interest ciple confirmed by experience that we or from more generous motives and cannot give a satisfactory account of its regards. origin, nor are able to resolve it into other It has often been asserted that as every more general principles. And if we would man has a strong connection with society, employ a little thought on the present and perceives the impossibility of his subject, we need be at no loss to account solitary subsistence, he becomes on that for the influence of utility, and to deduce account favourable to all those habits or it from principles the most known and principles which promote order in society avowed in human nature. and insure to him the quiet possession of From the apparent usefulness of the so inestimable a blessing. As much as social virtues it has readily been inferred we value our own happiness and welfare, by sceptics, both ancient and modern, as much must we applaud the practice of that all moral distinctions arise from justice and humanity, by which alone the education, and were at first invented, and social confederacy can be maintained and afterwards encouraged, by the art of every man reap the fruits of mutual propoliticians, in order to render men tract tection and assistance. able and subdue their natural ferocity and This deduction of niorals from self-love selfishness, which incapacitated them for or a regard to private interest is an society. This principle, indeed, of precept obvious thought, and has not arisen and education must so far be owned to wholly from the wanton sallies and have a powerful influence that it may sportive assaults of the sceptics. To frequently increase or diminish beyond mention no others, Polybius, one of the their natural standard the sentiments of gravest and most judicious as well as approbation or dislike, and may even, in most moral writers of antiquity, has particular instances, create, without any assigned this selfish origin to all our natural principle, a new sentiment of this sentiments of virtue.' But, though the kind, as is evident in all superstitious solid practical sense of that author and practices and observances; but that all his aversion to all vain subtleties render moral affection or dislike arises from this his authority on the present subject very origin will never surely be allowed by any considerable, yet is not this an affair to judicious inquirer. Had nature made no be decided by authority, and the voice of such distinction, founded on the original nature and experience seenis plainly to constitution of the mind, the words oppose the selfish theory. honourable and shameful, lovely and We frequently bestow praise on virtuous odious, noble and despicable, had never actions perfornied in very distant ages had place in any language; nor could and remote countries, where the utmost politicians, had they invented these terins, subtlety of imagination would not disever have been able to render them intelcover any appearance of self-interest, or ligible, or make them convey any idea to find any connection of our present happithe audience. So that nothing can be ness and security with events so widely more superficial than this paradox of the separated from us. sceptics; and it were well if, in the A generous, a brave, a noble deed abstruser studies of logic and metaphysics, we could as easily obviate the : Undutifulness to parents is disapproved of by mancavils of that sect as in the practical and kind, προορωμένους το μέλλον, και συλλογιζομένους more intelligible sciences of politics and ότι το παραπλήσιον εκάστοις αυτών συγκυρήσει. morals. Ingratiiude, for a like reason (though he seems there to mix a more generous regard), συναγανακτούντας μεν The social virtues must, therefore, be τω πέλας, αναφέροντας δ' επ' αυτούς το παραπλήallowed to have a natural beauty and σιον, εξ ών υπογίγνεται τις έννοια παρ' εκάστω της amiableness, which at first, antecedent του, καθήκοντος δυνάμεως και θεωρίας. Lib. vi., cap. to all precept or education, recommends 4, ed. Gronorius. Perhaps the historian only meant them to the esteem of uninstructed manthat our sympathy and humanity was more enlivened by our considering the similarity of our case with that kind and engines their affections. And of the person suffering ; which is a just sentiment. E ·08 HIIY UTILITY PLEASES performed by an adversary commands our say that we transport ourselves by the approbation; while in its consequences force of imagination into distant ages it inay be acknowlequred prejudicial to and countries, and consider the advantage our particular interest. which we should have reaped from these Where private advantage concurs with characters had we been contemporaries general affection for virtue we readily and had any comunierce with the persons. perceive and avow the inixture of these It is not conceivable how a real sentiment distinct sentiments, which have a very or passion can ever arise from a known different feeling and influence on the imaginary interest, especially when our mind. We praise perhaps with more real interest is still kept in view, and is alacrity where the generous, humane often acknowledged to be entirely distinct action contributes to our particular from the imaginary, and even sometimes interest. But the topics of praise which opposite to it. we insist on are very wide of this circum A man brought to the brinly of a stance, And we may attempt to bring precipice cannot look down without over others to our sentiments without trembling, and the sentiment of imagiendeavouring to convince them that they nary danger actuates him in opposition reap any advantage from the actions to the opinion and belief of real safety. which we recommend to their approba But the imagination is here assisted by tion and applause. the presence of a striking object, and yet Frame the model of a praiseworthy prevails not, except it be also aided by character, consisting of all the most novelty and the unusual appearance of amiable moral virtues. Give instances in the object. Custom soon reconciles us to which these display themselves after an heighis and precipices, and wears off these eminent and extraordinary manner. You false and delusive terrors. The reverse readily engage the esteem and approbil is observable in the estimates which we tion of all your audience, who never so form of characters and manners; and the much as inquire in what age and country more we habituate ourselves to an accurate the person lived who possessed these scrutiny of morals the more delicate feelnoble qualities--a circumstance, how- ing do we acquire of the most minute ever, of all others the most material to distinctions between vice and virtue. self-love or a concern for our own indi Such frequent occasion, indeed, have we vidual happiness. in common life to pronounce all kinds of Once on a time a statesinan in the moral determinations that no object of shock and contest of parties prevailed so this kind can be new or unusual to us; far as to procure by his eloquence the nor could any fulse views or prepossessions banishment of an able adversary, whom maintain their ground against an expehe secretly followed, offering him money rience so common and familiar. Expefor his support during his exile and sooth- rience being chictly what forms the assoing him with topics of consolation in his ciations of ideas, it is impossible that any misfortunes. las! cries the banished association could'establish and support statesman, zvith what regret must I learle itself in direct opposition to that principle. my friends in this city, where CTION enemies Usefulness is agrecable and engages are so generous! Virtue, though in an our approbation. This is a matter of fact enemy, here pleased him. And we also confirmed by daily observation. But give it the just tribute of praise and useful! For what? For soinebody's approbation; nor do we retract these interest, surely. Whose interest then ? sentiments when we hear that the action Not our own only; for our approbation passed at Athens about two thousand frequently extends farther. It must, years ago, and that the persons' names therefore, be the interest of those who were Eschines and Demosthenes. are served by the character or action What is that to me! There are few approved of; and these, we may conclude, occasions when this question is not perti however remote, are not totally indiſferent nent, and had it that universal, infallible to us. By opening up this principle we influence supposed, it would turn into shall discover one great source of moral ridicule every composition and alınost distinctions. every conversation which contain any PART II. praise or censure of men and manners. It is but a weak subterfuge, when Self-love is a principle in human nature pressed by these facts and arguments, to of such extensive energy, and the interest ·WHY UTILITY PLEASES 99 of each individual is, in general, so closely | And what need we seek for abstruse and connected with that of the community, ' remote systems when there occurs one so that those philosophers were excusable obvious and natural?' who fancied that all our concern for the Have we any difficulty to comprehend public might be resolved into a concern the force of humanity and benevolence ? for our own happiness and preservation. Or to conceive that the very aspect of They saw every moment instances of happiness, joy, prosperity, gives pleasure, approbation or blame, satisfaction or dis that of pain, suffering, sorrow, communipleasure, towards characters and actions ; cates uneasiness ? The human counte- They denominated the objects of these nance, says Horace, a borrows smiles or sentiments virtues or vices; they observed tears from the human countenance. that the former had a tendency to increase Reduce a person to solitude, and he the happiness, and the latter the misery, loses all enjoyuent, except either of the of mankind; they asked whether it were sensual or speculative. kind, and that possible that we could have any general because the movements of his heart are concern for society, or any disinterested not forwarded by correspondent moveresentment of the welfare or injury of ments in his fellow-creatures. The signs others; they found it simpler to consider of sorrow and mourning, though arbitrary, all these sentiments as modifications of affect us with melancholy; but the natural self-love ; and they discovered a pretence, symptoms, tears and cries and groans, at least, for this unity of principle in that never fail to infuse compassion and unclose union of interest which is so observe easiness. And if the elfects of misery able hetween the public and each indi touch us in so lively a manner, can vidual. we he supposed altogether insensible or * But, notwithstanding this frequent indifferent towards its causes when a confusion of interests, it is easy to attain malicious or treacherous character and what natural philosophers, alter Lord behaviour are presented to us? Bacon,, have affected to call the experi We enter, I shall suppose, into a conmentum crucis, or that experiment which venient, warm, well-contrived apartment. points out the right way in any doubt or We necessarily receive a pleasure from ambiguity. We have found instances in its very survey, because it presents us which private interest was separate from with the pleasing ideas of case, satisfacpublic, in which it was even contrary, tion, and enjoyment. The hospitable, and yet we observed the moral sentiment good-hunloured, humane landlord apto continue, notwithstanding this disjunc- pears, This circumstance surely must tion of interests. And wherever ihese embellish the whole ; nor can we easily distinct interests sensibly concurred, we forbear reflecting with pleasure on the always found a sensible increase of the satisfaction which results to everyone sentiment, and a more warm affection to from his intercourse and good offices. virtue and detestation of vice, or what His whole family, by the freedom, case, we properly call gratitude and revenge. confidence, and calm enjoyment dillused Compelled by these instances, we must over their countenances, sufficiently exrenounce the theory which accounts for press their happiness. I have a pleasing every moral sentiment by the principle of sympathy in the prospect of so much joy, self-love. We must adopt a more public affection, and allow that the interests of society are not, even on their own account, : It is needless to push our researches so far as to ask why we have humanity, or a fellow-feeling with entirely indifferent to us. Usefulness is others. It is sufficient that this is experienced to be a only a tendency to a certain end; and it is principle in human nature. We must stop somewhere a contradiction in terms that anything Science some general principles beyond which we in our examination of causes; and there are in every pleases as means to an end where the end cannot hope to find any principle more general. No itself nowise affects us. If usefulness, man is absolutely indillerent to the happiness and misery of others. The first has a natural tendency to therefore, be a source of moral sentiment, give pleasure; the second, pain. This everyone may and if this usefulness be not always confindin himself. It is not probable that these principles .sidered with a reference to self, it follows can be resolved into principles more simple and universal, #hatever attempts may have been made to that that everything which contributes to the purpose. But if it were possible, it belongs not to happiness of society recommends itself the present subject, and we may herc sately consider these principles as original, happy if we can render all directly to our approbation and goodwill. the consequences sutliciently plain and perspicuous ! Here is a principle which accounts in Uti ridentibus arrident, ita flentibus adflent great part for the origin of morality, Huinani vultus." llor. 2 Il ·100 IVHY UTILITY PLEASES and can never consider the source of it be avoided by the poet, as communicating without the most agreeable emotions. a like indifference to the audience and He tells me that an oppressive and checking the progress of the passions. powerful neighbour had attempted to dis Few species of poetry are more enterpossess him of his inheiſtance, and had taining than pastoral; and everyone is long disturbed. all his innocent and social sensible that the chief source of its pleapleasures. I feel an immediate indigna- sure arises from those iniages of a gentle tion arise in me against such violence and and tender tranquillity which it repreinjury. sents in its personages, and of which it But it is no wonder, he adds, that a communicates a like sentiment to the private wrong should proceed from a man reader. Sannazarius, who transferred who had enslaved provinces, depopulated the scene to the sea-shore, though he cities, and made the Beld and scaffold presented the most magnificent object in stream with human blood. I am struck nature, is confessed to have erred in his with horror at the prospect of so much choice. The idea of toil, labour, and misery, and am actuated by the strongest danger suffered by the fishermen is painantipathy against its author. ful, by an unavoidable sympathy which In general it is certain that, wherever attends every conception of human happiwe go, whatever we reflect on or converse ness or misery about, everything still presents us with When I was twenty, says a French the view of human happiness or misery, poet, Ovid was my favourite. Now I am and excites in our breast a sympathetic forty I declare for Horace.' We enter, to movement of pleasure or uneasiness. In be sure, more readily into sentiinents our serious occupations, in our careless which resemble those we feel every day; amusements, this principle still exerts its but no passion, when well represented, active energy. can be entirely indifferent to us, because A man who enters the theatre is imme- there is none of which every man has diately struck with the view of so great not within him at least the seeds and a multitude participating of one common first principles. It is the business of amusement; and experiences, from their poetry to bring every affection near to us very aspect, a superior sensibility or dis- by lively imagery and representation, and position of being affected with every make it look like truth and reality ; a sentiment which he shares with his certain proof that, wherever that reality fellow-creatures. is found, our ininds are disposed to be He observes the actors to be animated strongly affected by it. by the appearance of a full audience, and Any recent event or piece of news by raised to a degree of enthusiasm which which the fate of states, provinces, or they cannot command in any solitary or many individuals is affected is extremely calm inonicnt. interesting even to those whose welfare is Every movement of the theatre by a not immediately engaged. Such intelliskilful poet is communicated, as it were gence is propagated with celerity, heard by magic, to the spectators, who weep, with avidity, and inquired into with attentremble, resent, rejoice, and are inflamed tion and concern. The interest of society with all the variety of passions which appears, on this occasion, to be in soine actuate the several personages of the degree the interest of cach individual. drama. The imagination is sure to be affected, Where any event crosses our wishes though the passions excited may not and interrupts the happiness of the always be so strong and steady as to favourite characters, we feel a sensible have great influence on the conduct and anxiety and concern. But where their behaviour. sufferings proceed from the treachery, The perusal of a history seems a calm cruelty, or tyranny of an enemy, our entertainment, but would be no enterbreasts are affected with the liveliest tainment at all did not our hearts beat resentment against the author of these with correspondent- movements to those calanities. which aſe. described by the historian. It is here esteemed contrary to the Thucydides and Guicciardini support rules of art to represent anything cool with difficulty our attention, while the and indifferent. A distant friend, or a former describes the trivial rencounters of confidant, who has no immediate interest the small cities of Greece, and the latter in the catastrophe, ought, if possible, to the harmless wars of Pisa, The few ·WHY UTILITY PLEASES IOI persons interested and the small interest touches of pain or pleasure. What fill not the imagination and engage not wonder, then, if we can pronounce no the affections. The deep distress of the judgment concerning the character and numerous Athenian army before Syra- conduct of men without considering the cuse, the danger which so nearly threatens tendencies of their actions, and the happi. Venice—these excite compassion, these ness or inisery which thence arises to move terror and anxiety. society? What association of ideas would The indifferent, uninteresting style of ever operate were that principle here Suetonius, equally with the masterly totally unactive ?? pencil of Tacitus, may convince us of If any man, from a cold insensibility or the cruel depravity of Nero or Tiberius. narrow selfishness of temper, is unaffected But what a difference of sentiment, with the images of human happiness or while the former coldly relates the facts, misery, he must be equally indifferent to and the latter sets before our eyes the the images of vice and virtue; as, on venerable figures of a Soranus and a the other hand, it is always found that a Thrasea, intrepid in their fate, and only warın concern for the interests of our moved by the melting sorrows of their species is attended with a delicate feeling friends and kindred! What sympathy, of all moral distinctions, a strong resentthen, touches every human heart ! What ment of injury to men, a lively indignation against the tyrant whose approbation of their welfare. In this causeless fear or unprovoked malice gave particular, though great superiority is rise to such detestable barbarity ! observable of one man above another, If we bring these subjects nearer; if yet none are so entirely indifferent to the we remove all suspicion of fiction and interest of their fellow-creatures as to deceit ; what powerful concern is excited, perceive no distinctions of moral good and how inuch superior, in many in and evil in consequence of the different stances, to the narrow attachments of tendencies of actions and principles. self-love and private interest! Popular How, indeed, can we suppose it possible sedition, party zeal, a devoted obedience in anyone who wears a human heart to factious leaders : these are some of the at, if there be subjected to his censure niost visible, though less laudable, effects one character or system of conduct which of this social sympathy in human nature. is beneficial and another which is per- The frivolousness of the subject, too, nicious to his species or community, he we may observe, is not able to detach us will not so much as give a cool preference entirely from what carries an image of to the former, or ascribe to it the smallest human sentiment and affection. merit or regard? Let us suppose such a Wlien a person stutters and pronounces person ever so selfish; let private interest with difficulty, we even sympathise with have engrossed ever so much his attenthis trivial uneasiness, and suffer for him. tion ; yet in instances where that is not And it is a rule in criticism that every combination of syllables or letters which I "Decentior equus cujus astricta sunt ilia ; sed idein velocior. Pulcher aspectu sit athleta, cujus lacertos gives pain to the organs of speech in the exercitatio expressit; idem ccrtamini paratior. Nunrecital, appears also, from a species of quam eniin species ab utilitate dividitur. Sed hoc sympathy, harsh and disagreeable to the quidem discernere modici judicii est."--Quintilian, Inst., lib. viii., cap. 3: Nay, when we run over a book with 2 In proportion to the station which a man possesses, our eye, we are sensible of such unhar according to the relations in which he is placed, we monious composition, because we still always expect from him a greater or less degree of good, and, when disappointed, blame his inutility; and imagine that a person recites it to us and much more do we blame him if any ill or prejudice arise from his conduct and bchaviour. When the interests suffers from the pronunciation of these of one country interfere with those of another, we jarring sounds. So delicate is our sym estimate the merits of a statesman by the good or ill pathy! which results to his own country from his measures Easy and unconstrained postures and and councils, without regard to the prejudice which he brings on its enemies and rivals. Ilis fellow-citizens niotions are always beautiful. An air of are the objects which lie nearest the eye while we health and vigour is eagreeable. Clothes determine his character. And as nature has inplanted in everyone a superior affection to his own country, we which warın without burdening the body, n "ver expect any regard to distant nations where a which cover without imprisoning the competition arises. Not to mention that, while every limbs, are well-fashioned. In every judg- sensible that the general interest of mankind is better man cousults the good of his own community, we are ment of beauty the feelings of the person promoted than by any loose, indeterminate views ato affected enter into consideration, and the good of a species, whence no beneficial action could cver result, for want of a duly limited object on which communicate to the spectator similar they could exert themselves. ear.

·I02 N'HI ('TILITY PLEASES One 011 concerned he must unavoidably feel some clined, from our natural philanthropy, to propensity to the good of mankind, and give the preference to the happiness of make it an object of choice, if everything society, and, consequently, to virtue above clse be equal. Would_rny man, who is its opposite. Absolute, unprovoked, diswalking along, tread as willingly on interested malice has never perhaps place another's gouty toes, whom he has 110 in any human breast; or, if it had, must quarrel with, as on the hard flint and there pervert all the sentiments of morals pavement ? There is here surely a differ as well as the feelings of humanity. If ence in the case. We surely take into the cruelty of Nero be allowed entirely consideration the happiness and misery | voluntary, and not rather the effect of of others in weighing the several motives constant fear and resentment, it is evident of action, and incline to the former where that Tigellinus, preferably to Seneca or 10 private regards draw us to seek our Burrhus, must have possessed his steady own promotion or advantage by the injury and uniform approbation. of our fellow-creatures. And if the prin I statesman or patriot, who serves our ciples of humanity are capable, in many own country in our own time, has always instances, of influencing our actions, they it more passionate regard paid to him must at all times have some authority over than whose beneficial influence our sentiments, and give us a general operated distantages or remote approbation of what is useful to society; ! nations, where the good resulting from and blame of what is dangerous or per- his generous humanity, being less connicious. The degrees of these sentiments nected with us, seems more obscure, and may be the subject of controversy; but I allects us with a less lively sympathy. the reality of their existence, one should We may own the merit to be equally think, must be admitted in every theory great, though our sentiments are not or system. raised to an equal height in both cases, A creature absolutely malicious and The judgment here corrects the inequalispiteful, were there any such in nature, ties of our internal emotions and percepmust be worse than indifferent to the tions in like manner as it preserves us images of vice and virtue. All his senti- from error in the several variations of ments must be inverted, and directly images presented to our external senses. opposite to those which prevail in the The same object, at it double distance, human species. Whatever contributes to really throws on the eye a picture of but the good of mankind, as it crosses the half the bulk; yet we imagine that it constant hent of his wishes and desires, appears of the same size in both situamust produce uneasiness and disapprobal- tions, because we know that tion; and, on the contrary, whatever is approach to it its image would expand the source of disorder and misery in on the cyc, and that the difference consociety must, for the same reason, be sists not in the object itself, but in our regarded with pleasure and complacency. position with regard to it. Ind, indeed, Timon, who probably from his affected without such a correction of appearances, spleen more than an inveterate malice was both in internal and external sentiment, denominated the man-hater, embraced men could never think or talk steadily on Alcibiades with great fondness. any subject while their fluctuating situamy boy! cried lie, acquire the confidence i tions produce a continual variation on of the people. You will one day, I foresee, objects, and throw them into such different be the cause of great calamities to them.' and contrary lights and positions.' Could we admit the two principles of the Manicheans, it is an infallible consequence i For a like reason, the tendencies of actions and that their sentiments of human actions, characters, not their real accidental consequences, arc as well as of everything else, must be alone regarded in our moral determinations or general totally opposite, and that every instance judgments; though in our real feeling or sentiment we cannot help paying greater regard to one whose of justice and humanity, from its neces station, joined to virtue, renders him really useful to sary tendency, must please the one deity society, than to one who xerts the social virtues only and displease the other. All mankind so in good intentions and benevolent affections. Sepa. rating the character from the fortune, by an easy and far resemble the good principle that, necessary effort of thought we pronounce these where interest or revenge or envy perverts persons alike, and give them the same general praise. The judgment corrects, or endeavours to correct, the not our disposition, we are always in appearance, but is not able entirely to prevail over sentiment. Why is this pcach-tree said to be better than that other, but hecausc it produces more or better 1 Plutarch, In Vita dla fruit? And would not the same praise be given it on our ; Go on, ·WILY UTILITY PLEASES 103 The more we converse with mankind, pulpit, on the theatre, and in the schools." and the greater social intercourse we Thus, in whatever light we take this maintain, the more shall we be familiar- subject, the merit ascribed to the social ised to these general preferences and virtues appears still uniform, and arises distinctions, without which our conversa- chiefly from that regard which the natural tion and discourse could scarcely be ren sentiment of benevolence engages us to dered intelligible to cach other. Every pay to the interests of inankind and man's interest is peculiar to himself, and society. If we consider the principles of the aversions and desires which result the human make, such as they appear to from it cannot be supposed to affect daily experience and observation, we others in a like degree. General lan must a priori conclude it impossible for guage, therefore, being formed for general such a creature as man to be totally indifuse, must be moulded on some more ferent to the well or ill-being of his fellowgeneral views, and must aſfix the epithets creatures, and not readily of himself to of praise or blame in conformity to senti- pronounce, where nothing gives hiin any ients which arise from the general particular bias, that what promotes their interests of the community. And if these happiness is good, what tends to their sentiments in most men be not so strong misery is evil, without any farther regard as those which have a reference to private or consideration. Herc, then, are the good, yet still they must make some dis- faint rudiments at least, or outlines, of a tinction even in persons the most depraved general distinction between actions; and and selfish, and must attach the notion of in proportion as the humanity of the good to a beneficent conduct, and of evil person is supposed to increase his conto the contrary, Sympathy, we shall nection with those who are injured or allow, is much fainter than our concerni benefited, and his lively conception of their for ourselves, and sympathy with persons misery or happiness, his consequent remote from us much fainter than that censure or approbation acquires proporwith persons near and contiguous; but tionable vigour. There is no necessity for this very reason it is necessary for us, that a generous action, barely mentioned in our calm judgments and discourse con in an old history or remote gazette, should cerning the characters of men, to żeglect communicate any strong feelings of all these differences and render our senti- applause and admiration. Virtue placed ments more public and social. Besides at such a distance is like a fixed star, that we ourselves often change our situa- which, though to the eye of reason it may tion in this particular, we every day meet appear as luminous as the sun in his with persons who are in a situation dif- meridian, is so infinitely removed as to ferent from us, and who could never con affect the senses neither with light nor verse with us were we to remain constantly heat. Bring this virtue nearer by our in that position and point of view which acquaintance or connection with the is peculiar to ourselves. The intercourse persons, or even by an eloquent recital of of sentiments, therefore, in society and our hearts are immediately conversation makes us form some general caught, our sympathy enlivened, and our unalterable standard by which we may cool approbation converted into the approve or disapprove of characters and warmest sentiments of friendship and And though the heart takes regard. These seem nccessary and infalnot part entirely with those general lible consequences of the general principles notions, nor regulates all its love and of human nature as discovered in common hatred by the universal abstract differ- life and practice. ences of vice and virtue, without regard Again, reverse these views and reasonto self or the persons with whom we are ings. Consider the malter a posteriori ; more intimately connected, yet have these moral differences a considerable intluence, i It is wisely ordained by Nature that private conand, being sufficient at least for discourse, nections should commonly prevail over universal views serve all our purposes in company, in the and considerations, otherwise our affections and actions t. Juld be dissipated and lost for want of a proper limited object. Thus a small benefit donc to ourscives or our near friends excites more lively sentiments of though snails or vermin had destroyed the peaches love and approbation than a great benefit done to a before they came to full maturity? In mwrals, too, is distant commonwealth. But still we know here, as in not the trec known by the fruit? And cannot we all the senses, to correct these inequalities by reflection easily distinguish between nature and accident in the and retain a general standard of vice and virtue one case as well as in the other? I founded chiefly on general usefulness, the case, nianners.

·104 OF QUALITIES USEFUL TO OURSELVES - and, weighing the consequences, inquire strongest censure and applause. The if the merit of social virtue be not, in a present theory is the simple result of all great measure, derived from the feelings these inferences, cach of which seems of humanity with which it affects the founded on uniform experience and obserspectators. It appears to be matter of vation. fact that the circumstance of utility in all Were it doubtful whether there were subjects is a source of praise and appro- any such principle in our nature as bation ; that it is constantly appealed to humanity or a concern for others, yet in all moral decisions concerning the merit when we see, in numberless instances, and demerit of actions ; that it is the sole that whatever has a tendency to promote source of that high regard paid to justice, the interests of society is so highly fidelity, honour, allegiance, and chastity; approved of, we ought thence to learn that it is inseparable from all the other the force of the benevolent principle, since social virtues --- humanity, generosity, it is impossible for anything to please as charity, affalility, lenity, mercy, and means to an end where the end is totally moderation ; and, in a word, that it is a indifferent. On the other hand, were it foundation of the chief part of morals doubtful whether there were implanted in which has a reference to mankind and our nature any general principle of moral our fellow-creatures. blame and approvation, yet when we see, It appears, also, that in our general in numberless instances, the influence of approbation of characters and manners humanity, we ought thence to conclude the useful tendency of the social virtues that it is impossible but that everything noves us not by any regards to self- which promotes the interest of society interest, but 11as an iniluence much more must communicate pleasure, and what is universal and extensive. It appears that pernicious give uneasiness. But when a tendency to public good and to the these different reflections and obscrvapromoting of peace, harmony, and order tions concur in establishing the same in society does always by atlecting the conclusion, must they not bestow an unbenevolent principles of our frame, in- disputed evidence upon it? gage us on the side of the social virtues. It is, however, hoped that the progress Ind it appears, as an additional confirman of this argument will bring a further contion, that these principles of humanity firmation of the present theory, by showand sympathy enter so deeply into all our ing the rise of other sentiments of esteem sentiments, and have so powerful an influ-' and regard from the same or like prinence, as may enable them to excile the ciples. SECTION VI. OF QUALITIES USEFUL TO OURSELVES PART 1. --these qualities were never esteemed by anyone indifferent to a character, much It seems evident that, where a quality or less extolled as accomplishments or habit is subjected to our examination, if virtues. The prejudice resulting from it appear in any respect prejudicial to the them immediately strikes our eye, and person possessed of it, or such its in- gives us the sentiment of pain and discapacitales him for business and action, approbation. it is instantly blamed, and ranked among No quality, it is allowed, is absolutely his faults and imperfections. Indolence, Indolence, either blamable or praiseworthy. It is negligence, wint of order and method, all according to its degree. obsluz; siciliess, la..dess, credulity medium, say the Peripatetics, is the ·OF QUALITIES USEFUL TO OURSELVES IOS characteristic of virtue. But this mediuin Let us suppose a person originally is chiefly determined by utility. A proper framed so as to have no manner of celerity, for instance, and despatch in concern for his fellow-creatures, but to business is commendable. When defec- regard the happiness and misery of all tive, no progress is ever made in the sensible beings with greater indifference execution of any purpose; when exces than even two contiguous shades of the sive, it engages us in precipitate and ill same colour. Let us suppose, if the concerted measures and enterprises. By prosperity of nations were laid on the such reasonings we fix the proper and one hand, and their ruin on the other, commendable mediocrity in all moral and and he were desired to choose, that he prudential disquisitions, and never lose would stand like the schoolman's ass, view of the advantages which result from irresolute and undetermined, between any character or habit. equal.motives; or, rather, like the sanie Now, as these advantages are enjoyed ass between two pieces of wood or by the person possessed of the character, marble, without any inclination or proit can never be self-love which renders the pensity to either side. The consequence, prospect of them agrecable to us, the I believe, must be allowed just, that such spectators, and prompts our esteem and a person, being absolutely unconcerned approbation. No force of imagination either for the public good of a community can convert us into another person and or the private utility of others, would make us fancy that we, being that look on every quality, however pernicious person, reap benefit from those valuable or however beneficial to society or to its qualities which belong to him. Or, if it possessor, with the same indifference as did, no celerity of imagination could on the most common and uninteresting immediately transport us back into our- object. selves and make us love and esteem the But if, instead of this fancied monster, person, as different from us. Views and we suppose a man to form a judgment or sentiments so opposite to known truth determination in the case, there is to him and to each other could never have place, a plain foundation of preference where at the same time, in the same person. everything else is equal; and, however All suspicion, therefore, of selfish regards cool his choice mar be, if his heart be is here totally excluded. It is a quite sellish, or if the persons interested be different principle which actuates our remote from him, there must still be a boson and interests us in the felicity of choice or distinction between what is the person whom we contemplate. Where useful and what is pernicious. Now, this his natural talents and acquired abilities distinction is the same in all its parts give us the prospect of elevation, advance with the moral distinction, whose foundament, a figure in life, prosperous success, tion has been so often, and so much in a steady command over fortune, and the vain, inquired after. The same endowexecution of great or advantageous ments of the mind, in every circumstance, undertakings, we are struck with such are agreeable to the sentiment of morals agreeable images, and feel a complacency and to that of humanity; the same and regard immediately arise towards temper is susceptible of high degrees of him. The ideas of happiness, joy, the one sentiment and of the other; and triumph, prosperity, are connected with the same alteration in the objects, by cvery circumstance of his character, and their nearer approach or by connections, diffuse over our minds a pleasing senti- enlivens the one and the other. By all ment of sympathy and humanity.' the rules of philosophy, therefore, we must conclude that these sentiments are * One may venture to affirın that there is no human originally the same, since in each parcreature to whom the appearance of happiness (where envy or revenge has no place) does not give pleasure, ticular, even the niost minute, they are that of misery uncasiness. This seems inseparable governed by the same laws and are moved from our make and constitution. But they are only the more gencrous minds that are thence prompted to by the same objects. seek zcalously the good others, and to have a real Why do philosophers infer with the passion for their welfare. With men of narrow and ungenerous spirits this sympathy goes not beyond a slight feeling of the imagination, which serves only to other virtucs. He knows the good that results from excito sentiments of complacency or censure, and makes them, and feels that species of happiness with a more them apply to the object cither honourable or dis lively sympathy than any other you could represent to honourable appellations. Agriping miser, forinstance, hin, though perhaps he would not part with a shilling praises extremely industry and frugality even in to make the fortune of the industrious man whom he others, and sets them, in his estimation, above all the pritises su highly ·106 OF QUALITIES (SEFUL TO OURSELVES greatest certainty that the moon is kept each was peculiarly adapted to his genius; in its orbit by the same force of gravity but both would have failed had these that makes bodies fall near the surface of situations heen reversed. He is happy the earth, but because these effects are whose circumstances suit his temper; but upon computation found similar and he is more excellent who can suit his equal? Ind must not this argument temper to any circumstances. bring as strong conviction in moral as in What need is there to display the natural disquisitions? praises of industry and to extol its advan- To prore by any long detail that all tages in the acquisition of power and the qualities useful to the possessor are riches, or in raising what we call a fortune approved of and the contrary censured in the world? . The tortoise, according to would be superfluous. The last retler-' the table, by his perseverance gained the tion on whai is every day experienced in mince of the hare', though possessed of life will be sutlicicat. We shall only much superior swiftness. man's time, mention a few instances in order to when weil husbanded, is like a cultivated remove, if possible, all doubt and hesi- field, of which a few acres produce more tation. of what is useful to life than extensive The quality the most necessary for the provinces, eren of the richest soil, when execution of any useful enterprise is dis overrun with weeds and brambles. cretion, by which we carry on it sate But all prospect of success in life, or intercourse with others, give due tiene cren of tolerable subsistence, must fail tion to our own and to their character, where a reasonable frugality is wanting. weigh each circumstance of the business! The heapinstead of increasing diminishes which we undertake, and employ the daily, and leaves its possessor so much surest and safest means for the attainmore unhappy, as, not having been able ment of any end or purpose. To a Crom- to contine his expenses to a large revenue, well, perhaps, or i De Retz, discretion he will still less be able to live contentedly may appear an alderman-like virtue, as on a small one. The souls of men, accord- Dr. Swift calls it; and, being incom- | ing to Plato,' inflamed with impure appepatible with those witst designs to which tiles, and losing the body which alone their courage and ambition prompted afforded means of satistaction, hover them, it might really in them he a fault about the earth and haunt the places or imperfection. But in the conduct of where their bodies are deposited, possessed ordinary life no virtue is more requisite, with a longing desire to recover the lost not only to obtain success, but to avoid organs of sensation. So may we the most fatal miscarriages and disap- ' Worthless prodigals, having consumed pointments. The greatest parts without their fortune in wild debauches, thrusting it, as observed by an elegant writer, may themselves into every plentiful table and be fatal to their owner; as Polyphemus, every party of pleasure, hated even by the deprived of his eye, was only the more vicious, and despised cren by fools. exposed on account of his enormous The one extreme of frugality is avarico, strength and stature. which, as it both deprives a man of all The best character, indeed, were it not use of his riches and checks hospitality rather too perfect for human nature, is' and every social enjoyment, is justly centhat which is not swayed by femper of sured on a double account. Prodigalily, any kind, but alternately employs inter the other extremne, is commonly more prise and caution, as each is usul to the hurtful to il man hiniself; and cach of particular purpose intended. Such is the these extremes is blamed above the other excellence which St. Evremond aescribes i according to the temper of the person to Maréchal Turenne, who displayed who censures, and according to his greater every campaign, as he grew older, more or less sensibility to pleasure, either social temerity in his military enterprises; and or sensual heing now, from long experience, per Qualities often derive their merit from fectly acquainted with every incident in complicated sources. Honesty, fidelity, war, he advanced with greater firmness! truth are praised for their immediato and security in a road so well known to tendency to promote the interests of him. Fabius, says Machiavelli, society; but after those virtues are once cautious; Scipio enterprising. And both established upon this foundation they are succeeded, because the situation of the Roman affairs during the command of Phado. see was ·OF QUALITIES USEFUL TO OURSELI'ES 107 2 as also considered as advantageous to the fortune, it is obvious that this practice is person himself, and as the source of that the source of all dissoluteness and distrust and confidence which can alone give order, repentance and misery. A man of a man any consideration in life. One a strong and determined temper adheres becomes contemptible no less than odious tenaciously to his general resolutions, and when he forgets the duty which in this is neither seduced by the allurements of particular he owes to himself as well as to pleasure nor terrified by the menaces of society. pain ; but keeps still in view those distant Perhaps this consideration is one chief pursuits hy which he at once ensures his source of the high blame which is thrown happiness and his honour. on any instance of failure among women Self-satisfaction, at least in some degree, in point of chastity. The greatest regard is an advantage which equally attends the which can be acquired by that sex is fool and the wise man. But it is the only derived from their fidelity, and a woman one ; nor is there any other circumstance becomes cheap and vulgar, loses her in the conduct of life where they are upon rank, and is exposed to every insult, who an equal footing. Business, books, conis deficient in this particular. The versation--for all of these a fool is totally smallest failure is here suflicient to blast incapacitated, and, except condemned by her character. A female has so many his station to the coarsest drudgery, opportunities of secretly indulging these remains a useless burden upon the earth. appetites that nothing can give us security Iccordingly, it is found that men are but her absolute modesty and reserve, extremely jealous of their character in this and where a breach is once made it can particular; and many instances are seen scarcely ever be fully repaired. If a man of profligacy and treachery, the most belave with cowardice on one occasion, a avowed and unreserved ; none of bearing contrary conduct reinstates him in his patiently the imputation of ignorance and character. But hy what action can stupidity. Dictwarchus, the Macedonian woman whose behaviour has once been general, who, Polybius tells us,' dissolute be able to assure us that she has openly erected one altar to impiety, formed better resolutions, and has self another to injustice, in order to bid command enough to carry them into defiance to mankind-even he, I am well execution ? assured, would have started at the epithet All men, it is allowed, are equally of fool, and have meditated revenge for so desirous of happiness, but few are success injurious an appellation. Except the ful in the pursuit. One considerable allection of parents, the strongest and cause is the want of strength of mind most indissoluble bond in nature, 10 conwhich might enable them to resist the nection has strength sufficient to support temptation of present case or pleasure the disgust arising from this character. and carry them forward in the search of Love itself, which can subsist under more distant profit and enjoyment. Our treachery, ingratitude, malice, and intiaflections on a general prospect of their delity, is immediately extinguished by it objects form certain rules of conduct and when perceived and acknowledged ; nor certain measures of preference of one are deformity and old age more fatal to above ilhother; and these clecisious, the dominion of that passion. So dreadthough really the result of our calm ful are the ideas of an utter incapacity for passions and propensities (for what else any piirpose or undertaking, and of concan pronounce any object cligible or the tinued 'error and misconduct in life! contrary?) are yet said hy a natural abuse When it is asked whether a quick or a of terms to be the determinations of pure slow apprehension be most valuable ; reason and reflection. But when some whether one that at first view penetrates of these objects approach nerrer to us, or far into a subject, but can perform nothing acquire the advantages of favourable upon study ; a contrary character, lights and positions which catch the heart which must work out everything by dint or imagination, our general resolutions oi application - Whether a clear head or are frequently confounded, it small enjoy- il copious invention---whether a profound mient preferred, and lasting shame and genius or sure judgment-in short, sorrow entailed upon us. And however what character, or peculiar turn of underpoets may employ their wit and eloquence standing, is more excellent than another? in celebrating present pleasure and rejecting all distant views to fame, health, or i Lib. xvii., cap. 35. Or ·tos OF QUALITIES USEFUL TO OURSELVES SO It is evident that we can answer none of moral endowments, and even soinetinies these questions without considering which absolutely to deny their existence and of those qualities capacitales a man best reality. In like manner, I find that, of old, for the world, and carries him farthest in the perpetual cant of the Stoics and Cynics any undertaking, concerning virtue, their magnificent proif refined sense and exalted sense be not fessions and slender performances, bred a so useful as common sense, their rarity, disgust in mankind; and Lucian, who, their novelty, and the nobleness of their though licentious with regard to pleasure, objects make some compensation, and is vet in other respects a very moral render them the admiration of mankind; writer, cannot sometimes, talk of virtue, as gold, though less seryiceable than iron, much boasted, without betraying acquires from its scarcity a value which is symptoms of spleen and irony.' 'But much superior. surely this peevish delicacy, whence-ever The defects of judgment can he supplied it arises, can never be carried so far as to by no art or invention ; but those of make us deny the existence of every memory frequently may, both in business species of merit, and all distinction of and in study, by method and industry, and manners and behaviour. Besides disby diligence in committing everything to antion, caution, enterprise, industry, writing; and we scarcely ever hear a assuluiti', frugality, economy, good sense, short memory given as in reason for a prudence, idiscerninent; besides these cnman's failure in any undertaking. But in dowments, I say, whose very names force ancient times, when no man could make an avowal of their merit, there are many a figure without the talent of speaking, others to which the most determined and when the audience were too delicate scepticism cannot for a moment refuse the to bear such crude, undigested harangues tribute of praise and approbation. Tem-- as our extemporary orators offer to public peninio, sobriety', pulience, constancy', assemblies, ihe faculty of memory was perser'erance, forethought, considerateness, then of the utinost consequence, and was Seirill, onker, insinuation, adness, accordingly much more valued than at presence of mind, quickness of conception, present. Scarce any great genius is lilitrof expression---these, and a thousand inentioned in antiquity who is nol cele- more of the same kind, no man will ever brated for this talent; and Cicero enume deny to be excellences and perfections. rates it among the other sublime qualities : Is their merit consists in their tendency of Caesar himself.' to serve the person possessed of them, Particular customs and manners alter without any magnificent claim to public the usefulness of qualities; they also aller and social desert, we are the less jealous their merit. Particular situations and of their pretensions, and readily admit accidents have, in some degree, the same them into the catalogue of laudable influence. He will always be qualities. We are not sensible that, by esteemed who possesses those talents and this concession, we have prved the way accomplishments which suit his station for all the other moral excellences, and and profession than he whom fortune has ; cannot consistently hesitate any longer misplaced in the part which she has with regard to disinterested benevolence, assigned him. The private or selfish patriotisın, and humanity: virtues arc, in this respect, more arbitrary It seems, indeed, certain that first apthan the public and social. lif other pearances are here', as usual, extremely respects they are, perhaps, less liable to deceitful, and that it is more difficult, in doubt and controversy. a speculative way, to resolve into self-love In this kingdom such continued osten the merit which we ascribe to the selfish tation of late ycars has prevailed among virtues above mentioned than that even men in active life with regard to public of the social virtues, justice and benefi. spirit, and among those in speculative with cence. For this latter purpose we need regard to benevolence; and so many false pretensions to each have been, no doubt, 1 'Αρετήν τινα, και ασώματα, και λήρους μεγάλη detected, that men of the world are apt, Tŷ owvñ živeiportwr.-Luc., Timor., 9." Again. Kai without any bad intention, to discover a συναγαγόντες (οι φιλόσοφοι) ευεξαπάτητα μειράκια sullen incrediulity on the head of those τήν τε πολυθρύλητον αρετήν τραγωδούσι.-cam- In another place, Η πού γάρ έστιν ή πολυθρύλητος αρετή, και φύσις, και ειμαρμένη, και Fuit in illo ingenium, rario, mcinoria, literæ, cura, τύχη, ανυπόστατα και κενά πραγμάτων ανόματα και cogitato, diligentia," atc... l'hilip. a. - Deor. Concil., 13. .... 111ore men. 1 ·But as OF QUALITIES USEFUL TO OURSELVES. log but say that whatever conduct promotes Virgil, are the same that are received at the good of the community is loved, this day by our modern jockeys, because praised, and esteemed by the community the foundation of them is the sameon account of that utility and interest of namely, experience of what is detrimental which everyone partakes; and though this or useful in the animal. affection and regard be in reality grati Broad shoulders, a lank belly, firm tude, not self-love, yet a distinction, even joints, taper legs-all these are beautiful of this obvious nature, may not readily in our species, because signs of force and be made by superficial reasoners, and vigour. ' Ideas of utility and its contrary, there is room at least to support the though they do not entirely determine cavil and dispute for a moment. what is handsome or deformed, are eviqualities which tend only to the utility of dently the source of a considerable part of their possessor, without any reference to approbation or dislike. us or to the community, are yet esteemed In ancient times bodily strength and and valued, by what theory or system can dexterity, being of greater use and imwe account for this sentiment from self portance in war, was also much more love, or deduce it from that favourite esteemed and valued than at present. origin? There seems liere a necessity Not to insist on Homer and the poets, we for confessing that the happiness and may observe that historians scruple not misery of others are not spectacles entirely to mention force of body among the other indifferent to us, but that the view of the accomplishments even of Epaminondas, former, whether in its causes or effects, whom they acknowledge to be the greatest like sunshine or the prospect of well-culti- hero, statesman, and general of all the vated plains (to carry our pretensions no Greeks.' Alike praise is given to Pompey, higher), communicates a secret joy and one of the greatest of the Romans. This satisfaction; the appearance of the latter, instance is sinuilar to what we observed like a. lowering cloud or barren land- above with regard to memory. scape, throws a melancholy damp over What derision and contempt, with both the imagination. And this concession sexes, attend impotence, while the unhappy heing once made, the difficulty is over, object is regarded as one deprived of so and a natural, unforced interpretation of capital a pleasure in life, and at the same the phenomena of human life will after- tinie as disabled from communicating it wards, we may hope, prevail among all to others. Barrenness in women, being speculative inquirers. also a species of inutility, is a reproach, but not in the same degree, of which the Part II. reason is very obvious according to the present theory. It may not be improper in this place to There is no rule in painting or statuary examine the influence of bodily endow more indispensable than that of balancing ments and of the goods of forlune over the figures, and placing them with the our sentiments of regard and esteem, and greatest exactness on their proper centre to consider whether these phenomena of gravity: A figure which is not justly fortify or weaken the present theory. It balanced is ugly, because it conveys the will naturally be expected that the beauty disagreeable ideas of fall, harm, and of the body, as is supposed by all ancient pain.3 moralists, will be similar in some respects to that of the mind, and that every kind 1 "Cum alacribus, saltu ; cum velocibus, cursu; cum of esteem which is paid to a nan will validis recte certabat."-Sallusti pard leget. have something similar in its origin, 2 Diodorus Siculus, lib. xv. It may not be improper to give the character of Epaminondas, as drawn by the whether it arise from his mental endow- historian, in order to show the ideas of perfect merit ments or from the situation of his exterior which prevailed in those ages. In other illustrious men, say's he, you will observe that each possessed one circumstances. shining quality, which was the foundation of his fame. It is evident that one considerable In Epaminondas all the virtues are found united-force source of beauty in all animals is the of body eloquence of expression, vigour of mind, cone tempt of riches, gentleness of disposition, and, what is advintage which they reap from the par- chiefly to be regarded, courage and conduct in war. ticular structure of their limbs and 3 All men are equally liable to pain and disease and sickness, and may again recover health and ease. members, suitably to the particular These circunstances, as they make no distinction manner of life to which they are by between une inan and another, are no source of pride nature destined. The just proportions of or humility, regard or contempt. But, comparing our Jwn species to superior ones, it is a very mortifying a horse, plescribed by Xenophon and consideration that we should all be so liable to diseases ·(10 OF QUALITIES ('SEFUL TO OURSELIES ance. A disposition or turn of mind which and conversation. A man who is himself, qualifies a man to rise in the world and we shall suppose, of a competent fortune, advance his fortune is entitled to esteem and of no profession, being introduced to and regard, as has already been explained. il company of strangers, naturally treats It may, therefore, naturally be supposed them with different degrees of respect as that the actual possession of riches and he is informed of their different fortunes authority will have a considerable influ- and conditions, though it is impossible ence over these sentimients. that he can so Suddenly propose, and Let us examine ny hypothesis by perhaps he would not accept of, any which we can account for the regard paid pecuniary advantage from them. 10 the rich and powerful, we shall lind traveller is always admitted into comipiny, none satisfactory but that which derives and meets with civility, in proportion as it from the enjoyment communicated to his train and equipage speak him a man the spectator by ile images of prosperity, of great or moderate fortune. In sliort, happiness, vase, plenty; authority, and the different ranks of men are, in a great the gratification of every appetite. Self measure', regulated by riches, and that love, for instance, which some affect so with regard to superiors as well as much to consider as the source of every interiors, strangers as well as icquaintsentiment, is plainly insuflicient for this purpose. Where no goodwill or friend. What remains, Jerefore, but to conship appears, it is ditliculi in conceive on clude that, as riches are desired for ourwhat we can found our hope of advantage selves only as the means of gratifying our from the riches of others, though we appetites, either int present or in some naturally respect the ricl, even before imaginary future period, they begret they discover any such favourable dis esteem in others merely from their having position towards us. that influence? This, indeed, is their We are attected with the same senti very nature or oflince they have a direct ments when we lie so much out of the reference to the commodities, convenisphere of their activity that they cannot ences, and pleasures of life. The bill of a even be supposed to possess the power of banker who is broke, or gold in a desert serving us. I prisoner of war in all island, would otherwise he full its valucivilised nations is treated with il regard able. When we approach a man who is, suited to his condition, and riches, it is als we say, it his case, we are presented evident, go far towards tixing the condition with the pleasing ideas of plenty, siltis. ut anly person. If birth and quality enter fiction, cleanliness, warmth, it cheerful for a share, this still allords us illi arglie house, clegant furniture, ready service, ment to our present purpose. for what is and whatever is desirable in meat, drink, it we call a man of birth but one who is or apparel. On the contrary, when it descended from it long sucession of rich poor appears, the disagreeable and powerful ancestors, and who acquires images of want, penury, hard labour, our esteem by his connection with persons dirty furniture, coarse or ragged clothes, whom we esteem? His ancestors, there 112USCOUS meat, and distasteful liquor fore, though dead, are respected in some immediately strike our fancy. What else measure on account of their riches, and do we merun by saying that one is rich, the consequently without any kind of expec other poor? And as regard or contempt tation. is the natural consequence of those But, not to go so far as prisoners of wir different situations in life, it is easily seen or the dead to find instances of this diswhat additional light and evidence this interested regard for riches, we may only frow's on our preceding theory with observe, with a liule attention, those regard to all moral distinctions.' phenomena which occur in common life There is something extraordinary, and secmingly and infirmities, and divines accordingly employ this unaccountable, in the oper.fiion of our passions when topic in order to deprons self-conceit and sanity. They we consider the fortune and situation of others. Very woull bate ni ore success if the common bein of our often another's advancement and prosperity produces thoughts were not perpetually turned to compare pure enry, which has a strong mixture of hatred, and arises melves with others. The infirmities of old age are | chictly from the comparison of ourselves with the mortifying. bx al comparison with the young may At the very same time, or at least in very take place. The king's evil in industriously concealed, short intervals, we inay feel the passion of respect, he causc it affects other, and in often transmitted to which is a species of affection or goodwill with a posterity. The cane is nearly the same with such mixture of humility. On the other hand, the misfore dixcanes as cunvey any nauseous or frightful images tunes of our fellows often causc pity, which has in it a the cpilepsy, for instance, ulcers, scoren, scabs, etc. strong mixture of goodwill. This sentiment of pity is :נת person.

·OF QUALITIES IMMEDIATELY AGREEABLE TO OURSELVES IN II1 A man who has cured himself of all England more regard is paid to present ridiculous prepossessions, and is fully, opulence and plenty. Each practice las sincerely, and steadily convinced, from its advantages and disadvantages. Where experience as well as philosophy, that birth is respected, inactive, spiritless the difference of fortune makes less minds remain in Laughty indolence, and difference in happiness than is vulgarly ! dream of nothing but pedigrees and imagined--such a one does not measure genealogies; the generous and ambitious out degrees of esteem according to the seek honour and authority and reputation rent-rolls of his acquaintance. He may, and favour. Where riches are the chief indeed, externally pay a superior defer- idol, corruption, venality, rapine prevail ; ence to the great lord above the vassal, arts, manufactures, commerce, agriculbecause riches are the most convenient, ture flourish. The former prejudice, being the most fixed and determinate, being favourable to military virtue, is source of distinction. But his internal more sụited to monarchies. The latter, sentiments are more regulated by the being the chief spur to industry, agrees personal characters of men than hy the better with a republican government. accidental and capricious favours of And we accordingly find that each of fortune. these forms of government, by varying In most countries of Europe, family ... the utility of those customs, has commonly that is, hereditary riches, marked with a proportionable effect on the sentiments titles and symbols from the sovereign, of mankind. are the chief source of distinction. 11 SECTION VII. OF QUALITIES IMMEDIATELY AGREEABLE TO OURSELVES WHOEVER has passed an evening with to display itself in jovial talk and serious, melancholy people, and has ob- pleasant entertainment. The fame served how suddenly ihe conversation was spreads through the whole circle, and animated, and what spriteliness diſlused the most sullen and morose are often itself over the countenance, discourse, caught by it. That the melancholy hate and behaviour of everyone on the succes the merry, even though Horace says it, I sion of it good-humoured, lively com have some dilliculty to allow, because I panion such a one will easily allow that have alway's observed that where the cheerfulness carries great merit with it, jollity is moderate and decent serious and naturally conciliates the goodwill people are so much the more delighted, of mankind. No quality, indeed, more as it dissipates the gloom with which readily communicates itself to all around, they are commonly oppressed, and gives because no one has a greater propensity thein an unusual enjoyment. From this influence of cheerfulness, nearly allied to contempt, which is a species of dislike both to communicate itself and to engage with a mixture of pride I only point out these pheno- approbation, we may perceive that there nena as a subject of speculation to such as are curious with regard to moral inquiries. It is sufficient for the is another set of mental qualities which, present purpose to observe in general that power and without any utility or any tendency to riches commonly cause respect, poverty and meanness farther good either of the community or contempl, though particul:ir views and incidents may sometimes raise the passions of envy and of pity. of the possessor, diffuse i satisfaction on ·112 OF QUALITIES IMMEDIATELY AGREEABLE TO OURSELVES us. anyon ile beholders, and procure friendship and pride and spirit which arises from regard. Their immediate sensation to conscious virtue ? The sublime, says the person possessed of them is agreeable. Longinus, is often nothing hut the echo Others enter into the same humour, and or image of magnanimity; and where this catch the sentiment, hy a contagion or quality appears in anyone, even though a natural sympathy; and is we cannot syllable be not uttered, it excites our forbear loving whatever pleases, a kindly applause and adıniration ; as may be emotion arises towards the person who observed of the famous silence of Ajax in communicates so much satisfaction. He the Odyssey, which expresses more noble is a more animating spectacle ; his disdain and resolute indignation than any presence diffuses over us more serene language can convey.' complacency and enjoyment; our imagi ilen i Alexander, said Parmenio, I nation, entering into his feelings and dis- nonlit accept of these offers made by Darius. position, is affected in a more agreeable So aould I too, replied Alexander, were I inanner than if a melancholy, dejected, Parmenio. This saying is admirable, sullen, anxious temper were presented to says Longinus, from a like principle.? Hence the affection and approbation Go! cries the same hero to his soldiers, which attend the former, the aversion and when they refused to follow him to the disgust with which we regard the latter.' Indies ; go tell your countrymen that you Few men would envy the character left Alexander completing the conquest of which Cæsar gives of Cassius :- the world. Alexander," said the Prince He loves no play, of Condé, who always adınired this pas- Is thou dost, Antony: he hears no music; sage, abandoned by his soldiers among Seldom he smiles; and smiles in such a sort barbarians not yet fully subdued, felt in As if he mock'd himself, and scorn'd his himself such a dignity and right of empire spirit that he could not believe it possible that That could be mor'd to smile at anything. would refuse to obey him. Not only such men, als Cirsar adds, are I'hether in Europe or in Asia, among commonly dangerous, but also, having Greeks or l'ersians, all was indifferent to little enjoyment within themselves, they ! he should find subjects.” him ; wherever he found men he fancied can never become agreeable to others or The confident of Medea in the tragedy contribute to social entertainment. In all recommends caution and submission, polite nations and ages a relish for pleasure, if accompanied with temperience and, enumerating all the distresses of that unfortunate heroine, asks hier what and decency, is esteemed a considerable merit even in the greatest men, and heshe has to support her against her comes still more requisite in those of numerous and implacable enemies. //yinterior rank and character. It is an self, replies she ; mysell, I say, and it is agreeable representation which a lirench enough. Boileau justly recommends this writer gives of the situation of his own passage as an instance of true sublime.3 When Phocion ---the modest, the gentle mind in this particular. l'irtue I love, Phocion--was led to.cxccution, he turned says he, without austerily; pleasure with to one of his fellow-sufferers who was out etſeminacy; and life without fearing ils end, lamenting his own hard fate. Is it not Who is not struck with any signal glory enough for you, says lie, that you die with Phocion?4 instance of greatness of inind or dignity Place in opposition the picture which of character, with elevation of sentiinent, Tacitus draws of Vitellius fallen from disdain of slavery, and with that noble empire, prolonging his ignominy from a 1 There is no man who, on particular occasions, is wretched love of life, delivered over to the not affected with all the disagreeable passions, fear, merciless rabble, tossed, buffeted, and anger, dejection, grief, melancholy, anxiety, etc. But kicked about ; constrained, by their holdthese, so far as they are natural and universal, make no difference hetween one man and another, and can ing a poniard under his chin, to raise his never be the object of blame It is only when the dis head and expose luimself to every conposition gives a propensity to any of these disagreeable passions that they disfigure the character, and, by tuinely. What abject infamy! What low giving uneasiness, convey the sentiment of disapproba. humiliation ! Yet even here, says the tion to the spectator. historian, he discovered some symptoms 1 " J'aime la vertu, sans rudesse : J'aime le plaisir, sana molesne ; J'aime la vie, et n'en crains point la fin." 2 Idem. -$. Erremond. 3 Reflexion 10 sur Longin. 4 Plutarch, in Phoc. I Cap. 7.

·OF QUALITIES IMMEDIATELY AGREEABLE TO OURSELVES 113 can nor of a mind not wholly degenerate. To a wound, his eye gored, his neck wrested, tribune who insulted him he replied : 1 his arm, his thigh pierced, whatever part am still your emperor.' of his body fortune should seize on, that We never excuse the absolute want of cheerfully relinguishing, provided that spirit and dignity of character, or a proper with what remained he might live in sense of what is due to one's self in honour and renown. And shall it be said society and the common intercourse of that he, born in Pella, a place heretofore life. This vice constitutes what we pro mean and ignoble, should be inspired perly call meanness--when a man with so higli an ambition and thirst of subinit to the basest slavery in order to fame, while you Athenians~"etc. These gain his ends, fawn upon those who abuse praises excite the most lively admiration; him, and degrade himself by intimacies but the views presented by the orator and familiarities with undeserving in- carry us not, we see, beyond the hero feriors. A certain degree of generous himself,. ever regard the future pride or self-value is so requisite that the advantageous consequences of his absence of it in the mind displeases after valour. the saine manner as the want of a nose, The material temper of the Romans, eye, or any of the most material features inflamed by continual wars, had raised of the face or members of the body.? their esteem of courage so high that in The utility of courage, both to the their language it was called virtue, by public and to the person possessed of it, way of excellence and of distinction from is an obvious foundation of merit. But all other moral qualities. The Suevi, in to anyone who duly considers of the the opinion of Tacitus,' dressed their hair matter it will appear that this quality with a laudable intent, not for the purpose has a peculiar lustre, which it derives of loving or being loved, they adorned wholly froin itself and from that noble themselves only for their enemies, and in elevation inseparable from it. Its figure, order to appear more terrible- 2-a senti. drawn by painters and by poets, displays ment of the historian which would sound in each feature a sublinity and daring a little oddly in other nations and other confidence which catches the eye, engages ages. the affections, and diſfuses by sympathy The Scythians, according to Herodotus,' a like sublimity of sentiment over every after scalping their enemies, dressed the spectator. skin like leather and used it as a towel; Under what shining colours does and whoever had the most of those towels Demosthenes3 represent Philip, where the was most esteemed among them. So orator apologises for his own administra much had martial bravery in that nation, tion, and justifies that pertinacious love as well as in many others, destroyed the of liberty with which he had inspired the sentiments of hunanity, a virtue surely Athenians. “I beheld Philip," says he, much more useful and engaging. he with whom was your contest, reso It is indeed observable that among all lutely, while in pursuit of empire and uncultivated nations, who have not as yet dominion, exposing himself to every had full experience of the advantages attending beneficence, justice, and the i Tacit., Hist., lib. iii. The author, entering upon the social virtues, courage is the predominant narration, says: "Laninta peste, foedum spectaculum excellence; what is most celebrated by ducebatur, multis increpantibus, nullo inlacrimante: deformitas exitus misericordiam abstulerat." To enter poets, recommended by parents and thoroughly into this method of thinking, we must inake instructors, and admired by the public allowance for the ancient maxims, that no one ought to prolong his life atter it became dishonourable; but, in general. The ethics of Homer are in as he had always a right to dispose of it, it then ben this particular very different from those came a duty to part with it. of Fénsion, his elegant imitator, and such : The absence of virtue may often be a vice, and that of the highest kind, as in the instance of ingratitude as as were well suited to an age when one well as mieanness, Where we expect a beauty, the hiero, as remarked by Thucydides, 3 could disappointment gives an uneasy sensation and proask another without offence whether he duces a real deformity. An abjectness of character, likewise, is disgustful and contemptible in another vicw. were a robber or not. Such also very Where a man has no sense of value in himself we are lately was the system of ethics which not likely to have any higher esteem of him. And if the same person who crouches to his superiors is insc prevailed in many barbarous parts of lent to his inferiors (as often happens), this contrariety Ireland, if we may credit Spenser in his of behaviour, instead of correcting the former vice. aggravates it cxtremely by the addition of a vice still more odious. See Sect. viii. I De Moribus Germ. 3 De Corona, i Lib. iv. 3 Lib. i.

·114 OF QUALITIES IMMEDIATELY AGREEABLE TO OURSELIES judicious account of the state of that order, tranquillity, and other socialvirtues kingdoin." to which, in the administration of govern- Of the same class of virtues with ment, we have attained in modern times, courage is that undistuched philosophical had anyone been then able to have made tranquillity, superior to pain, sorrow, a fair représentation of them. Such is anxiety, and each assault of adverse the compensation which nature, or rather fortune. Conscious of his own virtue, education, has made in the distribution say the philosophers, the sage elevates of excellences and virtues in those hiinself above every accident of life; and, different ages. securely placed in the temple of wisdom, Tlie merit of benevolence, arising from looks down on inferior mortals engaged its utility and its tendency to promote the in pursuit of honours, riches, reputation, good of mankind, has been already exand every frivolous 'enjoyment. These plained, and is no doubt the source of a pretensions, no doubt, when stretched to considerable part of that esteem which is the utmost, are by far too magnificent for so universally paid to it. But it will also human nature. They carry, however, a he allowed that the very softness and grandeur with them which seizes the tenderness of the sentiment, its engaging spectator and strikes him with admira- endearments, its fond expressions, its tion. And the nearer we can approach delicate attentions, and all that low of in practice to this sublime tranquillity mutual confidence and regard which and indifference (for we must distinguish enters into a warm attachment of love it from a stupid insensibility), the more and friendship-it will be allowed, I say, secure enjoyment shall we attain within that these feelings, being delightful in ourselves, and the more greatness of mind themselves, are necessarily communicated shall we discover to the world. The to the spectators, and melt them into the philosophical tranquillity may, indeed, be same fondness and delicacy. The tear considered only as a branch of magna- naturally starts in our eye on the apprenimity. hension of a warm sentiment of inis l'ho admires not Socrates ; lis per nature; our brcast heaves, our heart is petual serenity and contentment amid agitated, and every humane, tender printhe greatest poverty and domestic vexit ciple of our frame is set in motion, and tions; his resolute contempt of riches and gives us the purest and most satisfactory his magnanimous care of preserving enjoyment. liberty, while he refused all assistance illen poets form descriptions of Elysian from his friends and disciples and infoided fields where the blessed inhabitants stand even the dependence of an obligation ? in no need of each other's assistance, they Epictetus had not so much as a door to yet represent them as maintaining a con. his little house or hovel, and therefore stant intercourse of love and friendship, soon lost his iron lamp, the only furniture and soothe our fincy with the pleasing which he had worth taking. But resols- image of these soft and gentle passions. ing to disappoint all robbers for the The idea of tender tranquillity in a future, le supplied its place with an pastoral Arcadia is agreeable from a like earthen lamp, of which he very peace principle, as has been observed above.' fully kept possession ever after. Who would live amid perpetual wrang- Among the ancients the heroes in ling and scolding and mutual reproaches? philosophy, as well as those in war and The roughness and harshness of these patriotism, have a grandeur and force of emotions disturb and displease us; we sentiment which astonishes our narrow sulier by contagion and sympathy; nor souls, and is rashly rejected as extra we remain indillerent spectators, vagant and supernatural. They in their even though certain that no pernicious turn, I allow, would have had equal consequences would ever follow from suci reason to consider as romantic and incredangry passions. ible the degree of humanity, clemency, Is a certain proof that the whole merit of benevolence is not derived from its I It is a common use, says he, among aheir gentle usefulness, we may observe that in a kind men's sons that as soon as they are able to use their way of blame we say a person is too good wcapons they straight gather to theinselves three or four strakslers, or kernes, with whom wandering a while when he exceeds his part in society and idly up and down the country, taking only .cat, he at carries his attention for others beyond the lai falleth into soine had occasion that shall be offered. ! which bring once made known, he is thenceforth counted a man of worth, in whoin there is courage. i Sevt. v., Part a.

·OF QUALITIES IMMEDIATELY AGREE,BLE TO OURSELVES 115 proper bounds. In like manner we say a and reflection, appears so natural in the inan is too high-spirited, too intrepid, too mind of man. indifferent about fortune; reproaches It is observable that the great charm of which really at bottom imply more esteem poetry consists in lively pictures of the than many panegyrics. Being accus- sublime passions--magnanimity, courage, tomed to rate the inerit and demerit of disdain of fortune; or those of the tender characters chiefly by their useful or perni- affections, love and friendship, which cious tendencies, we cannot forbear apply- warm the heart and diffuse over it similar ing the epithet of blame when we discover sentiments and emotions. And though a sentiment which rises to a degree that all kinds of passion, even the most disis hurtful; but it may happen at the same agrecable--such as grief and anger-are time that its noble elevation or its engag- observed, when excited by poetry, to ing tenderness so seizes the heart as convey a satisfaction, from á mechanisin rather to increase our friendship and of nature not easy to he explained ; yet concern for the person.' those more elevated or softer affections The amours and attachments of Harry have a peculiar influence, and please from the Fourth of France, during the civil wars more than one cause or principle : not to of the League, frequently hurt his interest mention that they alone interest us in the and his cause; but all tlit young, at fortune of the persons represented, or least, and amorous, who can sympathise communicate any esteem and affection for with the tender passions, will allow that their character. this very weakness-for they will readily And can it possibly be Joubted that this call it such-chiefly endears that hero, and talent itself of poets to move the passions, interests them in his fortunes. this pathetic and sublime of sentiment, is The excessive bravery and resolute a very considerable merit; and, being inflexibility of Charles the Twelfth ruined enhanced by its extreme rarity, may his own country, and infested all his exalt the person possessed of it above neighbours; but have such splendour and every character of the age in which he greatness in their appearance as strikes lives? The prudence, address, steadius with admiration; and they might, in ness, and benign government of Augustus, some degree, he even approved of, if they adorned with all the splendour of his noble betrayed not sometimes too evident birth and imperial crown, render him but symptoms of madness and disorder. an unequal competitor for fame with The Athenians pretended to the first Virgil, who lays nothing into the invention of agriculture and of laws, and opposite scale but the divine beauties of always valued themselves extremely on his poetical genius. the benefit thereby procured to the whole The very sensibility to these beauties, or race of mankind. They also boasted, and a delicacy of taste, is itself a beauty in with reason, of their warlike enterprises; any character, its conveying the purest, particularly against those innunierable the most durable, and most innocent of flects and armies of Persians which all enjoyments, intnded (ireece Juring the reigns of These rre some instances of the several Darius and Xerxes. But, though there species of merit that are valued for the he no comparison, in point of utility, immediate pleasure which they communihet ween these peaceful and military cite to the person possessed of them. No honours, yet we find that the orators who views of utility or of future beneficial conhave writ such elaborate panegyrics on sequences enter into this sentiment of that famous city have chielly triumphed approbation ; yet is it of a kind similar in displaying the warlike achievements. to that other sentiment which arises from Lysias, Thucydides, Plato, and Isocrates views of a public or private utility. The discover, all of them, the same partiality, same social sympathy, we may observe, which, though condemned by calm reason or fellow-feeling with human happiness or misery, gives rise to both; and this * Cheerfulness could scarce admit of blame from its an..logy, in all the parts of the present proper cause or subject is a sure symptom and charac theory, may justly be regarded as a conteristic of ſolly, and on that account disgustful. firmation of it.

·116 OF QUALITIES IMMEDIATELY AGREEABLE TO OTHERS OTHERS SECTION VIII. OF QUALITIES IIMEDIATELY AGREEABLE TO OTHERS: sure commerce As the mutual shocks in society and the many classes of it which are now received oppositions of interest and self-love have on the sole testimony of taste and senticonstrained inankind to establish the laws ment might, perhaps, be resolved into of justice in order to preserve the advan- more general principles. But this is tages of mutual assistance and protection, sufficient for our present purpose, that it in like manner the eternal contrarieties, does affect taste and sentiment, and, in company, of men's pride and self-conceit bestowing an immediate enjoyment, is a have introduced the rules of good manners source of approbation and affecor politeness, in order to facilitate the tioir. intercourse of minds and an undisturbed In countries, where nien pass most of and conversation. Among their time in conversation, and visits, and well-bred people a mutual deference is assemblies, these companionable qualities, affected, contempt of others disguised, so to speak, are of high estimation, and authority concealed, attention given to form a chief part of personal merit. In each in his turn, and an easy stream of countries where men live a more domestic conversation maintained, without vehe life, and either are employed in business mence, without interruption, without or amuse themselves in a narrower circle eagerness for victory, and without any of acquaintance, the more solid qualities airs of superiority. These attentions and are chiefly regarded. Thus I have often regards are immediately agreeable to observed that among the French the first others, abstracted from any consideration questions with regard to a stranger are, of utility or beneficial tendencies; they Is he polite? Has he wit? In our own conciliate affection, promote esteem, and country the chief praise bestowed is extremely enhance the merit of the person always that of a good-natured, sensible who regulates his behaviour hy them. fellow. Many of the forms of breeding are In conversation the lively spirit of arbitrary and casual, but the thing ex- dialogue is agreeable, even to those who pressed by them is still the same. A desire not to have any share in the dis- Spaniard goes out of his own house before course; hence the teller of long stories his guest, to signify that he leaves him or the pompous declaimer is very little master of all. In other countries the land- approved of. But 4110st men desire likelord walks out last, as a common mark of wise their turn in the conversation, and deference and regard. regard with a very evil cyo that loquacity But, in order to render a man perfect which deprives them of a right they are good company, he must have wit and in- naturally so jealous of. genuity as well as good manners. What There is a sort of harmless liars, frewit is it may not be easy to define ; but it quently to he met with in company, who is easy surely to delerinine that it is a deal much in the marvellous. Their quality immediately agreeable to others, usual intention is to please and entertain; and communicating, on its first appear- but, as men are most delighted with what ance, a lively joy and satisfaction to every- they conceive to be truth, these people - one who has any comprehension of it. mistake extremely the means of pleasing, The most profound metaphysics, ir:deed, and incur universa' blame. Some indul. might be employed in explaining the gence, however, to lying or fiction is various kinds and species of wit ; and given in humorous stories, because it is * It is the nature and, indeed, the definition of virtue that it is a quality of the mind agreeable to or approved of by everyone who considers or contemplates it. But some qualities produce pleasure bccause they are useful to society, or uscful or agreeable to the person himself; others produce it more immediately, which is the case with the class of virtues here considered.

·I OF QUALITIES IMMEDIATELY AGREEABLE TO OTHERS 117 there really agreeable and entertaining, self-praise, and were Montaigne's maxim and truth is not of any importance. observed, that one should say as frankly, Eloquence, genius of all kinds, even I have sense, I have learning, I have good sense and sound reasoning when courage, beauty, of wit, as it is sure we it rises to an eminent degree and is often think so—were this the case, say, employed upon subjects of any consider- everyone is sensible that such a flood of able dignity and nice discernment-all impertinence would break in upon us as these endowments seem immediately would render society whollye intolerable. agreeable, and have a merit distinct from For this reason custom has established it their usefulness. Rarity, likewise, which as a rule, in common societies, that men so much enhances the price of everything, should not indulge themselves in selfmust set an additional value on those noble praise, or even speak much of themtalents of the human mind. selves; and it is only ainong intimate Modesty may be understood in different friends, or people of very manly behaviour, senses, even abstracted from chastity, that one is allowed to do himself justice. which has been already treated of. It Nobody finds fault with Maurice, Prince sometimes means that tenderness and of Orange, for his reply to one who asked nicety of honour, that apprehension of 1 him whom he esteemed the first general blame; that dread of intrusion or injury' of the age: The Marquis of Spinola, said towards others, that pudor which is the he, is the second; though it is observable proper guardian of every kind of virtue that the self-praise implied is here better and a sure preservative against vice and implied than if it had been directly corruption. But its most. usual meaning expressed without any cover or disguise. is when it is opposed to impudence and He must be a very superficial thinker arrogance, and expresses a diffidence of who imagines that all instances of mutual our ownı judgment and a due attention deference are to be understood in earnest, and regard for others. In young men and that a man would be more estimchiefly this quality is a sure sign of good able for being ignorant of his own merits sense, and is also the certain means of and accomplishments. A small bias augmenting that endowment, by preserv- towards modesty, even in the internal ing their ears open to instruction and sentiment, is favourably regarded, espemaking them still grasp after new attain- cially in young people, and a strong bias ments. But it has a further charm to is required in the outward behaviour ; every spectator by flattering every man's but this excludes not a noble pride and vanity and presenting the appearance of a spirit, which may openly display itself in docile pupil, who receives with proper its full extent when one lies under attention and respect every word they calumny or oppression of any kind. The utter. generous contumacy of Socrates, as Men have, in general, a much greater Cicero calls it, has been highly celebrated propensity to overvalue than undervalue in all ages, and, when joined to the usual themselves, notwithstånding the opinion modesty of his behaviour, forms a shining of Aristotle.' This makes character. Iphicrates the Athenian, jealous of the excess on the former side, being accused of betraying the interests and causes us to regard with a peculiar of his country, asked his accuser, Would indulgence all tendency to modesty and you, says he, have, on a like occasion, been self-diffidence, as esteeming the danger guilty of that crime? By no mans, less of falling into any vicious extreme of replieu the other. And can you, then, that nature. It is thus, in countries imagine, cried the hero, that Iphicrates where men's bodies are apt to exceed in would be guilty ? In short, a generous corpulency, personal beauty is placed in a spirit, and self-value well founded, much greater degree of slenderness than decently disguised, and courageously in countries where that is the most usual supported under distress and calumny, is defect. Being so often struck with a great excellence, and seems to derive its 'instances of one species of deformity, rerit from the noble elevation of its men think they can never keep at too sentiment, or its immediate agreeableness great a distance from it, and wish always to its possessor. In ordinary characters to have a leaning to the opposite side. we approve of a bias towards modesty, In like manner, were the door opened to which is a quality immediately agreeable I us inore i Ethic. ad Nicomachun. Quinctil., lib. v., cap. 12.

·118 OF QUALITIES IMMEDIATELY AGREEABLE TO OTHERS Sure to others; the vicious excess of the indecorum which is explained so much at former virtue--namely, insolence or large by Cicero in his offices. haughtiness-is immediately disagreeable Among the other virtues, we may also to others; the excess oi the latter is so to give cleanliness a place, since it naturally the possessor. Thus are the boundaries of renders us agreeable to others, and is no these duties adjusted. inconsiderable source of love and affec- A desire of fame, reputation, or a char- tion. No one will deny that a negligence acter with others, is so far from being in this particular is a fault, and, as faults blamable that it seems inseparable from are nothing but smaller vices, and this virtue, genius, capacity, and a generous fault can have no other origin than the or noble disposition. An attention even uneasy sensation which it excites in to trivial matters, in order to please, is others, we may in this instance, seemingly also expected and demanded by society, so trivial, clearly discover the origin of and no one is surprised if he find at man moral distinctions, about which the in company to observe a greater elegance learned have involved themselves in such of dress and more pleasant How of con mazes of perplexity and error. versation than when he passes his time at But besides all the agreeable qualities hone and with his own family. Wherein, the origin of whose beauty we can in then, consists vanity, which is so justly some degred explain and account for, regarded as a fault or imperfection? It there still remains something mysterious seems to consist chielly in such an intem- and inexplicable, which conveys an immeperate display of our advantages, honours, diate satisfaction to the spectator; but and accomplishments-in such an impor- how, or why, or for what reason he cannot tunate and open demand of praise and pretend to determine. There is a manner, admiration--as is offensive to others, and il grace, an case, il gentleness, an l-knowencroaches too far on their secret vanity not-what, which some men possess above and ambition. li is, besides, a others, which is very different from exsymptom of the want of true dignity and ternal beauty and coineliness, and which, elevation of mind, which is so great an however, catches our affection almost as ornament in any character. For why suddenly and powerfully. And though that impatient desire of applause, as if this minner be chiefly talked of in the you were not justly entitled to it, and passion between the sexes, where the might not reasonably expect that it would concealed magic is easily explained, yet for ever attend you? Why so anxious to surely much of it prevails in all our estiinform us of the great company which matión of characters, and forms no inconyou have kept; the obliging things which siderable part of personal merit. This were said to you ; the honours, the dis- class of accomplishments, therefore, must tinctions which you met with ; as if these be trusted entirely to the blind but sure were not things of course, and what we testiniony of taste and sentiment, and could readily of ourselves have imagined must be considered as a part of ethics without being told of them? left by nature to Batlle all the pride of Decency, or a proper regard to age, philosophy and make her sensible of her sex, character, and station in the world, narrow boundaries and slender acquisimay be ranked among the qualities which tions. are immediately agreeable to others, and We approve of another, because of his which hy that means acquire praise and wit, politeness, modesty, decency, or any approbation. An effeminate behaviour in agreeable quality which he possesses, a man, a rough manner in a woman- although he be not of our acquaintance, these are ugly because unsuitable to cach nor has ever given us any entertainment character and different from the qualities by means of these accomplishments. The which we expect in the sexes. It is as if idea which we form of their effect on his a tragedy abounded in comic beauties, or acquaintance has an agreeable influence a comedy in tragic. The disproportions on our imagination, and gives us the hurt the eye and convey a disagreeable sentiment of approbation. This principle sentiment to the spectators, the source of enters into all the judgments which we blame and disapprobation. This is that form concerning manners and characters.

·MAJU PUBLIC LIBRARY MAJU, HOW RAHU CONCLUSION 119 SECTION IX. Estd. 1902. CONCLUSION PART 1. You are very happy, we shall suppose one to say, addressing himself to another, that It may justly appear surprising that any you have given yourdaughter to Clcanthes. man in so late an age should find it He is a man of honour and humanity: requisite to prove by elaborate reasoning Everyone ivho has any intercourse with that personal merit consists altogether in him is sure of fair and kind treatment." the possession of mental qualities, useful I congratulate you, too, says another, on or agreeable to the person himself or to the promising expectations of this son-inothers. It might be expected that this law, whose assiduous application to the principle would have occuwed even to study of the laws, whose quick penetrathe first rude, unpractised inquirers con tion and early knowledge both of men and cerning morals, and been received from business, prognosticate the greatest its own evidence without any argument honours and advancement.? You surprise or disputation. Whatever is valuable in me, replies it third, when you talk of any kind so naturally classes itself under Cleanthes as a man of business and applithe division of useful or agreeable, the 'cation. I met him lately in a circle of the utile or the dulce, ihat it is not easy to gayest company, and he was the very Jife imagine why we should ever seek further, and soul of our conversation : so much or consider the question as a matter of wit with good manners; so much gallantry nice rescarch or inquiry. And as every- without affectation; so much ingenious thing useful or agrecable niust possess knowledge so genteelly delivered, "I have these qualities with regard either to the never before observed in anyone.3 You person himself or to others, the complete would admire him still more, says it delineation or description of merit seems fourth, if you knew him more familiarly. to be performed as naturally as a shadow That cheerfulness which you might is cast by the sun or an image is reflected remark in him is not a sudden flash upon water. If the ground on which the struck out by company; it runs through shadow is cast be not broken and uneven, the whole tenour of his life, and preserves nor the surface from which the image is a perpetual serenity on his countenance reflected disturbed and confused, a just and tranquillity in his soul. He has met figure is immediately presented without with severe trials, misfortunes as well as any art or attention. And it seems a dangers; and, by his greatness of mind, reasonable presumption that systems and was still superior to all of them. The hypotheses have perverted our natural image, gentlemen, which you have here understanding, when a theory so simple delineated of Cleanthes, cried I, is that of and obvious could so long have escaped accomplished merit. Each of you lias the most elaborate examination. given a stroke of the pencil to his figure, But, however the case may have fared and you have, unawares, exceeded all the with philosophy, in common life these pictures drawn by Gratian or Castiglione. principles are still implicitly maintained ; philosopher might select this character nor is any other topic of praise or blame as a model of perfect virtue. ever recurred to, when we employ any And, as every quality which is useful or panegyric or satire, any applause or agreeable to ourselves or others is, in censure of human action and behaviour. comiuon life, allowed to be a part of If we observe men in every intercourse of personal merit, so no other will ever be business or pleasure, in every discourse received where men judge of things by and conversation, we shall find them nowhere, except in the schools, at any 1 Qualities useful to others. 2 Qualitics useful to the person himself. loss upon this subject. What so natural, 3 Qualities immediately agreeable to others. for instance, as the following dialogue ? * Qualities inmediately agrecable to the person himself, ·CONCLUSION reason are that purpose. their natural, unprejudiced reason, without general sentiment of blame and approthe delusive glosses of superstition and bation--a tendency, however faint, to the false religion. Celibacy, fasting, penance, objects of the one, and a proportionable mortification, self-denial, humility, silence, aversion to those of the other. Nor will solitude, and the whole train of those reasoners who so earnestly maintain monkish virtues- for what the predominant selfishness of human they everywhere rejected by men of kind be anywise scandalised at hearing of sense but because they serve to no the weak sentiments of virtue implanted manner of purpose; neither advance a in our nature. On the contrary, they are man's fortune in the world, nor render found as ready to maintain the one tenet him a more valuable member of society ; as the other; and their spirit of satire neither qualify him for the entertainment (for such it appears, rather than of corrupof company, nor increase his power of tion) naturally gives rise to both opinions, self-enjoyment ? We observe, on the which have, indeed, a great and almost contrary, that they cross all these desir an indissoluble connection together. able ends, stupefy the understanding and Avarice, ambition, vanity, and all harden the heart, obscure the fancy and passions vulgarly, though improperly, sour the teniper. We justly, therefore, comprised under the denomination of transfer them to the opposite column, self-love, are here excluded from our and place them in the catalogue of vices; thicory concerning the origin of morals, nor has any superstition force suflicient not because they are too weak, but beamong men of the world to pervert cause they have not a proper direction for entirely these natural sentiments. A The notion of morals imgloomy, hare-brained enthusiast, after his plies soine sentiment common to all mandeath, may have a place in the calendar, kind, which recommends the same object but will scarcely ever he adınitled, when to general approbation, and makes every alive, into intimacy and society, except by man, or most men, agree in the same those who are as delirious and disinal as opinion or decision concerning it. It also himself. implies some sentiment so universal and It seems a happiness in the present comprehensive as toextend to all mankind, theory that it enters not into that vulgar and render the actions and conduct even dispute concerning the degrees of benevo- of the persons the most remote an object lence or self-love which prevail in human of applause or censure, according as they nature-a dispute which is never likely to agree or disagree with that rule of right have any issue, both because men who which is established. These two requisite have taken part are not casily convinced, circumstances belong alone to the sentiand because the phenomena which can ment of humanity here insisted on. The be produced on either side are so dispersed, other passions produce in every breast many so uncertain, and subject to so many inter strong sentiments of desire and aversion, pretations, that it is scarcely possible accu- affection and hatred; but these neither rately to compare them, or draw from are felt so much, in common, nor are so them any determinate inference or con- coinprehensive, as to be the foundation of clusion. It is sufficient for our present any general system and established theory purpose, if it be allowed--what surely, of blame or approbation. without the greatest absurdity, cannot be When a man denominates another his disputed—that there is some benevolence, enemy, his rival, his antagonist, his adverhowever small, infused into our bosom; sary, he is understood to speak the some spark of friendship for human kind; language of self-love, and to express some particle of the dove kneaded into our sentiments peculiar to himself and arising frame, along with the elements of the from his particular circumstances and wolf and serpent. Let these generous situation. But when he bestows on any sentiments be supposed ever so weak; let man the epithets of vicious or odious or them be insufficient to move even a hand depraved, he then speaks another lanor finger of our body, they must still direct guage, and expresses sentiments in which the determinations of our mind, and, he expects all his audience are to concur where everything else is equal, produce a with him. He must here, therefore, cool preference of what is useful and depart from his private and particular serviceable to mankind, above what is situation, and must choose a point of view pernicious and dangerous. A moral dis common to him with others; he inust tinction, therefore, immediately arises; a move some universal principle of the ·CONCLUSION 121 as human frame, and touch a string to What more, therefore, can we ask to which all inankind have an accord and distinguish the sentiments dependent on symphony. If he mean, therefore, to humanity from those connected with any express that this man possesses qualities other passion, or to satisfy us why the whose tendency is pernicious to society, he former are the origin of morals, not the has chosen this common point of view, latter? Whatever conduct gains my and has touched the principle of humanity, approbation by touching my humanity in which every man, in some degree, procures also the applause of all mankind concurs. While the human heart is com- by affecting the same principle in them; pounded of the sapie elements at but what serves my avarice or ambition present, it will never be wholly indifferent pleases these passions in me alone, and to public good, nor entirely unaffected affects not the avarice and ambition of the with the tendency of characters and rest of mankind. There is no circumstance inanners. And, though this affection of of conduct in any man, provided it have a humanitý may not generally be esteemed beneficial tendency, that is not agreeable so strong as vanity or ambition, yet, being to my humanity, however remote the common to all men, it can alonc be the person; but every man so far removed as foundation of morals, or of any general neither to cross nor serve my avarice and system of blame or praise. . One man's ambition is regarded as wholly indifferent ambition is not another's ambition, nor will by those passions. The distinction, therethe same event or object satisfy both; but fore, between these species of sentiment the humanity of one man is the humanity being so great and evident, language of everyone, and the same object touches must soon be moulded upon it, and must this passion in all human creatures. invent a peculiar set of terms in order to But the sentiments which arise from express those universal sentiments of humanity are not only the same in all censure or approbation which arise from human creatures and produce the same humanity, or from views of general usefulapprobation or censure, but they also ness and its contrary. Virtue and vice comprehend all human creatures ; nor is become then known, morals are recog. there anyone whose conduct or character nised, certain general ideas are framed is not by their means an object to every- of human conduct and behaviour ; such one of censure or approbation. On the measures are expected from men in such contrary, those other passions commonly situations. This action is determined to denominated selfish both produce different be conformable to our abstract rule, that Sentiments in each individual, according other contrary, And by such universal to his particular situation; and also con principles are the particular sentiments template the greater part of mankind with of self-love frequently controlled and the utmost indifference and unconcern. limited. Whoever has a high regard and esteem From instances of popular tumults, for me flatters my vanity; whoever expresses contempt mortifies and displeases that a rude, untaught savage regulates chiefly his love i It seems certain, both from reason and experience, me; but, as my name is known but to a and hatred by the ideas of private utility and injury, small part of mankind, there are few who and has but faint conceptions of a general rule or come within the sphere of this passion, or system of behaviour. The man who stands opposite to him in battle he hates heartily, not only for the excite on its account either my affection present moment, which is almost unavoidable, but for or disgust. But if you represent a tyran- punisherent and vengeance. ever after ; nor is he satisfied without the most extreme But wc, accustomed to nical, insolent, or barbarous behaviour in society and to more enlarged reflections, consider that any country or in any age of the world, I this man is serving his own country and community; that any man in the same situation would do the same; soon carry my eye to the pernicious tenthat we ourselves in likc circumstances obscrve a like dency of such a conduct, and feel the sen conduct ; that, in general, human society is best suptiment of repugnance and displeasure ported on such maxims ; and by these suppositions and vicws we correct in some measure our ruder and towards it. No character can be so narrower passions. And though much of our friend. remote as to be in this light wholly indif- ship and enmity be still regulated by private consideraferent to What is beneficial to tions of bencfit and harm, we pay at least this homage to general rules which we are accustomed to respect, society or to the person himself mast still that we commonly pervert our adversary's conduct by be preferred. And every quality or action imputing malice or injustice to him in order to give vent to those passions which arise from self-love and of every human being must by this means private interest. When the heart is full of rage it be ranked under some class or denomina never wants pretences of this nature; though sometion expressive of general censure times as frivolous as those from which Ilorace, being, almost crushed by the fall of a tree, affects to accuse of applause. parricide the first planter of it. me. or ·122 CONCLUSION can Or Seditions, factions, panics, and of all inward beauty and moral grace is stucipassions which are shared with a multi ously acquired, and the mind is accomtude, we may learn the influence of society plished every perfection which in exciting and supporting any emotion ; adorn embellish rational while the inost ungovernable disorders creature. are raised, we find, by that means from Here is the most perfect morality with the slightest and most frivolous occasions. which we are acquainted; here is dis- Solon was no very cruel, though, perhaps, played the force of many sympathies. an unjust Kgislator, who punished neuters Our moral sentiment is itself a feeling in civil wars; and few, I believe, would chictly of that nature, and our regard to in such cases incur the penalty were their a character with others seems to arise affection and discourse allowed sullicient only from a care of preserving a character to absolve them. No seltisliness and with ourselves; and, in order to attain scarce any philosophy have there force this end, we find it necessary to prop our suflicient to support a total coolness and tottering judgment on the correspondent indillerence, and he must be more or less approbation of mankind. than man who kindles not in the common But, that we may accommodate matters, blaze. What wonder, then, that moral and remove, if possible, every difficulty, sentiments are found of such influence in let us allow all these reasonings to be lite, though springing from principles false. Let us allow that, when we resolve which may appear at first sight somewhat the pleasure which arises from views of small and delicate? But these princi- utility into the sentiments of humanity ples, we must remark, are social and and sympathy, we have embraced a wrong universal; they form, in a manner, the hypothesis. Let us confess it necessary party of humankind against vice or dis to find some other explication of that order, its common enemy. And as the applause which is paid to objects, whether benevolent concern for others is diffused, inanimate, animate, or rational, if they in a greater or less degree, over all men, have a tendency to promote the welfare and is the same in all, it occurs more and advantage of mankind. However frequently in discourse, is cherished by difficult it be to conceive that an object society and conversation, and the blame is approved of on account of its tendency and approbation consequent on it are to a certain ead, while the end itself is thereby roused from that lethargy into totally indifferent, let us swallow this which they are probably lulled in solitary | absurdity and consider what are the conand uncultivated nature. Other passions, ' sequences. The preceding delineation or though perhaps originally stronger, yet definition of Personal Merit must still being selfish and private, are often over retain its evidence and authority; it must powered by its force, and yield the dominion still be allowed that every quality of the of our breast to those social and public mind which is useful or agreeable to the principles. person himself or to others communicates Another spring of our constitution that a pleasure to the spectator, engages his brings a great addition of force to moral estcem, and is admitted under the honoursentiments is the love of fame, which able denomination of virtue or merit. Are rules with such uncontrolled authority in not justice, fidelity, honour, veracity, all generous minds, and is often the allegiance, chastity, esteemed solely on grand object of all their designs and account of their tendency to promote the undertakings. By our continual and good of society? Is not that tendency earnest pursuit of a character, il name, il inseparable froin humanity, benevolence, reputation in the world, we bring our own lenity, generosity, gratitude, moderation, deportment and conduct frequently in tenderness, friendship, and all the other review, and consider how they appear in social virtues? Can it possibly be doubted the eyes of those who approach and regard thatindustry, discretion, frugality, secrecy, us. "This constant habit of surveying our order, perseverance, forethought, judgselves, as it were, in reflection keeps alive | ment, and this whole class of virtues and all the sentiments of right and wrong, and accomplishments, of which many pages begets in noble natures a certain reverence would not contain the catalogue---can it for themselves as well as others, which is be doubted, I say, that the tendency of the surest guardian of every virtue. The these qualities to promote the interest and animal conveniences and pleasures sink happiness of their possessor is the sole gradually in their value; while every foundation of their merit ? Who can ·CONCLUSION 123 manner. dispute triat a mind which supports a interested obligation to it, and to inquire perpetual serenity and cheerfulness, a whether every man who has any regard noble dignity and undaunted spirit, a to his own happiness and welfare will not tender affection and goodwill to all best find his account in the practice of around, as it has more enjoyment within every moral duty. If this can be clearly itself, is also a more aniinating and re ascertained from the foregoing theory, we joicing spectacle than if dejected with shall have the satisfaction to reflect that melancholy, tormented with anxiety, irri we have advanced principles which not tated withi rage, or sunk into the most only, it is hoped, will stand the test of abject baseness and degeneracy? And as reasoning and inquiry, but may contrito the qualities immediately agreeable to bute to the amendment of men's lives others, they speak sufficiently for them- and their improvement in morality and selves, and he must be unhappy indeed, social virtue. And though the philoeiller in his own temper or in his situa- sophical třuth of any proposition by no tiori and company, who has never per means depends on its tendency to promote ceived the charms of a facetious wit or the interests of society, yet a man has but flowing affability, of a delicate modesty a bad grace who delivers a theory, howor decent genteelness of address and ever true, which, he must confess, leads to a practice dangerous and pernicious. I am sensible that nothing can be more Why rake into those corners of nature unphilosophical than to be positive or which spread a nuisance all around ? dogmatical on any subject, and that, even Why dig up the pestilence from the pit in if excessive scepticism could hemaintained, which it is buried ? The ingenuity of it would not be more destructive to all your researches may be admired, but your just reasoning and inquiry. I am con systems will be detested ; and mankind vinced that, where men are the most sure will agree, if they cannot relute thein, to and arrogant, they are commonly the sink them, at least, in eternal silence and most mistaken, and have there given reins oblivion. Truths which are pernicious to to passion without that proper delibera- society, if any such there be, will yield to tion and suspense which can alone secure errors which are salutary and advanthem from the grossest absurdities. Yet tageous. I must confess that this enumeration puts But what philosophical truths can be the matter in so strong i light that I more advantageous to society than those cannot, at present, be more assured of any here delivered, which represent Virtue in truth which I learn from reasoning and all her genuine and most engaging argument than that personal meril con charms and make us approach her with sists entirely in the usefulness or agrec- case, familiarity, and allection ? The ableness of qualities to the person himself dismal dress falls off with which many possessed of them, or to others who have divines and some philosophers have any intercourse with him. But when I covered her, and nothing appears but refect that, though the bulk and figure gentleness, humanity, beneficence, affaof the earth have been measured and bility; nay, even, at proper intervals, play, delineated, though the motions of the frolic, and gaiety. She talks not of usetides have been accounted for, the order less austerities and rigours, suffering and and economy of the heavenly bodies sub- self-denial. She declares that her sole jected to their proper laws, and Infinite purpose is to make her votaries and all itself reduced to calculation, yet men still mankind, during every instant of their Jispute concerning the foundation of their existence, if possible, cheerful and happy; moral duties-wlien I reflect on this, I nor does she ever willingly part with any say, I fall back into diffidence and scepti- pleasure but in hopes of ample compenselcism, and suspect that an hypothesis so tion in some other period of their lives. obvious, had it been a true one, would, ' The solo trouble which she demands is long ere now, have been received by the that of just calculation and a steady preunanimous suffrage and consent of man ferente of the greater happiness. And if kind. ai, austere pretenders approach fier, PART II. enemies to joy and pleasure, she either rejects them as hypocrites and deceivers ; Having explained the moral approba- or, if she admit them in her train, they tion attending merit or virtue, there re are ranked, however, among the least mains nothing but brictly to consider our favoured of her votaries.

·124 CONCLUSION a excesses more And, indeed, to drop all figurative politeness? Are we apprehensive lest expression, what hopes can we ever have those social affections interfere in of engaging mankind to a practice which greater and more iminediate degree than we confess full of austerity and rigour? any other pursuits with private utility, Or what theory of moeals can ever serve and cannot be gratified without some any useful purpose unless it can show, by important sacrifice of honour and advana particular detail, that all the duties tage? If so, we are but i!l. instructed in which it recommends are also the true the nature of the human passions, and interest of each individual? The peculiar are more influenced by verbal distinctions advantage of the foregoing system secms than by real differences, to be that it furnishes proper mediums for Whatever contradiction may vulgarly that purpose. be supposed between the selfish and That the virtues which are immediately social sentiments or dispositions, they are useful or agreeable to the person possessed really no more opposite than selfish and of them are desirable in a view to self- ambitious, selfish and revengeful, selfish interest it would surely be superfluous and vain. It is requisite that there be an to prove. Moralists, indeed, may spare original propensity of some kind in order themselves all the pains which they often to be a basis to self-love by giving a relish take in recommending these duties. To to the objects of its pursuit, and none what purpose collect arguments to evince more fit for this purpose than benevolence that temperance is advantageous, and or humanity. The goods of fortune are the excesses of pleasure hurtful, when it spent in one gratification or another. appears that these are only The miser wlio accumulates his annual denominated such because they are income and lends it out at interest has hurtful, and that if the unlimited use of really spent it in the gratification of his strong liquors, for instance, no avarice. And it would be difficult to impaired health or the faculties of the show why a man is more a loser by a mind and body than the use of air or generous action than by any other method water, it would not be a whit more vicious of expense, since the utmost which he can or blamable ? attain by the most elaborate sellishness It seenis equally superfluous to prove is the indulgence of some affection. that the companionable virtues of good Now, if life without passion must be manners and wit, decency and gentcel altogether insipid and tiresome, let a man ness, are more desirable than the contrary suppose that he has full power of model- . qualities. Vanity alone, witnout any ling his own disposition, and let him other consideration, is a sufficient motive deliberate what appetite or desire he to make us wish for the possession of would choose for the foundation of his these accomplishments. No man was happiness and enjoyment. Every affecever willingly deficient in this particular. tion, he would observe, when gratified by All our failures here proceed from bad | success, gives a satisfaction proportioned education, want of capacity, or a perverse to its force and violence; but hesides this and unpliable disposition. advantage, cominon to all, the immediate have your company coveted, adınired, feeling of benevolence and friendship, followed, rather than hated, despised, humanity and kindness, is sweet, smooth, avoided? Can anyone seriously deliberate tender, and agreeable, independent of all in the case ? As no enjoyment is sincere fortune and accidents, These virtues are, without some reference to company and besides, attended with a pleasing consociety, so no society can be agrecable, or sciousness or remembrance, and keep us even tolerable, where a man feels his in humour with ourselves as well as presence unwelcome, and discovers all others, while we retain the agreeable around him symptoms of disgust and reflection of having done our part towards aversion, mankind and society. And though all But why, in the greater society or con men show a jealousy of our success in the federacy of mankind, should not the case pursuits of avarica and ambition, yet are be the same as in particular clubs and we almost sure of their goodwill and good companies? Why is it inore doubtful wishes so long as we persevere in the paths that the enlarged virtues of humanity, of virtue and employ ourselves in the generosity, beneficence, are desirable with execution of generous plans and purposes. a view of happiness and self-interest than what other passion is there where we the limited endowments of ingenuity and shall find so inany advantages united, an Would you ·CONCLUSION 125 agreeable sentiment, a pleasing con all ingenuous natures the antipathy to sciousness, a good reputation ? But of treachery and roguery is too strong to be these truths, we inay observe, men are of counterbalanced by any views of profit or themselves pretty much convinced ; nor pecuniary advantage. Inward peace of are they deficient in their duty to society mind, consciousness of integrity, a satisbecause they would not wish to be factory review of our own conduct-these generous, friendly, and humane, but are circunstances very requisite to happi, because they do not feel themselves such. ness, and will be cherished and cultivated Treating vice with the greatest candour, by every honest man who feels the imand making it all possible concessions, portance of them. we must acknowledge that there is not, Such a one has, besides, the frequent in any instance, the smallest pretext for satisfaction of seeing knaves, with all giving it the preference above virtue with their pretended cunni .g and abilities, a view of self-interest, except, perhaps, in betrayed by their own maxims, and, while the case of justice, where a nian, taking they purpose to cheat with moderation things in a certain light, may often seem and secrecy, a tempting incident occurs, to be a loser by his integrity. And though nature is frail, and they give into the it is allowed that without a regard to snare, whence they can never extricate property no society ould subsist, yet, themselves without a total loss of reputaaccording to the imperfect way in which tion and the forfeiture of all future trust human affairs are conducted, a sensible and confidence with mankind. knave, in particular incidents, may think But were they ever so secret and sucthat an act of iniquity or infidelity will cessful, the honest man, if he has any make a considerable addition to his tincture of philosophy, or even common fortune without causing any considerable observation and reflection, will discover breach in the social union and con that they themselves are, in the end, the federacy. That honesty is the best policy greatest dupes, and have sacrificed the may be a good general rule, but is liable invaluable enjoyment of a character, with to many 'exceptions; and he, it may themselves at least, for the acquisition of perhaps be thought, conducts himself with worthless toys and gewgaws. How little inost wisdom who observes the general is requisite to supply the necessities of rule and takes advantage of all the excep- | nature? And in a view to pleasure, what tions. comparison between the unbought satis- I must confess that, if a man think that faction of conversation, society, study, this reasoning much requires an answer, even health and the common beauties it would be a little difficult to find any' of nature, but, above all, the peaceful which will to him appear satisfactory reflection on one's own conduct--what and convincing. If his heart rebel not comparison, I say, between these and against such pernicious maximns, if he the feverislı, empty amusements of luxury feel no reluctance to the thoughts of and expense? These natural pleasures, villainy or baseness, he has, indeed, lost indeed, are really without price'; both a considerable motive. to virtue, and we because they are below all price in their may expect that his practice will be attaininent, and above it in their enjoyanswerable to his speculation. But in ment.

·126 CONCERNING MORAL, SENTIMENT APPENDIX I. CONCERNING NIORAL SENTIMENT If the foregoing hypothesis be received, the questions with regard to justice; the it will now he easy for us to determine debates of civilians, the reflections of the question first started,' concerning the politicians, the precedents of history and general principles of morals; and, though public records, are all directed to the same we postponed the decision of that ques- purpose. And a very accurate reason or tion" lest it should then involve us in judgment is often requisite to give the intricate speculations, which are unfit for true determination amid such intricate moral discourses, we may resume it at doubts arising from obscure or opposite present, and examine how far either utilities. reason or sentimententers into all decisionsº But though reason, when fully assisted of praise or censure. and improved, be suflicient to instruct us One principal foundation of moral in the pernicious or useful tendency of praise being supposed to lie in the useful. qualities and actions, it is not alone suffiness of any quality or action, it is evident cient to produce any inoral blame or that reason must enter for a considerable approbation. Utility is only a tendency share in all decisions of this kind, since to a certain end, and, were the end totally nothing but that faculty can instruct us indifferent to us, we should feel the saine in the tendency of qualities and actions, indifference towards the means. It is and point out their beneficial consequences requisite a sentiment should here display to society and to their possessor. In itself, in order to give a preference to the many cases this is an altair liable to useful above the pernicious tendencies. great controversy ; doubts may arise; This sentiment can be 110 other than a opposite interests may occur; and a pre feeling for the happiness of mankind and ference must be given to one side from a resentment of their misery, since these very nice views, and a small overbalance are the different ends which virtue and of utility. This is particularly remark- vice have a tendency to promote. Here, able in questions with regard io justice, therefore, reason instructs us in the several as is, indeed, natural to suppose from tendencies of actions, and humanity makes that species of utility which atiends this a distinction in favour of those which virtue.Were every single instance of are useful and beneficial. justice, like that of benevolence, useful to This partition between the faculties of society, this would be a more simple state understanding and sentiment in all moral of the case, and seldom liable to great decisions seems clear from the preceding controversy. But as single instances of hypothesis. But I shall suppose that justice are often pernicious in their first hypothesis false; it will then be requisite and immediate tendency, and as the to look out for some other theory that advantage to society results only from the may be satisfactory; and I dare venture observance of the general rule, and from to aflirm that none such will ever be the concurrence and combination of found so long as we suppose reason to several persons in the same equitable be the sole source of morals. conduct, the case here becomes more this it will be proper to weigh the five intricate and involved. The various cir following considerations. cumstances of society, the various couse I. It is casy for a false hypothesis to quences of any practice, the various maintain some appearance of truth while interests which may be proposed--these, it keeps wholly in generals, makes use on many occasions, are doubtful, and of undefined terms, and employs comsubject to great discussion and inquiry. parisons instead of instances. This is The object of municipal laws is to fix all particularly remarkable in that philosophy which ascribes the discernment of all 1 Sect. i. 2 Sec App. iii. moral distinctions to reason alone, without To prove ·CONCERNING MORAL SENTIMENT 127 01 ence. say, which the concurrence of sentiment. It is impos tion, but must have recourse to the deci. sible that in any particular instance this sions of sentiment. hypothesis can so much as be rendered When it is affirmed that two and three intelligible, whatever specious figure it are equal to thesialf of ten, this relation may make in general declamations and of equality I understand perfectly. I condiscourses. Examine the crime of in ceive that if ten be divided into two parts gratitude, for instance, which has place of which one has as inany units as the wherever we observe good-will expressed other, and if any of these parts be comand known together with good offices pared to two added to three, it will contain performed on the one side, and a return as many units as that compound number. of ill-will or indifference with ill offices or But when you draw thence a comparison neglect on the other; anatomise all these to moral relations I own that I am altocircumstances, and examine by your reason gether at a loss to understand you. A alone in what consists the demerit or moral action, a crime, such as ingratiblame.' You never will come to any issue tude, is a complicated object. Does the or conclusion. morality consist in the relation of its Reason judges either of matter of fact or parts to cach other? How? After what of relations. Inquire, then, first, where manner? Specify the relation, be more is that matter of fact which we here call particular and explicit in your proposicrime; point it out, determine the time of tions, and you will easily see their falseits existence, describe its essence hood. nature, explain the sense or faculty to No, say you, the morality consists in which it discovers itself. It resides in the relation of actions to the rule of right; the mind of the person who is ungrateful. and they are denominated good or ill He must, therefore, feel it, and be con- according as they agree or disagree with scious of it. But nothing is there except it. What, then, is this rule of right? In the passion of ill-will or absolute indiffer. what does it consist? How is it deter- You cannot say that these of them mined ? By reason, you selves always and in all circumstances examines the moral relations of actions. are crimes. No, they are only crimes So that moral relations are determined by when directed towards persons who have the comparison of action to a rule. And before expressed and displayed good-will that rule is determined by considering towards us. Consequently, we may infer the moral relations of objects. Is not that the crime of ingratitude is not any this fine reasoning ? particular individual fact, but arises froni All this is metaphysics, you cry. That a complication of circumstances which, is enough; there needs nothing more to being presented to the spectator, excites give a strong presumption of falsehood. the sentiment of blame by the particular Yes, reply 1, here are metaphysics surely; structure and fabric of his mind. but they are all your side, who This representation, you say, is false. advance an abstruse hypothesis which Crime, indo d, consists not in a particular be made intelligible nor fact, of whose reality we are assured by, quadrate with any particular instance or reason; but it consists in certain moral illustration. The hypothesis which we relations, discovered by reason, in the embrace is plain. It maintains that same manner as we discover by reason morality is determined by sentiment. It the truths of geometry or algebra. But defines virtue to be whatever mental what are the relations, I ask, of which actior: or quality gives to a spectator the you here talk? In the case stated above pleasing sentiment of approbation, and I see first good-will and good offices in vice the contrary. We then proceed to one person, then ill-will and ill offices in examine a plain matter of fact-to wit, the other. Between these there is a what actions have this influence. We relation of contrariety. Does the crime consider all the circumstances in which consist in that relation? But suppose a these actions agree, and thence endeavour person bore me ill-will or did me ill offices, to extract some general observations with and I in return were indifferent towards regard to these sentiments. If you call him or did him good offices. Here is the this metaphysics, and find anything same relation of contrariety; and yet my abstruse here, you need only, conclude conduct is often highly laudable. Twist that your luru of mind is not suited to the and turn this matter as much as you will, moral sciences. you can never rest the morality on rela II. When a man at any time deliberates 011 Cani never ·128 CONCERNING MORAL SENTIMENT are concerning his own conduct (as whether the relation, and from circumstances he had better, in a particular emergence, innocent and involuntary formed erroassist a brother or a benefactor), he must neous opinions concerning the action consider these separate .elations with all which he committed. But when Nero the circumstances and situations of the killed Agrippina all the relations between persons in order to determine the superior himsell and the person, and all the circumduty and obligation; and in order to stances of the fact, were previously known determine the proportion of lines in any to him; but the motive of revenge, or triangle it is neces cessary to examine the fear, or interest, prevailed in his savage nature of that figure and the relation heart over the sentiments of duty and which its several parts bear to each other. I humanity. And when we express that But, notwithstanding this appearing detestation against him to which he hiinsimilarity in the two cases, there is at self in a little time became insensible, it bottoin an extreme difference between 'is not that we see any relations of which them. A speculative reasoner concerning he was ignorant, but ihat for the rectitude triangles or circles considers the several of our disposition we feel sentiments known and given relations of the parts of against which he was hardened from these figures, and thence infers some flattery and a long perseverance in the unknown relation which is dependent most enormous crimes. In these sention the former. But in moral delibera. ments, then, not in a discovery of relations we must be acquainted before- tions of any kind, do all moral determinahand with all the objects and all their tions consist. Before we can pretend to relations to each other, and from a com form any decision of this kind everything parison of the whole fix our choice or must be known and ascertained on the approbation. No new fact to be ascer side of the object or action. Nothing tained ; no new relation to be discovered. remains but to feel on our part some sen- All the circumstances of the case timent of blame or approbation whence supposed to be laid before us cre we can we pronounce the action criminal or fix any sentence of blame or approbation. virtuous. If any ma rial rcumstance be yet II This doc ne will be me still unknown or doubtful, we must first more evident if we compare moral beauty employ our inquiry or intellectual faculties with natural, to which in many partito assure us of it, and must suspend for a culars it bears so near a resemblance. It time all moral decision or sentiment. is on the proportion, relation, and posi- While we are ignorant whether a man tion of parts that all natural beauty were aggressor or not, how can we deter- depends ; but it would be absurd thence mine whether the person who killed him to infer that the perception of beauty, be criminal or innocent ? But after every like that of truth in geometrical problems, circumstance, every relation, is known, the consists wholly in the perception of relaunderstanding has no further room to tions, and was performed entirely by the operate, nor any object on which it could understanding or intellectual faculties. employ itself. The approbation or blame In all the sciences our mind from the which then ensues cannot be the work of known relations investigates the the judgment, but of the heart, and is not known. But in all decisions of taste or a speculative proposition or affirmation, external beauty all the relations are but an active feeling or sentiment. In beforehand obvious to the cye, and we the disquisitions of the understanding, thence proceed to feel a sentiment of comfrom known circumstances and relations placency or disgust, according to the we infer some new and unknown. In nature of the object and disposition of our inoral decisions all the circumstances and organs. relations must be previously known, and Euclid has fully explained all the qualithe mind, from the contemplation of the ties of the circle, but has not in any prowhole, feels some new impression, of position said a word of its beauty. The affection or disgust, esteem or conteinpt, reason is evident. The beauty is not a approbation or blame. quality of the circle. It lies not in any Hence the great difference between a part of the line whose parts are equally mistake, of fact and one of right; and distant from a common centre. It is hence the reason why the one is com- only the effect which that figure produces inonly criminal, and not the other. When upon the mind, whose peculiar fabric of Edipus killed Laius he was ignorant of structure renders it susceptible of such url" ·CONCERNING MORAL SENTIMENT 129 reason. sentiments. In vain would you look for in all the same relations with Nero when it in the circle, or seek it either by your he murdered Agrippina, and, if morality senses or by mathematical reasoning in consisted merely in relations, would no all the properties of that figure. doubt be equally criminal. Attend to Palladio and Perrault while V. It appears evident that the ultimate they explain all the parts and proportions ends of human actions can never in any of a pillar. They talk of the cornice and case be accounted for by reason, but frieze and base and entablature and shaft recommend themselves entirely to the and architrave, and give the description sentiments and affections of mankind, and position of each of these members. without any dependence on the intel- But should you, ask the description and lectual faculties. Ask a man why he uses position of its beauty, they would readily exercise; he will answer, because he reply that the beauty is not in any of the desires to keep his health. If you .then parts or inembers of a pillar, but results inquire why he desires health, he will from the whole when that complicated readily reply, because sickness is painful. figure is presented to an intelligent mind If you push your inquiries farther and susceptible to those finer sensations. Till desire a reason why he hates pain, it is such a spectator appear there is nothing impossible he can ever give any. This is but a figure of such particular dimen an ultimate end, and is never referred to sions and proportions ; from his senti- any other object. ments alone arise its elegance and Perhaps to your second question, why beauty. he desires health, he may also reply that Again, attend to Cicero while he paints it is necessary for the exercise of his the crimes of a Verres or a Catiline. You calling. If you ask why he is anxious must acknowledge that the moral turpi- on that head, he will answer because he tude results in the same manner from the desires to get money. If you demand contemplation of the whole when pre Why? It is the instrument of pleasure, sented to a being whose organs have such says lie. And beyond this it is an a particular structure and formation. absurdity to ask for a It is The orator may paint rage, insolence, impossible there can be a progress in barbarity on the one side ; meekness, infinitum; and that one thing can always suffering, sorrow, innocence on the other. reason why another is desired. But if you feel no indignation or com- Something must be desirable on its own passion arise in you from this complica- account, and because of its immediate tion of circumstances, you would in vain accord or agreement with human sentiask him in what consists the crime or ment and affection. villainy which he so vehemently exclaims Now, as virtue is an end, and is desiragainst ; at what time or on what sub- able on its own account, without fee and ject it first began to exist; and what reward, merely for the immediate satishas a few months afterwards become of faction which it conveys, it is requisite that it, when every disposition and thought of there should be some sentiment which it all the actors is totally altered or annihi- touches, some internal taste or feeling, or lated ? No satisfactory answer can be whatever you may please to call it, which given to any of these questions upon the distinguishes moral good and evil, and abstract hypothesis of morals; and we which embraces the one and rejects the must at last acknowledge that the crime other. or imınorality is no particular fact or Thus the distinct boundaries and offices relation which can be the object of the of reason and of taste are easily ascerunderstanding, but arises entirely from tained. The former conveys the knowthe sentiment of disapprobation which, ledge of truth and falsehood ; the latter by the structure of human nature, we gives the sentiment of beauty and deforunavoidably feel on the apprehension of mity, vice and virtue. The one discovers barbarity or treachery. objects as they really stand in nature, IV. Inanimate objects may bear to without addition and diminution; the each other all the same relations which other has a productive faculty, and, gildwe observe in moral agents; though the ing or staining all natural objects with former can never be the object of love or the colours borrowed from internal sentihatred, nor are consequently susceptible ment, raises in a manner a new creation. of merit or iniquity. A young tree which Reason, being cool and disengaged, is no over-tops and destroys its parent stands inotive to action, and directs only the be a F ·130 OF SELF-LOVE impulse received from appetite or inclina. from the whole a new sentiment of blame tion by showing us the means of attain or approbation. The standard of the one, ing happiness or avoiding misery. Taste, being founded on the nature of things, is as it gives pleasure or pain, and thereby eternal and inflexible, even by the will of constitutes happiness or misery, becomes the Supreme Being; the standard of the a motive to action, and is the first spring other, arising from the eternal frame and or impulse to desire and volition. From constitution of animals, is ultimately circumstances and relations, known or derived from that Supreme Will which supposed, the former leads us to the bestowed on each being its peculiar discovery of the concealed and unknowņ: nature, and arranged the several classes after all circumstances and relations are and orders of existence... laid before us, the latter makes us feel APPENDIX II. OF SELF-LOVE THERE is a principle supposed to prevail all other animals, and indeed from all among many which is utterly incom other species of existence-admit of no patible with all virtue or moral senti- degrees of good or bad, but are, in every ment ; and, as it can proceed from instance, the same creatures under dif. nothing but the most depraved disposi- ferent disguises and appearances. tion, so in its turn it tends still further to There is another principle somewhat encourage that depravity. This principle resembling the former, which has been is that all benevolence is mere hypocrisy, much insisted on by philosophers, and has friendship a cheat, public spirit a farce, been the foundation of many a system : fidelity a snare to procure trust and con- that, whatever affection one may feel, or fidence; and that, while all of us, at imagine he feels, for others, no passion is, bottom, pursue only our private interest, or can be, disinterested ; that the most we wear these fair disguises in order to generous friendship, however sincere, is a put others off their guard, and expose modification of self-love ; and that, even them the more to our wiles and machina- unknown to ourselves, we seek only our tions. What heart one must be possessed own gratification while we appear the of who possesses such principles, and who most deeply engaged in schemes for the feels no internal sentiment that belies so liberty and happiness of mankind. By a pernicious a theory, it is easy to imagine; turn of imagination, by a refinenient of and also what degree of affection and reflection, by an enthusiasm of passion, benevolence he can bear to a species whom we seem to take part in the interests of he represents under such odious colours, others and imagine ourselves divested of and supposes so little susceptible of grati- all selfish considerations ; but, at bottom, tude or any return af affection. Or, if the most generous patriot and most should not ascribe these principles wholly niggardly miser, the bravest hero and to a corrupted heart, we must at least most abject coward, have, in every action, account for them from the most careless an equal regard to their own happiness and precipitate examination. Superficial and welfare. reasoners, indeed, observing many false Whoever concludes from the seeming pretences among mankind, and feeling, tendency of this opinion that those who perlaps, no very strong restraint in their make profession of it cannot possibly own disposition, might draw a general feel the true sentiments of benevolence or and a hasty conclusion that all is equally have any regard for genuine virtue, will corrupted, and that men-different from often find himself, in practice, very much we ·OF SELF-LOVE 131 may so man mistaken. Probity and honour were no But, though the question concerning * strangers to Epicurus and his . sect. the universal or partial selfishness of Atticus and Horace seem to have enjoyed man be 'not so material as is usually from nature, and cultivated by reflection, imagined to itrorality and practice, it is as generous and friendly dispositions as certainly of consequence in the speculaany disciple of the austerer schools. And, tive science of human nature, and is a among the modern, Hobbes and Locke, proper object of curiosity and inquiry. who maintained the selfish system of It may not, therefore, bé unsuitable in morals, lived irreproachable lives; though this place to bestow a few reflections upon the former lay not under any restraint of it." religion which might supply the defects The most obvious objection to the of his philosophy, selfish hypothesis is that, as it is contrary An Epicurean or a Hobbist readily to common feeling and our most unpreallows that there is such a thing as judiced notions, there is required the friendship in the world without hypocrisy highest stretch of philosophy to establish or disguise, though he may attempt by a so extraordinary a paradox, To the philosophical chemistry to resolve the most careless observer there appear to be elements of this passion, if I such dispositions as benevolence and speak, into those of another, and explain generosity; such affections as love, friendevery affection to be self-love twisted and ship, compassion, gratitude. These sentimoulded by a particular turn of imagina ments have their causes, effects, objects, tion into a variety of appearances. But and operations marked by common lanas the same turn of imagination prevails guage and observation, and plainly disnot in every man, nor gives the same tinguished from those of the selfish direction to the original passion, this is passions. And as this is the obvious sufficient even according to the selfish appearance of things, it must be admitted, system to make the widest difference in till some hypothesis be discovered which, human characters, and denominate one by penetrating deeper into human nature, virtuous and humane, another may prove the former affections to be vicious and meanly interested. esteem nothing but modifications of the latter. the man whose self-love, by whatever All attempts of this kind have hitherto means, is so directed as to give him a proved fruitless, and seem to have proconcern for others, and render him service ceeded entirely from that love of simplicity able to society, as I hate or despise him which has been the source of much false who has no regard to anything beyond reasoning in philosophy. I shall not here his own gratifications and enjoyments. enter into any detail on the present sub- In vain would you suggest that these ject. Many able philosophers have shown characters, though seeiningly opposite, the insufficiency of these systems. And are at bottom the same, and that a very I shall take for granted what I believe inconsiderable turn of thought forms the the smallest reflection will make evident whole difference between them. Each to every impartial inquirer. character, notwithstanding these incon But the nature of the subject furnishes siderable differences, appears to me, in the strongest presumption that no better practice, pretty durable and untransmut system will ever for the future be invented, able. And I find not in this more in order to account for the origin of the than in other subjects that the natural benevolent from the selfish affections, and sentiments arising from the general reduce all the various emotions of the appearances of things are easily destroyed by subtle reflections concerning the Benevolence naturally divides into two kinds, the minute origin of tiese appearances. general and the particular. The first is, where we Does not the lively, cheerful colour of a have no friendship, or connection or cstcem for the countenance inspire me with complacency person, but feel only a general sympathy with him or a compassion for his pains, and a congratulation with and pleasure, even though I learn from his pleasures. The other species of benevolence is philosophy that all difference of comfounded on an opinion of virtue, on services done us, plexion arises from the most minute 0on some particular connections. Both these sentiments must be allowed real in human nature ; but differences of thickness in the most whether they will resolve into some nice considerations minute parts of the skin, by means of The former sentiment-to wit, that of general bene of self-love is a question more curious than important. which a superficies is qualified to reflect volence, or humanity, or sympathy--we shall have one of the original colours of light and inquiry, and I assume it as real, from general experiabsorb the others ? ence, without any other proof. .

·132 OF SELF-LOVE ness human mind to a perfect simplicity. The ness both to their own species and to case is not the same in this species of ours, nor is there in this case the least philosophy as in physics. Many an hypo- suspicion of disguise or artifice. Shall we thesis in nature, contrary to first appear account for all their sentiments, too, from ances, has been found, on more accurate refined deductions of self-interest? Or, if scrutiny, solid and satisfactory. Instances we adinit a disinterested benevolence in of this kind are so frequent that a judicious the inferior species, by what rule of as well as witty philosopher has ven- analogy can we refuse it in the superior ? tured to affirin, if there be more than one Love between the sexes begets a comway in which any phenomenon may be placency and good-will.very distinct from produced, that there is general presump- the gratification of an appetite. Tendertion for its arising from the causes which to their offspring in all sensible are the least obvious 'and familiar. But beings is commonly able alone to counterthe presumption always lies on the other balance the strongest niotives of self-love, side in all inquiries concerning the origin and has no manner of dependence on that of our passions and of the internal opera affection. What interest can a fond tions of the human mind. The siinplest mother have in view who loses her health and most obvious cause which can there by assiduous attendance on her sick child, be assigned for any phenomenon is pro- and afterwards languishes and dies of bably the true one. When a philosopher, grief, when freed by its death from the in the explication of his system, is obliged slavery of that attendance ? to have recourse to some very intricate Is gratitude no affection of the human and refined reflections, and to suppose breast, or is that a 'word merely, without them essential to the production of any any meaning or reality? Have we no passion or emotion, we have reason to be satisfaction in one man's company above extremely on our guard against so fal- another's, and no desire of the welfare of lacious an hypothesis. The affections our friend, even though absence or death are not susceptible of any impression should prevent us from all participation in from the refinements of reason or imagi it? Or, what is it commonly that gives nation, and it is always found that a us any participation in even while vigorous exertion of the latter faculties alive and present, but our affection and necessarily, from the narrow capacity of regard to him ? the human mind, destroys all activity in These, and a thousand other instances, the former. Our predominant motive or are marks of a general benevolence in intention is, indeed, frequently concealed human nature, where no real interest from ourselves when it is mingled and binds us to the object. And how an confounded with other motives which the imaginary interest known and avowed for mind, from vanity or self-conceit, is such can be the origin of any passion or desirous of supposing more prevalent; emotion seems difficult to explain. No but there is no instance that a conceal- satisfactory hypothesis of this kind has ment of this nature has ever arisen from yet been discovered, nor is there the the abstruseness and intricacy of the smallest probability that motive. A man that has lost a friend industry of men will ever be attended with and patron may flatter himself that all more favourable success. his grief arises from generous sentiments, But farther, if we consider rightly of without any mixture of narrow or inte- the matter, shall find that the rested considerations ; but a man that hypothesis which allows of a disinterested grieves for a valuable friend, who needed benevolence distinct from self-love has his patronage and protection-how can really more simplicity in it, and is more we suppose that his passionate tenderness conformable to the analogy of nature, than arises from some metaphysical regards to that which pretends to resolve all frienda self-interest which has no foundation or ship and humanity into this latter prinreality? We may as well imagine that ciple. There are bodily wants or appetites minute wheels and springs, like those of acknowledged by everyone which necesa watch, give motion to a loaded waggon, sarily precede all sensual enjoyment, and as account for the origin of passion from carry us directly to seek possession of the such abstruse reflections. object. Thus, hunger and thirst have Animals are found susceptible of kind- eating and drinking for their end; and from the gratification of these primary 1 Mons. Fontenelle, appetites arises a pleasure which may We ·FARTHER CONSIDERATIONS WITH REGARD TO JUSTICE 133 or become the object of another species of that case, have felt few and slender pains desire or inclination that is secondary and or pleasures, and have little misery or interested. In the same manner there happiness to avoid or to pursue. are mental passions by which we are Now, where is the difficulty in conceivimpelled immediately to seek particular ing that this may likewise be the case objects, such as fame, or power, with benevolence and friendship, and that vengeance, without any regard to inte- from the original frame of our temper we rest, and when these objects are attained may feel a desire of another's happiness a pleasing enjoyment ensues as the con or good, which, by means of that affecsequence of our indulged affections. tion, becomes our own good, and is after- Nature must, by the internal frame and wards pursued from the combined motives constitution of the mind, give an original of benevolence and self-enjoyments? Who propensity to fame ere we can reap any sees not that vengeance, from the force pleasure from that acquisition, or pursue alone of passion, may be so eagerly it from motives of self-love and desire of pursued as to make us knowingly neglect happiness. If I have no vanity, I take no every consideration of ease, interest, or delight in praise; if I be void of ambition, safety, and, like some vindictive animals, power gives me no enjoyment; if I be not infuse our very souls into the wounds we angry, the punishment of an adversary is give an enemy;" and what a malignant totally indifferent to me. In all these philosophy must it be that will not allow cases there is a passion which points to humanity and friendship the same immediately to the object, and constitutes privileges which are indisputably granted it our good or happiness, as there are to the darker passions of enmity and other secondary passions which after- resentment! Such a philosophy is more wards arise and pursue it as a part of our like a satire than a true delineation or happiness when once it is constituted description of human nature, and may be such by our original affections. Were a good foundation for paradoxical wit and there no' appetite of any kind antecedent raillery, but is a very bad one for any to self-love, that propensity could scarcely serious argument or reasoning, ever exert itself, because we should, in Animasque in vulnere ponunt."-Virg. (De Ira, 1., i.). “Dum alteri noceat, sui negligens," says Scncca of anger APPENDIX III. SOME FARTHER CONSIDERATIONS WITH REGARD TO JUSTICE The intention of this Appendix is to currence, imitation, or example of others. give some more particular explication of A parent flies to the relief of his child, the origin and nature of justice, and to transported by that natural sympathy mark some differences between it and the which actuates him, and which affords other virtues. no leisure to reflect on the sentiments or The social virtues of humanity and conduct of the rest of mankind in like benevolence exert their influence imne circumstances. A generous man cheerdiately by a direct tendency or instinct, fully embraces an opportunity of serving which chiefly keeps in view the simple his friend, because he then feels himself object moving the affections, and com under the dominion of the beneficent prehends not any scheme or system, nor affections ; nor is he concerned whether the consequences resulting from the con any other person in the universe were ·.! 134 FARTHER CONSIDERATIONS WITH REGARD TO JUSTICE ever before actuated by such noble support general peace andi order in motives, or will ever afterwards prove society, their influence. In all these cases the The happiness and prosperity of mansocial passions have in view a single kind arising from the social virtue of individual object, and pursue the safety or benevolence and its sub-divisions may be happiness alone of the person loved and compared to a wall built by many hands esteemed. With this they are satisfied; which still rises by each stone that is in this they acquiesce. And as the good heaped upon it, and receives increase resulting from their benign influence is in proportional to the diligence and care of itself complete and entire, it also excites each workman. The same happiness, the moral sentiment of approbation, raised by the social virtue of justice and, without any reflection on farther conse its sub-divisions, may be compared to the quences, and without any more enlarged building of a vault where each individual views of the concurrence or imitation of stone would of itself fall to the ground; the other .members of society. On the nor is the whole fabric supported but by contrary, were the generous friend or dis- the mutual assistance and combination of interested patriot to stand alone in the its corresponding parts. practice of beneficence, this would rather All the laws of nature which regulate enhance his value in our eyes, and join property, as well as all civil laws, are the praise of rarity and novelty to his general, and regard alone some essential other more exalted merits. circumstances of the case, without taking The case is not the same with the social into consideration the characters, situavirtues of justice and fidelity. They are tions, and connections of the person conhighly useful, or indeed absolutely neces- cerned, or any particular consequences sary to the well-being of mankind; but which may result from the determination the benefit resulting from them is not the of these laws in any particular case which consequence of every individual single offers. They deprive without scruple a act, but arises from the whole schenre or beneficent man of all his possessions, if system concurred in by the whole or the acquired by mistake without a good title, greater part of the society. General in order to bestow them on a selfish miser peace and order are the attendants of who has already heaped up immense justice, or a general abstinence from the stores of superfluous riches. Public utility possessions of others; but a particular requires that property should be regulated regard to the particular right of one indi- by general, inflexible rules; and though vidual citizen may frequently, considered such rules are adopted as best serve the in itself, be productive of pernicious.con same end of public utility, it is impossible sequences. The result of the individual for them to prevent all particular hardacts is here in many instances directly ships, or make beneficial consequences opposite to that of the whole system of result from every individual case. It is actions; and the former may be extremely sufficient if the whole plan or scheme be hurtful, while the latter is to the highest necessary to the support of civil society, degree advantageous. Riches inherited and if the balance of good in the main do from a parent are in a bad man's hand thereby preponderate much above that of "the instrunient of mischief. The right of evil. Even the general laws of the unisuccession may in one instance be hurtful. verse, though planned by infinite wisdom, Its benefit arises only from the observance cannot exclude all evil or inconvenience of the general rule, and it is sufficient if in every particular operațion. compensation be thereby made for all the It has been asserted by some that ills and inconveniences which flow from justice arises from human conventions, particular characters and situations. and proceeds from the voluntary choice, Cyrus, young and inexperienced, con consent, or combination of mankind. If sidered only the individual case before by convention be here meant a promise him, and reflected on a limited fitness (which is the most usual sense of the and convenience when he assigned the word), nothing can be more absurd than long coat to the tall boy and the short this position. The observance of promises coat to the other of snialler size. His is itself one of the most considerable parts governor instructed him better, while he of justice, and we are not surely bound to pointed out more enlarged views and con- keep our word because we have given our sequences, and informed his pupil of the word to keep it. But if by convention be general, inflexible rules necessary to meant a sense of common interest, which ·FARTHER CONSIDERATIONS WITH REGARD TO JUSTICE 135 common are sense each man feels in his own breast, applied to justice, order, fidelity, property, which he remarks in his fellows, and society. Men's inclination, their neceswhich carries him, in concurrence with sities, lead them to combine; their underothers, into a general plan or system of standing and experience tell them that actions which tends to public utility ; it this combination is impossible where each must be owned that in this sense justice governs himself by no rule and pays no arises from human conventions. For if regard to the possessions of others; and it be allowed (what is, indeed, evident) from these passions and reflections conthat the particular consequences of a par- joined, as soon as we observe like passions ticular act of justice may be hurtful to the and reflections in others, the sentiment of public as well as to individuals, it follows justice throughout all ages has infallibly that every man in embracing that virtue and certainly had place to some degree must have an eye to the whole plan or or other in every infdividual of the huinan system, and must expect the concurrence species. · In so sagacious an animal what of his fellows in the same conduct and necessarily arises from the exertion of behaviour. Did all his views terminate his intellectual faculties may justly be in the consequences of each act of his esteemed natural." own, his benevolence and humanity, as Among all civilised nations it has been well as his self-love, mightoften prescribe the constant endeavour to remove everyto him measures of conduct very different thing arbitrary and partial from the from those which are agreeable to the decision of property, and to fix the strict rules of right and justice. sentence of judges by such general views Thus two men pull the oars of a boat and considerations as may be equal to by common convention for every member of society. For, besides interest, without any promise or contract; that nothing could be inore dangerous thus gold and silver made thé than to accustom the bench, even in the measures of exchange ; thus speech and smallest instance, to regard private friendwords and language are fixed by human ship or enmity; it is certain that inen, convention and agreement. Whatever is where they imagine that there was no advantageous to two or more persons if other reason for the preference of their all perform their part, but what loses all adversary but personal favour, are apt to advantage if only one performi, can arise entertain the strongest ill-will against the from no other principle. There would magistrates and judges. When natural otherwise be no motive for any one of reason, therefore, points out no fixed view tliem to enter into that schenie of of public utility by which a controversy of conduct. property can be decided, positive laws are The word natural is commonly taken often framed to supply its place and in so many senses, and is of so loose a direct the procedure of all courts of signification, that it seems vain to dispute judicature. Where these, too, fail, as whether justice · be natural or not. If often happens, precedents are called for ; self-love, if benevokence, be natural to and a former decision, though given man, if reason and forethought be also itself without any sufficient reason, justly natural, then may the same epithet be becomes a sufficient reason for a new decision. If direct laws and precedents be wanting, imperfect and indirect ones * This theory concerning the origin of property, and consequently of justice, is, in the main, the same with are brought in aid, and the controverted that hinted at and adopted by Grotius : "Hinc discimus, case is ranged under them, by analogical quae fuerit causa ob quam a primae in communione reasonings and comparisons and similiest : nimirum quod cum non contenti homines vesci tudes and correspondences which are sponte natis, antra habitare, corpore aut nudo agere, aut corticibus arborum ferarumve pellibus vestito, vitae genys exquisitius delegissent, industria opus fuit, quam Natural may be opposed either to what is unusuah singuli rebus singulis adhiberent. Quo minus autem iniraculous, or artificial. In the two former senses fructus in commune conferrentur, primum obstitit loco justice and property are undoubtedly natural. But as sum, in quae homines discesserunt, distantia, deinde they suppose reason, forethought, design, and a social justitiae et amoris defectus, per quem fiebat, ut nec in ision and confederacy among men, perhaps that labore, nec in consumptione fructuum, quae debebat, epithet cannot strictly in the last sense be applied to aequalitas servaretur. Simu! discimus quomodo res in them. Had men lived without society, .property had proprietatem iverint; non animi actu solo, neque enim never been known, and neither justice nor injustice had scire alii poterant, quid alii suum esse vellent, ut eo ever existed. But society among human creatures had .abstinerent, et idem velle plures poterant ; sed pacto been impossible without reason and forethought. quodam aut expresso, ut per divisionem, aut tacito, ut Inferior animals that unite are guided by instinct, which per occupationem." De Jure Belli et Pacis, lib. ii., supplies the place of reason. But all these disputes aro cap. 2, § 2, art. 4 and 5. merely verbal.

·136 FARTHER CONSIDERATIONS WITH REGARD TO JUSTICE often more fanciful than real. In general We may just observe, before we conit may, safely be affirmed that jurispru- clude this subject, that after the laws of dence is, in this respect, different from all justice are fixed by views of general the sciences, and that in many of its utility, the injury, the hardship, the harm, nicer questions there cannot properly be which result to any individual from a said to be truth or falsehood on either violation of them enter very much into side. If one pleader bring the case under consideration, and are a great source of any former law or precedent by a refined that universal blame which attends every analogy or comparison, the opposite wrong or iniquity. By the laws of pleader is not at a loss to find an opposite society this coat, this horse, is mine, and analogy or comparison ; and the prefer- ought to remain perpetually in my possesence given by the judge is often founded sion. I reckon on the secure enjoyment more on taste and imagination than on of it; by depriving me of it you disany solid argument. * Public utility is the appoint my expectations and doubly general object of all courts of judicature, displease me, and offend every bystander. and this utility, too, requires a stable rulo It is a public wrong so far as the rules of in all controversies; but where several equity are violated; it is a private harm rules, nearly cqual and indifferent, present so far as an individual is injured. And themselves it is a very slight turn of though the second consideration could thought which fixes the decision in favour have no place were not the former preof either party.' viously established--for otherwise the distinction of mine and thine would be That there be a separation or distinction of posses. unknown in society-yet there is ng quessions, and that this separation be steady'and constant : tion but the regard to general good is this is absolutely required by the interests of society, and hence the origin of justice and property. What much enforced by the respect to particular. possessions are assigned to particular persons: this is, What injures the community without generally speaking, pretty indifferent, and is often determined by very frivolous views and considerations. hurting any individual is often more We shall mention a few particulars. Werc a society lightly thought of. But where the formed among several independent members, the most greatest public wrong is also conjoined obvious rule which could be agreed on would beto annex property to present possession and leave everyone a with a considerable private one, no right to what he at present enjoys. The relation of wonder the highest disapprobation attends. possession which takes place between the person and the object naturally draws on the relation of property. so iniquitous a beliaviour, For a like reason, occupation or first possession becomes the foundation of property. Where a man property by accession can be explained no' way but by bestows labour and industry upon any object which having recourse to the relations and connections of the before belonged to nobody-as in cutting down and inagination. The property of rivers, by the laws of shaping a trec, in cultivating a field, etc.--the altera. most nations, and by the natural turn of our thoughts, tion which he produces causes a relation between is attributed to the proprietors of their banks, excepting him and the object, and naturally engages us to annex such vast rivers as the Rhine or the Danube, which it to him by the new relation of property. This cause scem too large to follow as an accession to the property here concurs with the public utility, which consists in of the neighbouring fields. Yet even these rivers are the encouragement given to industry and labour. considered as the property of that nation through whose Perhaps, too, private humanity towards the possessor dominions they run; the idea of a nation being of a suitconcurs, in this instance, with the other motives, and able bulk to correspond with them, and bear them such engages us to leave with him what he has acquired by a relation in the fancy. The accessions which are made his sweat and labour, and what he has flattered himself in the constant enjoyment of. For, though private humanity can by no means be the origin of justicesince the latter virtue so often contradicts the former stances that assist the imagination in the conjunction. yet, when the rule of separate and constant possession Where there is any considerable portion torn at once is once formed by the indispensable necessities of from one bank and added to another, it becomes not society, private humanity and an aversion to the doing his property whose land it falls on till it unite with the a hardship to another may, in a particular instance, land, and till the trees and plants have spread their give rise to a particular rule of property. ! am much roots into both. Before that the thought does not inclined to think that the right of succession or inheritance sufficiently join them. In short, we must ever distinmuch depends on those connections of the imagination, guish between the necessity of a separation and con. and that the relation to a former proprietor bogetting a stancy in men's possession, and the rules which assign relation to the object is the cause why the property is particular objects to particular persons. The first transferred to a man after the death of his kinsman. It necessity is obvious, strong, and invincible; the latter is true, industry is more encouraged by the transference may depend on a public utility more light and frivolous, of possession to children or near relations; but this on the sentiment of private humanity and aversion to consideration will only have place in a cultivated private hardship, on positive laws, on precedents, society, whereas the right of succession is regarded analogies, and very fine connections and turns of the even among the greatest barbarians. Acquisition of imagination. 1.11.11 1. 41.

·OF SOME VERBAL DISPUTES 137 APPENDIX IV. OF SOME, VERBAL DISPUTES are . some NOTHING is more usual than for philo- tion of virtues, we should soon recollect sophers to encroach upon the province of the qualities of courage, equanimity, grammarians, and to engage in disputes patience, self-command, with many others, of words while they imagine that they which almost every language classes are handling controversies of the deepest under this appellation, though they importance and concern. It was in order depend little, or not at all, on our choice. to avoid altercations so frivolous and Should we affirm that the qualities alone endless that I endeavoured to state, with which prompt us to act our part in the utmost caution, the object of our society are entitled to that honourable present inquiry, and proposed simply to distinction, it must immediately occur collect, on the one hando a list of those that these are indeed the most valuable mental qualities which are the object of qualities, and are commonly denominated love or esteem, and form a part of the social virtues, but that this very persona merit; and, on the other hand, a epithet supposes that there also catalogue of those qualities which are the virtues of another species. Should we lay, object of censure or reproach, and which hold of the distinction between intellectual detract from the character of the person and moral endowments, and affirm the possessed of them, subjoining last alone to be the real and genuine reflections concerning the origin of these virtues, because they alone lead to action, sentiments of praise or blame. On all we should find that many of those qualioccasions where there might arise the ties usually called intellectual virtues, least hesitation I avoided the terms such as prudence, penetration, discernvirtue and vice, because some of those ment, discretion, had also a considerable qualities which I classed among the influence on conduct. The distinction objects of praise receive, in the English between the heart and the head may also language, the appellation of talents rather be adopted. The qualities of the first than of virtues, as some of the blamable may be defined such as in their immediate or censurable qualities are often called exertion are accompanied with a feeling defects rather than vices. It may now, of sentiment, and these alone may be perhaps, be expected that before we con called the genuine virtues; but industry, clude this moral inquiry we should frugality, temperance, secrecy, perseverexactly separate the one from the other, ance, and many other laudable powers or should mark the precise boundaries of habits, generally styled virtues, are exerted virtues and talents, vices and defects, and without any immediate sentiment in the should explain the reason and origin of person possessed of them, and are only that distinction. But, in order to excuse known to him by their effects. It is myself from this undertaking, which fortunate, amid all this seeming perwould at last prove only a grammatical plexity, that the question, being merely inquiry, I shall subjoin the four following verbal, cannot possibly be of any importreflections, which shall contain all that I ance. A moral-philosophical discourse intend to say on the present subject : needs not enter into all these caprices of First, I do not find that in the English, language, which are so variable in difor any other modern tongue, the boun- ferent dialects and in different ages of the daries are exactly fixed between virtues same dialect. But, on the whole, it seems and talents, vices and defects, or that a to me that, though it is always allowed precise definition can be given of the one that there are virtues of many different as contra-distinguished from the other. kinds, yet when a man is called virtuous, Were we to say, for instance, that the or is denominated a man of virtue, estimable qualities alone which are we chiefly regard his social qualities, voluntary are entitled to the appella- which are, indeed, the most valuable. It ·OF SOME VERBAL DISPUTES was a is, at the same time, certain that any and honesty, especially the latter, are so remarkable defect in courage, temperance, indispensably required that, though the economy, industry, understanding, digs greatest censure attends any violation nity of mind, would beretive even a very of these duties, no eminent praise follows good-natured, honest man of this honour. such common instances of them as seem able appellation. Who did ever say, essential to the support of human society. except by way of irony, that such a one And hence the reason, in my opinion, man of great virtue, but an why, though men often extol so liberally egregious blackhead? the qualities of their heart, they are shy But, secondly, it is no wonder that in commending the endowments of their languages should not be very precise in head, because the latter virtues, being marking the boundaries between virtues supposed more rare and extraordinary, and talents, vices and defects, since there are observed to be the more usual objects is so little distinction made in our internal of pride and self-conceit, and when estimation of them. It seems, indeed, boasted of beget a strong suspicion of 'certain that the sentiment of conscious these sentiments. worth, the self-satisfaction proceeding It is hard to tell whether you hurt a from a review of a man's own conduct man's character most by calling him a and character-it seems certain, I say, knave or a coward, and whether a beastly that this sentiment, which, though the glutton or drunkard be not as odious and most common of all others, has no proper contemptible as a selfish, ungenerous name in our language,' arises from the miser. "Give me my choice, and I would endowments of courage and capacity, rather, for my own happiness and selfindustry and ingenuity, as well as from enjoyment, have a friendly, humane heart any other mental excellences. Who, on than possess all the other virtues of the other hand, is not deeply mortified Demosthenes and Philip united; but I, with reflecting on his own folly and would rather pass with the world for one dissoluteness, and feels not a secret sting endowed with extensive genius and or compunction whenever his memory intrepid courage, and should thence presents any past occurrence where he expect stronger instances of general behaved with stupidity of ill manners ? applause and admiration. The figure No time can efface the cruel ideas of a which a man makes in life, the reception man's own foolish conduct, or of affronts, which he meets with in company, the which cowardice or impudence has esteem paid him by his acquaintance-all brought upon him. They still haunt his these advantages depend as much upon solitary hours, damp his most aspiring his good sense and judgment as upon thoughts, and show him, even to himself, any other part of his character. Had a in the most contemptible and most odious man the best intentions in the world, and colours imaginable. the farthest removed from all What is there, too, we are more anxious injustice and violence, he would never to conceal from others than such bli ders, be able to make himself be much regarded infirmities, and meannesses, without a moderate share, at least, of dread to have exposed by raillery and parts and understanding. satire? And is not the chief object of What is it, then, we can here dispute vanity our bravery or learning, our wit or about? If sense and courage, temperance breeding, our eloquence or address, our and industry, wisdom and knowledge, taste or abilities? These we display with confessedly form a considerable part of care, if not with ostentation, and we personal merit; if a man possessed of commonly show more ambition of excel. these qualities is both better satisfied ling in them than even in the social with himself and better entitled to the virtues themselves, which are, in reality, good-will, esteem, and services of others of such superior excellence. Good nature than one entirely destitute of them; if, in short, the sentiments are similar which · The term "pride" is commonly taken in a bad arise from these endowments and from sense ; but this sentiinent seems indifferent, and may the social virtues-is there any reason for be either good or bad, according as it is well or ill being so extremely scrupulous about a founded, and according to the other circumstances which accompany it. The French express this sentiword, or disputing whether they be ment by the term amour propre; but as they also entitled to the denomination of virtues ? express self-love, as well as vanity, by the same term, there arises thence a great confusion in La Roche It may, indeed, be pretended that the foucauld and many of their moral writers sentiment of approbation which those were or more ·2 SOF SOME VERBAL DISPUTES 139 accomplishments produce, besides its jects, dissolute pleasures, or extravagant being inferior, is also somewhat different gaming? These vices (for we scruple from that which attends the virtues of not to call them such) bring misery justice and humanity. But this seems unpitied and contempt on every one not a sufficient reason for ranking them addicted to them. entirely under different classes and appel Achæus, a wise and prudent prince, lations. The character of Cæsar and fell into fatal snare which cost him his that of Cato, as drawn by Sallust, are crown and life after having used every both of them virtuous in the strictest and reasonable precaution to guard himself most limited sense of the word, but in a against it. On that account, says the different way; nor are the sentiments historian, he is a just object of regard and entirely the same which arise from them. compassion; his betrayers alone of hatred The one produces love, the other esteem; ani contempt." the one is amiable, the other awful ; we The precipitate flight and improvident should wish to meet the one character in negligence of Pompey at the beginning a friend ; the other we should be ambitious of the civil wars appeared such notorious of in ourselves. In like manner the ap- blunders to Cicero as quite palled his probation which attends temperance or friendship towards that great man-in industry or frugality may be somewhat the same manner, says he, as want of different from that which is paid to the cleanliness, decency, or discretion in a social virtues without 'making them mistress are found to. alienate our affecentirely of a different species. And, tions. For so he expresses himself where indeed, ye may observe that these endow- he talks, not in the character of a philoments, more than the other virtues, pro- sopher, but in that of a statesman and duce not all of them the same kind of man of the world, to his friend Atticus.” approbation. Good sense and genius But the same Cicero, in imitation of beget esteem and regard ; wit and humour all the ancient moralists, when he reasons excite love and affection. as a philosopher enlarges very much his Most people, I believe, will naturally ideas of virtue, and comprehends every without premeditation assent to the defi- laudable quality or endowment of the nition of the elegant and judicious poet : mind under that honourable appellation. This leads to the third reflection which Virtue (for mere good-nature is a fool) Is sense and spirit with humanity.' we proposed to make, to wit, that the ancient moralists, the best models, made What pretensions has a man to our no material distinction among the different generous assistance or good offices who species of mental endowments and defects, has dissipated his wealth in profuse but treated all alike under the appellation expenses, idle vanities, chimerical pro- of virtues and vices, and made thein indiscriminately the object of their moral ! Love and esteem are nearly the same passion, and reasonings. The prudence explained in arise from similar causes. The qualities which pro Cicero's Offices3 is that sagacity which duce both are such as communicate pleasure. leads to the discovery of truth and prewhere this pleasure is severe and serious, or where its object is great and makes a strong impression, or serves us from error and mistake. Magwhere it produces any degree of humility and awe-in nanimity, temperance, decency, are there all these cascs the passion which arises froin the also at large discoursed of. And as that pleasure is more properly denominated esteem than love. : Benevolence attends both, but is connected with eloquent moralist followed the common love in a more eminent degree. There seems to be receive division of the four cardinal still a stronger mixture of pride in contempt than of humility in esteem, and the reason would not be virtues, our social duties form but one difficult to one who studied accurately the passions. head in the general distribution of his All those various mixtures and compositions and apo subject.“ pearances of sentiment form a very curious subject of speculation, but are wide of our present purpose, Throughout this inquiry we always consider in general I Polybius, lib. iii., cap. 2. what qualities are a subject of praise or of censure, without entering into all the minute differences of 2 Libix., cpist. 10. 3 Lib. i., cap. 6. sentiment which they excite. It is evident that whatever is contemned is also disliked, as well as what is 4 'The following passage of Cicero is worth quoting hated, and we here endeavour to takec objects according as being the most clear and express to our purpose to their most simple views and appearances. These that anything can be imagined, and, in a dispute which sciences are but too apt to appear abstract to common is chiefly verbal, must, on account of the author, carry readers, even with all the precautions which we can an authority from which there can be no appeal. take to clear them from superfluous speculations and “Virtus autem, quae est per se ipsa laudabilis, et sine bring them dowa to every capacity.. qua nihil laudari potest, tamen habet plures partes, quarum alia est alia ad laudationem aptior. Sunt enim · The Art of Preserving Health, book 4. aliae virtutes, quae videntur in moribus hominum, et But ·140 OF SOME VERBAL DISPUTES We need only peruse the titles of he rendered himself dearer to the general chapters in Aristotle's Ethics to be con or to the army. To none would Hasdrubal vinced that he ranks courage, tem- entrust more willingly the conduct of any perance, magnificence," magnanimity, dangerous enterprise ; under none did the modesty, prudence, and a manly open soldiers discover more courage and conness among the virtues, as well as justice fidence. Great boldness in facing danger; and friendship. great prudence in the midst of it. No To sustain and to abstain that is, to labour could fatigue his body or subdue be patient and continent-appeared to his mind. Cold and heat were indifferent some of the ancients a summary compre to him ; meat and drink he sought as hension of all morals. supplies to the necessities of nature, Epictetus has scarcely ever mentioned not as gratifications of his voluptuous the sentiment of humanity and compas- appetites. Waking or rest he used indission, but in order to put his disciples on criminately by night or by day. These their guard against it. The virtue of the great virtues were balanced by great Stoics seems to consist chiefly in a firm vices, inhuman cruelty, perfidy more than temper and a sound understanding. With Punic-no truth, no faith, no regard to them, as with Solomon and the eastern oaths, promises, or religion. moralists, folly and wisdom are equivalent The character of Alexander the Sixth, to vice and virtue. to be found in Guicciardini,' is pretty “Men will praise thee," says David, similar, but juster; and is a proof that “when thou dost well unto thyself. “I even the moderns, where they speak hate a wise man,” says the Greek poet, naturally, hold the same language with “who is not wise to hiinself." 2 the ancients. In this pope, says he, there Plutarch is no more cramped by systems was a singular capacity and judgment; in his philosophy than in his history, admirable prudence; a wonderful talent Where he compares the great men of of persuasion; and in all momentous Greece and Rome he fairly sets in opposi- enterprises a diligence and dexterity tion all their blemishes and accomplish- incredible. incredible. But these virtues were inments of whatever kind, and omits nothing finitely overbalanced by his vices-no considerable which can either depress or faith, no religion, insatiable avarice, exalt their characters. His moral dis exorbitant ambition, and a more than courses contain the same free and natural barbarous cruelty. censure of men and manners. Polybius," reprehending Timæus for his The character of Hannibal, as drawn partiality against Agathocles, whom he by Livy,3 is esteemed partial, but allows himself allows to be the most cruel and him many eminent virtues. Never was impious of all tyrants, says if he took there a genius, says the historian, more refuge in Syracuse, as asserted by that equally fitted for those opposite offices of historian, flying the dirt and smoke and commanding and obeying, and it were, toil of his former profession of a potter, therefore, difficult to determine whether and if, proceedings from such slender beginnings, he became master, in a little quadam comitate ac beneficentia positae : aliac quae time, of all Sicily, brought the Carthain ingenii aliqua facultatc, aut animi magnitudine ac ginian State into the utmost danger, and robore. Nam clementia, justitia, benignitas, fides, fortitudo in periculis communibus, jucunda est auditu at last died in old age, and in possession in laudationibus. Omnes enim hae virtutes non tam of sovereign dignity-must he not be ipais, qui eas in se habent, quam gencri hominum allowed something prodigious and extrafructuosae putantur. Sapientia et magnitudo animi, qua omnes res humanae tenues et pro nihilo putantur, ordinary, and to have possessed great et in cogitando vis quaedam ingenii, et ipsa eloquentia talents and capacity for business and admirationis habet non minus, jucunditatis minus. Ipsos enim magis videntur, quos laudamus, quam illos, action ? His historian, therefore, ought apud quos laudamus ornare ac tueri : sed tamen in not to have alone related what tended to laudenda jungenda sunt etiam haec genera virtutum. Ferunt enim aures hominum, cum illa quac jucunda et his reproach and infamy, but also what grata, tum etiam illa, quae mirabilia sunt in virtute, night redound to his praise and honour. laudari."-De Orat., lib. ii., cap. 84. I suppose if Cicero In general, we may observe that the were now alive it would be found difficult to fetter his moral sentiments by narrow systems, or persuade hiin distinction of voluntary or involuntary that no qualities were to be adınitted as virtues, or was little regarded by the ancients in acknowledged to be a part of personal merit, but what their moral reasonings, where they frewere recommended by The Whole Duty of Man, i Psalm 49th. quently treated the question as very • Μισώ σοφισών όστις ουκ αυτώσοφός. -Euripides, 3 Lib. xxi., cap. 4. : Lib. i. 9 Lib. xii. .

·FUBLIC LIGRAMOV WAJU, HOWRAHY OT OF SOME VERBAL DISPUTES 141 doubtful whether virtue could be taught disguise, treating all morals as on a like not. They justly considered that footing with civil laws, guarded by the cowardice, meanness, levity, anxiety, sanctions of reward and punishment, were impatience, folly, and many other quali necessarily led to render this circumties of the mind, might appear ridiculous stance of voluntary or involuntary the and deformed, contemptible and odious, foundation of their whole theory. Everythough independent of the will. Nor one may employ terms in what sense he could it be supposed, at all times, in every pleases; but this, in the meantime, must man's power to attain every kind of be allowed, that sentiments are every day mental more than of exterior beauty. experienced of blame and praise, which And here there occurs the fourth reflec- have objects beyond the doininion of the tion which I purposed to make in will or choice, and of which it behoves us, suggesting the reason why modern if not as moralists, as speculative philophilosophers have often followed a course sophers at least, to give some satisfactory in their moral inquiries so different from theory and explication. that of the ancients. In later times A blemish, a fault, a vice, a crime philosophy of all kinds, especially ethics, these expressions seem to denote different have been more closely united with theo- degrees of censure and disapprobation, logy than ever they were observed to be which are, however, all of them, at the among the heathens; and as this latter bottom, pretty nearly all the same kind of science admits of no terms of composition, species. The explication of one will but bends every branch of knowledge to easily lead us into a just conception of the its own purpose, without much regard to others; and it is of greater consequence to the phenomena of nature or to the un attend to things than to verbal appellabiassed sentiments of the mind, hence tions. That we owe a duty to ourselves reasoning, and even language, have been is confessed even in the most vulgar warped from their natural course, and system of morals; and it must be of condistinctions have been endeavoured to be sequence to examine that duty in order to established where the difference of the see whether it bears any affinity to that objects was, in a manner, imperceptible. manner, imperceptible. which we owe to society. It is probable Philosophers, or rather divines under that that the approbation attending the observance of both is of a similar nature, and 1 Vid. Plato in Menone, Seneca De Etio Sap., cap. arises from similar principles, whatever So also Horace, Virtutem doctrina paret,naturane appellation we may give to either of these donet. Epist., lib. i., ep. 18. Æschines Socraticus, excellences. 31. Dial. I. Estd. 1902

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