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·NATURE
THE
UTILITY OF RELIGION
AND
THEISM
BY
JOHN STUART MILL
(ISSUED FOR THE RATIONALISI PRESS ASSOCIATION, ITVI 1]
WATTS & CO.,
17, JOHNSON'S COURT, FLEET STRIFT, LONDON, E.C
1904

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·INTRODUCTORY NOTICE The three following Essays on Religion of the date at which they were composed; were written at considerable intervals of among which indications may be noted time, without any intention of forming a the absence of any mention of the works consecutive series, and must not there- of Mr. Darwin and Sir Henry Maine in fore be regarded as a connected body of passages where there is coincidence of thought, excepting in so far as they thought with those writers, or where exhibit the Author's deliberate and ex- subjects are treated which they have haustive treatment of the topics under since discussed in a manner to which consideration. the Author of these Essays would cer- The two first of these three Essays tainly have referred had their works been were written between the years 1850 and published before these were written. 1858, during the period which intervened The last Essay in the present volume between the publication of the Princi- belongs to a different epoch; it was ples of Political Economy and that of written between the years 1868 and the work on Liberty; during which 1870, but it was not designed as a sequel interval three other Essays-on Justice, to the iwo Essays which now appear on Utility, and on Liberty-were also along with it, nor were they intended to composed. Of the five Essays written appear all together. On the other hand, at that time, three have already been it is certain that the Author considered given to the public by the Author. the opinions expressed in these different That on Liberty was expanded into the Essays as fundamentally consistent. now well-known work bearing the same The evidence of this lies in the fact that title. Those on Justice and Utility were in the year 1873, after he had completed afterwards incorporated, with some altera- his Essay on Theism, it was his intention tions and additions, into one, and pub- to have published the Essay on Nature lished under the name of Utilitarianism. at once, with only such slight revision as The remaining two--on Nature and on might be judged necessary in preparing the Utility of Religion-are now given it for the press, but substantially in its to the public, with the addition of a third present form. From this it is apparent on Theism--which was produced at a that his manner of thinking had undermuch later period. In these two first gone no substantial change. Whatever Essays indications may easily be found discrepancies, therefore, may seem to ·4 INTRODUCTORY NOTICE remain, after a really careful comparison elaboration in his power upon their between different passages, may be set adequate expression, and before, theredown either to the fact that the last fore, he had subjected to the test of Essay had not undergone the many time, not only the conclusions themrevisions which it was the Author's habit selves, but also the form into which he to make peculiarly searching and had thrown them. The same reasons, thorough ; or to that difference of tone, therefore, that made him cautious in the and of apparent estimate of the relative spoken utterance of his opinion in proweight of different considerations, which portion as it was necessary to be at once results from taking a wider view, and precise and comprehensive in order to including a larger number of considera- be properly understood, which in his tions in the estimate of the subject as a judgment was pre-eminently the case in whole, than in dealing with parts of it religious speculation, were the reasons only. that made him abstain from publishing The fact that the Author intended to his Essay on Nature for upwards of publish the Essay on Nature in 1873 is fifteen years, and might have led him sufficient evidence, if any is needed, still to withhold the others which now that the volume now given to the public appear in the same volume. was not withheld by him on account of From this point of view it will be seen reluctance to encounter whatever odium that the Essay on Theism has both might result from the free expression of greater value and less than any other of his opinions on religion. That he did the Author's works. The last considernot purpose to publish the other two able work which he completed, it shows Essays at the same time was in accord the latest state of the Author's mind, the with the Author's habit in regard to the carefully balanced result of the deliberapublic utterance of his religious opinions. tions of a lifetime. On the other hand, For at the same time that he was pecu- there had not been time for it to undergo liarly deliberate and slow in forming the revision to which from time to time opinions, he had a special dislike to the he subjected most of his writings before utterance of half-formed opinions. He making them public. Not only theredeclined altogether to be hurried into fore is the style less polished than that of premature decision on any point to which any other of his published works, but he did not think he had given sufficient even the matter itself, at least in the time and labour to have exhausted it to exact shape it here assumes, has never the utmost limit of his own thinking undergone the repeated examination powers. And, in the same way, even which it certainly would have passed after he had arrived at definite conclu- through before he would himself have sions, he refused to allow the curiosity given it to the world. of others to force him to the expression of them before he had bestowed all the HELEN TAYLOR ·CONTENTS PAGE NATURE 7 UTILITY OF RELIGION 34 THEISM 57 PART I. INTRODUCTION 57 THEISM 58 THE EVIDENCES OF THEISM 61 ARGUMENT FOR A FIRST CAUSE 62 ARGUMENT FROM THE CENLRAL CONSENT OF MANKIND 67 IHE ARGUMENT FROM CONSCIOUSNESS 70 THE ARGUMENT FROM MARKS OF DESIGN IN NATURE 72 PART II. ATTRIBUTES 75 PART III. IMMORTALITY 83 PART IV. REVELATION 90 PART V. GENERAL RESULT IO2

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·NATURE a “NATURE," "natural," and the group of and to which subsequent times have words derived from them, or allied tothem been so much indebted for whatever in etymology, have at all times filled a intellectural clearness they have attained, great place in the thoughts and taken a he has not enriched posterity with a diastrong hold on the feelings of mankind. logue trepi púcews. If the idea denoted That they should have done so is not sur- by the word had been subjected to his prising when we consider what the words, searching analysis, and the popular in their primitive and most obvious commonplaces in which it figures had signification, represent; but it is unfor- | been submitted to the ordeal of his tunate that a set of terms which play so powerful dialectics, his successors progreat a part in moral and metaphysical bably would not have rushed, as they speculation should have acquired many specdily did, into modes of thinking and meanings different from the primary reasoning of which the fallacious use of one, yet sufficiently allied to il to admit that word formed the cornerstone; of confusion. The words havc thus kind of fallacy from which he was himbecome entangled in so many foreign self singularly free. associations, mostly of a very powerful According to the Platonic method, and tenacious character, that they have which is still the best type of such income to excite, and to be the symbols vestigations, the first thing to be done of, feelings which their original meaning with so vague a term is to ascertain will by no means justify, and which precisely what it means. It is also a have made them one of the most copious rule of the same method that the meansources of false taste, false philosophy, ing of an abstraction is best sought for false morality, and even bad law. in the concrete-of an universal in the The most important application of the particular. Adopting this course with Socratic Elenchus, as exhibited and im- the word "nature," the first question proved by Plato, consists in dissecting must be, what is meant by the "nature" large abstractions of this description; of a particular object, as of fire, of fixing down to a precise definition the water, or of some individual plant or meaning which as popularly used they animal? Evidently the ensemble merely shadow forth, and questioning aggregate of its powers or properties : and testing the common maxims and the modes in which it acts on other opinions in which they bear a part. It things (counting among those things the is to be regretted that among the senses of the observer), and the modes instructive specimens of this kind of in which other things act upon it; to investigation which which Plato has left, which, in the case of a sentient being, or ·8 NATURE must be added its own capacities of the square of their distance, is a law of feeling, or being conscious. The nature nature. The proposition, that air and of the thing means all this; means its food are necessary to animal life, if it be, entire capacity of exhibiting phenomena. as we have good reason to believe, true And since the phenomena which a thing without exception, is also a law of exhibits, however much they vary in nature, though the phenomenon of different circumstances, are always the which it is the law is special, and not, same in the same circumstances, they like gravitation, universal. admit of being described in general Nature, then, in this, its simplest, forms of words, which are called the acceptation, is a collective name for all laws of the thing's nature. Thus it is a facts, actual and possible; or (to speak law of the nature of water that, under more accurately) a name for the mode, the mean pressure of the atmosphere partly known to us and partly unknown, at the level of the sea, it boils at 212° in which all things take place. For the Fahrenheit. word suggests, not so much the multi- As the nature of any given thing is tudinous detail of the phenomena, as the aggregate of its powers and pro- the conception which might be formed perties, so Nature in the abstract is the of their manner of existence as a mental aggregage of the powers and properties whole, by a mind possessing a complete of all things. Nature means the sum of knowledge of them: to which concepall phenomena, together with the causes tion it is the aim of science to raise which produce them; including not only itself, by successive steps of generalisaall that happens, but all that is capable tion from experience. of happening; the unused capabilities Such, then, is a correct definition of of causes being as much a part of the the word "nature.” But this definition idea of Nature as those which take corresponds only to one of the senses effect. Since all phenomena which have of that ambiguous term. It is evidently been sufficiently examined are found to inapplicable to some of the modes in take place with regularity, each having which the word is familiarly employed. certain fixed conditions, positive and For example, it entirely conflicts with negative, on the occurrence of which it the common form of speech by which invariably happens, mankind have been Nature is opposed to Art, and natural able to ascertain, either by direct to artificial. For, in the sense of the observation or by reasoning processes word "nature” which has just been grounded on it, the conditions of the defined, and which is the true scientific occurrence of many phenomena; and sense, Art is as much Nature as anythe progress of science mainly consists thing else; and everything which is in ascertaining those conditions. When artificial is natural-Art has no indediscovered they can be expressed in pendent powers of its own : Art is but general propositions, which are called the employment of the powers of Nature laws of the particular phenomenon, and for an end. Phenomena produced by also, more generally, Laws of Nature. human agency, no less than those which Thus the truth, that all material objects as far as we are concerned are spontend towards one another with a force taneous, depend on the properties of the directly as their masses and inversely as elementary forces, or of the elementary ·NATURE 9 substances and their compounds. The takes place by means of those powers. united powers of the whole human race In another sense, it means, not everything could not create a new property of which happens, but only what takes matter in general, or of any one of its place without the agency, or without the species. We can only take advantage voluntary and intentional agency, of man. for our purposes of the properties which This distinction is far from exhausting we find. A ship floats by the same laws the ambiguities of the word; but it is of specific gravity and equilibrium as a the key to most of those on which imtree uprooted by the wind and blown portant consequences depend. into the water. The corn which men Such, then, being the two principal raise for food grows and produces its senses of the word "nature," in which of grain by the same laws of vegetation by these is it taken, or is it taken in either, which the wild rose and the mountain when the word and its derivatives are strawberry bring forth their flowers and used to convey ideas of commendation, fruit. A house stands and holds to approval, and even moral obligation ? gether by the natural properties, the It has conveyed such ideas in all weight and cohesion of the materials ages. Naturum sequi was the fundawhich compose it: a steam engine works mental principle of morals in many of by the natural expansive force of steam, the most admired schools of philosophy. exerting a pressure upon one part of a Among the ancients, especially in the system of arrangements, which pressure, declining period of ancient intellect and by the mechanical properties of the thought, it was the test to which all lever, is transferred from that to another ethical doctrines were brought. The part where it raises the weight or removes Stoics and the Epicureans, however irrethe obstacle brought into connection with concilable in the rest of their systems, it. In these and all other artificial opera- agreed in holding themselves bound to tions the office of man is, as has often prove that their respective maxims of been remarked, a very limited one : it conduct were the dictates of nature. consists in moving things into certain Under their influence the Roman jurists, places. We move objects, and, by doing when attempting to systematise jurispruthis, bring soine things into contact dence, placed in the front of their expowhich were separate, or separate others sition a certain Jus Naturale, "quod which were in contact; and, by this natura," as Justinian declares in the simple change of place, natural forces Institutes, "omnia animalia docuit": previously dormant are called into action, and as the modern systematic writers, and produce the desired effect. Even not only on law but on moral philosophy, the volition which designs, the intelli- have generally taken the Roman jurists gence which contrives, and the muscular for their models, treatises on the so-called force which executes these movements, Law of Nature have abounded; and are themselves powers of Nature. references to this Law as a supreme rule It thus appears that we must recognise and ultimate standard have pervaded at least two principal meanings in the literature. The writers on International word "nature." In one sense, it means Law have dome more than any others to all the powers existing in either the outer give currency to this style of ethical or the inner world and everything which speculation; inasmuch as, having no ·to NATURE positive law to write about, and yet pitious to the formation of steady moral being anxious to invest the most ap- convictions, but convenient enough to proved opinions respecting international those whose moral opinions sit lightly on morality with as much as they could of them, since it gives them a much wider the authority of law, they endeavoured range of arguments for defending the to find such an authority in Nature's doctrine of the moment. But though imaginary code. The Christian theology perhaps no one could now be found who, during the period of its greatest ascen like the institutional writers of former dancy opposed some, though not a com- times, adopts the so-called Law of plete, hindrance to the modes of thought Nature as the foundation of ethics, and which erected Nature into the criterion endeavours consistently to reason from of morals, inasmuch as, according to the it, the word and its cognates must still creed of most denominations of Chris- be counted among those which carry tians (though assuredly not of Christ), great weight in moral argumentation. man is by nature wicked. But this very That any mode of thinking, feeling, or doctrine, by the reaction which it pro-acting, is "according to nature " is voked, has made the deistical moralists usually accepted as a strong argument almost unanimous in proclaiming the for its goodness. If it can be said with divinity of Nature, and setting up its any plausibility that "nature enjoins" fancied dictates as an authoritative rule anything, the propriety of obeying the of action. A reference to that supposed injunction is by most people considered standard is the predominant ingredient to be made out; and, conversely, the in the vein of thought and ſecling which imputation of being contrary to nature was opened by Rousseau, and which has is thought to bar the door against any infiltrated itself most widely into the pretension, on the part of the thing so inodern mind, not excepting that portion designated, to be tolerated or excused; of it which calls itself Christian. The and the word "unnatural" has not ceased doctrines of Christianity have in every to be one of the most vituperative age been largely accommodated to the epithets in the language. Those who philosophy which happened to be pre- deal in these expressions may avoid valent, and the Christianity of our day making themselves responsible for any has borrowed a considerable part of its fundamental thcorem respecting the colour and flavour from sentimental standard of moral obligation, but they deism. At the present time it cannot do not the less imply such a theorem, be said that Nature, or any other and one which must be the same in substandard, is applied as it was wont to stance with that on which the more be, to deduce rules of action with logical thinkers of a more laborious age juridical precision, and with an attempt grounded their systematic treatises on to make its application co-extensive with Natural Law. all human agency. The people of this Is it necessary to recognise in these generation do not commonly apply prin- forms of speech another distinct meanciples with any such studious exactness, ing of the word "nature"? Or can they nor own such binding allegiance to any be connected, by any rational bond of standard, but live in a kind of confusion union, with either of the two meanings of many standards; a condition not pro- already treated of? At first it may ·NATURE seem that we have no option but to right and wrong, good and evil, or which admit another ambiguity in the term. in any mode or degree attach merit or All inquiries are either into what is or approval to following, imitating, or obeyinto what ought to be: science and ing Nature. To this inquiry the forehistory belonging to the first division; going discussion respecting the meaning art, morals, and politics to the second. of terms was an indispensable introduc- But the two senses of the word "nature" tion. Language is, as it were, the first pointed out agree in referring only atmosphere of philosophical investigato what is. In the first meaning, Nature tion, which must be made transparent is a collective name for everything which before anything can bc scen through it is. In the second, it is a name for in the true figurc and position. In the everything which is of itself, without present case it is necessary to guard voluntary human intervention. But the against a further ambiguity, which, though employment of the word "nature” as a abundantly obvious, has sometimes misterm of ethics seems to disclose a third led even sagacious minds, and of which meaning, in which Nature does not it is well to take distinct note before prostand for what is, but for what ought to ceeding further. No word is more be, or for the rule or standard of what commonly associated with the word ought to be. A little consideration, how-"nature" than "law"; and this last word ever, will show that this is not a case of has distinctly two meanings, in one of ambiguity; there is not here a third which it denotes sonic definite portion sense of the word. Those who set up of what is, in the other of what ought to Nature as a stand.ird of action do not be. We speak of the law of gravitation, intend a merely verbal proposition; the thrce laws of motion, the law of they do not mean that the standard, definite proportions in chemical combiwhatever it be should be called Nature; nation, the vital laws of organised beings. they think they are giving some informa- All these are portions of what is. We tion as to what the standard of action also speak of the criminal law, the civil really is. Those who say that we ought law, the law of honour, the law of to act according to Nature do not mean veracity, the law of justice; all of which the mere identical proposition that we are portions of what ought to be, or of ought to do what we ought to do. They somebody's suppositions, feelings, or think that the word "nature" affords some commands respecting what ought to be. external criterion of what we should do; The first kind of laws, such as the laws and if they lay down as a rule for what of motion and of gravitation, are neither ought to be, a word which in its proper more nor less than the observed unisignification denotes what is, they do so formities in the occurrence of phenobecause they have a notion, either clearly mena; partly uniformities of antecedence or confusedly, that what is constitutes and sequence, partly of concomitance. the rule and standard of what ought These are what, in science, and even in ordinary parlance, are meant by laws of 'The examination of this notion is the nature. Laws in the other sense are the object of the present Essay. It is pro- laws of the land, the law of nations, or posed to inquire into the truth of the moral laws; among which, as already doctrines which make Nature a test of noticed, is dragged in, by jurists and to be.

·12 NATURE pablicists, something which they think | modes of acting are so in exactly the proper to call the Law of Nature. Of same degree. degree. Every action is the the liability of these two meanings of exertion of some natural power, and its the word to be confounded there can be effects of all sorts are so many phenono better example than the first chapter mena of nature, produced by the powers of Montesquieu, where he remarks that and properties of some of the objects of the material world has its laws, the nature, in exact obedience to some law inferior animals have their laws, and or laws of nature. When I voluntarily man has his laws; and calls attention to use my organs to take in food, the act, the much greater strictness with which and its consequences, take place accordthe first two sets of laws are observed ing to laws of nature: if instead of food than the last; as if it were an inconsis. I swallow poison, the case is exactly the tency, and a paradox, that things always same. To bid people conform to the are what they are, but men not always laws of nature when they have no power what they ought to be. A similar con but what the laws of nature give them fusion of ideas pervades the writings of when it is a physical impossibility for Mr. George Combe, froin wheuce it has them to do the smallest thing otherwise overflowed into a large region of popular than through some law of nature, is an literature, and we are now continually absurdity. The thing they need to be reading injunctions to obey the physical told is what particular law of nature they laws of the universe, as being obligatory should make use of in a particular case. in the same sense and manner as the When, for example, a person is crossing moral. The conception which the a river by a narrow bridge to which there ethical use of the word "nature" implies, is no parapet, he will do well to regulate of a close relation if not absolute iden- his proceedings by the laws of equilibtity between what is and what ought to rium in moving bodies, instead of conbe, certainly derives part of its hold on forming only to the law of gravitation the mind from the custom of designat- and falling into the river. ing what is by the expression "laws of Yet, idle as it is to exhort people to nature," while the same word "law" is also do what they cannot avoid doing, and used, and even more familiarly and em- absurd as it is to prescribe as a rule of phatically, to express what ought to be. right conduct what agrees exactly as When it is asserted, or implied, that well with wrong, nevertheless a rational Nature, or the laws of Nature, should be rule of conduct may be constructed out conformed to, is the Nature which is of the relation which it ought to bear meant Nature in the first sense of the to the laws of nature in this widest term, meaning all which is--the powers acceptation of the term. Man necesand properties of all things? But in sarily obeys the laws of nature, or in this signification there is no need of a other words the properties of things; but recommendation to act according to he does not necessarily guide himself by nature, since it is what nobody can them. Though all conduct is in conpossibly help doing, and equally whether formity to laws of nature, all conduct is he acts well or ill. There is no mode not grounded on knowledge of them, of acting which is not conformable to and intelligently directed to the attain Nature in this sense of the term, and all ment of purposes by means of them.

·NATURE 13 use manner Though we cannot emancipate ourselves or perhaps to the very law itself. For from the laws of nature as a whole, we example, a person who goes into a can escape from any particular law of powder-magazine either not knowing, or nature, if we are able to withdraw our carelessly omitting to think of, the exselves from the circumstances in which plosive force of gunpowder, is likely to it acts. Though we can do nothing | do some act which will cause him to be except through laws of nature, we can blown to atoms in obedience to the very one law to counteract another. law which he has disregarded. According to Bacon's maxim, we can But, however much of its authority the obey nature in such a as to “Naturam sequi” doctrine may owe to command it. Every alteration of cir- its being confounded with the rational precumstances alters more or less the laws cept "Naturum observare," its favourers of nature under which we act; and by and promoters unquestionably intend every choice which we make either of much more by it than that precept. To ends or of means we place ourselves to a acquire knowledge of the properties of greater or less extent under one set of things, and make use of the knowledge laws of nature instead of another. If, for guidance, is a rule of prudence, for therefore, the useless precept to follow the adaptation of means to ends; for nature were changed into a precept to giving effect to our wishes and intentions, study nature; to know and take heed of whatever they may be. But the maxim the properties of the things we have of obedience to Nature, or conformity to to deal with, so far as these properties Nature, is held up not as a simply prudenare capable of forwarding or obstructing tial but as an etlucal maxim; and by any given purpose; we should have those who talk of jus nature, even as a arrived at the first principle of all intelli-law, fit to be administered by tribunals gent action, or rather at the definition of and enforced by sanctions. Right action intelligent action itself. And a confused must mean something more and other notion of this true principle is, I doubt than merely intelligent action; yet no not, in the minds of many of those who precept beyond this last can be conset up the unmeaning doctrine which nected with the word “nature" in the superficially resembles it. They per- wider and more philosophical of its ceive that the essential difference acceptations. We must try it, therefore, between wise and foolish conduct con- in the other sense, that in which Nature sists in attending, or not attending, to stands distinguished from Art, and dethe particular laws of nature on which notes, not the whole course of the phenosome important result depends. And mena which come under our observation, they think that a person who attends to but only their spontaneous course. a law of nature in order to shape his Let us, then, consider whether we can conduct by it may be said to obey attach any meaning to the supposed it, while a person who practically dis- practical maxim of following Nature, in regards it, and acts as if no such law this second sense of the word, in which existed, may be said to disobey it: the Nature stands for that which takes place circumstance being overlooked, that without human intervention. In Nature what is thus called disobedience to a law as thus understood is the spontaneous of nature is obedience to some other, course of things, when left to themselves, ·14 NATURE 4. the rule to be followed in endeavouring ways of Nature are to be conquered, not to adapt things to our use? But it is obeyed; that her powers are often evident at once that the maxim, taken in towards man in the position of enemies, this sense, is not merely, as it is in the from whom he must wrest, by force and other sense, superfluous and unmeaning, ingenuity, what little he can for his own but palpably absurd and self-contradic- use, and deserves to be applauded when tory. For while human action cannot that little is rather more than might be help conforming to Nature in the one expected from his physical weakness in meaning of the term, the very aim and comparison to those gigantic powers. object of action is to alter and improve All praise of Civilisation, or Art, or Con- Nature in the other meaning. If the trivance, is so much dispraise of Nature ; natural course of things were perfectly an admission of imperfection which it is right and satisfactory, to act at all would man's business and merit to be always be a gratuitous meddling, which, as it endeavouring to correct or mitigate. could not make things better, must make The consciousness that whatever man them worse. Or if action at all could be does to improve his condition is in so justified, it would only be when in direct much a censure and a thwaiting of the obedience to instincts, since these might spontaneous order of Nature, has in all perhaps be accounted part of the spon- ages caused new and unprecedented taneous order of Nature; but to do any attempts at improveinent to be generally thing with forethought and purpose at first under a shade of religious suswould be a violation of that perfect picion; as being in any case uncompliorder. If the artificial is not better than mentary, and very probably offensive to the natural, to what end are all the arts the powerful beings (or, when polytheism of life? To dig, to plough, to build, to gave place to monotheism, to the allwear clothes, are direct infringements of powerful Being) supposed to govern the the injunction to follow nature. various phenomena of the universe, and Accordingly it would be said by every of whose will the course of nature was one, even of those most under the in conceived to be the expression. Any fluence of the feelings which prompt the attempt to mould natural phenomena to injunction, that to apply it to such cases the convenience of mankind might easily as those just spoken of would be to appear an interference with the governpush it too far. Everybody proſesses to ment of those superior beings; and approve and admire many great triumphs though life could not have been mainof Art over Nature: the junction by tained, much less made pleasant, without bridges of shores which Nature had perpetual interferences of the kind, each made separate, the draining of Nature's new one was doubtless made with fear marshes, the excavation of her wells, the and trembling, until experience had dragging to light of what she has buried shown that it could be ventured on withat immense depths in the earth; the out drawing down the vengeance of the turning away of her thunderbolts by Gods. The sagacity of priests showed lightning rods, of her inundations by them a way to reconcile the impunity of embankments, of her ocean by break- particular infringements with the mainwaters. But to commend these and tenance of the general dread of encroachsimilar feats is to acknowledge that the ing on the divine administration. This ·NATURE 15 was effected by representing each of the make-weight along with other objections principal human inventions as the gift when there is a desire to find fault with and favour of some god. The old reli- any new exertion of human forethought gions also afforded many resources for and contrivance. No one, indeed, asserts consulting the Gods, and obtaining their it to be the intention of the Creator that express permission for what would other the spontaneous order of the creation wise have appeared a breach of their should not be altered, or even that it prerogative. When oracles had ceased, should not be altered in any new way. any religion which recognised a revela- But there still exists a vague notion that, tion afforded expedients for the same though it is very proper to control this purpose. The Catholic religion had the or the other natural phenomenon, the resource of an infallible Church, autho- general scheme of nature is a model for rised to declare what exertions of human us to imitate; that with more or less spontaneity were permitted or forbidden; liberty in details, we should on the whole and in default of this the case was always be guided by the spirit and gencral conopen to argument from the Bible whether ception of nature's own ways; that they any particular practice had expressly or are God's work, and as such perfect; that by implication been sanctioned. The man cannot rival their unapproachable notion remained that this liberty to con- excellence, and can best show his skill trol Nature was conceded to man only and piety by attempting, in however by special indulgence, and as far as imperfect a way, to reproduce their likerequired by his necessities; and there ness; and that, if not the whole, yet some was always a tendency, though a dinin- particular parts of the spontaneous order ishing one, to regard any attempt to of nature, selected according to the exercise power over nature beyond a speakers predilections, are in a peculiar certain degree and a certain admitted scnse manifestations of the Creator's range as an impious effort to usurp divine will—a sort of finger-posts pointing out power and dare more than was permitted the direction which things in general, to man. The lines of Horace in which and therefore our voluntary actions, ale the familiar arts of shipbuilding and intended to take. Feelings of this sort, navigation are reprobated as vetitum though repressed on ordinary occasions nefas indicate even in that sceptical age by the contrary curient of life, are ready a still unexhausted vein of the old senti- to break out whenever custom is silent, ment. The intensity of the correspond and the native promptings of the mind ing feeling in the Middle Ages is not a have nothing opposed to them but precise parallel, on account of the super reason; and appeals are continually stition about dealing with evil spirits with made to them by rhetoricians, with the which it was complicated; but the im-effect, if not of convincing opponents, putation of prying into the secrets of the at least of making those who already Almighty long remained a powerful hold the opinion which the rhetorician weapon of attack against unpopular desires to recommend, better satisfied inquirers into nature; and the charge of with it. For in the present day it propresumptuously attempting to defeat the bably seldont happens that anyone is perdesigns of Providence still retains enough suaded to approve any course of action of its original force to be thrown in as a ' because it appears to him to bear an ·16 NATURE analogy to the divine government of the benevolence, would have made with the world, though the argument tells on him intention that his rational creatures with great force, and is felt by him to be should follow it as an example. If made a great support, in behalf of anything wholly by such a Being, and not partly which he is already inclined to approve. by beings of very different qualities, it If this notion of imitating the ways could only be as a designedly imperfect of Providence as manifested in Nature work, which man, in his limited sphere, is seldom expressed plainly and down is to exercise justice and benevolence in rightly as a matter of general applica- amending. The best persons have always tion, it also is seldom directly contra- held it to be the essence of religion that dicted. Those who find it on their path the paramount duty of man upon earth prefer to turn the obstacle rather than to is to amend himselt; but all except attack it, being often themselves not monkish quietists have annexed to this free from the feeling, and in any case in their inmost minds (though seldom afraid of incurring the charge of impiety willing to enunciate the obligation with by saying anything which might be held the same clearness) the additional relito disparage the works of the Creator's gious duty of amending the world, and power. They, therefore, for the most not solely the human part of it, but the part, rather endeavour to show that they material--the order of physical nature. have as much right to the religious aigu In considering this subject it is necesment as their opponents, and that, if the sary to divest ourselves of certain precourse they recommend seems to conflict conceptions which may justly be called with some part of the ways of Providence, natural prejudices, being grounded on there is some other part with which it feelings which, in themselves natural agrees better than what is contended for and inevitable, intrude into matters with on the other side. In this mode of which they ought to have no concern. dealing with the great à priori fallacies, One of these feelings is the astonishment, the progress of improvement clears away rising into awe, which is inspired (even particular crrors while the causes of independently of all religious sentiment) errors are still left standing, and very by any of the greater natural phenomena. little weakened by each conflict; yet by A hurricane; a mountain precipice; a long series of such partial victories the desert; the ocean, either agitated or precedents are accumulated, to which at rest; the solar system, and the great an appeal may be made against these cosmic forces which hold it together ; powerful prepossessions, and which the boundless firmament, and to an eduafford a growing hope that the misplaced cated mind any single star-excite feelfeeling, after having so often learnt to ings which make all human enterprises recede, may some day be compelled to and powers appear so insignificant that, an unconditional surrender. For, how to a mind thus occupied, it seems inever offensive the proposition may appear sufferable presumption in so puny a to many religious persons, they should creature as man to look critically on be willing to look in the face the unde things so far above him, or dare to niable fact that the order of nature, in so measure himself against the grandeur of far as unmodified by man, is such as no the universe. But a little interrogation being, whose attributes are justice and l of our own consciousness will suffice to ·NATURE 17 convince us that what makes these that “whatever is, is right," are obliged phenomena so impressive is simply their to maintain, not that Nature ever turns vastness. The enormous extension in one step from her path to avoid trampspace and time, or the enormous power ling us into destruction, but that it would they exemplify, constitutes their sub- be very unreasonable in us to expect limity; a feeling in all cases, more allied that she should. Pope's "Shall gravitato terror than to any moral emotion. tion cease when you go by ?" may be a And though the vast scale of these just rebuke to any one who should be phenomena may well excite wonder, and so silly as to expect common human sets at defiance all idea of rivalry, the morality from nature. But if the quesfeeling it inspires is of a totally different tion were between two men, instead of character from admiration of excellence. between a man and a natural phenome- Those in whom awe produces admiration non, that triumphant apostrophe would be may be æstheticaliy developed, but they thought a rare piece of impudence. A are morally uncultivated. It is one of man who should persist in hurling stones. the endowments of the imaginative part or firing cannon when another man of our mental nature that conceptions of "goes by," and having killed him should greatness and power, vividly realised, urge a similar plea in exculpation, produce a feeling which, though in its would very deservedly be found guilty of higher degrees closely bordering on pain, murder. we prefer to most of what are accounted In sober truth, nearly all the things pleasures. But we are quite equally which men are hanged or imprisoned capable of experiencing this feeling for doing to one another are nature's towards maleficent power; and we never every-day performances. Killing, the experience it so strongly towards most of most criminal act recognised by human the powers of the universe as when we laws, Nature does once to every being have most present to our consciousness that lives; and, in a large proportion of a vivid sense of their capacity of inflict- cases, after protracted tortures such as Because these natural powers only the greatest monsters whom we have what we cannot imitate, enormous read of ever purposely inflicted on their might, and overawe us by that one attri- living fellow-creatures. If, by an arbibute, it would be a great error to infer trary reservation, we refuse to account that their other attributes are such as we anything murder but what abridges a ought to emulate, or that we should be certain term supposed to be allotted to justified in using our small powers after human life, nature also does this to all the example which Nature sets us with but a small percentage of lives, and does her vast forces. For how stands the it in all the modes, violent or insidious, fact? That, next to the greatness of in which the worst human beings take these cosmic forces, the quality which the lives of one another. Nature impales most forcibly strikes every one who does men, breaks them as if on the wheel, not avert his eyes from it is their perfect casts them to be devoured by wild and absolute recklessness. They go beasts, burns them to death, crushes straight to their end, without regarding them with stopes like the first Christian what or whom they crush on the road. martyr, starves them with hunger, freezes Optimists, in their attempts to prove them with cold, poisons them by the ing evil. с ·OC NATURE quick or slow venon of her exhalations, all of the poor with the same accompaniand has hundreds of other hideous ments of stripping, wounding, and killing deaths in reserve, such as the ingenious as their human antitypes. Everything, cruelty of a Nabis or a Domitian never in short, which the worst men commit surpassed. All this Nature does with either against life or property is perpethe most supercilious disregard both of trated on a larger scale by natural agents. mercy and of justice, emptying her Nature has Noyades more fatal than shafts upon the best and noblest indif- those of Carrier ; her explosions of fireferently with the meanest and worst; damp are as destructive as humian upon those who are engaged in the artillery; her plague and cholera far highest and worthiest enterprises, and surpass the poison-cups of the Borgias. often as the direct consequence of the Even the love of "order,” which is noblest acts; and it might almost thought to be a following of the ways of be imagined as a punishment for them. Naturc, is in fact a contradiction of them. She mows down those on whose exist- All which pcople are accustomed to ence hangs the well being of a whole deprecate as "disorder” and its consepeople, perhaps the prospect of the quences is precisely a counterpart of human race for generations to come, Nature's ways. Anarchy and the Reign with as little compunction as those of Terror are overmatched in injustice, whose death is a relief to themselves, or ruin, and death by a hurricane and a a blessing to those under their noxious pestilence. influence. Such are Nature's dealings But, it is said, all these things are for with life. Even when she does not wise and good ends. On this I must intend to kill, she inflicts the same first remark that whether they are so or tortures in apparent wantonness. In the not is altogether beside the point. Supclumsy provision which she has made posing it true that, contrary to appearfor that perpetual renewal of animal life, ances, these horrors, when perpetrated by rendered necessary by the prompt termi- Nature, promote good ends, still, as no nation she puts to it in cvery individual one believes that good ends would be instance, no human being ever comes promoted by our following the example, into the world but another human being the course of Nature cannot be a proper is literally stretched on the rack for hours model for us to imitate. Either it is or days, not unfrequently issuing in right that we should kill because nature death. Next to taking life (equal to it kills; torture because nature tortures ; according to a high authority) is taking ruin and devastate because nature does the means by which we live; and Nature the like; or we ought not to consider at does this too on the largest scale and all what nature does, but what it is good with the most callous indifference. A to do. If there is such thing as a single hurricane destroys the hopes of a reductio ad absurdum, this surely amounts' season; a flight of locusts, or an inun- to on If it is a sufficient reason for dation, desolates a district; a trifling doing one thing, that nature does it, why chemical change in an edible root not another thing? If not all things, starves a million of people. The waves why anything? The physical governof the sea, like banditti, seize and appro- ment of the world being full of the things; priate the wealth of the rich and the little which when done by. men are deemed ·NATURE 19 the greatest enormities, it cannot be wisdom. Inasmuch, too, as each generareligious or moral in us to guide our tion greatly surpasses its predecessors in actions by the analogy of the course of the amount of natural evil which it nature. This proposition remains true, succeeds in averting, our condition, if whatever occult quality of producing the theory were true, ought by this time good may reside in thosc facts of nature to have become a terrible manifestation which to our perceptions are most of some tremendous calamity, against noxious, and which no one considers it which the physical evils we have learnt other than a crime to produce artifici to overmaster had previously operated ally. as a preservative. Any one, however, But, in reality, no one consistently who acted as if he supposed this to be believes in any such occult quality. The the case would be more likely, I think, phrases which ascribe perfection to the to be confined as a lunatic than revercourse of nature can only be considered enced as a saint. as the exaggerations of poetic or devo It is undoubtedly a very common fact tional feeling, not intended to stand the that good comes out of evil, and when it test of a sober examination. No one, does occur it is far too agreeable not to either religious or irreligious, believes find people eager to dilate on it. But, in that the hurtful agencies of nature, con- the first place, it is quite as often true of sidered as a whole, promote good pur human crimes as of natural calamities. poses, in any other way than by inciting The fire of London, which is believed to humın rational creatures to rise up and have had so salutary an effect on the struggle against them. If we believed healthiness of the city, would have prothat those agencies were appointed by a dured that effect just as much if it had benevolent Providence as the means of been really the work of the “furor accomplishing wise purposes which could papisticus " so long commemorated on not be compassed if they did not exist, the Monument. The deaths of those then everything done by mankind which whom tyrants or persecutors have made tends to chain up these natural agencies martyrs in any noble cause have done a or to restrict their mischievous operation, service to mankind which would not from draining a pestilential marsh down have been obtained if they had died by to curing the loothache, or putting up an accident or disease. Yet, whatever inciumbrella, ought to be accounted im- dental and unexpected benefits may pious; which assuredly nobody does result from crimes, they are crimes. account them, notwithstanding an under- nevertheless. In the second place, if current of sentiment setting in that good frequently comes out of evil, the direction which is occasionally percep-converse fact, evil coming out of good, tible. On the contrary, the improve is equally common. Every event, public ments on which the civilised part of man or private, which, regretted on its occurkind most pride themselves consist in rence, was declared providential at a more successfully warding off those later period on account of some unforenatural calamities which, if we really seen good consequence, might be believed what most people profess to matched by some other event, deemed believe, we should cherish as medicines fortunate at the time, but which proved provided for our earthly state by infinite calamitous or fatal to those whom it ·20 NATURE appeared to benefit. Such conflicts evil. It is one of Nature's general rules, between the beginning and the end, or and part of her habitual injustice, that between the event and the expectation, 'to him that hath shall be given, but are not only as frequent, but as often from him that hath not shall be taken held up to notice, in the painful cases as even that which he hath." The ordinary in the agreeable; but there is not the and predominant tendency of good is same inclination to generalise on them ; towards more good. Health, strength, or at all events they are not regarded by wealth, knowledge, virtue, are not only the moderns (though they were by the good in themselves, but facilitate and ancients) as similarly an indication of promote the acquisition of good, both of the divine purposes : men satisfy them- the same and of other kinds. The person selves with moralising on the imperfect who can learn easily is he who already nature of our foresight, the uncertainty knows much: it is the strong and not of events, and the vanity of human ex- the sickly person who can do everything pectations. The simple fact is, human which most conduces to health ; those interests are so complicated, and the who find it easy to gain money are not effects of any incident whatever so multi- the poor, but the rich; while health, tudinous, that, if it touches mankind at strength, knowledge, talents, are all all, its influence on them is, in the great means of acquiring riches, and riches majority of cases, both good and bad. are often an indispensable means of If the greater number of personal mis-acquiring these. Again, e converso, whatfortunes have their good side, hardly any ever may be said of evil turning into good fortune ever befcl any one which good, the general tendency of evil is did not give either to the same or to towards further evil. Bodily illness some other person something to regret : renders the body more susceptible of and unhappily there are many misfor- disease; it produces incapacity of exertunes so overwhelming that their favour- tion, sometimes debility of mind, and able side, if it exist, is entirely over often the loss of means of subsistence. shadowed and made insignificant; while All severe pain, either bodily or mental, the corresponding statement can seldom tends to increase the susceptibilities of be made concerning blessings. The pain for ever after. Poverty is the parent effects, too, of every cause depend so of a thousand mental and moral evils. inuch on the circumstances which acci- What is still worse, to be injured or dentally accompany it that many cases oppressed, when habitual, lowers the are sure to occur in which even the total whole tone of the character. One bad result is markedly opposed to the pre-action leads to others, both in the agent dominant tendency: and thus not only himself, in the bystanders, and in evil has its good and good its evil side, the sufferers. All bad qualities are but good often produces an overbalance strengthened by habit, and all vices and of evil and evil an overbalance of good. follies tend to spread. Intellectual This, however, is by no means the defects generate moral, and moral, intelgeneral tendency of either phenomenon. lectual ; and every intellectual or moral On the contrary, both good and evil defect generates others, and so on withnaturally tend to fructify, each in its own out end. kind, good producing good, and evil, That much applauded class of authors, ·NATURE 21 Jatura the writers on hatural theology, have, I world, each person's share of them would venture to think, entirely lost their way, be exactly proportioned to that person's and missed the sole line of argument good or evil deeds; no human being which could have made their speculations would have a worse lot than another, acceptable to any one who can perceive without worse deserts ; accident or when two propositions contradict one favouritism would have no part in such another. They have exhausted the a world, but every human life would be resources of sophistry to make it appear the playing out of a drama constructed that all the suffering in the world cxists like a perfect moral tale. No one is able to prevent greater-that misery exists, to blind himself to the fact that the for fear lest there should be misery: a world we live in is totally different from thesis which, if ever so well maintained, this; insomuch that the necessity of recould only avail to explain and justify dressing the balance has been deemed the works of limited beings, compelled one of the strongest arguments for to labour under conditions independent another life aſter death, which amounts of their own will ; but can have no to an admission that the order of things application to a Creator assumed to be in this life is often an example of injusomnipotent, who, if he bends to a sup- tice, not justice. If it be said that God posed necessity, himself makes the does not take sufficient account of necessity which he bends to. If the plcasure and pain to make them the maker of the world can all that he will, reward or punishment of the good or the he wills misery, and there is no escape wicked, but that virtue is itself the from the conclusion. The more consis- greatest good and vice the greatest evil, tent of those who have deemed them then these at least ought to be dispensed selves qualificd to " vindicate the ways of to all according to what they have done God to man" have endeavoured to avoid to descrve them; instead of which, every the alternative by hardening their hearts, kind of moral depravity is entailed upon and denying that misery is an evil. The multitudes by the fatality of their birth; goodness of God, they say, does not through the fault of their parents, of consist in willing the happiness of his society, or of uncontrollable circumcreatures, but their virtue; and the uni-stances, certainly through no fault of verse, if not a happy, is a just, universe. their own. Not even on the most dis- But, waving the objections to this scheme toited and contrasted theory of good of ethics, it does not at all get rid of the which ever was framed by religious or difficulty. If the Creator of mankind philosophical fanaticism can the governwilled that they should all be virtuous, ment of Nature be made to resemble the his designs are as completely baffled as work of a being at once good and omniif he had willed that they should all be potent. happy: and the order of nature is con The only admissible moral theory of structed with even less regard to the Creation is that the Principle of Good requirements of justice than to those of cinnot at once and altogether subdue the benevolence. If the law of all creation powers of evil, either physical or moral; were justice and the Creator omnipotent, could not place mankind in a world free then, in whatever amount suffering and from the necessity of an incessant struggle happiness might be dispensed to the with the maleficent powers, or make ·22 NATURE them always victorious in that struggle, but not any combination of things; that but could and did make them capable of his government, like human government, carrying on the fight with vigour and was a system of adjustments and comwith progressively increasing success. promises; that the world is inevitably Of all the religious explanations of the imperfect, contrary to his intention." order of nature, this alone is neither And since the exertion of all his power contradictory to itself nor to the facts to make it as little imperfect as possible for which it attempts to account. Accord leaves it no better than it is, they cannot ing to it, man's duty would consist, not but' regard that power, though vastly in simply taking care of his own interests beyond human estimate, yet as in itself by obeying irresistible power, but in not merely finite, but extremely limited. standing forward a not ineffectual auxi- They are bound, for example, to suppose liary to a Being of perfect beneficence; that the best he could do for his human a faith which secms much better adapted crcatures was to make an immense for nerving him to exertion than a vague majority of all who have yet existed be and inconsistent reliance on an Author born (without any fault of their own) of Good who is supposed to be also the Patagonians, or Esquimaux, or something author of evil. And I venture to assert nearly as brutal and degraded, but to that such has really been, though often give them capacities which, by being unconsciously, the faith of all who have cultivated for very many for very many centuries drawn strength and support of any worthy in toil and suffering, and after many kind froin trust in a superintending of the best specimens of the race Providence. There is no subject on have sacrificed their lives for the which men's practical belief is more purpose, have at last enabled incorrectly indicated by the words they chosen portions of the specics to grow use to express it than religion. Many into something better, capable of being have derived a base confidence from improved in centuries into imagining themselves to be favourites of an omnipotent but capricious and * This irresistible conviction comes out in the despotic Deity. But those who have writings of religious philosophers, in exact probeen strengthened in goodness by rely- portion to the general clcarness of their undering on the sympathising support of a standing. It nowhere shines forth so distinctly powerful and good Goverfor of the as in Leibnitz's famous Théodicée, so strangely mistaken for a system of optimisın, and, as such, world have, I am satisfied, never really satirised by Voltaire on grounds which do not believed that Governor to be, in the even touch the author's argument. Leibnitz strict sense of the term, omnipotent. does not maintain that this world is the best of They have always saved his goodness at all imaginable, but only of all possible, worlds ; the expense of his power. They have which, he argues, it cannot but be, inasmuch as God, who is absolute goodness, has chosen it believed, perhaps, that he could, if he and not another. Iu every page of the work he willed, remove all the thorns from their tacitly assumes an abstract possibility and imposindividual path, but not without causing sibility, independent of the divine power; and, greater harm to some one else, or frus- though his pious, feelings make him continue to trating some purpose of greater importance he so explains that term as to make it mean designate that power by the word "Omnipotence," to the general well-being. They have power extending to all that is within the limits believed that he could do any one thing, of that abstract possibility. some more ·NATURE 23 something really good, of which hitherto except so far as directed by the general there are only to be found individual maxim that he intends all the good and instances. It may be possible to believe none of the evil, must of necessity be with Plato that perfect goodness, limited perfectly arbitrary; and if it leads to any and thwarted in every direction by the conclusions other than such as can be intractableness of the material; has done deduced from that maxim, must be, this because it could do no better. But exactly in that proportion, pernicious. that the same perfectly wise and good It has never been settled by any Being had absolute power over the accredited doctrine what particular de material, and made it, by voluntary partments of the order of nature shall be choice, what it is; to admit this might reputed to be designed for our moral have been supposed impossible to any instruction and guidance; and accordone who has the simplest notions of ingly cach person's individual predilecmoral good and evil. Nor can any such tions, or momentary convenience, have person, whatever kind of religious phrases decided to what parts of the divine he may use, fail to believe that if Nature government the practical conclusions and man are both the works of a Being that he was that he was desirous of establishing of perfect goodness, that Being intended should be recommended to approval as Nature as a scheme to be amended, not being analogous. One such recommeninitated, by nan. dation must be as fallacious as another, But even though unable to believe for it is impossible to decide that certhat Nature, as a whole, is a realisation tain of the Creator's works are more of the designs of perfect wisdom and truly expressions of his character than benevolence, men do not willingly re the rest ; and the only selection which nounce the idea that some part of does not lead to immoral results is the Nature, at least, must be intended as an selection of those which most conduce exemplar, or type; that on some portion to the general good-in other words, of or other of the Creator's works the those which point to an end which, if the image of the moral qualities which they entire scheme is the expression of a are accustomed to ascribe to him must be single omnipotent and consistent will, is impressed; that if not all which is, yet evidently not the end intended by it. something which is, must not only be a There is, however, one particular faultless model of what ought to be, but element in the construction of the world must be intended to be our guide and which, to minds on the look out for standard in rectifying the rest. It does special indications of the Creator's will, not suffice them to believe that what has appeared, not without plausibility, tends to good is to be imitated and per peculiarly fitted to afford them; viz., fected, and what tends to evil is to be the active impulses of human and other corrected: they are anxious for some animated beings. One can imagine such nuore definite indication of the Creator's persons arguing that, when the Author of designs; and, being persuaded that this Nature only made circumstances, he may must somewhere be met with in his not have meant to indicate the manner works, undertake the dangerous respon- in which his rational creatures were to sibility of picking and choosing among adjust themselves to those circumstances; them in quest of it. A choice which, but that when he implanted positive way ·24 NATURE stimuli in the creatures themselves, though unreflecting at the moment, owe stirring them up to a particular kind of their origin to previous habits of reflecaction, it is impossible to doubt that he tion: these, being evidently not instincintended that sort of action to be prac tive, do not meet with the favour accorded tised by them. This reasoning, followed to the rest ; so that all unreflecting out consistently, would lead to the con- impulses are invested with authority over clusion that the Deity intended, and reason, except the only ones which are approves, whatever human beings do; most probably right. I do not mean, of since all that they do being the conse course, that this mode of judgment is quence of some of the impulses with even pretended to be consistently carried which their Creator must have cndowed out: life could not go on if it were not them, all must equally be considered as admitted that impulses must be condone in obedience to his will. As this trolled, and that reason ought to govern practical conclusion was shrunk from, it our actions. The pretension is not to was necessary to draw a distinction, and drive Reason from the helm, but rather to pronounce that not the whole, but to hind her by articles to steer only in a only parts, of the active nature of man- particular way. Instinct is not to govern, kind point to a special intention of the but reason is to practise some vague and Creator in respect to their conduct. unassignable amount of deference to These parts, it seemed natural to suppose, Instinct. Though the impression in inust be those in which the Creator's favour of instinct as being a peculiar hand is manifested rather than the man's manifestation of the divine purposes has own; and hence the frequent antithesis not been cast into the form of a conbetween man as God made him and sistent general theory, it remains a standman as he has made himself. Since ing prejudice, capable of being stirred up what is done with deliberation seems into hostility to reason in any case in more the man's own act, and he is held which the dictate of the rational faculty more completely responsible for it than has not acquired the authority of prefor what he does from sudden impulse, scription. the considerate part of human conduct I shall not here enter into the difficult is apt to be set down as man's share in psychological question, what are or are the business, and the inconsiderate as not instincts: the subject would require God's. The result is the vein of senti- a volume to itself. Without touching ment so common in the modern world upon any disputed theoretical points, it (though unknown to the philosophic is possible to judge how little worthy is ancients) which exalts instinct at the the instinctive part of human nature to expense of reason; an aberration ren be held up as its chief excellence as the dered still more mischievous by the part in which the hand of infinite goodopinion commonly held in conjunction ness and wisdom is peculiarly visible. with it, that every, or almost every, feel. Allowing everything to be an instinct ing or impulse which acts promptly with which anybody has ever asserted to be out waiting to ask questions is an instinct. one, it remains true that nearly every Thus almost every variety of unreflecting respectable attribute of humanity is the and uncalculating impulse receives a result not of instinct, but of a victory kind of consecration, except those which, lover instinct; and that there is hardly, ·NATURE 25 anything valuable in the natural man virtue. There is hardly any department except capacities a whole world of pos- of human excellence in which difference sibilities, all of them dependent upon of original temperament goes so far. eminently artificial discipline for being But it may fairly be questioned if any realised. human being is naturally courageous. It is only in a highly artificialised con- Many are naturally pugnacious, or dition of human nature that the notion irascible, or enthusiastic, and grew up, or, I believe, ever could have passions when strongly excited may grown up, that goodness was natural : render them insensible to fear. But because only after a long course of arti- take away the conflicting emotion, and ficial education did good sentiments fear reasserts its dominion : consistent become so habitual, and so predominant courage is always the effect of cultivaover bad, as to arise unprompted when tion. The courage which is occasionally, occasion called for them. In the times though by no means generally, found when 'mankınd were nearer to their anong tribes of savages is as much the natural state, cultivated observers re- result of education as that of the garded the natural man as a sort of wild Spartans or Romans. In all such tribes animal, distinguished chiefly by being there is a most emphatic direction of the craftier than the other beasts of the field; public sentiment into every channel of and all worth of character was deemed expression through which honour can be the result of a sort of taming; a phrase paid to courage and cowardice held up to often applied by the ancient philosophers contempt and derision. It will perhaps to the appropriate discipline of human be said that, as the expression of a sentibeings. The truth is that there is hardly ment implies the sentiment itself, the a single point of excellence belonging to training of the young to courage prehuman character which is not decidedly supposes an originally courageous people. repugnant to the untutored feelings of It presupposes only what all good human nature. customs presuppose that there must If therc be a virtue which more than have been individuals better than the any other we expect to find, and really rest who set the customs going. Some do find, in an uncivilised state, it is the individuals, who like other people had virtue of courage. Yet this is from first fears to conquer, must have had strength to last a victory achieved over one of the of mind and will to conquer them for most powerful emotions of human nature. themselves. These would obtain the If there is any one feeling or attribute influence belonging to heroes, for that more natural than all others to human which is once astonishing and beings, it is fear; and no greater proof obviously useful never fails to be adcan be given of the power of artificial mired : and partly through this admiradiscipline than the conquest which it has tion, partly through the fear they themat all times and places shown itself selves excite, they would obtain the capable of achieving over so mighty and power of legislators, and could establish so universal a sentiment. The widest whatever customs they pleased. difference no doubt exists between one Let us next consider a quality which human being and another in the facility forms the most visible and one of the or difficulty with which they acquire this most radical of the moral distinctions at ·26 NATURE was between human beings and most of the l'egoisme à deux, à trois or à quatre; and lower animals; that of which the absence, they may be very amiable and delightful more than of anything else, renders men to those with whom they sympathise, and bestial--the quality of cleanliness. Can grossly unjust and unfeeling to the rest anything be more entirely artificial? of the world. Indeed, the finer nervous Children, and the lower classes of most organisations which are most capable of countries, seem to be actually fond of and most require sympathy have, from dirt: the vast majority of the human their fineness, so much stronger impulses race are indifferent to it: whole nations of all sorts that they often furnish the of otherwise civilised and cultivated most striking examples of selfishness, human beings tolerate it in some of its though of a less repulsive kind than that worst forms, and only a very small of colder natures. Whether there ever minority are consistently offended by it. was a person in whom, apart from all Indeed, the universal law of the subject teaching of instructors, friends or books, appears to be that uncleanliness offends and from all intentional self-modelling only those to whom it is unfamiliar, so according to an ideal, natural benevolence that those who have lived in so artificial a more powerful attribute than a state as to be unused to it in any form selfishness in any of its forms, may are the sole persons whom it disgusts in remain undecided. That such cases are all forms. Of all virtues this is the most extremely rare every one must admit, evidently not instinctive, but a triumph and this is enough for the argument. over instinct. Assuredly neither cleanli But (to speak no further of self-control ness nor the love of clcanlıness is natural for the benefit of others) the commonest to man, but only the capacity of acquir- self-control for one's own benefit--that ing a love of cleanliness. power of sacrificing a present desire to a Our examples have thus far been taken distant object or a general purpose whicb from the personal, or, as they are called is indispensable for making the actions by Bentham, the self-regarding virtues, of the individual accord with his own because these, if any, might be supposed notions of his individual good; even this to be congenial even to the uncultivated is most unnatural to the undisciplined mind. Of the social virtues it is almost human being: as may be seen by the superfluous to speak, so completely is long apprenticeship which children serve it the verdict of all experience that lo it; the very imperfect' manner in selfishness is natural. By this I do not which it is acquired by persons born to in any wise mean to deny that sympathy power, whose will is seldom resisted, and is natural also; I believe, on the contrary, by all who have been early and much that on that important fact rests the pos- indulged; and the marked absence of sibility of any cultivation of goodness the quality in savages, in soldiers and and nobleness, and the hope of their sailors, and in a somewhat less degree in ultimate entire ascendancy. But syin- nearly the whole of the poorer classes in pathetic characters, left uncultivated and this and many other countries. The pringiven up to their sympathetic instincts, cipal difference, on the point under conare as selfish as others. The difference sideration, between this virtue and others, is in the kind of selfishness: theirs is not is that although, like them, it requires solitary but sympathetic selfishness; a course of teaching, it is more susceptible.

·NATURE 27 than piost of them of being self-taught. circumstances of real temptation, prac- The axiom is trite that self-control is only tise it. learnt by experience, and this endow From the general use of the expression ment is only thus much nearer to being "natural justice," it must be presumed natural than the others we have spoken that justice is a virtue generally thought of, inasmuch as personal experience, to be directly implanted by Nature. I without external inculcation, has a certain belicve, however, that the sentiment of tendency to engender it. Nature does justice is entirely of artificial origin; the not of herself bestow this, any more than idea of natural justice not preceding but other virtues; but nature often ad- following that of conventional justice. ministers the rewards and punishments The farther we look back into the early which cultivate it, and which in other modes of thinking of the human race, cases have to be created artificially for whether we consider ancient times the express purpose. (including those of the Old Testament) Veracity might seem, of all virtues, to or the portions of mankind who arc still have the most plausible claim to being in no more advanced a condition than natural, since, in the absence of motives that of ancient times, the more comto the contrary, speech usually conforms pletely do we find men's notions of to, or at least does not intentionally justice defined and bounded by the deviate from, fact. Accordingly, this is is express appointment of law. A man's the virtue with which writers like just rights meant the rights which the Rousscau delight in decorating savage law gave him: a just man was he who life, and setting it in advantageous con- never infringed, nor sought to infringe, trast with the treachery and trickery of the legal property or other legal rights of civilisation. Unfortunately this is a mere others. The notion of a higher justice, fancy picture, contradicted by all the to which laws themselves are amenable, realities of savage life. Savages are and by which the conscience is bound always liars. They have not the faintest without a positive prescription of law, is notion of truth as a virtuc. They have a later extension of the idea, suggested a notion of not betraying to their hurt, by, and following the analogy of, legal as of not hurting in any other way, justice, to which it maintains a parallel persons to whom they are bound by direction through all the shades and some special tie of obligation; their varieties of the sentiment, and from chief, their guest, perhaps, or their which it borrows nearly the whole of its friend: these feelings of obligation being phraseology. The very words justus and the taught morality of the savage state, justitia are derived from jus, law, growing out of its characteristic circum- Courts of justice, administration of stances. But of any point of honour justice, always mean the tribunals. respecting truth for truth's sake they If it be said that there must be the have not the remotest idea; no more germs of all these virtucs in human than the whole East and the greater nature, otherwise mankind would be part of Europe; and in the few countries | incapable of acquiring them, I am ready, which are sufficiently improved to have with a certain amount of explanation, to such a point of honour it is confined to admit the fact. But the weeds that disa small minority, who alone, under any pute the ground with these beneficent ·28 NATURE germs are themselves not germs, but so far as to maintain that every natural rankly luxuriant growths, and would, in inclination must have some sphere of all but some one case in a thousand, action granted to it, some opening left entirely stifle and destroy the former, for its gratification. All natural wishes, were it not so strongly the interest of they say, must have been implanted for mankind to cherish the good germs in a purpose : and this argument is carried one another, that they always do so, in so far that we often hear it maintained as far as their degree of intelligence that every wish which it is supposed to (in this as in other respects still very be natural to entertain must have a imperfect) allows. It is through such corresponding provision in the order of fostering, commenced early, and not the universe for its gratification; insocounteracted by unfavourable influences, much (for instance) that the desire of an that, in some happily circumstanccd indefinite prolongation of existence is specimens of the human race, the most believed by many to be in itself a elevated sentiments of which humanity sufficient proof of the reality of a future is capable become a second nature, life. stronger than the first, and not so much I conceive that there is a radical subduing the original nature as merging absurdity in all these attempts to disit into itself. Even those gifted organisa- cover, in detail, what are the designs of tions which have attained the like excel Providence, in order, when they are dislence by self-culture owe it essentially to covered, to help Providence in bringing the same cause; for what self-culture them about. Those who argue, from would be possible without aıd from the particular indications, that Providence general sentiment of mankind delivered intends this or that, either believe that through books, and from the contempla- the Creator can do all that he will or tion of exalted characters, real or ideal? that he cannot. If the first supposition This artificially created, or at least artifi- is adopted--if Providence is omnipotent, cially perfected, nature of the best and Providence intends whatever happens, noblest human beings is the only nature and the fact of its happening proves that which it is ever commendable to follow. Providence intended it. If so, every- It is almost superfluous to say that even thing which a human being can do is this cannot be erected into a standard of predestined by Providence and is a fulfilconduct, since it is itself the fruit of a ment of its designs. But if, as is the training and culture the choice of which, more religious theory, Providence intends if rational and not accidental, must have not all which happens, but only what is been determined by a standard already good, then indeed man has it in his chosen. power, by his voluntary actions, to aid This brief survey is amply sufficient to the intentions of Providence; but he prove that the duty of man is the same can only learn those intentions by con. in respect to his own nature as in respect sidering what tends to promote the to the nature of all other things--nainely, general good, and not what man has not to follow but to amend it. Some a natural inclination to; for, limited as, people, however, who do not attempt to on this showing, the divine power must deny that instinct ought to be subordi- bc, by inscrutable but insurmountable nate to reason, pay deference to Nature obstacles, who knows that man could ·NATURE 29 have been created without desires which more than another propensity which, if never are to be, and even which never not an instinct, is very like one-what has ought to be, fulfilled? The inclinations been called the instinct of domination ; with which man has been endowed, as a delight in exercising despotism, in well as any of the other contrivances holding other beings in subjection to our which we observe in Nature, may be the will. The man who takes pleasure in expression not of the divine will, but of the mere exertion of authority, apart the fetters which impede its free action; from the purpose for which it is to and to take hints from these for the be employed, is the last person in whose guidance of our own conduct may be hands one would willingly entrust it. falling into a trap laid by the enemy. Again, there are persons who are cruel The assumption that everything which by character, or, as the phrase is, infinite goodness can desire actually naturally cruel; who have a real pleasure comes to pass in this universe, or at in inflicting, or seeing the infliction of least that we must never say or suppose pain. This kind of cruelty is not mere that it does not, is worthy only of those hardheartedness, absence of pity or rewhose slavish fears make them offer the morse; it is a positive thing; a parhomage of lies to a Being who, they ticular kind of voluptuous excitement. profess to think, is incapable of being The East and Southern Europe have deceived and holds all falsehood in afforded, and probably still afford, abomination. abundant examples of this hateful pro- With regard to this particular hypo- pensity. I suppose it will be granted thesis, that all natural impulses, all that this is not one of the natural inpropensities sufficiently universal and clinations which it would be wrong to sufficiently spontaneous to be capable of suppress. The only question would be, passing for instincts, must exist for good whether it is not a duty to suppress the ends, and ought to be only regulated, inan himself along with it. not repressed; this is of course true of But even if it were true that every one the majority of them, for the species of the elementary impulses of human could not have continued to exist unless nature has its good side, and may by a most of its inclinations had been directed sufficient amount of artificial training be to things needful or useful for its pre-made more useful than hurtful; how servation. But unless the instincts can little would this amount to, when it must, be reduced to a very small number in any case be admitted that without indeed, it must be allowed that we have such training all of them, even those also bad instincts which it should be the which are necessary to our preservation, aim of education not simply to regulate, would fill the world with misery, making but to extirpate, or rather (what can be human life an exaggerated likeness of done even an instinct) to starve the odious scene of violence and tyranny by disuse. Those who are inclined to which is exhibited by the rest of the multiply the number of instincts, usually animal kingdom, except in so far as include among them one which they call tamed and disciplined by man. There, destructiveness: an instinct to destroy indeed, those who flatter themselves for destruction's sake. I can conceive with the notion of reading the purposes no good reason for preserving this, any of the Creator in his works ought in to ·30 NATURE consistency to have seen grounds for acceptations in which it is employed as inferences from which they have shrunk. a distinctive term for certain parts of the If there are any marks at all of special constitution of humanity as contrasted design in creation, one of the things with other parts. We have hitherto conmost evidently designed is that a large fined ourselves to one of these acceptaproportion of all animals should pass tions, in which it stands as a general their existence in tormenting and de- designation for those parts of our mental vouring other animals. They have been and moral constitution which are suplavishly fitted out with the instru- posed to be innate, in contradistinction ments necessary for that purpose; their to those which are acquired; as when strongest instincts impel them to it, and nature is contrasted with education; or many of them seem to have been con when a savage state, without laws, arts, structed incapable of supporting them or knowledge, is called a state of nature; selves by any other food. If a tenth or when the question is asked whether part of the pains which have been ex- benevolence, or the moral sentiment, is pended in finding benevolent adaptations natural or acquired; or whether some in all nature had been employed in persons are poets or orators by nature collecting evidence to blacken the and others not. But, in another and a character of the Creator, what scope for more lax sense, any manifestations by comment would not have been found in human beings are often termed natural the entire existence of the lower animals, when it is merely intended to say that divided, with scarcely an exception, into they are not studied or designedly devourers and devoured, and a prey to a assumed in the particular case; as when thousand ills from which they are denicd a person is said to move or speak with the faculties necessary for protecting natural grace; or when it is said that a themselves ! If we are not obliged to person's natural manner or character is believe the animal crcation to be the so and so; meaning that it is so when he work of a demon, it is because we need does not attempt to control or disguise not suppose it to have been made by a it. In a still looser acceptation, a person Being of infinite power. But if imitation is said to be naturally that which he was of the Creator's will as revealed in nature until some special cause had acted upon were applied as a rule of action in this him, or which it is supposed he would case, the most atrocious enormities of the be if some such cause were withdrawn. worst men would be more than justified Thus a person is said to be naturally by the apparent intention of Providence dull, but to have made himself intet that throughout all animated nature the ligent by study and perseverance; to be strong should prey upon the weak. naturally cheerful, but soured by misfor- The preceding observations are far tune; naturally ambitious, but kept down from having exhausted the almost infinite by want of opportunity. Finally, the variety of modes and occasions in which word "natural," applied to feelings or the idea of conformity to nature is intro- conduct, often to no duced as an element into the ethical more than that they are such as are appreciation of actions and dispositions. ordinarily found in human beings; as The same favourable prejudgment follows when it is said that a person acted, on the word "nature" through the numerous some particular occasion, as it was seems mean ·NATURE 31 5 . connatural to do; or that to be affected in disparagement of the person concerned, a particular way by some sight, or sound, that such conduct or demeanour is not or thought, or incident in life, is perfectly natural to him; and make uncomplinatural, mentary comparisons between him and In all these senses of the term, the some other person, to whom it is natural : quality called natural is very often con- meaning that what in the one seemed fessedly a worse quality than the one excellent was the effect of temporary contrasted with it; but whenever its excitement, or of a great victory over being so is not too obvious to be himself, while in the other it is the questioned, the idea seems to be enter result to be expected from the habitual tained that by describing it as natural character. This mode of speech is not something has been said amounting to a open to censure, since nature is here considerable presumption in its favour. simply a term for the person's ordinary For my part, I can perceive only one disposition, and if he is praised it is not sense in which nature, or naturalness, in for being natural, but for being naturally a human being, is really a term of praise; good. and then the praise is only negative Conformity to nature has no namely, when used to denote the absence nection whatever with right and wrong. of affectation. Affectation may be de- The idea can never be fitly introduced fined, the effort to appear what one is not, into ethical discussions at all, except, when the motive or the occasion is not occasionally and partially, into the such as either to excuse the attempt or question of degrees of culpability. To to stamp it with the more odious name illustrate this point, let us consider the of hypocrisy. It must be added that the phrase by which the greatest intensity of deception is often attempted to be condemnatory feeling is conveyed in practised on the deceiver himself as well connection with the idea of nature-the as on others; he imitates the external word "unnatural." That a thing is unsigns of qualities which he would like to natural, in any precise meaning which have, in hopes to persuade himself that can be attached to the word, is no he has them. Whether in the form argument for its being blamable ; since of deception or of self-deception, or of the most criminal actions are to a being something hovering between the two, like man not more unnatural than most affectation is very rightly accounted a rc of the virtues. The acquisition of virtue proach, and naturalness, understood as has in all ages been accounted a work of the reverse of affectation, a merit. But labour and difficulty, while the descensus a more proper term by which to express Averni, on the contrary, is of proverbial this estimable quality would be sincerity : facility; and it assuredly requires in a term which has fallen from its original most persons a greater conquest over a elevated meaning, and popularly denotes greater number of natural inclinations to only a subordinate branch of the cardinal become eminently virtuous than tranvirtue it once designated as a whole. scendently vicious. But if an action, or Sometimes also, in cases where the term an inclination, has been decided on "affectation" would be inappropriate, other grounds to be blamable, it may be since the conduct or demeanour spoken a circumstance in aggravation that it is of is really praiseworthy, people say, in unnatural that is, spugnant to some ·32 NATURE strong feeling usually found in human degree of guilt by the strength of their beings; since the bad propensity, what- antipathy; and hence differences of ever it be, has afforded evidence of being opinion, and even differences of taste, both strong and deeply rooted, by having have been objects of as intense moral overcome that repugnance. This pre abhorrence as the most atrocious crimes. sumption, of course, fails if the individual It will be useful to sum up in a few never had the repugnance; and the words the leading conclusions of this argument, therefore, is not fit to be Essay. urged unless the feeling which is violated The word “nature" has two principal by the act is not only justifiable and meanings : it either denotes the entire reasonable, but is one which it is system of things, with the aggregate of all blamable to be without. their properties, or it denotes things as The corresponding plea in extenuation they would be, apart from human of a culpable act because it was natural, intervention. or because it was prompted by a natural In the first of these senses, the feeling, never, I think, ought to be doctrine that man ought to follow nature admitted. There is hardly a bad action is unmeaning; since man has no power ever perpetrated which is not perfectly to do anything else than follow nature; natural, and the motives to which are all his actions are done through, and in not perfectly natural feelings. In the obedience to, some one or many of eye of reason, therefore, this is no nature's physical or mental laws. excuse, but it is quite "natural" that it In the other sense of the term, the should be so in the eyes of the multi-doctrine that man ought to follow nature, lude; because the meaning of the ex or, in other words, ought to make the pression is, that they have a fellow spontaneous course of things the model feeling with the offender. When they of his voluntary actions, is equally say that something which they cannot irrational and immoral. help admitting to be blamable is never Irrational, because all human action theless natural, they mean that they can whatever consists in altering, and all imagine the possibility of their being useful action in improving, the sponthemselves tempted to commit it. Most taneous course of nature. people have a considerable amount of in- Immoral, because the course of natural dulgence towards all acts of which they phenomena being replete with everyfeel a possible source within themselves, thing which when committed by human reserving their rigour for those which, beings is most worthy of abhorrence, any though perhaps really less bad, they can one who endeavoured in his actions to not in any way understand how it is imitate the natural course of things possible to commit. If an action con would be universally seen and acknowvinces them (which it often does on very ledged to be the wickedest of men. inadequate grounds) that the person who The scheme of Nature, regarded in its does it must be a being totally unlike whole extent, cannot have had, for its themselves, they are seldom particular in sole or even principal object, the good of examining the precise degree of blame human or other sentient beings. What due to it, or even if blame is properly good it brings to them is mostly the due to it at all. They measure the result of their own exertions. What- ·NATURE 33 soever, in natyren gives indication of to amend, the course of nature-and beneficent design proves this benefi- bringing that part of it over which we can cence to be armed only with limited exercise control more nearly into conpower; and the duty of man is to co-formity with a high standard of justice operate with the beneficent powers, not and goodness. by imitating, but by perpetually striving ·UTILITY OF RELIGION It has sometimes been renarked how, for the utility of religion is an appeal much has been written, both by friends to unbelievers, to induce them to pracand enemies, concerning the truth of tise a well-meant hypocrisy; or to semireligion, and how little, at least in the believers, to make them avert their eyes way of discussion or controversy, con- from what might possibly shake their cerning its usefulness. This, however, unstable belief; or finally to persons in might have been expected; for the truth, general, to abstain from expressing any in matters which so deeply affect us, is doubts they may feel, since a fabric of our first concernment. If religion, or immense importance to mankind is so any particular form of it, is true, its insecure at its foundations that men usefulness follows without other proof. must hold their breath in its neighbour- If to know authentically in what order of hood for fear of blowing it down. things, under what government of the In the present period of history, howuniverse, it is our destiny to live were cver, we seem to have arrived at a time not useful, it is difficult to imagine what when, among the arguments for and could be considered so. Whether a against religion, those which relate to its person is in a pleasant or in an un- usefulness assume an important place. pleasant place, a palace or a prison, it We are in an age of weak beliefs, and in cannot be otherwise than useful to hiin which such belief as men have is much to know where he is. So long, therefore, more determined by their wish to beas men accepted the teachings of thcir lieve than by any mental appreciation of religion as positive facts, no more a evidence. The wish to believe does not matter of doubt than their own existence arise only from selfish, but often from or the existence of the objects around the most disinterested, feelings; and, them, to ask the use of believing it though it cannot produce the unwavercould not possibly occur to them. The ing and perfect reliance which once utility of religion did not need to be existed, it fences round all that remains asserted until the arguments for its truth of the impressions of early education; had in a great measure ceased to con- it often causes direct misgivings to fade vince. People must either have ceased away by disuse; and, above all, it induces to believe, or have ceased to rely on the people to continue laying out their lives, belief of others, before they could take according to doctrines which have lost that inferior ground of defence without a part of their hold on the mind, and consciousness of lowering what they were to maintain towards the world the same, endeavouring to raise. An argument or a rather more demonstrative, attitude ·UTILITY OF RELIGION 35 of belief than they thought it necessary therefore, either dislike and disparage all to exhibit when their personal conviction philosophy, or addict themselves with was more complete. intolerant zeal to those forms of it in If religious belief be indeed so neces which intuition usurps the place of sary to mankind as we are continually evidence, and internal feeling is made assured that it is, there is great reason to the test of objective truth. The whole lament that the intellectual grounds of the prevalent metaphysics of the of it should require to be backed by present century is one tissue of suborned moral bribery or subornation of the evidence in favour of religion; often of understanding. Such a state of things Deism only, but in any case involving a is most uncomfortable, even for those misapplication of noble impulses and who may, without actual insincerity, speculative capacities, among the most describe themselves as believers; and deplorable of those wretched wastes of still worse as regards those who, having human faculties which make us wonder consciously ceased to find the evidences that enough is left to keep mankind of religion convincing, are withheld from progressive, at however slow a pace. It saying so lest they should aid in doing is time to consider, more impartially an irreparable injury to mankind. It is and therefore more deliberately than is a most painful position, to a conscien- usually done, whether all this training to tious and cultivated mind, to be drawn prop up beliefs which require so great in contrary directions by the two noblest an expense of intellectual toil and inof all objects of pursuit-truth and the genuity to keep them standing, yields general good. Such a conflict must any sufficient return in human wellinevitably produce a growing indiſfer- being; and whether that end would not ence to one or other of thesc objects, be better served by a frank recognition most probably to both. Many who that certain subjects are inaccessible to could render giant's service both to our faculties, and by the application of truth and to mankind, if they believed the saine mental powers to the strengththat they could serve the one without cning and cnlargement of those other loss to the other, are either totally para- sources of virtue and happiness which lysed, or led to confine their exertions to stand in no need of the support or matters of minor detail, by the apprehen- sanction of supernatural beliefs and insion that any real freedom of speculation, duceinents. or any considerable strengthening or Neither, on the other hand, can the enlargement of the thinking faculties of difficulties of the question he so promptly mankind at large, might, by making disposed of as sceptical philosophers are them unbelievers, be the surest way to sometimes inclined to believe. It is not render them vicious and miserable. enough to aver, in general terms, that Many, again, having observed in others there never can be any conflict between or experienced in themselves elevated truth and utility; that, if religion be feelings, which they imagine incapable of false, nothing but good can be the conseemanating from any other source than quence of rejecting it. For, though the religion, have an honest aversion to any- knowledge of every positive truth is an thing tending, as they think, to dry up useful acquisition, this doctrine cannot the fountain of such feelings. They, without reservation be applied to negative ·36 UTILITY OF RELIGION case. truth. When the only truth ascertain religious belief. And, in truth, mankind able is that nothing can be known, we have been so unremittihgly occupied in do not, by this knowledge, gain any doing evil to one another in the name of new fact by which to guide ourselves; religion, from the sacrifice of Iphigenia we are, at best, only disabused of our to the Dragonnades of Louis XIV. (not trust in some former guide-mark, which, to descend lower), that for any immediate though itself fallacious, may have pointed purpose there was little nced to seek in the same direction with the best indi arguments further off. These odious cations we have, and if it happens to be consequences, however, do not belong to more conspicuous and legible, may have religion in itself, but to particular forms kept us right when they might have been of it, and afford no argument against the overlooked. It is, in short, perfectly usefulness of any religions except those conceivable that religion may be morally by which such enormities are encouraged. useful without being intellectually sus. Moreover, the worst of these evils are tainable; and it would be a proof of already in a great measure extirpated great prejudice in any unbeliever to deny from the more improved forms of that there have been ages, and that there religion; and as mankind advance in are still both nations and individuals, ideas and in feelings, this process of with regard to whom this is actually the extirpation continually goes on: the Whether it is the case generally, immoral or otherwise mischievous conand with reference to the future, it is the sequences which have been drawn from object of this paper to examine. We religion are, one by one, abandoned, propose to inquire whether the belief in and, after having been long fought for as religion, considered as a mere persuasion, of its very essence, are discovered to be apart from the question of its truth, is easily separable from it. These misreally indispensable to the temporal wel-chiefs, indeed, after they are past, though fare of mankind; whether the usefulness no longer arguments against religion, of the belief is intrinsic and universal, remain valid as large abatements from its or local, temporary, and, in some sense, beneficial influence, by showing that accidental; and whether the benefits some of the greatest improvements ever which it yields might not be obtained made in the moral sentiments of manotherwise, without the very large alloy kind have taken place without it and in of evil, by which, even in the best form spite of it, and that what we are taught of the belief, those benefits are qualified to regard as the chief of all improving in- With the arguments on one side of fluences has in practice fallen so far the question we are all familiar : religious short of such a character that one of the writers have not neglected to celebrate hardest burdens laid upon the other good to the utmost the advantages both of influences of human nature has been religion in general and of their own that of improving religion itself. The religious faith in particular. But those improvement, however, has taken place ; who have held the contrary opinion have it is still proceeding, and for the sake of generally contented themselves with in- fairness it should be assumed to be comsisting on the more obvious and flagrant plete. We ought to suppose religion to of the positive evils which have been en- have accepted the best human morality gendered by past and present forms of which reason and goodness can work out, ·UTILITY OF RELIGION 37 am were from philosophical, christian, or any The first question is interesting to other elements. "When it has thus freed everybody; the latter only to the best ; itself from the pernicious consequences but to them it is, if there be any differwhich result from its identification with ence, the more important of the two. any bad moral doctrine, the ground is We shall begin with the former, as being clear for considering whether its useful that which best admits of being easily properties are exclusively inherent in it, or brought to a precise issue. their benefits can be obtained without it. To speak first, then, of religious belief This essential portion of the inquiry as an instrument of social good. We into the temporal usefulness of religion must commence by drawing a distinction is the subject of the present Essay. It most commonly overlooked. It is usual is a part which has been little treated of to credit religion as such with the whole by sceptical writers. The only direct of the power inherent in any system of discussion of it with which I moral duties inculcated by education and acquainted is in a short treatise, under enforced by opinion. Undoubtedly stood to have been partly compiled from mankind would be in a deplorablc state manuscripts of Mr. Bentham,' and if no principles or precepts of justice, abounding in just and profound views; veracity, beneficence, taught but which, as it appears to me, presses publicly or privately, and if these virtues many parts of the argument too hard. were not encouraged, and the opposite This treatise, and the incidental remarks vices repressed, by the praise and blame, scattered through the writings of M. the favourable and unfavourable, senti- Comte, arc the only sources known to ments of mankind. And since nearly me from which anything very pertinent everything of this sort which does take to the subject can be made available for place takes place in the name of religion; the sceptical side of the argument. I since almost all who are taught any shall use both of them freely in the morality whatever have it taught to them sequel of the present discourse. as religion, and inculcated on them The inquiry divides itself into two through liſe principally in that character; parts, corresponding to the double aspect the effect which the teaching produces as of the subject; its social, and its in- teaching, it is supposed to produce as dividual aspect. What does religion do religious teaching, and religion receives for society, and what for the individual ? the credit of all the influence in human What amount of benefit to social affairs which belongs to any generally interests, in the ordinary sense of the accepted system of rules for the guidance phrase, arises from religious belief? And and government of human life. what influence has it in improving and Few persons have sufficiently conennobling individual human nature ? sidered how great an influence this is; what vast efficacy belongs naturally to Analysis of the Influence of Natural Religion any doctrine received with tolerable on the Temporal Happiness of Mankind. By unanimity as true, and impressed on the Philip Beauchamp. See Autobiography, pp. 69- mind from the carliest childhood as duty, 71. This work, I believe, is really by George A little reflection will, I think, lead us to Grote, the IIistorian of Greece, and friend and fellow-student of Mill. He read and analysed the conclusion that it is this which is the it in the MS. so early as 1822.-H.T. great moral power in human affairs, and ·38 UTILITY OF RELIGION that religion only seems so powerful be the argument which it might at first seem cause this mighty power has been under to controvert; for exactly in proportion its command. as the received systems of belief have Consider first the enormous influence been contested, and it has become known of authority on the human mind. I am that they have many dissentients, their now speaking of involuntary influence; hold on the general belief has been effect on men's convictions, on their per- loosened, and their practical influence on suasion, on their involuntary sentiments, conduct has declined ; and since this Authority is the evidence on which the has happened to them, notwithstanding mass of mankind believe everything the religious sanction which attached to which they are said to know, except facts them, therc can be no stronger evidence of which their own senses have taken that they were powerful not as religion, cognisance. It is the evidence on which but as beliefs generally accepted by maneven the wisest receive all those truths of kind. To find people who believe their science, or facts in history or in life, of religion as a person belicves that fire which they have not personally examined will burn his hand when thrust into the proofs. Over the immense majority it, we must seek them in those Oriental of human beings the general concurrence countries where Europeans do not yet of mankind, in any matter of opinion, is predominate, or in the European world all-powerful. Whatever is thus certified when it was still universally Catholic. to them they belicve with a fulness of Men often disobeyed their religion in assurance which they do not accord even those times, because their human to the evidence of their senses when the passions and appetites were too strong general opinion of mankind stands in for it, or because the religion itself opposition to it. When, therefore, any afforded means of indulgence to breaches rule of life and duty, whether grounded of its obligations; but, though they disor not on religion, has conspicuously re- obeyed, they, for the most part, did not ceived the general assent, it obtains a doubt. There was in those days an hold on the belief of every individual, absolute and unquestioning completestronger than it would have even if he ness of belief, never since general in had arrived at it by the inherent force of Europe. his own understanding. If Novalis Such being the empire exercised over could say, not without a real meaning, mankind by simple authority, the mere “My belief has gained infinitely to me belief and testimony of their fellowfrom the moment when one other human creatures; consider next how tremendous being has begun to believe the same," is the power of education; how unspeakhow much more when it is not one other able is the effect of bringing people up person, but all the human beings whom from infancy in a belief, and in habits, one knows of. Some may urge it as an founded on it. Consider also that in objection, that no scheme of morality has all countries, and from the earlicst ages this universal assent, and that none, down to the present, not merely those therefore, can be indebted to this source who are called, in a restricted sense of for whatever power it possesses over the the term, the educated, but all, or nearly mind. So far as relates to the present all, who have been brought up by parents, age, the assertion is true, and strengthens or by any one interested in them, have ·UTILITY OF RELIGION 39' been taught from their earliest years disuse. In the greatest recorded victory some kind of religious belief, and some which education has ever achieved over precepts as the commands of the a whole host of natural inclinations heavenly powers to them and to man- in an entire people-the maintenance kind. And as it cannot be imagined through centuries of the institutions of that the commands of God are to young Lycurgus-it was very little, if even at children anything more than the com- all, indebted to religion : for the Gods mands of their parents, it is reasonable of the Spartans were the same as those to think that any system of social duty of other Greek States; and though, no which mankind might adopt, even though doubt, every State of Greece believed divorced from religion, would have the that its particular polity had at its first same advantage of being inculcated from establishment some sort of divine sancchildhood, and would have it hereafter tion (mostly that of the Delphian oracle), much more perfectly than any doctrine there was seldom any difficulty in obtainhas at present, society being far more ing the same or an equally powerful disposed than formerly to take pains for sanction for a change. It was not the moral tuition of those numerous religion which formed the strength of classes whose education it has hitherto the Spartan institutions: the root of the left very much to chance. Now, it is system was devotion to Sparta, to the especially characteristic of the impres- ideal of the country or State; which, sions of early education that they possess transformed into ideal devotion to a what it is so much more difficult for later greater country, the world, would be convictions to obtain-command over equal to that and far nobler achievethe feelings. We see daily how powerful ments. Among the Greeks generally a hold these first impressions retain over social morality was extremely indepenthe feelings even of those who have dent of religion. The inverse relation given up the opinions which they were was rather that which existed between early taught. While, on the other hand, them; the worship of the gods was it is only persons of a much higher inculcated chiefly as a social duty, inasdegree of natural sensibility and intellect much as, if they were neglected or combined than it is at all common to insulted, it was believed that their dismeet with, whose feelings entwine them- pleasure would fall not more upon the selves with anything like the same force offending individual than upon the State round opinions which they have adopted or community which bred and tolerated from their own investigations later in him. Such moral teaching as existed in life; -and even when they do, we may Greece had very little to do with religion. say with truth that it is because the The gods were not supposed to co concern strong sense of moral duty, the sincerity, themselves much with men's conduct to courage, and self-devotion which enabled one another, except when men had conthem to do so, were themselves the fruits trived to make the gods themselves an of early impressions. interested party, by placing an assertion The power of education is almost or an engagenient under the sanction of a boundless: there is not one natural in- solemn appeal to them, by oath or vow. clination which it is not strong enough to I grant that the sophists and philosocoerce, and, if needful, to destroy by phers, and even popular orators, did ·40 UTILITY OF RELIGION little can their best to press religion into the more flattering names than justly belong service of their special objects, and to to them that they are generally quite unniake it be thought that the sentiments conscious how much those parts of their of whatever kind, which they were conduct which they most pride themengaged in inculcating, were particularly selves on (as well as some which they acceptable to the gods; but this never are ashamed of) are determined by the seems the primary consideration in any motive of public opinion. Of course, case save those of direct offence to the public opinion for the most part enjoins dignity of the gods themselves. For the same things which are enjoined by the enforcement of human moralities the received social morality; that secular inducements were almost exclu- morality being, in truth, the summary of sively relied on. The case of Greece is, the conduct which each one of the I believe, the only one in which any multitude, whether he himself observes teaching, other than religious, has had it with any strictness or not, desires that the unspeakable advantage of forming others should observe towards hin. the basis of cducation; and though People are therefore casily able to flatter much may be said against the quality of themselves that they are acting from the some part of the teaching, very motive of conscience when they are be said against its effectiveness. The doing in obedience to the inferior motive most memorable example of the power things which their conscience approves. of cducation over conduct is afforded We continually see how great is the (as I have just remarked) by this excep- power of opinion in opposition to contional case; constituting a strong pre science; how men “follow a multitude sumption that in other cases early to do evil"; how often opinion induces religious teaching has owed its power them to do what their conscience disover mankind rather to its being early approves, and still oftener prevents them than to its being religious. from doing what it commands. But We have now considered two powers, when the motive of public opinion acts that of authority and that of early educa- in the same direction with conscience, tion, which operate through men's in- which, since it has usually itself made the voluntary beliefs, feelings, and desires, conscience in the first instance, it for the and which religion has hitherto held inost part naturally does; it is then, of as its almost exclusive appapage. Let all motives which operate on the bulk of us now consider a third power which mankind, the most overpowering. operates directly on their actions, whether The names of all the strongest passions their involuntary sentiments are carried (except the merely animal ones) maniwith it or not. This is the power of fested by human nature are each of them public opinion; of the praise and blame, a name for some one part only of the the favour and disfavour, of their fellow motive derived from what I here call creatures; and is a source of strength public opinion. The love of glory; the inherent in any system of moral belief love of praise; the love of admiration; which is generally adopted, whether con- the love of respect and deference; even nected with religion or not. the love of sympathy, are portions of its Men are so much accustomed to give attractive power. Vanity is a vituperative to the motives that decide their actions name for its attractive influence generally, .

·UTILITY OF RELIGION 41 when considered excessive in degree. sentiments of our fellow-creatures is in The fear of shame, the dread of ill repute one shape or other, in nearly all or of being disliked or hated, are the characters, the pervading motive. And direct and simple forms of its deterring we ought to note that this motive is power. But the deterring force of the naturally strongest in the most sensitive unfavourable sentiments of mankind natures, which are the most promising does not consist solely in the painfulness material for thc formation of great virtues. of knowing oneself to be the object of How far its power reaches is known by those sentiments; it includes all the too familiar experience to require either penalties which they can inflict : ex- proof or illustration here. When once clusion from social intercourse and from the means of living have been obtained, the innumerable good offices which the far greater part of the remaining human beings require from one another, labour and cffort which takes place on the forfeiture of all that is called success the earth has for its object to acquire in life; often the great diminution or reat diminution or the respect or the favourable regard of total loss of means of subsistence; mankind; to be looked up to, or at all positive ill offices of various kinds, cvents not to be looked down upon, by sufficient to render life miserable, and them. The industrial and coinmercial reaching in some states of society as far activity which advances cıvılısation, the as actual persecution to death. And frivolity, prodigality, and selfish thirst of again the attractive or impelling influ- aggrandisement which retard it, flow ence of public opinion includes the equally from that source. While, as an whole range of what is commonly meant instance of the power exercised by the by ambition; for, except in times of law- terrois derived from public opinion, we less military violence, the objects of know how many nurders have been social ambition can be attained only by committed merely to remove a witness means of the good opinion and favour-who knew and was likely to disclose able disposition of our fellow-creatures, some secret that would bring disgrace now, in nine cases out of ten, would upon his murderer. those objects be even desired were it not Any one who fairly and impartially for the power they confcr over the senti- considers the subject will see reason to ments of mankind. Even the pleasure believe that those great effects on human of self-approbation, in the great majority, conduct which are commonly ascribed is mainly dependent on the opinion of to motives derived directly from religion others. Such is the involuntary influence have mostly for their proximate cause the of authority on ordinary minds that per influence of human opinion. Religion sons must be of a better than ordinary has been powerful not by its intrinsic mould to be capable of a full assurance force, but because it has wielded that that they are in the right, when the world additional and more nighty power. The ---that is, when their world—thinks them effect of religion has been immense in wrong; nor is there, to most men, any giving a direction to public opinion ; proof so demonstrative of their own which has, in many most important virtue or talent as that people in general respects, been wholly determined by it. seem to believe in it. Through all depart But without the sanctions superadded by ments of human affairs regard for the public opinion its own proper sanctions ·42 UTILITY OF RELIGION have never, save in exceptional charac- in time forced on all, but the very ters, or in peculiar moods of mind, ignorant, that divine punishments were exercised a very potent influence, after not to be confidently expected in a temthe times had gone by, in which divine poral form, contributed much to the agency was supposed habitually to downfall of the old religions, and the employ temporal rewards and punish- general adoption of one which, without ments. When a man firmly believed absolutely excluding providential interthat, if he violated the sacredness of a ferences in this life for the punishment particular sanctuary, he would be struck of guilt or the reward of merit, removed dead on the spot, or smitten suddenly the principal scene of divine retribution with a mortal discase, he doubtless took to a world after death. But rewards and care not to incur the penalty ; but when punishments postponed to that distance any one had had the courage to defy the of time, and never seen by the eye, are danger, and escaped with impunity, the not calculated, even when infinite and spell was broken. If ever any people eternal, to have, on ordinary minds, a were taught that they were under a very powerful effect in opposition to divine government, and that unfaithful strong temptation. Their remoteness ness to their religion and law would be alone is a prodigious deduction from visited from above with temporal their efficacy on such minds as those chastisements, the Jews were so. Yet which most require the restraint of their history was a merc succession of punishment. A still greater abatement lapses into Paganisin. Their prophets is their uncertainty, which belongs to and historians, who held fast to the them from the very nature of the case : ancient beliefs (though they gave them for rewards and punishments adminisso liberal an interpretation as to think it tered after death must be awarded not a sufficient manifestation of God's dis- definitely to particular actions, but on a pleasure towards a king if any evil general survey of the person's whole life, happened to his great grandson), never and he easily persuades himself that, ceased to complain that their countrymen whatever may have been his peccadilloes, turned a deaf ear to their vaticinations; there will be a balance in his favour at and hence, with the faith they held in a the last. All positive religions aid this divine government operating by temporal self-delusion. Bad religions teach that penalties, they could not fail to anticipate divine vengeance may be bought off by (as Mirabeau's father, without such offerings or personal abasement; the prompting, was able to do on the eve of better religions, not to drive sinners to the f'rench Revolution) laculbute générale; despair, dwell so much on the divine an expectation which, luckily for the mercy that hardly any one is compelled credit of their prophetic powers, was to think himself irrevocably condemned. fulfilled; unlike that of the Apostle John, The sole quality in these punishments who, in the only intelligible prophecy in which might seem calculated to make the Revelations, foretold to the city of them efficacious, their overpowering magthe seven hills a fate like that of Nineveh nitude, is itself a reason why nobody and Babylon; which prediction remains (except a hypochondriac here and there) to this hour unaccomplished. Unques- ever really believes that he is in any very tionably the conviction which experience serious danger of incurring them.. Even ·UTILITY OF RELIGION 43 the worst malefactor is hardly able to personal humiliation, are guilty of it. think that any crime he has had it in his The third case is that of illicit sexual power to commit, any evil he can have intercourse, which in both sexes stands inflicted in this short space of existence, in the very highest rank of religious sins, can have deserved torture extending yet, not being severely censured by through an eternity. Accordingly, re opinion in the male sex, they have in ligious writers and preachers are never general very little scruple in committing tired of complaining how little effect it; while in the case of women, though religious motives have on men's lives and the religious obligation is not stronger, conduct, notwithstanding the treniendous yet, bring backed in real earnest by penalties denounced. public opinion, it is commonly effectual. Mr. Bentham, whom I have already Some objection may doubtless be mentioned as one of the few authors taken to Bentham's instances, considered who have written anything to the purpose as crucial experiments on the power of on the efficacy of the religious sanction, the religious sanction; for (it may be adduces several cases to prove that said) people do not really believe that in religious obligation, when not enforced these cases they shall be punished by by public opinion, produces scarcely any God, any more than by man. And this effect on conduct. His first example is is certainly truc in the case of those that of oaths. The oaths taken in courts university and other oaths, which are of justice, and any others which, from habitually taken without any intention of the manifest importance to society of keeping them. The oath, in these their being kept, public opinion rigidly cases, is regarded as a mere formality, enforces, are felt as real and binding destitute of any serious ineaning in the obligations. But university oaths and sight of the Deity; and the most scrupucustom-house oaths, though in a religious lous person, even if he does reproach point of view equally obligatory, are in himself for having taken an oath which practice utterly disregarded even by men nobody deems ſit to be kept, does not in in other respects honourable. The uni- his conscience tax himself with the guilt versity oath to obey the statutes has of perjury, but only with the profanation been for centuries, with universal acquies- of a ceremony. This, therefore, is not a cence, set at nought; and utterly false good example of the weakness of the statements are (or used to be) daily and religious motive when divorced from unblushingly sworn to at the Custom- that of human opinion. The point house by persons as attentive as other which it illustrates is rather the tendency people to all the ordinary obligations of of the one motive to come and go with life-the explanation being that veracity the other, so that, where the penaltics of in these cases was not enforced by public opinion cease, the religious motive public opinion. The second case which ceases also. The same criticism, how- Benthame cites is duelling; a practice ever, is not equally applicable to Bennow in this country obsolete, but in full tham's other examples-duelling and vigour in several other Christian coun- sexual irregularities. Those who do tries; deemned and admitted to be a sin these acts—the first by the command of by almost all who, nevertheless, in obedi- public opinion, the latter with its indulence to opinion, and to escape from gence-really do, in most cases, believe ·44 UTILITY OF RELIGION as any real that they are offending God. Doubtless, little the generality of mankind, either they do not think that they are offending religious or worldly, really dread eternal him in such a degree as very seriously to punishments, when we see how, even at endanger their salvation. Their reliance the approach of death, when the remoteon his mercy prevails over their dread of ness which took so much from their his resentment: affording an exemplifica- effect has been exchanged for the closest tion of the remark already made, that proximity, almost all persons who have the unavoidable uncertainty of religious not been guilty of some enormous crime penalties makes them feeble a (and many who have) are quite free from deterring motive. They are so; even in uncasiness as to their prospects in the case of acts which human opinion another world, and never for a moment condemns; much more with those to seem to think themselves in which it is indulgent. What mankind danger of cternal punishment. think venial, it is hardly ever supposed With regard to the cruel deaths and that God looks upon in a serious light; bodily tortures which confessors and at least by those who feel in themselves martyrs have so often undergone for the any inclination to practise it. sake of religion, I would not depreciate I do not for a moment think of deny them by attributing any part of this ing that there are states of mind in which admirable courage and constancy to the the idea of religious punishment acts influence of human opinion. Human with the most overwhelming force. In opinion, indeed, has shown itself quite hypochondriacal disease, and in those equal to the production of similar firmwith whom, from great disappointments ness in persons not otherwise distinor other moral causes, the thoughts and guished by moral excellence; such as imagination have assumed an habitually the North American Indian at the stake. melancholy complexion, that topic, But if it was not the thought of glory in falling in with the pre-existing tendency the eyes of their fellow-religionists which of the mind, supplies images well fitted upheld these heroic sufferers in their to drive the unfortunate sufferer even to agony, as little do I believe that it was, madness. Often, during a temporary generally speaking, that of the pleasures state of depression, these ideas take such of heaven or the pains of hell. Their a hold of the mind as to give a per- impulse was a divine enthusiasm-a selfmanent turn to the character; being the forgetting devotion to an idea : a state of most common case of what, in sectarian exalted feeling, by no means peculiar phraseology, is called conversion. But to religion, but which it is the privilege if the depressed state ceases after the of every great cause to inspire; a conversion, as it commonly does, and phenomenon belonging to the critical the convert does not relapse, but per moments of existence, not to the ordiseveres in his new course of life, the nary play of human motives, and from principal differcnce between it and the which nothing can be inferred as to the old is usually found to be that the man efficacy of the ideas which it sprung now guides his life by the public opinion from, whether religious or any other, in of his religious associates, as he before overcoming ordinary temptations and guided it by that of the profane world. regulating the course of daily life. At all events, there is one clear proof how We may now have done with this ·UTILITY OF RELIGION 45 branch of the subject which is, after all, There is truth in much of this, conthe vulgarest part of it. The value of sidered as matter of history. Ancient religion as a supplement to human laws, peoples have generally, if not always, a more cunning sort of police, an received their morals, their laws, their auxiliary to the thief-catcher and the intellectual beliefs, and even their prachangman, is not that part of its claims tical arts of life, all in short which tended which the more high-minded of its either to guide or to discipline them, as votaries are fondest of insisting on; and revelations from the superior powers, and they would probably be as ready as any in any other way could not easily have one to admit that, if the nobler offices been induced to accept them. This of religion in the soul could be dispensed was partly the effect of their hopes and with, a substitute might be found for so fears from those powers, which were of coarse and selfish a social instrument as much grcater and more universal potency the fear of hell. In their view of the in early times, when the agency of the matter, the best of mankind absolutely gods was seen in the daily events of life, require religion for the perfection of their experience not having yet disclosed the own character, even though the coercion fixed laws according to which physical of the worst might possibly be accom- phenomena succeed one another. Inplished without its aid. dependently, too, of personal hopes and Even in the social point of view, how- fears, the involuntary deference felt by ever, under its most elevated aspect, these rude minds for power superior to these nobler spirits generally assert the their own, and the tendency to suppose necessity of religion, as a teacher, if not that beings of superhuman power must as an enforcer, of social morality. They also be of superhuman knowledge and say that religion alone can teach us what wisdom, made them disinterestedly desire morality is; that all the high morality to conform their conduct to the preever recognised by mankind was learnt sumed preferences of these powerful from religion; that the greatest unin-beings, and to adopt no new practice spired philosophers in their sublimest without their authorisation either sponflights stopped far short of the Christian taneously given, or solicited and obmorality, and, whatever inferior morality tained. they may have attained to (by the assist But because, when men were still ance, as many think, of dim traditions savages, they would not have received derived from the Hebrew books, or from either moral or scientific truths unless a primæval revelation), they never could they had supposed them to be superinduce the common mass of their fellow- naturally imparted, does it follow that citizens to accept it from them. That they would now give up moral truths any only when a inorality is understood to more than scientific because they become from the gods do men in general lieved them to have no higher origin than adopt it, rally round it, and lend their wise and noble human hearts? Are not human sanctions for its enforcement. moral truths strong enough in their own That, granting the sufficiency of human evidence, at all events to retain the belief motives to make the rule obeyed, were it of mankind when once they have not for the religious idea we should not acquired it? I grant that some of the have had the rule itself. precepts of Christ as exhibited in the ·46 UTILITY OF RELIGION Gospels-rising far above the Paulism and foremost portion of our species. which is the foundation of ordinary There will be, as there have been, short- Christianity-carry some kinds of moral comings enough for a long time to come goodness to a greater height than had in acting on them; but that they should ever been attained before, though much be forgotten, or cease to be operative on even of what is supposed to be peculiar the human conscience, while human to them is equalled in the meditations of beings remain cultivated or civilised, Marcus Antoninus, which we have no may be pronounced, once for all, inground for believing to have been in any possible. way indebted to Christianity. But this On the other hand, there is a very real benefit, whatever it amounts to, has been evil consequent on ascribing a supergained. Mankind have entered into the natural origin to the received maxims of possession of it. It has become the morality. That origin consecrates the property of humanity, and cannot now whole of them, and protects them from be lost by anything short of a return to being discussed or criticised. So that if, primæval barbarism. The "new com among the moral doctrines received as a mandment to love one another";s the part of religion, there be any which are recognition that the greatest are those imperfect--which were either erroneous who serve, not who are served by, from the first, or not properly limited and others; the reverence for the weak and guarded in the expression, or which, unhumble, which is the foundation of exceptionable once, are no longer suited chivalry, they and not the strong being to the changes that have taken place in pointed out as having the first place in human relations (and it is my firm belief God's regard, and the first claim on their that in so-called Christian morality fellow-men; the lesson of the parable of instances of all these kinds are to be the Good Samaritan; that of "he that found), these doctrines are considered is without sm let him throw the first equally binding on the conscience with stone"; the precept of doing as we the noblest, most permanent, and most would be done by; and such other universal precepts of Christ. Wherever noble moralities as are to be found, morality is supposed to be of supernatural mixed with soine poetical exaggerations, origin, morality is stercotyped; as law is, and some maxims of which it is difficult for the same reason, among believers in to ascertain the precise object; in the the Koran. authentic sayings of Jesus of Nazareth : Belief, then, in the supernatural, great these are surely in sufficient harmony as are the services which it rendered in with the intellect and feelings of every the early stages of human development, good man or woman to be in no danger cannot be considered to be any longer of being let go, after having been once required, either for enabling us to know acknowledged as the creed of the best what is right and wrong, in social morality, or for supplying us with motives * Not, however, a new commandment. In to do right and to abstain from wrong. justice to the great Hebrew lawgiver, it should Such belief, therefore, is not necessary always be remembered that the precept, to love thy neighbour as thyself, already existed in the for social purposes, at least in the coarse Pentateuch ; and very surprising it is to find it way in which these can be considered there. (Sec John xiii. 34,. Levil. xix. 18.) apart from the character of the individual ·UTILITY OF RELIGION 47 human being. That more elevated example to speak, the transition was branch of the subject now remains to be made to supposing that the object preconsidered. If supernatural beliefs are sent to the senses was inanimate, but indeed necessary to the perfection of the was the creature and instrument of an individual character, they are necessary invisible being with a form and organs also to the highest excellence in social similar to the human. conduct : necessary in a far higher sense These beings havipg first bcen bethan that vulgar one which constitutes lieved in, fear of them necessarily it the great support of morality in followed; since they were thought able common eyes. to inflict at pleasure on human beings Let us, then, consider what it is in great evils, which the sufferers neither human nature which causes it to require knew how to avert nor to foresee, but a religion; what wants of the human were left dependent, for their chances of mind religion supplies, and what qualities doing either, upon solicitations addressed it developes. When we have understood to the deities themselves. It is true, this, we shall be better able to judge therefore, that fear had much to do with how far these wants can be otherwise religion; but belief in the gods evidently supplied, and those qualities, or qualities preceded, and did not arise from, fear: equivalent to them, unfolded and brought though the ſear, when established, was to perfection by other mcans. a strong support to the belief, nothing The old saying, Primus in orbe Deos being conceived to be so great an offence fecit timor, I hold to be untrue, or to con to the divinities as any doubt or their tain, at most, only a sinall amount of truth. cxistence. Belief in gods-had, I conceive, even in It is unnecessary to prosccute further the rudest minds, a more honourable the natural history of religion, as origin. Its universality has been very have not here to account for its origin in rationally explained from the spon- rude minds, but for its persistency in the taneous tendency of the mind to attribute cultivated. A sufficient explanation of life and volition, similar to what it feels this will, I conceivc, be found in the in itself, to all natural objects and small limits of man's certain knowledge phenomena which appear to be self and the boundlessness of his desire to moving. This was a plausible fancy, and know. Human existence is girt round no.better theory could be formed at first. with mysterye: the narrow region of our It was naturally persisted in so long as experience is a small island in the midst the motions and operations of these of a boundless sca, which at once awes objects seemed to be arbitrary, and in our feelings and stimulates our imaginacapable of being accounted for but by tion by its vastness and its obscurity. the free choice of the Power itself. AL To add to the mystery, the domain of first, no doubt, the objects themselves our earthly existence is not only an were supposed to be alive; and this island in infinite space, but also in belief still subsists among African fetish- infinite time. The past and the future worshippers. But as it must soon have are alike shrouded froin us : we neither appeared absurd that things which could know the origth of anything which is nor do so much more than man, could not or its final destination. If we feel deeply would not do what man does, as for interested in knowing that there are We ·48 UTILITY OF RELIGION myriads of worlds at an immeasurable, eagerly catches at any, rumours respectand to our faculties inconceivable, dis- ing other worlds, especially when detance from us in space; if we are eager livered by persons whom it deems wiser to discover what little we can about than itself. To the poetry of the superthese worlds, and when we cannot know natural comes to be thus added a what they are, can never satiate our positive belief and expectation, which selves with speculating on what they may unpoetical minds can share with the be; is it not a matter of far deeper inte poctical. Belief in a god or gods, and rest to us to learn, or even to conjecture, in a life after death, becomes the canvas from whence came this ncarer world which every mind, according to its which we inhabit—what causc or agency capacity, covers with such ideal pictures made it what it is, and on what powers as it can either invent or copy. In that depends its future fate? Who would not other life each hopes to find the good desire this more ardently than any other which he has failed to find on earth, or conceivable knowledge, so long as there the better which is suggested to him by appeared the slightest hope of attaining the good which on earth he has partially it? What would not one give for any seen and known. More especially, this credible tidings from that mysterious belief supplies the finer minds with region, any glimpse into it which might material for conceptions of beings more enable us to see the smallest light awful than they can have known on through its darkness, especially any earth, and more excellent than they theory of it which we could believe, and probably have known. So long as human which represented it as tenanted by a life is insufficient to satisfy human aspirabenignant and not a hostile influence? tions, so long there will be a craving for But since we are able to penetrate into higher things, which finds its most that region with the imagination only, obvious satisfaction in religion. So long assisted by specious but inconclusive as earthly life is full of sufferings, so long analogies derived from human agency there will be need of consolations, which and design, imagination is free to fill up the hope of heaven affords to the selfish, the vacancy with the imagery most conthe love of God to the tender and genial to itself; sublime and elevating if grateful. it be a lofty imagination, low and mean The value, therefore, of religion to the if it be a grovelling one. individual, both in the past and present, Religion and poetry address them as a source of personal satisfaction and selves, at least in one of their aspects, to of elevated feelings, is not to be disthe same part of the human constitution: puted. But it has still to be considered they both supply the same want, that of whether, in order to obtain this good, it ideal conceptions grander and more is necessary to travel beyond the bounbeautiful than we see realised in the daries of the world which we inhabit; prose of human life. Religion, as dis or whether the idealisation of our earthly tinguished from poetry, is the product life, the cultivation of a high conception of the craving to know whether these of what it may be made, is not capable imaginative conceptions have realities of supplying a poetry, and, in the best answering to them in some other world sense of the word, a religion, equally than ours. The mind, in this stage, fitted to exalt the feelings, and (with the ·UTILITY OF RELIGION 49 same aid from .education) still better practically equivalent to endlessness; and, calculated to cnnoble the conduct, than being combined with indefinite capability any belief respecting the unseen powers of improvement, it offers to the imagina- At the bare suggestion of such a possi- tion and sympathies a large enough bility, many will exclaim that the short object to satisfy any reasonable demand duration, the smallness and insignificance for grandeur of aspiration. If such an of life, if there is no prolongation of it objcct appears small to a mind accusbeyond what we see, makes it impossible tomed to dream of infinite and eternal that great and elevated feelings can con- bcatitudes, it will cxpand into far other nect themselves with anything laid out dimensions when those baseless fancies on so small a scale: that such a concep- shall have reccded into the past. tion of liſe can inatch with nothing Nor let it be thought that only the higher than Epicurean feelings, and the more cminent of our species, in mind Epicurean doctuinc, "Let us eat and and heart, are capable of identifying their drink, for to-moniow we dic." feelings with the entire life of the human Unquestionably, within certain limits, race. This noble capability implies, inthe maxim of the Epicureans is sound, deed, a certain cultivation, but not and applicable to much higher things superior to that which might be, and than cating and drinking. To make certainly will be if human improvement the most of the present for all good continues, the lot of all. Objects far purposes, those of enjoyment among the smaller than this, and equally confined Test; to kcep under control those mental within the limits of the earth (though dispositions which lead to undue sacri- not within those of a single human life), fice of present good for a future which have been found sufficient to inspire may never arrive, to cultivate the habit large masses and long successions of of deriving pleasure from things within mankind with an enthusiasm capable of our reach, rather than from the too cager ruling the conduct and colouring the pursuit of objects at a distance; to think whole life. Rome was to the entire all time wasted which is not spent either Roman people for many generations as in personal pleasure or in doing things niuch a religion as Jehovah was to the useful to oneself or others: these are Jens; nay, much more, for they never wise maxims, and the "carpe diem" doc- fell off from their worship as the Jews trine, carried thus far, is a rational and did from theirs. And the Romans, legitimate corollary from the shortness of otherwise a selfish people, with no very life. But that because life is short wc remarkable faculties of any kind except should care for nothing bcyond it, is not the purely practical, derived, nevertheless, a legitimate conclusion; and the supposi- from this one idea a certain greatness of tion, that human beings in general are soul, which manifests itself in all their not capable of feeling deep, and even the history where that idea is concerned and deepest, interest in things which they will nowhere else, and has earned for them never live to see, is a view of human the large share of admiration, in other nature as false as it is abject. Let it bc respects not at all deserved, which has remembered that, if individual life is been felt for them by most noble-minded short, the life of the human species is persons from that time to this. not short; its indefinite duration is When we consider how ardent a ·50 UTILITY OF RELIGION sentiment, in favourable circumstances morality would not depend for its of education, the love of country has ascendancy on any hope of reward; but become, we cannot judge it impossible the reward which might be looked for, that the love of that larger country, the and the thought of which would be a world, may be nursed into similar consolation in suffering, and a support in strength, both as a source of elevated moments of weakness, would not be a cinotion and as a principle of duty. He problematical future existence, but the who needs any other lesson on this sub- approbation, in this, of those whom we jcct than the whole course of ancient respect, and ideally of all those, dead or history affords, let him read Cicero de living, whom we admire or venerate. Officiis. It cannot be said that the For the thought that our dead parents standard of morals laid down in that or friends would have approved our concelebrated treatise is a high standard. duct is a scarcely less powerful motive To our notions it is on many points un than the knowledge that our living ones duly lax, and admits capitulations of do approve it; and the idea the idea that conscience. But on the subject of duty Socrates, or Howard, or Washington, or to our country there is no compromise. Antoninus, or Christ, would have sympa- That any man with the smallest pre- thised with us, or that we are attempting tensions to virtue could hesitate to sacri to do our part in the spirit in which they fice lifc, reputation, family, everything did theirs, has operated on the very best valuable to him, to the love of country is minds, as a strong incentive to act up to a supposition which this eminent inter their highest feelings and convictions. preter of Greek and Roman morality To call these sentiments by the name cannot entertain for a moment. If, then, If, then, morality, exclusively of any other title, is persons could be trained, as we see they claiming too little for them. They are a were, not only to believe in theory that real religion ; of which, as of other the good of their country was an object religions, outward good works (the utto which all others ought to yield, but to most meaning usually suggested by the feel this practically as the grand duty of word "morality") are only a part, and are life, so also may they be made to feel the indeed rather the fruits of the religion same absolute obligation towards the than the religion itself. The essence of universal good. A morality grounded religion is the strong and earnest direction on large and wisc views of the good off of the emotions and desires towards an the whole, neither sacrificing the in- ideal object, recognised as of the highest dividual to the aggregate nor the excellence, and as rightfully paramount aggregate to the individual, but giving over all selfish objects of desire. This to duty on the one hand and to freedom condition is fulfilled by the Religion of and spontaneity on the other their proper Humanity in as eminent a degree, and province, would derive its power in the in as high a sense, as by the supernatural superior natures from sympathy and religions even in their best manifestąbenevolence and the passion for ideal tions, and far more so than in any of excellence: in the inferior, from the their others. same feelings cultivatedn up to the Much more might be added on this measure of their capacity, with the super- topic; but enough has been said to conadded force of shame. This exalted / vince any one, who can distinguish ·UTILITY OF RELIGION 51 between the intrinsic capacities of human willingly left all that related especially to nature and the forms in which those themselves. But in its effect on conimon capacities happen to have been histori- minds, what now goes by the name of cally developed, that the sense of unity religion operates mainly through the with mankind, and a deep feeling for the feelings of self-interest. Even the Christ general good, may be cultivated into a of the Gospel holds out the direct sentiment and a principle capable of ful promise of reward from heaven as a filling every important function of religion primary inducement to the noble and and itself justly entitled to the name. I beautiful beneficence towards our fellowwill now further maintain that it is not crcatures which he so impressively inculonly capable of fulfilling these functions, cates. This is a radical inferiority of but would ſulfil them better than any the best supernatural religions, compared form whatever of supernaturalism. It is with the Religion of Humanity, since not only entitled to be called a religion : the greatest thing which moral influences it is a better religion than any of thosc can do for the amelioration of human which are ordinarily called by that title. nature is to cultivate the unselfish feel- For, in the first place, it is dis-ings in the only mode in which any interested. It carries the thoughts and active principle in human nature can be icelings out of self, and fixes them on an effectuallycultivated-namely, byhabitual unselfish object, loved and pursued as an exeicise; but the habit of expecting to end for its own sake. The religions be rewarded in another life for our conwhich deal in promises and threats duct in this makes even virtue itself no regarding a future life do exactly the longer an exercise of the unselfish contrary : they fasten down the thoughts feelings. to the person's own posthuinous interests; Secondly, it is an immense abatethey tempt him to regard the perfor- ment from the worth of the old religions mance of his duties to others mainly as as means of elevating and improving a means to his own personal salvation; human character, that it is nearly, if not and are one of the most serious obstacles quite, impossible for them to produce to the great purpose of moral culture, their best moral effects, unless we supthe strengthening of the unselfish and pose a certain torpidity, if not positive weakening of the selfish element in our twist, in the intellectual faculties. For it nature; since they hold out to the is impossible that any one who habitually imagination selfish good and evil of such thinks, and who is unable to blunt his tremendous magnitude that it is difficult inquiring intellect by sophistry, should for any one who fully believes in their be able without misgiving to go on reality to have feeling or interest to spare ascribing absolute perfection to the for any other distant and ideal object. author and ruler of so clumsily made It is true, many of the most unselfish of and capriciously governed a creation as mankind have been believers in super- this planet and the life of its inhabitants. naturalism, because their minds have not The adoration of such a being cannot be dwelt on the threats and promises of with the whole heart, unless the heart their religion, but chiefly on the idea of is first considerably sophisticated. The a Being to whom they looked up with a worship must either be greatly overconfiding love, and in whose bands they clouded by doubt, and occasionally quite ·52 UTILITY OF RELIGION darkened by it, or the moral sentiments us to imitate. It is the worship of power must sink to the low level of the ordi- only. nances of Nature: the worslupper must I say nothing of the moral difficulties learn to think blind partiality, atrocious and perversions involved in revelation cruelty, and reckless injustice, not itself; though even in the Christianity blemishes in an object of worship, since of the Gospels, at least in its ordinary all these abound to excess in the com- interpretation, there are some of SO monest phenomena of Nature. It is flagrant a character as almost to outtrue, the God who is worshipped is not, weigh all the beauty and bcnignity and gencrally speaking, the God of Nature moral greatness which so eminently disonly, but also the God of some revela-linguish the sayings and character of tion; and the character of the revelation Chust. The recognition, for example, will greatly modify and, it may be, of the object of highest worship in a improve the moral influences of the being who could make a hell, and who religion. This is cmphatically true of could create countless generations of Christianity; since the Author of the human bemys with the certain fore- Sermon on the Mount is assuredly a far knowledge that he was creating them for more benignant Beng than the Author this fate. I, there any moral cnoi inity of Nature. But, unfortunately, the be- which might not be justilied by imituliever in the Christian revelation is lion of such a Deity? And is it possible obliged to believe that the same Being to adore such a one without a frightful is the author of both. This, unless he distortion of the standard of right and resolutely averts his inind from the wrong? Any other of the outrages to subject, or practises the act of quieting the most ordmuy justice and humanity his conscience by sophistry, involves involved in the common Christian conhim in moral perplexities without end; ception of the moral character of God since the ways of his Deity in Natuie sinks into insignificance beside this are on many occasions totally at variance dreadful idealisation of wickedness. with the precepts, as he believes, of the Most of them, too, are happily not so same Deity in the Gospel. He who unequivocally deducible from the very comes out with least moral damage from words of Christ as to be indisputably a this embarrassment is probably the one part of Christian doctrine. It may be who never attempts to recorcile the two doubted, for instance, whether Chrisstandards with one another, but con tianity is really responsible for alonefesses to himself that the purposes of ment and redemption, original sin and Providence are mysterious, that its ways vicarious punishment: and the same may are not our ways, that its justice and be said respecting the doctrine which goodness are not the justice and good makes belief in the divinc mission of ness which we can conceive and which Christ a necessary condition of salvation. it befits us to practise. When, however, it is nowhere represented that Christ this is the feeling of the believer, the himself made this statement, except in worship of the Deity ceases to be the the huddled-up account of the Resurrecadoration of abstract mo.al perfection. tion contained in the concluding verses It becomes the bowing down to a of St. Mark, which some critics (I believe gigantic image of son.ething not fit for the best) consider to be an interpolation.

·UTILITY OF RELIGION 53 а Again, the proposition that "the powers | Accordingly, this simple and innocent that be are ordained of God," and the faith can only, as I have said, co-exist whole series of corollaries deduced with a torpid and inactive state of the from it in the Epistles, belong to St. speculative faculties. For a person of Paul, and must stand or fall with exercised intellect there is no way of Paulism, not with Christianity. But attaining anything equivalent to it, save there is one moral contradiction insepar- by sophistication and perversion, either able from every form of Christianity, of the understanding or of the conwhich no ingenuity Ca 2 resolve, and no science. It may almost always be said sopbistry explain aw. ). It is, that so both of sects and of individuals, who precious a gift, bestowed on a few, derive their morality from religion, that should have becn withheld from the the better logicians they are, the worse many; that countless millions of human moralists. beings should have been allowed to live One only form of belief in the superand die, to sin and suffer, without the natural---one only theory respecting the one thing needful, the divine remedy for origin and government of the universe sin and suffering, which it would have stands wholly clear both of intellectual cost the Divine Giver as little to have contraciiction and of moral obliquity. It vouchsafed to all as to huve bestowed is that which, resigning irrevocably the by special grace upon favoured idea of an onnipotent c.cator, regards minority. Add to this that the divine Nature and Life not as the expression message, assuming it to be such, has throughout of the moral character and been authenticated by credentials so in purpose of the Deity, but as the product sufficient that they fail to convince a of a struggle between contriving goodlarge proportion of the strongest and ness and an intractable material, as was cultivated minds, and the tendency to believed by Plato, or a Principle of Evil, disbelieve them appears to grow with as was the doctrine of the Manicheans, the growth of scientific knowledge and A creed like this, which I have known critical discrimination. He who can be to be devoutly held by at least one cultilieve these to be the intentional shoitvated and conscientious person of our comings of a perfectly good Being must own dy, allows it to be belicved that all impose silence on every prompting of the mass of evil which exists was unthe sense of goodness and justice as designed by, and exists not by the received among men. appointment of, but in spite of, the Being It is, no doubt, possible and there whom we are called upon to worship. A are many instances of it) to worship virtuous human being assumes in this with the intensest devotion either Deity, theory the exalted character of a fellowthat of Nature or of the Gospel, without labourer with the Highest, a fellowany perversion of the moral sentiments; combatant in the great strife; conbut this must be by fixing the attention tributing his little, which by the aggregaexclusively on what is beautiful and tion of many like himself becomes much, bencficent in the precepts and spirit of towards that progressive ascendancy, and the Gospel and in the dispensations of ultimately complete triumph of good Nature, and putting all that is the reverse over evil, which history points to, and as entirely aside as if it did not exist. which this doctrine teaches us to regard ·54 UTILITY OF RELIGION : as planned by the Being to whom we does not necessarily exclude the Theism owe all the benevolent contrivance we of the inagination and feelings, and behold in Nature. Against the moral this, again, gives opportunity for a tendency of this creed no possible hope that the power which has done so objection can lic: it can produce on much for us may be able and willing to whoever can succecd in believing it no do this also, such vague possibility must other than an ennobling effect. The ever stop far short of a conviction. It evidence for it, indeed, if cvidence it can remains then to estimate the value of be called, is too shadowy and unsub- this element--the prospect of a world to stantial, and the promises it holds out comc-as a constituent of earthly happitoo distant and uncertain, to admit of its ness. I cannot but think that as the being a permanent substitute for the condition of mankind becomes improved, religion of humanity; but the two may as they grow happier in their lives, and be held in conjunction: and he to whoin more capable of deriving happiness from ideal good, and the progress of the unselfish souices, they will care less and world towards it, are already a religion, less for this flattering expectation. It is even though that other creed may seem not, naturally or generally, the happy to him a belief not grounded on evidence, who are the most anxious either for a is at liberty to indulge the pleasing and prolongation of the present life, or for a cncouraging thought that its truth is life hereafter : it is those who ncver have possible. Apart from all dogmatic belief, been happy. They who have had their there is for those who neel it an ample happiness can bear to part with existence; domain in the legion of the inagmation but it is hard to die without ever having wluch may be planted with possibilities, lived. When mankind ceasc to nced a with hypotheses which cannot be hnown future existence as a consolation for the to be false; and when there is anything suſſenings of the present, it will have lost in the appearances of nature to favour its chief value to them, for thepiselves. them, as in this case there is (for, whal. I ain now speaking of the unselfish. ever foice we attach to the analogies of Those who are so wrapped up in self nature with the effects of human con that they are unable to identify their trivance, there is no disputing the remark feelings with anything which will survive of Palcy, that what is good in nature them, or to feel their life prolonged in exhibits those analogies much oftener their younger cotemporaries and in all than what is evil), the contemplation of who help to carry on the progressive these possibilities is a legitimate indul-movement of human aſfairs, require the gence, capable of beaung its part, with notion of another selfish life beyond the other influencos, in feeding and animat-grave, to enable them to keep up any ining the tendency of the feelings and terest in existence, since the present life, impulses towards good. as its termination approaches, dwindles One advantage, such as it is, the into something too insignificant to be supernatural religions must always worth caring about. But if the Religion possess over the Rehgion of Humanity: of Humanity were as sedulously cultithe prospect they hold out to the indi- vated as the supernatural religions are vidual of a life after death. For, though and there is no difficulty in conceiving the scepticism of the understanding that it might be much more so), all who ·UTILITY OF RELIGION 55 had received the customary amount of Elysian fields held out very little attracmoral cultivation, would, up to the hour tion to their feelings and imagination. of death, live ideally in the life of those Achilles in the Odyssey expressed a very who are to follow them; and though, natural, and no doubt a very common doubtless, they would often willingly sur sentiment, when he said that he would vive as individuals for a much longer rather be on earth the serf of a needy period than the present duration of life, master than reign over the whole kingit appears to me probable that, after a dom of the dead. And the pensive length of time different in different per- character so striking in the address of the sons, they would have had enough of dying emperor Hadrian to his soul gives existence, and would gladly lie down and evidence that the popular conception had take their eternal rest. Meanwhile, and not undergone much variation during without looking so far forward, we may that long interval. Yet we neither find remark that those who belicve the that the Greeks enjoyed life less nor immortality of the soul generally quit feared death more than other people. life with fully as much, if not more, The Buddhist religion counts probably reluctance as those who have no such at this day a gicater number of votaries expectation. The mere cessation of ex- than either the Christian or the Mohamistence is no evil to any onc: the idea is medan. The Buddhist creed recognises only formidable through the illusion of many modes of punishment in a future imagination which makes one conceive life, or rather lives, by the transmigration oneself as if one were alive and feeling of the soul into new bodies of men or oneself dead. What is odious in death animals. But the blessing from heaven is not death itself, but the act of dying which it proposes as a reward, to be and its lugubrious accompaniments: all earned by perseverance in the highest of which must be equally undergone by order of virtuous life, is annihilation; the believer in immortality. Nor can I the cessation, at least, of all conscious perceive that the sceptic loses by bis or separate existence. It is impossible scepticism any real and valuable consola to mistake in this religion the work of tion except onc—the hope of reunion legislators and moralists endeavouring to with those dear to him who have ended supply supernatural motives for the contheir earthly life before him. That loss, duct which they were anxious to enindeed, is neither to be denied nor excourage; and they could find nothing tenuated. In many cases it is beyond more transcendent to hold out as the the rcach of comparison or estimate; capital prize to be won by the mightiest and will always suffice to keep alive, in efforts of labour and self-denial than the more sensitive natures, the imagina what we are so often told is the terrible tive hope of a futurity which, if there is idca of annihilation. Surely this is a nothing to prove, there is as little in our proof that the idea is not really or knowledge and experience to contradict. naturally terrible; that not philosophers History, so far as we know it, bears only, but the common order of mankind, out the opinion that mankind can per can easily reconcile themselves to it, and fectly well do without the belief in a even consider it as a good; and that it is heaven. The Greeks had anything but no unnatural part of the idea of a happy a tempting idea of a future state. Their life, that life itself be laid down, after the ·56 UTILITY OF RELIGION best that it can give has been fully en human life, not annihilation but immorjoyed through a long lapse of time; when tality may be the burdensome idca; and all its pleasures, even those of benevo- that human nature, though pleased with lence, are familiar, and nothing untasted the present, and by no means impatient and unknown is left to stimulate curiosity to quit it, would find comfort and not and keep up the desire of prolonged sadness in the thought that it is not existence. It seems to me not only chained through eternity to a conscious possible, but probable, that in a higher, existence which it cannot be assured that and above all a happier, condition of it will always wish to pieserve.

·THEISM Part 1.-INTRODUCTION man- The contest which subsists from of old services to the future. And the position between belicvers and unbelievers in assigned to Christianity or Theism by natural and revealed religion has, like the more instiucted of those who reject other permanent contests, varied materi- the supernatural is that of things once ally in its character from age to age; of great value, but which can now be and the present generation, at least in done without, rather than, as formerly, of the higher regions of controversy, shows, things misleading and noxious ab initio. as compared with the eighteenth and Along with this change in the moral the beginning of the nineteenth century, attitude of thoughtful unbelievers toa inarked alteration in the aspect of the wards the religious ideas of dispute. One feature of this change is kind, a corresponding difference has so apparent as to be generally acknow- manifested itself in their intellectual ledged: the more softened temper in attitude. The war against religious which the debate is conducted on the beliefs in the last century was carried part of unbelievers. The reactionary on principally the ground of violence, provoked by the intolerance of common sense or of logic; in the present the other side, has in a great measure age, on the ground of science. The exhausted itself. Experience has abated progress of the physical science is conthe ardent hopes once entertained of sidered to have established, by concluthe regeneration of the human race by sive evidence, matters of fact with which merely negative doctrine-by the destruc- the religious traditions of mankind are not tion of superstition. The philosophical reconcilable; while the science of human study of history, one of the most in nature and history is considered to show portant creations of recent times, has that the creeds of the past are natural rendered possible an impartial estimate growths of the human mind, in particular of the doctrines and institutions of the stages of its career, destined to dispast, from a relative instead of an abso- appear and give place to other conviclute point of viewmas incidents of tions in a more advanced stage. In the human devolopment at which it is use progress of discussion this last class of less to grumble, and which may deserve considerations seems even to be superadmiration and gratitude for their effects seding those which address themselves in the past, even though they may be directly to the question of truth. Rethought incapable of rendering similar ligions tend to be discussed, at least by ·58 THEISM those who reject them, less as intrinsi- | And this consideration has a special cally true or false than as products relevancy to the inquiry concerning the thrown up by certain states of civilisa- foundations of 'Theism, inasmuch as no tion, and which, like the animal and argument for the truth of Theism is more vegetable productions of a geological cominonly invoked or more confidently period, perish in those which succeed it relied on than the general assent of froin the cessation of the conditions mankind. necessary to their continued existence. But while giving its full value to this This tendency of recent speculation historical treatment of the religious questo look upon human opinions pre- tion, we ought not, therefore, to let it cminently from an historical point of supersede the dogmatic. The most imview, as facts obeying laws of their own, portant quality of an opinion on any and requiring, like other observed facts, momentous subject is its truth or falsity, an historical or a scientific explanation which to us resolves itself into the (a tendency not confined to religious sufficiency of the evidence on which it subjects), is by no means to be blamed, rests. It is indispensable that the but to be applauded, not solely as subject of religion sliould from time to drawing attention to an important and time be reviewed as a strictly scientific previously neglected aspect of human question, and that its cvidences should opinions, but because it has a real, be tested by the same scientific methods though indirect, bearing upon the ques- and on the same principles as those of tion of their truth. For whatever opinion the speculative conclusions drawn by a person may adopt on any subject that physical science. It being granted, then, admits of controversy, his assurance, if that the legitimate conclusions of science he be a cautious thinker, cannot be are entitled to prcvail over all opinions, complete unless he is able to account however widely held, which conflict with for the existence of the opposite opinion. them, and that the canons of scientific To ascribe it to the weakness of the cvidence which the successes and failures human understanding is an explanation of two thousand years have established which cannot be sufficient for such a are applicable to all subjects on which thinker, for he will be slow to assume knowledge is attainable, let us proceed that he has himself a less share of that to consider what place there is for infirmity than the rest of mankind, and religious beliefs on the platform of that error is more likely to be on the science; what evidences they can appeal other side than on his own. In his to such as science can recognise, and examination of evidence the persuasion what foundation there is for the docof others, perhaps of mankind in general, trines of religion, considered as scientific is one of the data of the case-one of theorcms. the phenomena to be accounted for. As In this inquiry we, of course, begin the human intellect, though weak, is not with Natural Religion, the doctrine of essentially perverted, there is a certain the existence and attributes of God. presumption of the truth of any opinion held by many human minds, requiring to THEISM. be rebutted by assigning some other real Though I have defined the problem or possible cause for its prevalence of Natural Theology to be that of the ·THEISM 59 existence of God or of a god, rather than could be no real belief in one Creator of gods, there is the amplest historical and one Governor until mankind had evidence that the belief in gods is begun to see in the apparently confused immeasurably more natural to the human phenomena which surrounded them a mind than the belief in one author and system capable of being viewed as the ruler of nature; and that this more possible working out of a single plan. This elevated belief is, compared with the conception of the world was perhaps former, an artificial product, requiring anticipated (though less frequently than (except when impressed by early cduca- is often supposed) by individuals of extion) a considerable amount of intellectual ceptional genius, but it could only culture before it can be reached. For a become common after a rather long long time the supposition appeared cultivation of scientific thought. forced and unnatural that the diversity The special inode in which scientific we see in the operations of nature can study crates to instil Monotheism in all be the work of a single will. To the place of the more natural Polytheism is untaught mind, and to all minds in pic- in no way mysterious. The specific scientific times, the phenomena of nature effect of science is to show by accumulaseem to be the result of forces altogether ting evidence that every cvent in nature heterogeneous, each taking its course is connected by laws with some fact or quite independently of the others; and facts which preceded it, or, in other though to attributc them to conscious words, depends for its existence on some wills is eminently natural, the natural antecedent; but yet not so strictly on tendency is to suppose as many such one as not to be liable to frustration or independent wills as there are distin- modification from others; for these disguishable forces of sufficient importance tinct chains of causation are so entangled and interest to have been remarked and with one another; the action of each named. There is no tendency in Poly- cuuse is so interfered with by other theism as such to transform itself spon- causes, though each acts according to its taneously into Monotheism. It is true own fixed luw; that cvery effect is truly that in polytheistic systems generally the the result rather of the aggregate of all Deity, whose special attributes inspire causes in existence than of any one only; the greatest degree of awe, is usually and nothing takes place in the world of supposed to have a power of controlling our cxperience without spreading a perthe other deities; and cven in the most ceptible influence of some sort through degraded, perhaps, of all such systems, a greater or less portion of nature, and the Hindoo, adulation heaps upon the making perhaps every portion of it divinity who is the immediate object of slightly different from what it would have adoration epithets like those habitual to been if that cvent had not taken place. believers in a single god. But there is Now, when once the double conviction no real acknowledgment of one governor. bas found entry into the mind--that every Every god normally rules his particular event depends on antecedents; and at department, though there may be a still the same time that to bring it about stronger god, whose power when he many antecedents must concur, perhaps chooses to exert it can frustrate the all the antecedents in nature, insomuch purposes of the inferior divinity. There that a slight difference in any one of ·60 THEISM them might have have prevented prevented the the a definite beginning to each individual phenomenon, or materially altered its fact; and since, wherever there is a becharacter--the conviction follows that ginning, we find that there was an anteno one event, certainly no one kind of cedent fact (called by us a cause), a fact events, can be absolutely preordained or but for which the phenomenon which governed by any Being but one who thus commences would not have been, holds in his hand the reins of all Nature, it was impossible that the human mind and not of some department only. At should not ask itself whether the whole, least, if a plurality be supposed, it is of which these particular phenomena are necessary to assuine so complete a con a part, had not also a beginning, and, if cert of action and unity of will among so, whether that beginning was not an them that the difference is for most pur- origin; whcther there was not something poses immaterial between such a theory antecedent to the whole series of causes and that of the absolute unity of the and effects that we term Nature, and but Godhead. for which Nature itself would not have The reason, then, why Monotheism been. From the first recorded speculamay be accepted as the representative of tion this question has never remained Theism in the abstract is not so much without an hypothetical answer. The because it is the Theism of all the more only answer which has long continued to improved portions of the human race, as afford satisfaction is Thcism. because it is the only Theism which can Looking at the problem, as it is our claim for itself any footing on scientific business to do, nierely as a scientific inground. Every other theory of the quiry, it resolves itself into two questions. government of the universe by super- First: Is the theory which refers the natural beings is inconsistent, either with origin of all the phenomena of nature to the carrying on of that government the will of a Creator consistent or not through a continual series of natural with the ascertained results of science? antecedents according to fixed laws, or Secondly, assuming it to be consistent, with the interdependence of each of will its proofs bear to be tested by the these series upon all the rest, which are principles of evidence and canons of the two most general results of science. belief by which our long experience of Setting out, therefore, from the scientific scientific inquiry has proved the necessity view of nature as one connected system, of being guided ? or united whole-united not like a web First, then there is one conception of composed of separate threads in passive Theism which is consistent, another juxtaposition with one another, but which is radically inconsistent, with the rather like the human or animal frame, most general truths that have been made an apparatus kept going by perpetual known to us by scientific investigation. action and reaction among all its parts The one which is inconsistent is the it must be acknowledged that the conception of a God governing the question, to which Theisın is an answer, world by acts of variable will. The one is at least a very natural one, and issues which is consistent is the conception of from an obvious want of the human a God governing the world by invariable mind. Accustomed as we are to find, in laws. proportion to our means of observation, The primitive, and even in our own ·THE EIIDENCES OF THEIS.11 61 day the vulgar, conception of the divine Deity than the supposition that the rule is that the one God, like the many universe was made so that it could go gods of antiquity, carries on the govern on of itself. There have been thinkers, ment of the world by special decrees, however-of no ordinary eminence (of made pro hac vice. Although supposed whom Leibnitz was one)-who thought to be omniscient as well as omnipotent, the last the only supposition worthy of he is thought not to make up his mind the Deity, and protested against likening until the moment of action; or at least God to a clockmaker whose clock will not so conclusively, but that his in not go unless he puts his hand to the tentions may be altered up to the very machinery and keeps it going. last moment by appropriate solicitation, such considerations we have no concern Without entering into the difficulties of in this place. We are looking at the reconciling this view of the divine govern- subject nọt from the point of view of ment with the prescience and the per- reference, but from that of science; and fect wisdom ascribed to the Dcity, we with science both these suppositions as may content ourselves with the fact that to the mode of the divine action are it contradicts what experience has taught cqually consistent. ils of the manner in which things actually We must now, however, pass to the take place. The phenomena of nature next question. There is nothing to disdo take place according to general laws. prove the creation and government of They do originate from definite natural Nature by a sovereign will ; but is there antecedents. Therefore, if their ultimate anything to prove it? Of what nature origin is derived from a will, that will are its evidences; and, weighed in the must have established the general laws scientific balance, what is their value? and willed the antecedents. If there be a Creator, his intention must have been THE EVIDENCES OF TIIEISM. that events should depend upon ante The evidences of a Cicator are not only ccdents and be produced according to of several distinct kinds, but of such fixed laws. But this being conccded, diverse characters that they are adapted there is nothing in scientific experience to minds of very different descriptions, inconsistent with the belief that those and it is hardly possible for any mind to laws and sequences are themselves due be cqually impressed by them all. The to a divine will. Neither are we obliged familiar classification of them into proofs to suppose that the divine will exerted à priori and à posteriori marks that, when itself once for all, and, after putting a looked at in a purely scientific view, they power into the system which enabled it belong to different schools of thought. to go on of itself, has ever since let it Accordingly, though the unthoughtful alone. Science contains nothing repug- believer whose creed really rests on nant to the supposition that every event authority gives an equal welcome to all which takes place results from a specific plausible arguments in support of the volition of the presiding Power, provided belief in which he has been brought up, that this Power adheres in its particular philosophers who have had to make a volitions to gencral laws laid down by choice between the à priori and the itself. The common opinion is that this à posteriori methods in general science hypothesis tends more to the glory of the seldom fail, while insisting on one of ·62 THEISM these modes of support for religion, to were made by a benignant Being who speak with more or less of disparage- would not have implanted in us a groundment of the other. It is our duty in the less belief, or a want which he did not present inquiry to maintain complete im- afford us the means of satisfying; and partiality and to give a fair examination is therefore a palpable petitio principii if to both. At the same time, I entertain a adduced as an argument to support the modes of argument is in its nature scien- At the same time, it must be admitted tific, the other not only unscientific, but that all à priori systems, whether in condemned by science. The scientific philosophy or religion, do in some sense argument is that which reasons from the profess to be founded on experience, facts and analogies of human experience, since, though they affirm the possibility as a geologist does when he inſers the of arriving at truths which transcend past states of our terrestrial globe, or an experience, they yet make the facts of astronomical observer when he draws cxperience their starting-point (as what conclusions respecting the physical com other starting-point is possible ?). They position of the heavenly bodies. This is are entitled to consideration in so far as the à posteriori method, the principal it can be shown that experience gives application of which to Theism is the any countenance either to them or to argument (as it is called) of design. The their method of inquiry. Professedly d mode of reasoning which I call unscien- priori arguments are not unfrequently of tific, though in the opinion of some a mixed nature, partaking in some degree thinkers it is also a legitimate mode of the à posteriore character, and may of scientific procedure, is that which often be said to be à posteriori arguments inſers external objective facts from ideas in disguise; the i priori considerations or convictions of our ininds, I say this acting chiefly in the way of making some independently of any opinion of my own particular à posteriori argument tell for respecting the origin of our ideas or con more than its worth. This is emphativictions; for even if we were unable to cally true of the argument for Theism point out any manner in which the idea which I shall first examine-the necessity of God, for example, can have grown of a First Cause. of a First Cause. For this has in truth up from the impressions of experience, a wide basis of experience in the universtill the idea can only prove the idea, sality of the relation of cause and effect and not the objective fact, unless, in among the phenomena of nature; while, deed, the fact is supposed (agreeably to at the same time, theological philosothe book of Genesis) to have been phers have not been content to let it handed down by tradition from a time rest upon this basis, but have affirmed when there was direct personal inter- causation as a truth of reason apprecourse with the Divine Being; in which hended intuitively by its own light. case the argument is no longer à priori. The supposition that an idea, or a wish, ARGUMENT FOR A FIRST or a need, even if native to the mind, CAUSE. proves the reality of a corre ponding The argument for a First Cause object, derives all the plausibility from adınits of being, and is, presented as a the belief already in our minds that we conclusion from the whole of human ·ARGUMENT FOR A FIRST CAUSE 63 experience. Everything that we know dences, not even analogies, to justify our (it is argued) had a cause, and owed its extending to the apparently immutable existence to that cause. How, then, can a generalisation grounded only on our it be but that the world, which is but a observation of the changeable. name for the aggregate of all that we As a fact of experience, then, causation know, has a cause to which it is indebted cannot legitimately be extended to the for its existence? material universe itself, but only to its The fact of experience, however, when changeable phenomena ; of these, indeed, correctly expressed, turns out to be, not causes may be affirmed without any that everything which we know derives exception. But what causes? The cause its existence from a cause, but only of every change is a puor change; and every event or change. There is in such it cannot but be; for, if there were nature a permanent element, and also a no new antecedent, there would not be changeable: the changes are always the a new conscquent. If the state of facts effects of previous changes; the perma- which brings the phenomenon into nent existences, so far as we know, are existence had cxisted always or for an not effects at all. It is true we are indefinite duration, the effect also would accustomed to say, not only of cvents, have existed always or been produced but of objects, that they are produced an indefinite time ago. It is thus a by causes, as water by the union of necessary part of the fact of causation, hydrogen and oxygen. But by this we within the sphere of our experience, that only mean that, when they begin to exist, the causes as well as the effects had a their beginning is the effect of a cause. beginning in time, and were themselves But their beginning to exist is not an caused. It would scem, therefore, that object; it is an event. If it be objected our experience, instead of furnishing an that the cause of a thing's beginning to argument for a First Cause, is repugnant exist may be said with propriety to be to it; and that the very essence of the cause of the thing itself, I shall not causation, as it exists within the limits quarrel with the expression. But that But that of our knowledge, is incompatible with a which in an object begins to exist is that First Cause. in it which belongs to the changeable But it is necessary to look more parelement in nature; the outward form and ticularly into the matter, and analyse the properties depending on mechanical more closely the nature of the causes of or chemical combinations of its compo- which mankind have experience. For nent parts. There is in every object if it should turn out that, though all another and a permanent element-viz., causes have a beginning, there is in all the specific elementary substance or sub- of them a permanent element which stances of which it consists and their had no beginning, this permanent inherent properties. These are not known element may with some justice be to us as beginning to exist : within the termed a first or universal cause, inasrange of human knowledge they had much as, though not sufficient of itself to no beginning, consequently no cause; cause anything, it enters as a con-cause though they themselves are causes or into all causation. Now, it happens con-causes of everything that takes place. that the last result of physical inquiry, Experience, therefore, affords no evi- derived from the converging evidences ·64 THEISM is a very of all branches of physical science, does, from it, inasmuch as mind is the only if it holds good, land us, so far as the thing which is capable of originating material world is concerned, in a result change. This is sud to be the lesson of of this sort. Whenever a physical phe human experience. In the phenomena nomenon is traced to its cause', that of inanimate nature the force which cause when analysed is found to be works is always i pre existing force, not a certain quantum of force, combined originated, but transferred. One physical with certain collocations. And the last object moves another by giving out to it grcat generalisation of science, the con- the force by which it has first been itself servation of force, teaches us that he moved. The wind communicates to variety in the effects depends partly the waves, or to a windmill, or a ship, upon the amount of the force and partly part of the motion which has bcen given upon the diversity of the collocations. to itself by some other agent. In volun- The force itself is essentially one and lary action alone wc see a commencethe same; and there exists of it in ment, an origination of motion; since all nature a fixed quantity, which (if the other causes appear incapable of this thicory be true) is never increased or origination, experience is in favour of the diminished. Ilerc, then, we find, even conclusion that all the motion in cxistin the changes of material nature, a per ence owed its beginning to this one manent element, to all appearance the cause, voluntary agency, if not that of very one of which we were in quest. This man, then of a more powerful Being. it is apparently to which, if to anything, This arguinent old one. It we must assign the character of First is to be found in Plato; not, as might Cause, the cause of the micul universe. have been expected, in the Phedon, For all effects may be traced up to it, where the arguments are not such as while it cannot be traced up by our would now be deemed of any weight, but experience to anything beyond : its trans in his latest production, the Leges. And formations alone can be so traccd, and of it is still one of the most telling arguthem the cause always includes the force ments with the more metaphysical class itself; the same quantity of force in of defenders of Natural Thcology. some previous form. It would seem, Now, in the first place, if there be then, that in the only sense in which truth in the doctrine of the conservation experience supports in any shape the of force--in other words, the constancy doctrine of a First Cause--yız., as the of the total amount of force in existenceprimäeval and universal clement in all this doctrine does not change from true causes-the First Cause can be no other to false when it reaches the field of than Force. voluntary agency. The will does not, We are, however, by no means at the any more than other causes, crcate force : end of the question. On the contrary, granting that it originates motion, it has the greatest stress of the argument is no means of doing so but by converting exactly at the point which we have now into that particular manifestation a porreached. For it is maintained that mind tion of force which already cxisted in is the only possible cause of force; or other forms. It is known that the source rather, perhaps, that mind is a force, from which this portion of force is and that all other force must be derived derived is chicfly, or cntirely, the force ·ARGUMENT FOR A FIRST CAUSE 65 evolved in the processes of chemical com- , body: all these are causes of mechanical position and decomposition which con- motion on a far larger scale than any stitute the body of nutrition; the force volitions which experience presents to us; so liberated becomes a fund upon which und in most of the effects thus produced every muscular, and even every merely the motion given by one body to another nervous action, as of the brain in thought, is not, as in the ordinary cases of is a diaft. It is in this sense only that, mechanical action, motion that has first according to the best lights of science, been given to that other by some third volition is an originating cause. Volition, body. The plienoinenon is not a ince therefore, does not answer to the idea of passing on of mechanicıl motion, but il a First Cause; since force must in creation of it out of it force previously every instance be assumed as prior to it; latent or manifesting itself in some other and there is not the slightest colour, de form. Volition, therefore, regarded as rived from experience, for supposing an agent in the matenal universe, has no force itself to have been created by a exclusive privilege of ouginalion: all that volition. As far as anything can be con it can originate is also onginated by other cluded from human experience, force has transforming agents. If it be saud that all the attributes of a thing elemnal and those other agents must have had the uncreated. force they give out put into them from This, however, doc, not close the dis- elsewhere, I answcr that thus is no less cussion. For though whatever verdict lue of the force which volition disposes expérience can give in the case is against of. We know that this furce comes from the possibility that will ever onginatis Millernul source the chomucal action force, yet, if we can be assured that of the food and air. The force by which neither does fore originate will, will the phenomena of the natcrial world are must be held to be an agency, if not produced circulates through all physical prior to force, yet coeternal with it; and agencies in d never-ending though sonicif it be true that will can originato, nol times intermitting stream. of indeed force, but the transformation of course, speaking of volition only in its forcc from some other of its action on the material world. We have festations into that of mechanical motion, nothing to do here with the freedom of and that there is within human experience the will itself as a mental phenomenonno other agency capable of doing so, the with the 22' bihe questwo whether volition argument for a well as the originilor, sell-ulutunning or delermed by though not of the universe, jet of the To the question now in hand it kosmos, or order of the universe, remains is only the effects of volition that are unanswered. relevant, not its origin. The assertion is But the case thus stated is not con that physical nature must have been proformable to fact. Whatcvcr volition can Whatever volition can duced by a will, because nothing but will do in the way of creating motion out of is known to us as having the power of other forms of force, and generally of originating the production of phenomena. evolving force from a latent into a visible We have seen that, on the contrary, all state, can be done by many other causes. thic power «hat will possesses Chemical action, for instance; electricity; phenomena is shared, as far as we have heat; the mere presence of a gravitating the means of judgmy, by other and much I am, nani- 15 causes Over ·66 THEISM more powerful agents, and that in the it remenbered that we have no direct only sense in which those agents do not knowledge (at least apart from revelaoriginate, neither does will originate. No tion) of a mind which is even apparently prerogative, therclore, can, on the ground eternal, as force and matter are: an of experience, be assigned to volition eternal mind is, as far as the present above other natural agents, as a proargument is concerned, a simple ducing cause of phenomena. All that hypothesis to account for the minds can be affirmed by the strongest assertor which we know to exist. Now, it is of the freedom of the will is that voli essential to an hypothesis that, if adtions are theniselves uncaused, and are milied, it should at least remove the therefore alone fit to be the First or difficulty and account for the facts. But Universal Cause. But, even assuming it does not account for mind to refer one volitions to be uncaused, the properties mind to a prior mind for its origin. The of matter, so far as experience disclose's, problem remains unsolved, the difficulty are uncaused also, and have the advan undiminished---nay, rather incieascd. tage over any particular volition, in being, To this it may be objccted that the so far as experience can show, cternal. causation of every human mind is matter Thcism, therefore, in so far as it rests on of fact, since we know that it had a the necessity of a First Cause, has no beginning in time. We even know, or support from experience. have the strongest grounds for believing, To those who, in default of experience, that the human species itself had a consider the necessity of a First Cause as beginning in time. For there is a vast matter of intuition, I would say that it is amount of evidence that the state of needless, in this discussion, to contest our planet was once such as to be incomtheir premises; since admitting that there patible with animal life, and that human is and must be a First Cause, it has now Life is of a very much more modern been shown that several other agencies origin than animal life. In any case, than will can lay equal claim to that therefore, the fact must be faced that character. One thing only may be said there must have been a Cause which which requires notice here. Among the called the first human mind--nay, the facts of the universe to be accounted for, very first gerni of organic life into existit may be said, is mind; and it is sell No such difficulty exists in the cvident that nothing can have produced supposition of an eternal mind. mind but mind. did not know that mind on our earth The special indications that mind is began to exist, we might suppose it to deemed to give, pointing to intelligent be uncaused; and we may still suppose contrivance, belong to a different portion this of the mind to which we ascribe its of this inquiry. But if the mere exist- existence. ence of mind is supposed to require, To take this ground is to return into as a necessary antecedent, another mind the field of human experience, and to greater and more powerful, the difficulty become subject to its canons, and we is not removed by going ope step back : are then entitled to ask where is the the 'creating mind stands as much in proof that nothing can have caused a need of another mind to be the source mind except another mind. From what, of its existence as the created mind. Be except from experience, can we know ence. If we ·ARGUMENT FROM THE GENERAL CONSENT OF MANKIND 67 what can produce what--what causes reason to expect, from the mere occurare adequate to what effects? That rence of changes, that, if we could trace nothing can consciously produce mind back the series far enough, we should but mind is self-evident, being involved arrive at a primæval volition. The world in the meaning of the words; but that does not, by its mere existence, bear there cannot be unconscious production witness to a God; if it gives indications must not be assumed, for it is the very of one, these must be given by the point to be proved. Apart from experi- special nature of the phenomena, by ence, and arguing on what is called what they present that resembles adaptareason that is, on supposed self-evidence lion to an end: of which hercafter. If, --the notion scems to be that no causes in default of evidence from experience, can give rise to products of a more the evidence of intuition is relied upon, precious or elevated kind than thcm- it may be answered that if mind, as selves. But this is at variance with the mind, presents intuitive evidence of known analogics of nature. How vastly having been created, the crcative mind nobler and more precious, for instance, must do the same, and we are no nearer are the higher vegetables and animals to the First Cause than before. But if than the soil and manure out of which, there be nothing in the nature of mind and by the properties of which, they are which in itself implics a Creator, the raised up. The tendency of all recent minds which have a beginning in time, as speculation is towards the opinion that all minds have which are known to our exthe devclopment of inferior orders of perience, must, indved, have been caused, existence into superior, the substitution but it is not necessary that their cause of greater claboration and lugher organi- should have been a prior intelligence. sation for lower, is the gencral rule of ARGUMENT FROM TIIE Nature. Whether it is so or not, there GENERAL CONSENT OF MANare at least in nature a multitude of facts bearing that character, and this is KIND, sufficient for the argument. Before proceeding to the argument Here, then, this part of the discussion from Marks of Design), which, as it miy stop. The result it leads to is that seems to mc, must always be the main the First Cause arguincnt is in itself of no strength of Natural Theisn, we may value for the establishinent of Theism : disposc briefly of some other arguments because no cause is needed for the exist which are of little scientific weight, but ence of that which has no beginning; which have grcater influence on the and both matter and force (whatever human mind than much better argumetaphysical theory we may give of the ments, because they are appeals to one or the other) have had, so far as authority, and it is by authority that the our experiences can teach us, no begin opinions of the bulk of mankind are ning-which cannot be said of mind. principally, and not unnaturally, governcd. The phenomena or changes in the The authority invoked is that of mankind universe have, indeed, each of them a generally, and specially of some of its beginning and a cause, but their cause wisest men; particularly such as were in is always a prior change; nor do the other respects conspicuous examples of analogies of experience give us any breaking loose from received prejudices.

·68 TITE ISJ Soriates and Plato, Bacon, Locke, and by the supposition of its being innate? Newton, Descartes and Leibnit, are We should not expect to find Theists cominon examples. bclicving that the appearances in nature It may, doubtless, be good advice to of a contriving intelligence are not only persons who in point of knowledge and insufficient, but are not cven plausible, cultivation are not entitled to think and cannot be supposed to have carried themselves competent judges of difficult conviction either to the general or to questions, to bid them content them- the wiser mind. If there are external selves with holding that true which evidences of Theism, even if not perfectly mankind generally behove, and so long conclusive, why necd we suppose that as they believe it; or that which has the belief of its truth was the result of been believed by those who pass for the anything else? The superior minds to most eminent among the minds of the whom an appeal is made from Socrates past. But to a thuuker the argument downwards, when they professed to give from other people's opinion bas little the grounds of their opinion, did not weight. It is but second-hand endence; say that they found the belief in themand merely admonishes us to look out selves without knowing from whence it for and weigh the reasons on włuch this came, but ascribed it, if not to revelation, conviction of mankind or of wise mon uither to some metaphysical arguinent was founded. Accordingly, those who or to those very external evidence's mahe any claim to philosophie trcat which are the basis of the argument ment of the subject employ this general from design. consent chictly as evidence that there is If it be sud that the belief in Deily is in the mind of min an intuitive percep universal anong harbillous tubes, and tion, or an instinctive sense, of Duty mong the ignorant portion of civilised From the generality of the belief they populations, who cannot bo-supposed to infer that it is mherent in our constitu have been impressed by the marvellous tion; from which they draw the con alaptations of Nature, inost of which are clusion, a precarious one indeed, but unknown to them; I answer, that the confoimable to the general mode of ignorant in civilised countries take their proceeding of the intitive philosophy, opinions from the clucated, and that in that the belief must be true; though als the case of savages, if the evidence is inapplied to Theism this argument brgs sufficient, so is the belief. The religious the question, since it has itself nothing belief of Savages is not belief in the God to jest upon but the belief that the of natural theology, but a mere modificahumar mind was made by a God, who tion of the cude generalisation which would not deceive his cicatures. ascribes lite, consciousness, and will to all But, indecd, what ground doe's the natural powers of which they cannot pergeneral prevalence of the belief in Deity ceive the source or control the operation. afford us for inferring that this belief is And the divinities believed in arc as native to the human mind, and inclepen numerous as those powers. dent of evidence? Is it, then, so very fountain, or tree has a divinity of its own. devoid of evidence, even apparent ? To see in this blunder of primitive Has it so little semblance of foundation ignorance the hand of the Supreme in fact that it can only be arcounted for Being implanting in his creatures an Each liver, ·men ARGUMENT FROM THE GENERAL CONSENT OF MANKIND 69 instinctive knowledge of his existence is It is noodless here to dwell upon the a poor compliment to the Deity. The difficulty of the hypothesis of a natural religion of savages is fetichism of the belief not common to all hunian beings, grossest kind, ascribing animation and an instinct not universal. It is conwill to individual objects, and secking to ceivable, doubtless, that some propitiate them by prayer and sacrifice might be born without a particular That this should be the case is the less natural faculty, as some are born without surprising when we remember that there a particular sense. But when this is the is not a deſinitc boundary line, broadly case, we ought to bc niuch more particular separating the conscious human being as to the proof that it really is a natural from inanimate objects Belween these facully. If it were not a matter of and man there is an intermediate class observation, but of speculation, that inen of objects, sometimes much more power can see; if they had no apparent organ ful than man, which do possess life and of sight, and no perceptions or knowledge will--viz., the brute anuals, which in an but such as they might conceivably have early stage of existence play a very great acquired by some cucuitous process part in human life; making it the less through their other senses, thic fact that surprising that the line should not at men exist who do not cven suppose first be quite distinguishable between the themselves to sce would be a consideranimate and the manimite part of nature. able argument against the theory of a As obsei vation advinces, it is perceived visual sunsc. But it would cuiry is 100 that the majority of outward objects have ar to press, for the purposes of this disall their important qualities in common cussion, an argument which applies so with entirc classes or groups of objects largely to the whole of the intuitional which compoul themselves exactly alike philosophy The strongest Intuitionist in the same circumstances, and in these will not maintain that a belich should be cases the worship of visible objects is ex- held for instinc live when evidence (real changed for that of an invisibile Being or apparent), sufficient to engender it, is supposed to preside over the whole class universally zmittel to exist. To the This step in generalisation is slowly force of the evidence must be, in this made, with hesitation and even terior, case, added all the emotional or moral as we still see in the case of ignorant causes which inclme men to the belief; populations with what difficulty experi- the satisfaction which it gives to the ence disabuscs tem of belief in the obstinales questionngs with whul men supernatural powers and terrible resent torment themselves iesporting the pist; ment of a particular idol. Chielly by the hopes which it opens for the future; these terrors the religious impressions of the fans also, since ten as well as hope barbarians are kept alive, with only predisposes to beliel; and to these in the slight modifications, until the Theisin case of the more active spirits must of cultivated minds is ready to take always have been added a perception of their place. And the Theism of culte the power which belief in the supernatural vated minds, if we tike their own affords for governing mankind, either for word for it, is always a conclusion either their own good or for the selfish purfrom arguments called rational or from poses of the governors. the appearances in nature. The general consent of mankind does ·70 THEISM not, therefore, afford ground for ad. ternal evidence, à fact of direct permitting, even as an hypothesis, the origin, ception, or, as they are accustomed to in an inherent law of the human mind, call it, of consciousness. The philoof a fact otherwise so more than suffici- sophical world is familiar with the attempt ently, so amply, accounted for. of Cousin to make out that, whenever we perceive a particular object, we perceive THE ARGUMENT FROM CONalong with it, or are conscious of, God; SCIOUSNESS. and also with the celebrated refutation There have been numerous arguments, of this doctrine by Sir William Hamilton. indeed almost every religious meta- It would be waste of time to examine physician has one of his own, to prove any of these theories in detail. While the existence and attributes of God from each has its own particular logical what are called truth of rcason, sup-fallacies, they labour under the common poscd to be independent of experience. infirniity that one man cannot, by pro- Descartes, who is the real founder of the claiming with cver so much confidence intuitional metaphysics, draws the con- that he perceives an object, convince clusion immcdutely fiom the first other people that they see it too. If, inpremise of his philosophy, the celebrated deed, he laid claim to a divine faculty of assumption that whatever he could very vision, vouchsafed to him alone, and clearly and distinctly apprehend must making him cognisant of things which be true. The idea of God, perfect in nien not thus assisted have not the power, wisdoin, and goodness, is a clear capacity to sce, the case might be and distinct idea, and must thercforc, on different. Men have been able to get this principle, correspond to a real object. such claims admitted; and other people This bold generalisation, however, that a can only require of them to show their conception of the human mind proves credentials. But when no claim is set up its own objective reality, Descartes is to any peculiar gift, but we are told that obliged to limit by the qualification - all of us are as capable as the prophet of "If the idlea includes cxistence." Now, seeing what he secs, feeling what he feels the idea of God implying the union of --nly, that we actually do so and when all perſections, and existence being a the utmost effort of which we are capable perſection, the idea of God proves his fails to make us aware of what we are existence. This very simple argument, told we perceive, this supposed universal which denies to main one of his most faculty of intuition is but familiar and most precious attributes, “The dark lantern of thc Spirit that of idealising as it is called-of con Whichi none soc hy but those who bear it"; structing from the matcrials of experience and the bearers may fairly be asked to a conception more perfect than experi- consider whether it is not more likely ence itself affords--is not likely to satisfy that they are mistaken as to the origin of any one in the present day. Morc an impression in their minds than that elaboratc, though scarcely more success others are ignorant of the very existence ful efforts, have been made by many of of an impression in theirs. Descartes' successors, to derive know The inconclusiveness, in a speculative ledge of the Deity from an inward light; point of view, of all arguments from the to make it a truth not dependent on ex- subjective notion of Deity to its objective ·THE ARGUMENT FROM CONSCIOUSNESS reality was well seen by Kant, the niost witness to as binding in its own nature; discriminating of the à priori meta- and which God, in superadding his physicians, who always kept the two command, conforms to, and perhaps questions, the origin and composition of declares, but does not create. Concedour ideas and the reality of the ing, then, for the sake of the argument, corresponding objects, perſectly distinct that the moral sentiment is as purely of According to Kant, the idea of the the mind's own growili, the obligation of Deity is native to the mind, in the sense duty as entirely independent of experithat it is constructed by the mind's owo ence and acquired impressions, as Kant laws, and not derived from without, but or any other metaphysician ever conthis idea of speculative reason cannot be tended, it may yet be maintained that shown by any logical process, or per- this feeling of obligation rather cxcludes ceived by direct apprehension, 10 have a than coinpels the belief in a Divine corresponding reality outside the human legislator merely as the source of the mind. To Kant, God is neither an obligation; and, as a matter of fact, the object of direct consciousness nor a con- obligation of duty is both theoretically clusion of reasoning, but a Necessary acknowledged and practically felt in the Assumption--necessary, not by a logical fullest manner by many who have no but a practical necessity, imposed by the positive bchef in God, though seldom, reality of the Moral Law. Duly is a probably, without habitual and fuiniliar fact of consciousness : “Thou shalt is reference to him as an ideal conception). a command issuing from the recesses of But if the cxistence of God as a wise our being, and not to be accounted for and just lawgiver is not a necessary part by any impressions derived from experi- of the feelings of morality, it may still be ence; and this command requires a maintained that those feelings make his commander, though it is not perfectly existence cminently desirable. No doubt clear whether Kant's meaning is that they do, and that is the grcat reason why conviction of a law includes conviction we find that good men and women cling of a lawgiver, or only that a being of to the belief, and are pained by its being whose will the law is an expression is questioned. But surely it is not legitieminently desirable. If the former be matc to assume that in the order of the intended, the argument is founded on a universe whatever is desirable is true. double meaning of the word "law.” A Optimism, even when a God is already rule to which we feel it a duty to con believed is a thorny doctrine to form has, in common with laws commonly maintain, and had to be taken by so-called, the fact of claiming our obedi- Leibnitz in the limited sense that the ence; but it does not follow that the universe, being made by a good being, is rule must originate, like the laws of the the best universe possible, not the best land, in the will of a legislator or legis absolutely; that the Divine power, in lators external to the mind. We may short, was not cqual to making it more even say that a feeling of obligation free from imperfections than it is. But which is merely the result of a command optimism, pior to belief in a God, and is not what is meant by moral obligation, as the ground of that belief, seems one which, on the contrary, supposes some of the oddest of all speculative delusions. thing that the internal conscience bears Nothing, however, I believe, contributes in, ·72 THEISM more to keep up the belief in the general on an apparently desolate island, I mind of humanity than this feeling of its should, indeed, infer that it had been desirableness, which, when clothed, as it left there by a human being; but the very often is, in the forms of an argu- inference would not be from marks mcnt, is a naf expression of the ten- of design, but because I already knew dency of the human nund to believe by direct experience that watches are what is agreeable to it. Positive value made by men. I should draw the inferthe argument, of course, has none. ence no less confidently from a footprint, Without dwelling further on these or or from any relic, however insignificant, on any other of the d priori arguments which experience has taught me to attrifor Theisen, we will no longer delay bute to inan: as geologists infer the past passing to the far more important argu- cxistence of animals from coprolites, ment of the appearances of contrivance bough no one sees inaihs of design in a in nature. coprolite. The evidence of design in creation can never reach the height of THE ARGUMENT FROM MARKS direct induction; it amounts only to the OF DESIGN IN NATURI. inferior kind of inductive evidence called We now at last reach an augument of analogy. Analogy agrees with induction a really scientific character, which does in this, that they both argue that a thing not shrink from scientilic tests, but known to resemble another in certain claims to be judged by the established circumstances (call those circumstances canons of Induction. The design argu- A and B) will resemble it in another munt is wholly grounded on experience. cucumstance (call it C). But the differ- Certain qualues, it is alleged, aru lound ence is that in induction A and B ale to be characteristic of such things as are known, by a previous comparison of made by an intelligent mind for a many instances, lo be the very circumpurpose. The order of Nature, or some stances on which C depends, or with considerable parts of it, exhibit these which it is in some way connected. qualities in a remarkable degice. We When this has not been ascertained, the are entitled from this great sunilarity in argument amounts only to this, that the effects to infer similarity in the since it is not known with which of the cause, and to believe that thmgs which circunstances existing in the known it is beyond the power of man to make, case C is connected, they mily as well be but which resenible the works of man in A and B as any others; and therefore all but power, inust also have been made there is a greater probability of C in by intelligence, armed with a power cases where we know that A and B exist greater than human. than in cases of which we know nothing I have stated this argument in its at all. This argument is of a weight fuliest strength, as it is stated by its very dithcult to estimate at all, and most thoroughgoing assetois. I very impossible to estimate precisely. It may little consideration, howerer, suffices to be very strong, when the known points of show that, though it has some force, its agreement, A and B, ctc., are numerous force is very generally overrated Paley's and the known points of difference few; illustration of a watch puts the case or very weak when the reverse is the much too strongly. If I found a watch case; but it can never be equal in ·THE ARGUMENT FROM MARKS OF DESIGN IN NATURE 73 validity to a real induction. The resem The species of inductive arguments blances between some of the arrange are four in nunber, corresponding to the ments in nature and some of those made four inductive methods--the methods of by man are considerable, and even as agreement, of difference, of residues, and mere resemblances afford a certain pre- of concomitant variations. The argusumption of similarity of cause; but how ment under consideration falls within the grcat that presumption is it is hard to first of these divisions—the method of say. All that can be said with certainty agreement. This is, for reasons known is that these likenesscs make creation by to inductive logicians, the weakest of the intelligence considerably more probable ſour; but the particular argument is a than if the likenesses had been less, oi strong one of the kind It may be than if there had been no likenesses logically analysed as follows:-- at all. The parts of which the eye is com- This mode, however, of stating the posed, and the collocations which concase does not do full justice to the stitute the arrangement of those parts, cvidence of Theism. The design argu- resemble one another in this very ment is not drawn from merc resem remarkable property, that they all conblances in Nature to the works of human duce to enabling the animal to sce. intelligence, but from the special charac. These things being as they are, the ter of those resemblances. The circum- animal sees; if any one of them were stances in which it is alleged that the different from what it is, the animal, for world resembles the works of man are the most part, would eillier not see, or not circumstances taken at random, but would not see equally well. And this is are particular instances of a circumstance the only marked resemblance that we can which experience shows to have a real trace among the different parts of this connection with an intelligent origin, the structure, beyond the general likeness of fact of conspiring to an end. The composition and organisation which argument, therefore, is not one of mere exists among all other parts of the animal. analogy. As mere analogy it has its Now, the particular combination of weight, but it is more than analogy. It organic elements called an cye had, in surpasses analogy exactly as induction every instance, a beginning in time, and surpasses it. It is an inductive argu- must, therefore, have been brought ment. together by a causc or causes. The This, I think, is undeniable, and it number of instances is immeasurably remains to test the argument by the greater than is, by the principles of inlogical principles applicable to induction. ductive logic, required for the exclusion For this purpose it will be convenient to of a random concurrence of independent handle, not the argument as a whole, but causes, or, speaking technically, for the some one of the most impressive cases elimination of chancc. We are, there of it, such as the structure of the eye or forc, warranted by the canons of inof the ear. It is maintained that the duction in concluding that what brought structure of the eye proves a designing all these elements together was somo mind. To what class of inductive argu cause conmort to them all; and inasmuch ments does this belong ? and what is its as the elements agree in the single degree of force ? circumstance of conspiring to produce ·74 THEISM sight, there must be some connection by be thrown out in all directions, which way of causation between the cause which would be transmissible by inheritance, brought those elements together and the and of which some would be advanfact of sight. tageous to the creature in its struggle for This I conceive to be a legitimnate in existence and others disadvantageous, ductive inſcrence, and the sun and sub the forms which are advantageous would stance of what induction can do for always tend to survive, and those which Theism. The natural sequel of the argu- are disadvantageous to perish. And ment would be this. Sight, being a fact thus there would be a constant though not precedent but subscquent to the slow general improvement of the type as putting together of the organic structure it branched out into many different of the cye, can only be connected with varieties, adapting it to different media the production of that structure in the and modes of existence, until it might character of a final, not an efficient, cause; possibly, in countless ages, attain to the that is, it is not sight itself, but an ante most advanced examples which now cedent idea of it, that must be the exist. efficient cause. But this at once narks It must be acknowledged that there is the origin as proceeding from an in- something very startling, and prima facie telligent will. improbable, in this hypothetical history I regret to say, however, that this of Nature. It would require us, for latter half of the argument is not so in- example, to suppose that the prinaval expugnable as the former half. Crcative animal, of whatever nature it may have forethought is not absolutely the only been, could not see, and had at most link by which the origin of the wonderful such slight preparation for seeing as mechanism of the eye may be connected might be constituted by some chemical with the fact of sight. There is another action of light upon its cellular structure. connecting-link on which attention has one of the accidental variations which been greatly fixed by recent speculations, are liable to take place in all organic and the reality of which cannot be called beings would at sone time or other proin question, though its adequacy to duce a variety that could see, in some account for such truly admirable coin imperfect manner, and this peculiarity binations as some of those in Nature is being transmitted by inheritance, while still, and will probably long remain, other variations continued to take place problematical. This is the principle of in other directions, a number of races " the survival of the fittest." would be produced who, by the power of This principle does not pretend to even imperfect sight, would have a great accoŲnt for the commencement of advantage over all other creatures which sensation or of animal or vegetable lifc. could not see, and would in time ex- But assuming the existence of some one tirpate them from all places, except, or more very low forms of organic life, in perhaps, a few very peculiar situations which there are no complex adaptations underground. Fresh variations supernor any marked appearances of con- vening would give rise to races with trivance, and supposing, as experience better and better seeing powers, until we warrants us in doing, that many small might at last reach as extraordinary a variations from those simple types would combination of structures and functions ·ATTRIBUTES 75 as are seen in the eye of min and of the, a probability; and that the various other more important animals. Of this theory, arguments of natural theology which we when puslied to this extreme point, all bave considered add nothing to its force. that can now be said is that it is not so Whatever ground there is, revelation absurd as it looks, and that the analogies apart, to believe in an author of nature which have been discovered in experi- is derived from the appearances in the ence, favourable to its possibility, far universe. Their mere resemblance to exceed what any one could have sup- the works of man, or to what man could posed beforehand. Whether it will ever do if he had the same power over the be possible to say more than this is at materials of organised bodies which he present uncertain. The theory, if has over the material, of a watch, is of admitted, would be in no way whatever some value as an argument of analogy; inconsistent with creation. But it niust but the argument is greatly strengthened be acknowledged that it would greatly by the properly inductive considerations attenuate the evidence for it. which establish that there is some con- Leaving this remarkable speculation nection through causation between the to whatever fate the progress of discovery origin of the arrangements of nature and may have in store for it, I think it must the ends they fulfil; an argument which be allowed that, in the present state of is in many cases slight, but in others, our knowledge, the adaptations in Nature and chiefly in the nice and intricate afford a large balance of probability in combinations of vegetable and animal favour of creation by intelligence. It is life, is of considerable stiength. equally certain that this is no more than Part II.-ATTRIBUTES. The question of the existence of a Deity, wide interval. And the distinction is of in its purely scientific aspect, standing as immense practical importance. is shown in the First Part, it is next to It is not too much to say that every be considered, given the indications of a indication of Design in the Kosmos is so Deity, what sort of a Deity do they point much evidence against the omnipotence to? What attributes are we warranted, of the designer. For what is nieant by by the evidence which Nature affords of design? Contrivance: the adaptation of a creative mind, in assigning to that means to an end. But the necessity for mind? contrivancc-the need of employing It needs no showing that the power, if means--1s a consequence of the limitanot the intelligence, must be so far tion of power. Who would have resuperior to that of man as to surpass course to mears if to attain his end his all human estimate. But from this to mere word was sufficient? The very idea omnipotence and omniscience there is a of means inplies that the means have an ·76 THEISM use conmore SO efficacy which the direct action of the power to alter any of those properties. being who employs them has not. It is only when we consent to entertain Otherwise they are not means, but an this negative supposition that there encumbrance. A man does not arises a need for wisdom and machinery to move his arins. If he did, trivance in the order of the universe. it could only be when paralysis had The Deity had on this hypothesis to deprived him of the power of moving work out his ends by combining materials them by volitior. But if the employ- of a given nature and properties. Out ment of contrivance is in itself a sign of of these materials he had to construct a limited power, how much world in which his designs should be is the careful and skilful choice of con carried into effect through given propertrivances? Can any wisdom be shown ties of matter and force, working toin the selection of means when the gether and fitting into one another. means have no efficacy but what is given This did require skill and contrivance, them by the will of hi.n who employs and the means by which it is effected then, and when his will could have are often such as justly excite our bestowed the saine cílicacy on any other wonder and admiration; but exactly bemcans ? Wisdoin and contrivance are cause it requires wisdom, it implies shown in overcoming dificulties, and limitation of power, or rather the two there is no room for them in a being for phrases express different sides of the whom no difficulties exist. The evisame fact. dences, therefore, of Natural Theology If it be said that an Omnipotent distinctly imply that the Author of the Creator, though under no necessity of Kosmos worked under limitations; that employing contrivances such as he was obliged to adapt himself to must use, thought fit to do so in order conditions independent of his will, and to leave traces by which man might to attain his ends by such arrangements recognise his creative hand, the answer as those conditions adinitted ol. is that this equally supposes a limit to And this hypothesis agrees with what his omnipotence. For if it was his will we have seen to be the tendency of the that men should know that they themevidences in another respect. We found selves and the world arc his work, he, that the appearances in nature point, being omnipotent, had only to will that indeed, to an origin of the Kosmos, or they should be aware of it. Ingenious order in nature, and indicate that origin men have sought for rcasons why God to be design, but do not point to any might choose to leave his existence so commencement, still less creation, of the far a matter of doubt that men should two great elements of the universe--the not be under an absolute necessity of passive element and the active element, knowing it, as thcy are of knowing that matter and force. There is in nature three and two make five. These rcason whatever to suppose that imagined reasons are very unfortunate either matter or force, or any of their specimens of casuistry; but even did we properties, weru nade by the being who admit their validity, they are of no avail was the author of the collocations by on the supposition of omnipotence, since, which the world is adapted to what we if it did not please God to implant in man consider as its purposes, or that he has a complete conviction of his existence, man no ·ATTRIBUTES 77 nothing hindered him from making the his design. It will not do to say that it conviction fall short of completeness by was, but that he had other designs which any margin he chose to leave. It is usual interfered with it; for no one purpose to dispose of arguments of this descrip- imposes necessary limitations on another tion by the easy answer that we do not in the case of a bcing not restricted by know what wise reasons the Omniscient conditions of possibility. may have had for leaving undone things Omnipotence, therefore, cannot be which he had the power to do. It is predicated of the Creator on grounds of not perceived that this plea itself implies natural thcology. The fundaniental a limil to omnipotence. When a thing is principles of natuial religion, as deduced obviously good and obviously in accor from the facts of the universe, negative dance with what all the evidences of his oinnipotence. They do not, in the creation imply to have been the Creator's same manner, exclude omnisciencc: if design, and we say we do not know we suppose limitation of power, there is what good reason he may have had for nothing to contradict the supposition of not doing it, we mean that we do not perfect knowledge and absolute wisdom. know to what other, still better object - But neither is there anything to prove it. to what object still more completely in The knowledge of the powers and the line of his purpos.s, he midy have properties of things necessary for seen fit to postpone it. But the neces- planning and executing the arrangesity of postponing one thing to another ments of the Kosmos is, no doubt, as belongs only to limited power. Omni- much in excess of hunian kroni_dge as potence could have made the objects the power implied in creatin is in excess compatible. Omnipotence docs not need of human power. And the skill, the to weigh one consideration against subtlety of contrivance, the ingenuity as another, If the Creator, like a human it would be called in the case of a human ruler, had to adapt himself to a set work, is often maivellous But nothing of condilions which he did not make, obliges us to suppose that either the it is as unphilosophical as presumptuous knowledge or the skill is infinite. We in us to call him to account for any are not even compulled to supposc that imperfections in his work; to complain the contrivances were always the best that he left anything in it contrary to possible. If we vcutuie to judge them what, if the indications of design prove as wc judge the works of human artificers, anything, he must have intended. He we find abundant defects. The huinan must at least know more than we know, budy, for example, is one of the most and we cannot judge what greater good striking instances of artful and ingenious would have had to be sacrificed, or what contrivance which nature offers, but we greater evil incurred, if he had decided may well ask whether so com:licated a to remove this particular blot. Not so machine could not have been made to if he be omnipotent. If he be that, he last longer, and not to get so easily and must himself have willed that the two frequently out of oider. We may ask desirable objects should be incompatible; why the human race should have been he must himself have willed that the so constituted as to grovel in wretchedobstacle to his supposed design should ness and degradation for countless ages be insuperable. It cannot, therefore, be before a small portion of it was enabled ·78 THEISM sense to lift itself into the very imperfect state of what nature is the limitation of his of intelligence, goodness, and happiness, power? Does the obstacle at which the which we enjoy. The divine power may power of the Creator stops, which says not have been equal to doing more; the to it, Thus far shalt thou go and no obstacles to a better arrangement of further, lie in the power of other Intellithings may have been insuperable. But gent Beings; or in the insufficiency and it is also possible that they were not. refractoriness of the materials of the The skill of the Demiourgos was suffi- universe; or must we resign ourselves to cient to produce what we see; but we admitting the hypothesis that the author cannot tell that this skill reached the of the Kosmos, though wise and knowextreine liinit of perſection compatible ing, was not all-wise and all-knowing, and with the material it employed and the may not always have done the best that forces it had to work with. I know not was possible under the conditions of the how we can even satisfy ourselves, on problem? grounds of natural thcology, that the The first of these suppositions has Creator foresees all the future ; that he until a very recent period been, and in foreknows all the effects that will issue many quarters still is, the prevalent from his own contrivances. There may theory even of Christianity. Though be great wisdom without the power of attributing, and in a certain foreseeing and calculating everything; sincerely, omnipotence to the Creator, and liuman workmanship teaches us the the received religion represents him as possibility that the workman's knowledge for some inscrutable reason tolerating of the properties of the things he works the perpetual counteraction of his puron may enable him to make arrange- poses by the will of another Being of ments admurably futed to produce a given opposite character and of great though result, while he may have very little inferior power, the Devil. The only power of foreseeing the agencies of difference on this matter between popular another kind which may modify or Christianity and the religion of Ormuzd counteract the operation of the machinery and Ahriman is that the former pays its he has made. Perhaps & knowledge of good Creator the bad compliment of the laws of nature on which organic life having been the maker of the Devil, and depends, not much more perfect than of being at all times able to crush and the knowledge which man even now annihilate him and his evil deeds and possesses of some other natural laws, counsels, which, nevertheless, he does would enable man, if he had the same not do. But, as I have already power over the materials and the forces remarked, all forms of polytheism, and concerned which he has over some of this among the rest, are with difficulty those of inanimate nature, to create reconcileable with an universe governed organised beings not less wonderful nor by general laws. Obedience to law is less adapted to their conditions of exist the note of a settled government, and ence than those in nature. not of a conflict always going on. When Assuining, then, that while we confine powers are at war with one another for ourselves to Natural Religion we must the rule of the world, the boundary rest content with a Creator less than between them is not fixed, but constantly Almighty, the question presents itself, Auctuating. This may seem to be the ·ATTRIBUTES 79 Case on our planet as between the agent of decay in both organic and inpowers of good and evil when we look organic substances is oxidation, and it is only at the results; but when we con- only by oxidation that life is continued sider the inner springs we find that both for even the length of a minute. The the good and the evil take place in the imperfections in the attainment of the common course of nature, by virtue of purposes which the appearances indicate the same general laws originally im- have not the air of having been designed. pressed--the same machinery turning They are like the unintended results of out now good, now evil things, and accidents insufficiently guarded against, oftener still the two combined. The or of a little excess or deficiency in the division of power is only apparently quantity of some of the agencies by variable, but really so regular that, were which the good purpose is carried on, or we speaking of human potentates, we else they are consequences of the wearing should declare without hesitation that out of a machinery not made to last for the share of each must have been fixed ever: they point either to shortcomings by previous consent. Upon that suppo- in the workmanship as regards its insition, indeed, the result of the combina- tended purpose, or to external forces not tion of antagonist forces might be much under the control of the workman, but the same as on that of a single creator which forces bear no mark of being with divided purposes. wielded and aimed by any other and But when we come to consider, not rival Intelligence. what hypothesis may be conceived, and We may conclude, then, that there is possibly reconciled with known facts, but no ground in Natural Theology for attriwhat supposition is pointed to by the buting intelligence or personality to the evidences of natural religion, the case obstacles which partially thwart what is different. The indications of design seem the purposes of the Creator. The point strongly in one direction--the limitation of his power more probably preservation of the creatures in whose results either from the qualities of the structure the indications are found. material—the substances and forces of Along with the preserving agencies there which the universe is composed not are destroying agencies, which we might admitting of any arrangements by which be tempted to ascribe to the will of a his purposes could be more completely different Creator; but there are rarely fulfilled; or else, the purposes might have appearances of the recondite contrivance been more fully attained, but the Creator of means of destruction, except when the did not know how to do it; creative destruction of one creature is the means skill, wonderful as it is, was not suffiof preservation to others. Nor can it be ciently perfect to accomplish his purposes supposed that the preserving agencies are more thoroughly. wielded by one Being, the destroying We now pass to the moral attributes agencies by another. The destroying of the Deity, so far as indicated in the agencies are a necessary part of the pre- Creation; or (stating the problem in the serving agencies: the chemical com- broadest manner) to the question, what positions by which life is carried on indications Nature gives of the purposes could not take place without a parallel of its author. This question bears a very series of decompositions. The great different aspect to us from what it bears ·80 THEISM to those teachers of Natural Theology who in nature would never have seemed to are encumbered with the necessity of ad- the thinking part of mankind to afford mitting the omnipotence of the Creator. any proofs of a God. But when a God We have not to attempt the impossible had been inferred from the organisation problem of reconciling mlinite benevo- of living beings, other parts of nature, lence and justice with infinite power in such as thc structure of the solar system, the Creator of such a world as this. The seemed to afford evidences more or less attempt to do so not only involves abso- strong in confirmation of the belief : lute contradiction in an intellectual point granting, then, a design in Nature, we can of vicw, but exhibits to excess the revolt- best hope to bc enlightened as to what ing spectacle of a Jesuitical defence of that design was by examining it in the moral enormities, paits of nature in which its traces are the On this topic I need not add to the inost conspicuous. illustrations given of this portion of the To what purpose, then, do the exsubject in my essay on Nature. At the pedients in the construction of animals stage which our argument has reached and vegetables, which excite the admuathere is none of this moral perplexity. tion of naturalists, appear to tend? Grant that creative power was limited by There is no blinking the fact that they conditions the nature and extent of which tend puncipally to no more exalted are wholly unknown to us, and the good object than to make the structure ness and justice of the Creator may be all remam in liſe and in working order for that the most pious believe; and all in a certain timc; the individual for a few the work that conflicts with those moral ycars, the species or race for a longer attributes may be thc fault of the con but still a limited period. And the ditions which left to the Creator only a sinular though less conspicuous marks choice of evils. of cieation which are recognised in It is, however, onc question whether inorganic nature are generally of the any given conclusion is consistent with same character. The adaptations, for known facts, and another whether there instance, which appear in the solar is endence to prove it; and if we have system consist in placing it under conno means for judging of the design but ditions which enable the mutual action from the work actually produced, it is a of its parts to maintain instead of somewhat hazardous speculaton to sup- destroying its stability, and even that pose that the work designed was of a only for a time, vast, indeed, if measured different quality from the result realised. against our short span of animated Still, though the grouifd is unsafe, we existence, but which may, with due caution, journey a certain ceived even by us to be limited; distance on it. Some parts of the order for the feeble which of nature give much more indication of we possess of exploring the past are contrivance than others; many, it is not believed by those who have examined too much to say, give no sign of it at all. the subject by the most recent lights to The signs of contrivance are most con- yield evidence that the solar system was spicuous in the structure and processes once a vast sphere of nebula or vapour, of vegetable and animal life. But for and is going through a process which in these, it is probable that the appearances the course of ages will reduce it to a can be per- 1 even nicans ·ATTRIBUTES 81 consingle and not very large mass of solid sions for giving them pain. There is no matter frozen up with more than arctic positive certainty that the whole of these cold. If the machinery of the system is ought not to take their place among the adapted to keep itself at work only for a contrivances for keeping the creature or t me, still less perfect is the adaptation its specics in existence, for both the of it for the abode of living beings, since pleasures and the pains have a it is only adapted to them during the servative tendency--the pleasures being relatively short portion of its total dura- generally so disposed as to attract to the tion which intervenes between the time things which maintain individual or when each planet was too hot and the collective existence; the pains, so as to time when it became, or will become, deter from such as would destroy it. too cold to admit of life under the only When all these things are considered, conditions in which we have experience it is evident that a vast deduction must of its possibility. Or we should, per- be made from the evidences of a Creator haps, reverse the statement, and say that before they can be counted as evidences organisation and life are only adapted of a benevolent purpose; so vast, indeed, to the conditions of the solar system that some may doubt whether, after such during a relatively short portion of the a deduction, there remains any balance. systeni's existence. Yet, endeavouring to look at the question The greater part, therefore, of the without partiality or prejudice, and withdesign of which there is indication in out allowing wishes to have any influence nature, however wonderful its mechanism, over judgment, it docs appear that, is no evidence of any moral attributes, granting the existence of design, there is because the end to which it is directed, a preponderance of evidence that the and its adaptation to which end is the Creator desired the pleasure of his evidence of its being directed to an end at creatures. This is indicated by the fact all, is not a moral cnd, it is not the good that pleasure of one description or of any sentient creature; it is but the another is afforded by almost everything, qualified permanence for a limited period the mere play of the faculties, physical of the work itself, whether animate or and mental, being a never-ending source inanimate. The only inference that can of pleasure, and even painful things be drawn from most of it respecting giving pleasure by the satisfaction of the character of the Creator is that he curiosity and the agrceable sense of does not wish his works to perish as acquiring knowledge; and also that soon as created; he wills them to have pleasure, when cxpcrienced, seems to a certain duration. From this alone result from the normal working of the nothing can be justly inferred as to the machinery, while pain usually arises froin manner in which he is affected towards some external interference with it, and his animate or rational creatures. resembles in each particular case the After deduction of the great number result of an accident. Even in cases of adaptations which have no apparent when pain results, like pleasure, from the object but to keep the machine going, machinery itself, the appearances do not there remain a certain number of pro- indicate that contrivance was brought visions for giving pleasure to living into play purposely to produce pain : beings, and a certain number of prove what is indicated is rather a clumsiness ·82 THEISM in the contrivance employed for sonic have called them into existence with the other purposes. The author of the prospect of being so completely baffled. machinery is no doubt accountable for If man had not the power by the exercise having made it susceptible of pain ; but of his own energies for the improvement this may have been a necessary condition both of himself and of his outward of its susceptibility to pleasure; a suppo- circumstances to do for himself and sition which avails, nothing on the theory other creatures vastly more than God of an omnipotent Creator, but is an had in the first instance done, the Being extremely probable one in the case of a who called him into existence would Contriver working under the linitation deserve something very different from of inexorable laws and indestructible thanks at his hands. Of course, it may properties of matter. 'Ihe susceptibility be said that this very capacity of improvbeing conceded as a thing which did ing himself and the world was given to enter into design, the pain itself usually him by God, and that the change which seems like a thing undesigned ; a casual he will be thereby enabled ultimately to result of the collision of the organism effect in human existence will be worth with some outward force to which it was purchasing by the sufferings and wasted not intended to be exposed, and which lives of entire geological periods. This in many cases provision is even made to may be so; but to suppose that God hinder it from being exposed to. There could not have given him these blessings is, therefore, niuch appearance that at a less frightful cost is to make a pleasure is agrecable to the Creator, very strange supposition concerning the while there is very little, if any, appear-Deity. It is to suppose that God could ance that pain is so; and there is a not, in the first instance, create anything certain amount of justification for infer- better than a Bosjesman or an Andaman ring, on grounds of Natural Theology islander, or something still lower; and alone, that benevolence is one of the yet was able to endow the Bosjesman or attributes of the Creatur. But to jump the Andaman islander with the power of from this to the inference that his sole raising himself into a Newton, or a or chief purposes arc those of benevo- Fénélon. We certainly do not know lence, and that the single end and aim of the nature of the barriers which limit Creation was the happiness of hiscreatures, the divine omnipotence; but it is a very is not only not justified by any evidence, odd notion of them that they enable the but is a conclusion in opposition to such Deity to confer on an almost bestial evidence as we have. If the motive of creature the power of producing by a the Deity for creating sentient beings succession of efforts what God himself was the happiness of the beings he had no other means of creating. created, his purpose, in our corner of Such are the indications of Natural the universe at least, must be pro- Religion in respect to the divine benevonounced, taking past ages and all lence. If we look for any other of the countries and races into account, to moral attributes which a certain class of have been thus far an ignoininious philosophers are accustomed to distinfailure; and if God had no purpose but guish from benevolence, as, for example, our happiness and that of other living Justice, we find a total blank. There is creatures, it is not credible that he would no evidence whatever in nature for ·IMMORTALITY 83 divine justice, whatever standard of we cannot even conjecture; of great, justice our ethical opinions may lead us to and perhaps unlimited intelligence, but recognise. There is no shadow of justice perhaps, also, more narrowly limited than in the general arrangements of nature, his power; who desires, and pays some and what imperfect realisation it obtains regard to, the happiness of his creaturcs, in any human society (a most imperfect but who seems to have other motives of realisation as yet) is the work of man action which he cares more for, and who himself, struggling upwards against can hardly be supposed to have created immense natural difficulties into civilisa- the universe for that purpose alone. tion, and making to himself a second Such is the Deity whom Natural Renature, far better and more unselfish ligion points to; and any idea of God than he was created with. But on this more captivating than this comes only point enough has been said in another from human wishes, cor from the teaching essay, already referred to, on Nature. of either real or imaginary Revelation. These, then, are the net results of We shall next examine whether the Natural Theology on the question of the light of nature gives any indications condivine attributes. A Being of great but cerning the immortality of the soul and limited power, how or by what limited a future liſe. --- PART III.-IMMORTALITY - The indications of immortality may be death, or dissolution, is always a separaconsidered in two divisions—those which lion of parts; and the soul being without are independent of any theory respecting , parts, being simple and indivisible, is the Creator and his intentions, and those not susceptible of this separation. which depend upon an antecedent belief Curiously enough, one of the interloon that subject cutors in the Phædon anticipates the Of the former class of arguments answer by which an objector of the speculative men have in different ages, present day would meet this argumentput forward a considerable variety, of namely, that thought and consciousness, which those in the Phedon of Plato are though mentally distinguishable from an example; but they are for the most the body, may not be a substance part such as have no adherents, and separable from it, but a result of it, need not be seriously refuted, now'. standing in relation to it (the illustration They are generally founded upon pre is Plato's) like that of a tune to the conceived theories as to the nature of musical instrument on which it is the thinking principle in man, considered played, and that the arguments used as distinct and separable from the body, to prove that the soul does not die with and on other preconceived theories re- the body would equally prove that the specting death. As, for example, that' tune does not die with the instrument, ·84 THEIS.IT but survives its destruction and con when the functions of the brain are tinues to exist apart. In fact, those at an end, we do know that diseases moderns who dispute the evidences of of the brain disturb the mental functions, the immortality of the soul do not, in and that decay or weakness of the brain general, believe the soul to be a sub- enfeebles them. We have, therefore, stance per se, but regard it as the name sufficient evidence that cerebral action of a bundle of attmbutes, the attributes is, if not the cause, at least, in our of feeling, thinking, reasoning, believing, present state of existence, a condition willing, etc.; and these attributes they sine qua non of mental operations; and regard as a consequence of the bodily that, assuming the mind to be a distinct organisation, which, therefore, they argue, substance, its separation from the body It is as unreasonable to suppose surviving would not be, as some have vainly when that organisation is dispersed as flattered themselves, a liberation Troni to suppose the colour or odour of a trammels and restoration to freedom, rose surviving when the rose itself has but would simply put a stop to its perished. Those, therefore, who would functions and remand it to unconsciousdeduce the immortality of the soul from ness, unless and until some other set of its own nature have first to prove that conditions supervenes, capable of rcthe attributes in question are not attri- calling it into activity, but of the existbutes of the body, but of a separate ence of which experience does not give substance. Now, what is the verdict of us the smallest indication. science on this point? It is not per- At the sanre time, it is of importance fectly conclusive either way. In the to remark that these considerations only first place, it does not prove, experi- amount to defect of evidence; they nientally, that any mode of organisation afford no positive argument against has the power of producing feeling or immortality. We must beware of giving thought. To make that proof good it à priori valıdity to the conclusions of would be necessary that we should be an à posteriori philosophy. The root of able to produce an organism, and try all à pruri thinking is the tendency to whether it would feel-which we cannot transfer to outward things a strong assodo; organisms cannot by any human ciation between the corresponding ideas means be produced, they can only be in our own minds; and the thinkers developed out of a previods organism. who most sincerely attempt to limit On the other hand, the evidence is well their beliefs by experience, and honestly nigh complete that all thought and feel believe that they do so, are not always ing has some action of the bodily sufficiently on their guard against this organism for its immediate antecedent mistake. There are thinkers who regard or accompaniment; that the specific it as a truth of reason that niracles are variations, and especially the different impossible, and in like inanner there degrees of complication of the nervous are others who, because the phenomena and cerebral organisation, correspond to of life and consciousness are associated differences in the development of the in their minds by undeviating experimental faculties; and though we have ence with the action of material organs, no evidence, except negative, that the think it an absurdity per se to imagine it mental consciousness ceases for ever possible that those phenomena can exist ·IMMORTALITY 85 under any other conditions. But they tutes a thinking substance. This absolute should remember that the uniform co distinction in thought and separability existence of one fact with another does in representation of our states of connot make the one fact a part of the sciousness from the set of conditions other, or the same with it. The relation with which they are united only by conof thought to a material brain is no stancy of concomitance is equivalent in metaphysical necessity, but simply a a practical point of view to the old constant co-existence within the limits distinction of the two substances, Matter of observation. And when analysed to and Mind. the bottom on the principles of the There is, therefore, in science no Associative Psychology, the brain, just evidence against the immortality of the as much as the mental functions, is, like soul but that negative evidence, which matter itself, merely a set of human consists in the absence of evidence in sensations either actual or inferred as its favour. And even the negative erle possible-nanıcly, those which the anato-dence is not so strong as negative mist has when he opens the skull, and evidence often is. In the case of witchthe impressions which we suppose we craſt, for instance, the fact that there is should receive of molecular or some no proof which will stand examination other inovements when the cerebral of its having ever existed is as concluaction was going on, if there were no sive as the most positive evidence of its bony envelope and our senses or our non-existence would be, for it evsts, if instruments were sufficiently delicate. it does exist, on this carth, where, if it Experience furnishes us with no example had existed, the evidence of fact would of any series of states of consciousness certainly have been available to prove without this group of contingent sensait. But it is not so as to the soul's tions attached to it; but it is as easy to cxistence after death. That it does not imagine such a series of states without remain on earth and go about visibly or as with this accompaniment, and we interfere in the cvents ot life is proved know of no reason in the nature of by the sanie weight of evidence which things against the possibility of its being disproves witchcraft. But that it does thus disjoined. We may suppose that not exist elsewhere there is absolutely the saine thoughts, emotions, volitions, no proof. A very faint, if any, presumpand even sensations which we have tion is alle that is afforded by its dishere, may persist or recommence some appearance fron the surface of this where else under other conditions, just planet. as we may suppose that other thoughts Some may think that there is an and sensations may exist under other addıtional and very strong presumption conditions in other parts of the universe. against the immortality of the thinking And in entertaining this supposition we and conscious principle, from the analysis need not be embarrassed by any meta of all the other objects of Nature, All physical difficulties about a thinking things in Nature perish, the most beausubstance. Substance is but a general tiful and perfect being, as philosophers name for the perdurability of attributes; and poets alike complain, the inost wherever there is a series of thoughts con- perishable. A flower of the most exnected together by memories, that consti- quisite form and colouring grows up ·86 THEISM from a root, comes to perfection in comparison made between it and other weeks or months, and lasts only a few realities, because there are no other hours or days. Why should it be other- known realities to compare it with. wise with man? Why, indeed. But That is quite consistent with its being why, also, should it not be otherwise ? perishable; but the question whether it Feeling and thought are not merely is so or not is res integra, untouched by different from what we call inanimate any of the results of human knowledge natter, but are at the opposite pole of and experience. The case is one of existence, and analogical inference has those very rare cases in which there is little or no validity from the one to the really a total absence of evidence on other. Feeling and thought are much either side, and in which the absence of niore real than anything else; they arc evidence for the affirmative docs not, as the only things which we directly know in so many cases it does, create a strong to be real, all things else being merely presumption in favour of the negative. the unknown conditions on which these, The belief, however, in huinan iinmorin our present state of existence, or in tality in the minds of mankind generally some other, depend. All matter apart is probably not grounded on any scienfrom the feelings of sentient beings has tific arguments either physical or metabut an hypothetical and unsubstantial physical, but on foundations with most existence; it is a mere assumption to minds much stronger-namely, on one account for our sensations; itself we do hand the disagreeableness of giving up not perceive, we are not conscious of it, existence (to those at least to whom it but only of the sensations which we are has hitherto been pleasant), and on the said to receive from it, in reality it is a other the general traditions of mankind. mere name for our expectation of The natural tendency of belicſ to follow sensations, or for our belief that we can these two inducements, our own wishes have certain sensations when certain and the general assent of other people, other sensations give indication of them. has been in this instance reinforced by Because these contingent possibilities the utmost exertion of the power of of sensation sooner or later come to public and private teaching; rulers and an end and give place to others, is it instructors having at all times, with the implied in this that the series of our view of giving greater effect to their feelings must itself be broken off? This mandates, whether from selfish or from would not be to reason froni one kind of public motives, encouraged to the utmost substantive reality to another, but to of their power the belief that there is a life draw from something which has no after death, in which pleasures and sufferreality except in reference to something ings far greater than on earth depend else, conclusions applicable to that on our doing or leaving undone while which is the only substantive reality. alıve what we are commanded to do in Mind (or whatever name we give to the name of the unseen powers. As what is implied in consciousness of a causes of belief these various circumcontinued series of feelings) is, in a stances are most powerful. As rational philosophical point of view, the only grounds of it they carry no weight at all. reality of which we have any evidence; That what is called the consoling and no analogy can be recognised or nature of an opinion--that is, the pleasure ·IMMORTALITY 67 we should have in believing it to be true- The argument from tradition or the can be a ground for believing it is a general belief of the human race, if we doctrine irrational in itself, and which accept it as a guide to our own belief, would sanction half the mischievous į must be accepted entire: if so, we are illusions recorded in history or which bound to believe that the souls of mislead individual life. It is sometimes, human beings not only survive after in the case now under consideration, death, but show themselves as ghosts to wrapped up in a quasi-scientific language. the living; for we find no people who We are told that the desire of immor have had the one belief without the tality is one of our instincts, and that other. Indeed, it is probable that the there is no instinct which has not corre- former belief originated in the latter, sponding to it a real object fitted to and that primitive men would never have satisfy it. Where there is hunger there supposed that the soul did not die with is somewhere food, where there is sexual the body if they had not fancied that it feeling there is somewhere sex, where visited them after death. Nothing could there is love there is somewhere some be more natural than such a fancy; it is, thing to be loved, and so forth : in like in appearance, completely realised in manner, since there is the instinctive dreams, which in Homer, and in all ages desire of eternal life, eternal life there like Homer's, are supposed to be real must be. The answer to this is patent apparitions. To dreams we have to add on the very surface of the subject. It not merely waking hallucinations, but the is unnecessary to go into any recondite delusions, however bascless, of sight and considerations concerning instincts, or to hearing, or, rather, the misinterpretadiscuss whether the desire in question tions of those senses, sight or hearing is an instinct or not. Granting that Granting that supplying mere hints from which imagiwherever there is an instinct there nation paints a complete picture and exists something such as that instinct invests it with reality. These delusions demands, can it be affirmed that this are not to be judged of by a modern something exists in boundless quantity, standard: in early times the line beor sufficient to satisfy the infinite craving tween inagination and perception was of human desires ? What is called the by no means clearly defined; there was desire of eternal life is simply the desire little or none of the knowledge we now of life; and does there not exist that possess of the actual course of nature, which this desire calls for? Is there not which makes us distrust or disbelieve life? And is not the instinct, if it be any appearance which is at variance an instinct, gratified by the possession with known laws. In the ignorance of and preservation of life? To supposc men as to what were the limits of nature, that the desire of life guarantees to us and what was or was not coinpatible personally the reality of life through all with it, no one thing seemed, as far eternity is like supposing that the desire as physical considerations went, to be of food assures us that we shall always much more improbable than another. have as much as we can eat through In rejecting, therefore, as we do, and as our whole lives, and as much longer as we have the best reason to do, the tales we can conceive our lives to be pro- and legends of the actual appearance of tracted to. disembodied spirits, we take from under ·88 THEISM the general belief in mankind in a life creatures, but by no means that this is after death, what in all probability was his sole care, or that other purposes do its chief ground and support, and not often take precedence of it. His deprive it of even the very little value intelligence must be adequate to the which the opinion of rude ages can ever contrivances apparent in the universe, have as evidence of truth. If it be said but need not be more than adequate that this belief has maintained itself in to them, and his power is not only not ages which have ceased to be rude, and proved to be infinite, but the only real which reject the superstitions with which evidences in Natural Theology tend to it once was accompanicd, the same may show that it is lunited, contrivance being be said of many other opinions of rude a mode of overconing difficulties, and ages, and especially on the most im- always supposing difficulties to be overporlant and interesting subjects, because come. it is on those subjects that the reigning We have now to consider what inferopinion, whatever it may be, is the most encc can legitimately be drawn from sedulously inculcated upon all who are these premises, in favour of a future life. born into the world. This particular It seems to me, apart from express opinion, inoreover, if it has on the whole revelation, none at all. kept its ground, has done so with a The common arguments are, the goodconstantly increasing number of dis- ness of God; the improbability that he sentients, and those especially among would urdain the annihilation of his cultivated minds. Finally, those culti- noblest and richest work, after the greater vated minds which adhere to the belief part of its few years of life had been ground it, we may reasonably suppose, spent in the acquisition of faculties not on the belief of others, but on which time has not allowed him to turn arguments and evidences; and those to fruit; and the special improbability arguments and cvidences, therefore, are that he would have implanted in us an what it concerns us to estimate and instinctive desire of elcrnal life, and judge. doumed that desire to complete dis- The preceding are a sufficient sample appointment. of the arguments for a fulure life which These might be arguments in a world do not suppose an antecedent belief in the constitution of which made it posthe existence, or any theory respecting sible without contradiction to hold it for the attributes, of the Godhead. It re the work of a Being at once oninipotent mains to consider what arguments are and benevolent. But they are not argusupplied by such lights, or such grounds ments in a world like that in which we of conjecture, as Natural Theology affords live. The benevolence of the divine on those great questions. Being may be perfect, but, his power We have seen that these lights are but being subject to unknown limitations, faint; that of the existence of a Creator we know not that he could have given they afford no more than a preponder us what we so confidently assert that he ance of probability; of his benevolence, must have given; could (that is) without a considerably less preponderance; that sacrificing something more important. there is, however, some reason to think Even his benevolence, however justly that he cares for the pleasures of his inferred, is by no means indicated as the ·LIMORTALITY 89 interpretation of his whole purpose; and of his power or of his goodness, there is since we cannot tell how far other pur room to hope that both the one and the poses may have interfered with the other may extend to granting us this exercise of his benevolence, we know gift, provided that it would really be not that he would, even if he could, have beneficial to us. The same ground granted us eternal life. With regard to which permits the hope warrants us in the supposed improbability of his having expecting that, if there be a future life, it given the wish without its gratification, will be at least as good as the present, the same answer may be made: the and will not be wanting in the best scheme which either limitation of power, feature of the present life--improvability or conflict of purposes, coinpelled him to by our own efforts. Nothing can be adopt may have required that we should more opposed to every estimate we can have the wish, although it were not form of probability than the conmon destined to be gratified. One thing, idea of the future life as a state of however, is quite certain in respect to rewards and punishments in any other God's government of the world : that he sense than that the consequences of our either could not, or would not, grant to actions upon our own character and susus everything we wish. We wish for ceptibilities will follow us in the future as life, and he has granted some life; that they have done in thc past and present. we wish (or some of us wish) for a Whatever be the probabilities of a future boundless extent of life, and that it is not life, all the probabilities in case of a granted, is no exception to the ordinary future life are that such as we have been modes of his government. Many a made or have made ourselves before the inan would like to be a Cræsus or an change, such we shall enter into the life Augustus Casar, but has his wishes hereafter; and that the fact of dcath will gratified only to the moderate extent of a make no sudden brcak in our spiritual pound a week or the secretaryship of his life, nor influence our character any Trade Union. There is, therefore, no otherwise than as any important change assurance whatever of a life after death, in our mode of cxistence may always be on grounds of natural religion. But to expected to modify it. Our thinking any one who feels it conducive either to principle has its laws, which in this life his satisfaction or to his usefulness to are invariable, and any analogies drawn hope for a futuie state as a possibility, from this nfe must assume that the sano there is no hindrance to his indulging laws will continue. To imagine that a that hope. Appearances point to the miracle will be wrought at death by the existence of a Being who has great act of God making perfect every one power over us-ali the power implied in whom it is his will to include among his the creation of the Kosmos, or of its elect, might be justified by an express organised beings at least-and of whose revelation duly authenticated, but is goodness we have evidence, though not utterly opposed to every presumption of its being his predominant attribute; that can be deduced from the light of and as we do not know the limits either Nature.

·90 THEISM WA PART IV.- REVELATION THE discussion in the preceding pages whosc wisdom and goodness, are, if not respecting the cvidences of Theism has proved, at least indicated with more or been strictly confined to those which less of probability by the phenomena of are derived from the light of Nature. It Nature. The sender of the alleged is a different question what addition has message is not a sheer invention; there been inade to those evidences, and to are grounds independent of the message what extent the conclusions obtainable itself for belief in his reality; grounds from thein have been amplified or modi- which, though insufficient for proof, are fied, by the establishment of a direct sufficient to take away all antecedent communication with the Supreme Bcing. improbability from the supposition that It would be beyond the purpose of this a message may really have been received essay to take into consideration the from him. It is, moreover, much to the positivo evidences of the Christian or purpose to take notice that the very any other belief which claims to be a imperfection of the evidences which revelation from Heaven. But such | Natural Theology can produce of the general considerations as are applicable; | Divine attributes removes some of the not to a particular system, but to chicf stumbling blocks to the belief Revelation generally, may properly find of a Revelation; since the objections a place here, and arc, indeed, necessary grounded on imperfections in the Reveto give a sulficiently practical bearing lation itself, however conclusive against to the results of the preceding investi- it, if it is considered as a record of gation. the acts or an expression of the wisdom In the first place, then, the indications of a Being of infinite power combined of a Creator and of his attributes which with infinite wisdom and goodness, are we have been able to find in Nature, no reason whatever against its having though so much slighter and less con come from a Being such as the course of clusive even as to his existence than the nature points to, whose wisdom is pospious mind would wish to consider sibly, his power certainly, limited, and them, and still more unsatisfactory in whose goodness, though real, is not the information they afford as to his likely to have been the only motive attributes, are yet sufficient to give to the which actuated him in the work of supposition of a Revelation a standing- Creation. The argument of Butler's point which it would not othcı wise have Analogy' is, from its own point of view, had. The alleged Revelation is not conclusive: the Christian religion is open obl ged to build up its case from thc to no objections, either moral or intelfoundation; it has not to prove the very lectual, which do not apply, at least, existence of the Being from whom it equally to the common theory of Duism; professes to come. It claims to be a the morality of the Gospels is far higher message from a Being whose existence, and better than that which shows itself whose power, and to a certain extent I in the order of Nature; and what is ·REVELATIO.V 91 of morally objectionable in the Christian only question to be cntertained, and theory of the world is objectionable only which we cannot dispense ourselves from when taken in conjunction with the cntertaining, is that of evidence. Can doctrine of an omnipotent God; and any evidence suffice to prove a Divine (at least as understood by the most Revelation ? And of what nature, and enlightened Christians) by no means im- what amount, must that evidence be? ports any moral obliquity in a Being Whether the special evidences whose power is supposed to be restricted Christianity, or of any other alleged by real though unknown obstacles, revelation, do or do not come up to the which prevented him from fully carrying mark, is a different question, into which out his design. The grave error of I do not propose directly to enter. The Butler was that he shrank from admit- question I intend to consider is, what ting the hypothesis of limited powers ; cvidence is required; what general conand his appeal consequently amounts ditions it ought to satisfy; and whether to this : The belief of Christians is they are such as, according to the known neither more absurd mor more immoral constitution of things, can be satisficd. than the belief of Deists who acknow The evidences of Revelation are comiledge an Omnipotent Creator; let us, monly distinguished as external or intherefore, in spite of the absurdity and ternal. External evidences are the testiimmorality, belicve both. He ought to mony of the senses or of witnesses. By have said : Let us cut down our belief the internal evidences are nicant the of either to what does not involve indications which the Revelation itself absurdity or immorality; to what is is thought to furnish of its divine origin; neither intellectually self-contradictory indications supposed to consist chiefly in nor morally perverted, the excellence of its precepts, and its To return, however, to the main sub- general suitability to the circumstances ject : on the hypothesis of a God, who and needs of human nature. made the world, and in making it had The consideration of these internal regard, however that regard may have evidences is very important, but their been limited by other considerations, to importance is principally negative; they the happiness of his sentient creatures, may be conclusive grounds for rejecting there is no antecedent improbability in a Revelation, but cannot of themselves the supposition that his concern for warrant the acceptance of it as divine. their good would continue, and that he if the moral character of the doctrines might once, or oſtener, give proof of it of an alleged Revelation is bad and by communicating to them some know- perverting, we ought to reject it from ledge of hiinself beyond what they were whomsoever it comes, for it cannot come able to make out by their unassisted from a good and wise Being. But the faculties, and some knowledge or pre-excellence of their morality can never cepts useful for guiding them through entitle us to ascribe to them a superthe difficulties of life. Neither on the natural origin; for we cannot have cononly tenable hypothesis, that of limited clusive reason for believing that the power, is it open to us to object that human faculties were incompetent to find these helps ought to have been greater, out moral doctrines of which the human or in any way other than they are. The faculties can perceive and recognise the ·92 THEISHI If we excellence. A Revelation, therefore, actually starting into existence and comcannot be proved divine unless by ex- mencing a movement through space, ternal evidence that is, by the exhibi- at his command. There can be no tion of supernatural facts. And we doubt that this evidence would convert have to consider whether it is possible the creation of worlds from a speculation to prove supernatural facts, and, if it into a fact of experience. It may be is, what evidence is required to prove said I could not know that so singular them. an appearance was anything more than This question has only, so far as I a hallucination of my senses. True, know, been seriously raised on the but the same doubt exists at first resceptical side by Hume. It is the ques- specting every unsuspected and surpristion involved in his famous argument ing fact which comes to light in our against miracles--an argument which physical researches. That our senses goes down to the depths of the subject, have been deceived is a possibility which but the exact scope and effect of has to be met and dealt with, and we do which (perhaps not conccived with pei- dcal with it by several means. fect correctness by that great thinker repeat the experiinent, and again with himsell) have in general been utterly the samc result; if at the time of the misconceived by those who have at observation the impressions of our senses tempted to answer him. Dr. Campbell, arc in all other respects the same as for example, one of the acutest of his usual, rendering the supposition of their antagonists, has thought himself obliged, being morbidly affected in this one parin order to support the credibility of ticular extremely improbable; above all, miracles, to lay down doctrines which if other people's senses confirm the testivirtually go the length of maintaining mony of our own; we conclude, with that antecedent improbability is never a rcason, that we may trust pur senses. sufficient ground for refusing credence Indeed, our senses are all that we have to a statement, if it is well attested. Dr. to trust to. We depend on them for the Campbell's fallacy lay in overlooking a ultimate premises even of our reasondouble meaning of the word "inipro ings. There is no other appeal against bability"; as I have pointed out in my their decision than an appeal from the Logic, and, still carlier, in an editorial senses without precautions to the senses note to Benthani's treatise on Ezidence. with all due precautions. When the Taking the question from the very evidence on which an opinion rests is beginning, it is evidently impossible to equal to that upon which the whole conmaintain that, if a supernatural fact really duct and safety of our lives is founded, occurs, proof of its occurrence cannot be we need ask no further. Objections accessible to the human faculties. The which apply equally to all evidence are evidence of our senses could prove this valid against none. They only prove as it can prove other things. To put abstract fallibility. the most extreme case: Suppose that I But the evidence of miracles, at least actually saw and heard a Being, either to Protestant Christians, is not, in our of the human form or of some form own day, of this cogent description. It previously unknown to me, commanding is not the evidence of our senses, but of a world to exist, and a new world witnesses, and even this not at first ·REVELATION 93 hand, but resting on the attestation of able and inviolable uniformity in the books and traditions. And even in the succession of natural events. There is, case of the original eye-witnesses, the therefore, the very strongest reason for supernatural facts asserted on their disbelieving it that experience can give alleged testiinony are not of the trans for disbelieving anything. But the mencendent character supposed in our ex- dacity or error of witnesses, even though ample, about the nature of which, or numerous and of fair character, is quite the impossibility of their having had a within the bounds of even common natural origin, there could be little experience. That supposition, therefore, room for doubt. On the contrary, the ought to be preferred. recorded miracles are, in the first place, There are two apparently weak points generally such as it would have been in this argument. One is, that the eviextremely difficult to verify as matters of dence of experience to which its appeal fact, and, in the next place, are hardly is made is only negative evidence, which ever beyond the possibility of having is not so conclusive as positive, since been brought about by human means or facts of which there had been no preby the spontaneous agencies of nature. vious experience are often discovered, It is to cases of this kind that Humes and proved by positive experience to argument against the credibility of be true. The other seemingly vulnermuracles was incant to apply. able point is this. The argument has His argument is: The evidence of the appearance of assuming that the miracles consists of testimony. The testimony of experience against miracles ground of our reliance on testimony is undeviating and indubitable, as it is our experience that, certain conditions would be if the whole question was being supposed, testimony is generally about the probability of future miracles, veracious. But the same experience wone having taken place in the past; tells us that, even under the best condi- , whereas the very thing asserted on the tins, testimony is frequently either inten- other side is that there have been tionally or unintentionally false. When, miracles, and that the testimony of therefore, the fact to which testimony is experience is not wholly on the negative produced is one the happening of which side. All the evidence alleged in favour would be more at variance with experi- of any miracle ought to be reckoned as ence than the falsehood of testimony, counter-ewidence in rcfutation of the we ought not to believe it. And this ground on which it is asserted that rule all prudent persons observe in the miracles ought to be disbelieved. The conduct of life. Those who do not are question can only be stated fairly as desure to suffer for their credulity. pending on a balance of evidence: a Now, a miracle (the argument goes on certain amount of positive evidence in to say) is, in the highest possible degree, favour of miracles, and a negative precontadictory to experience; for if it sumption from the general course of were not contradictory to experience it human experience against them. would not be a miracle. The very 119 order to support the argument reason for its being regarded as a under this double correction, it has to be miracle is that it is a breach of a law shown that the negative presumption of nature--that is, of an otherwise invari- | against a miracle is very much stronger ·94 THEISM were than that against a merely new and sur rence of the most familiar phenomena prising fact. This, however, is evidently must always have been recognised, the case. A new physical discovery, yet even in these the exceptions which even if it consists in the defeating of a were constantly occurring had not yet, well-established law of nature, is but the by an investigation and generalisation of discovery of another law previously un- the circumstances of their occurrence, known. There is pothing in this but been reconciled with the general rule. what is fainiliar to our experience; we The heavenly bodies were from of old were aware that we did not know all the the most conspicuous types of regular laws of nature, and we were aware that and unvarying order; yet even among one such law is liable to be counteracted thern comets a phenomenon by others. The new phenomenon, when apparently originating without any law, brought to light, is found still to depend and eclipses, one which seemed to take on law; it is always exactly reproduced place in violation of law. Accordingly, when the same circumstances are re both coniets and eclipses long continued peated. Its occurrence, therefore, is to be regarded as of a miraculous nature, within the limits of variation in experi intended as signs and omens of human ence, which experience itself discloses. fortunes. It would have been impossible But a miracle, in the very fact of being in those days to prove to anyone that a miracle, declares itself to be a super- this supposition was antecedently imsession, not of one natural law by probable. It seemed more conformable another, but of the law which includes to appearances than the hypothesis of an all others, which experience shows to be unknown law. universal for all phenomena--YIZ., that Now, however, when, in the progress they depend on some law; that they are of science, all phenomena have been always the same when there are the shown by indisputable evidence to be same phenomenal antecedents, and amenable to law, and even in the cases neither take place in the absence of in which those laws have not yet been their phenomenal causes, nor ever fail to exactly ascertained, delay in ascertaining take place when the phenomenal condi- them is fully accounted for by the special tions are all present. difficulties of the subject; the defenders It is evident that this argument against of miracles have adapted their argument belief in miracles had very little to rest to this altered state of things by mainupon until a comparatively modern taining that a miracle need not necesstage in the progress of science. A few sarily be a violation of law. It may, generations ago the universal depen they say, take place in fulfilment of a dence of phenomena on invariable laws more recondite law, to us unknown. was not only not recognised by mankind If by this it be only meant that the in general, but could not be regarded by Divine Being, in the exercise of his the instructed as a scientifically estab- power of interfering with and suspending lished truth. There were many pheno- his own laws, guides himself by some mena which seened quite irregular in general principle or rule of action, this, their course, without dependence on of course, cannot be disproved, and is any known antecedents, and though, no in itself the most probable supposition. doubt, a certain regularity in the occur. But if the argument means that a ·REVELATION 95 miracle may be the fulfilment of a law It will perhaps be said that a miracle in the same sense in which the ordinary does not necessarily exclude the interevents of Nature are fulfilments of laws, it vention of second causes. If it were the seems to indicate an imperfect concep- will of God to raise a thunderstorm by tion of what is meant by a law, and of miracle, he might do it by means of what constitutes a miracle. winds and clouds. Undoubtedly; but When we say that an ordinary physical the winds and clouds were either suffifact always takes place according to cient when produced to excite the some invariable law, we mean that it is thunderstorm without other divine assistconnected by uniform scquence or co ance, or they were not. If they were existence with sone definite set of not, the storm is not a fulfilment of law, physical antecedents; that whenever that but a violation of it. If they were suffiset is exactly reproduced the same pheno- cient, there is a miracle, but it is not the menon will take place, unless counter storm; it is the production of the winds acted by thc similar laws of some other and clouds, or whatever link in the chain physical antecedents; and that, when- of causation it was at which the influence ever it does take place, it would always of physical antecedents was dispensed be found that its special set of antece- with. If that influence was never disdents (or one of its scts if it has more pensed with, but the event called mirathan one) has pre-existed. Now, an culous was produced by natural means, event which takes place in this manner and those again by others, and so on is not a miracle. To make it a miracle from the beginning of things; if the it must be produced by a direct volition, event is no otherwise the act of God without the use of means; or, at least, than in having been foreseen and of any means which, if simply repeated, ordained by him as the consequence of would produce it. To constitute a the forces put in action at the Creation; miracle a phenomenon must lake place then there is no miracle at all, nor without having been preceded by any anything different from the ordinary antecedent phenomenal conditions suffi- working of God's providence. cient again to reproduce it; or a pheno For another example: a person promenon for the production of which fessing to be divinely commissioned the antecedent conditions existed must cures a sick person by some apparently be arrested or prevented without the in- insignificant external application. Would tervention of any phenomenal antece- this application, administered by a person dents which would arrest or prevent it not specially commissioned from above, in a future case. The test of a miracle have effected the cure? If so, there is is : Were there present in the case such no miracle; if not, there is a miracle, external conditions, such second causes but there is a violation of law. we may call them, that whenever these It will be said, however, that, if these conditions or causes reappear the event be violations of law, then law is violated will be reproduced? If there were, it is every time that any outward effect is not a miracle; if there were not, it is a produced by a voluntary act of a human miracle, but it is not according to law; being. Human volition is constantly it is an event produced, without, or in modifying natural phenomena, not by spite of, law, violating their laws, but by using their ·96 THEISM laws. Why may not divine volition do combination of physical antecedents and the same? The power of volitions over a physical conscquent. But this, whether phenomena is itself a law, and one of the true or not, does not really affect the earliest known and acknowledged laws argument; for the interference of human of nature. It is truc the human will will with the course of Nature is only not exercises power over objects in general an exception to law when we include indirectly, through the direct power among laws the relation of motive to which it possesses dily over the human volition; and by the same rule interfermuscles. God, however, has direct ence by the Divine will would not be an power, not merely over one thing, but exception either, since we cannot but over all the objects which he has made. suppose the Deity m every one of his There is, therefore, no more a supposi acts to be determined by motives. tion of violation of law in supposing that The alleged analogy, therefore, holds events are produced, prevented, or modi- good, but what it proves is only what I ficd by God's action, than in the suppohave from the first maintained that sition of their being produced, pre divine interference with nature could be vented, or modilied by man's action. proved if we had the same sort of Both are equally in the course of Nature, cvidence for it which we have for both equally consistent with what we know human interferences. The question of of the government of all things by law. antecedent iniprobability only arises be- Those who thus argne are mostly because divine interposition is not certified lievers in Frec Will, and maintain that by the direct evidence of perception, every human volition originates a new but is always matter of inference, and, chain of causation, of which it is itself more or less, of speculative inference. the commencing link, not connected by Ind a little consideration will show that invariable sequence with any anterior in these circuinstances the antecedent fact. Even, therefore, if a divine inter presumption against the truth of the position did constitute a breaking-in inference is extremely strong. upon the connected chain of events, by When the hunian will interferes to the introduction of a new originating produce any physical phenomenon, excause without root in the past, this would cept the movements of the human body, be no reason for discrediting it, since it does so by the employment of means, every human act of volition does pre- and is obliged to employ such means as cisely the same. If the one is a brcach are by their own physical properties of law, so are the others. In fact, the sufficient to bring about the effect. reign of law does not extend to the Divine interference by hypothesis proorigination of volition. ceeds in a different manner fron this; it Those who dispute the Free Will produces its effect without means, or with theory, and regard volition as no excep- such as are in themsclves insufficient. tion to the universal law of Cause and in the first case, all the plıysical phe- Effect, may answer, that volitions do not nomena, except the first bodily moveinterrupt the chain of causation, but ment, are produced in strict conformity carry it on, the connection of cause and to physical causation; while that first effect being of just the same nature movement is traced by positive observabetween motive and act as between a tion to the cause (the volition) which ·REVELATION 97 ence. produced it. In the other case the aided by science, has not yet brought to event is supposed not to have been pro- light, or on facts the presence of which duced at all through physical causation, in the particular case is unsuspected by while therc is no direct evidence to con us. Accordingly, when we hear of a nect it with any volition. The ground on prodigy, we always in these modern times which it is ascribed to a volition is believe that, if it really occurred, it was only negative, because there is no other neither the work of God nor of a demon, apparent way of accounting for its exist but the consequence of some unknown natural law or of some hidden fact. Nor But in this merely speculative explana is either of these suppositions precluded lion there is always another hypothesis when, as in the case of a miracle possible-- viz., that the event may have properly so called, the wonderful event been produced by physical causes in a seemed to depend upon the will of a manner not apparent. It may either be human being. It is always possible that due to a law of physical nature not yet there may be at work some undetected known, or to the unknown presence of law of nature which the wonder-worker the conditions necessary for producing may have acquired, consciously or unit according to some known law. Sup- consciously, the power of calling into posing even that the event, supposed to action; or that the wonder may have be miraculous, does not reach us through been wrought (as in the truly extraordithe uncertain medium of human testi- nary feats of jugglers) by thc employmony, but rests on the direct evidence of ment, unperceived by us, of ordinary our own senses; even then, so long as laws, which also need not necessarily be there is no direct evidence of its produc- a case of voluntary deception; or, lastly, tion by a divine volition, like that we the event may have had no connection have for the production of bodily move with the volition at all, but the coinciments by human volitions-so long, dence between them may be the effect therefore, as the miraculous character of of craft or accident, the miracle-worker the event is but an inference from the having seemed or effected to produce by supposed inadequacy of the laws of his will that witich was already about to physical nature to account for it-so take place, as if one were to command long will the hypothesis of a natural an eclipse of the sun at the moment origin for the phenomenon bc entitled to when one knew by astronomy that an preference over that of a supernatural eclipsc was on the point of taking place. The commonest principles of In a case of this description the miracle sound judgment forbid us to suppose for might be tested by a challenge to repeat any effect a cause of which we have it; but it is worthy of remark that reabsolutely no experience, unless all corded miracles were seldom or never those of which we have experience are put to this test. No miracle-worker ascertained to be absent. Now, there seems ever to have made a practice of are few things of which we have more raising the dead; that and the other frequent experience than of physical most signal of the miraculous operations facts which our knowledge does not are reported to have been performed enable us to account for, because they only in one or a few isolated cases, depend either on laws which observation, which may have been either cunningly one.

·98 THEISM } selected cases or accidental coincidences. | longer a purely arbitrary hypothesis to There is, in short, nothing to exclude account for the fact, but must be the supposition that every alleged miracle reckoned with as a serious possibility. was due to natural causes; and as long The question then changes its character, as that supposition remains possible no and the decision of it must now rest scientific observer, and no man of ordi- upon what is known or reasonably surnary practical judgment, would assume mised as to the manner of God's governby conjecture a cause which no reason ment of the universe; whether this existed for supposing to be real, save the knowledge or surmise makes it the more necessity of accounting for something probable supposition that the event was which is sufficiently accounted for with brought about by the agencies by which out it. his government is ordinarily carried on, Were we to stop here, the case against or that it is the result of a special and miracles might seem to be complete. extraordinary interposition of his will in But, on further inspection, it will be supersession of those ordinary agencies. seen that we cannot, from the above In the first place, then, assuming as a considerations, conclude absolutely that fact the existence and providence of the miraculous theory of the production God, the whole of our observation of of a phenomenon ought to be at once Nature proves to us by incontrovertible rejected. We can conclude only that evidence that the rule of his government no extraordinary powers which have ever is by means of sccond causes; that all been alleged to be exercised by any facts, or at least all physical facts, follow human being over nature can be evidence uniforinly upon given physical condi of miraculous gifts to any one to whom tions, and never occur but when the the existence of a Supernatural Being appropriate collection of physical condiand his interference in human affairs is tions is realised. I limit the assertion not already a vera causa. The existence to physical facts, in order to leave the of God cannot possibly be proved by case of human volition an open question; miracles, for, unless a God is already though, indeed, I need not do so, for, if recognised, the apparent niiracle can the human will is free, it has been left free always be accounted for on a more by the Creator, and is not controlled by probable hypothesis than that of the him either through second causes or interference of a Being of whose very directly, so that, not being governed, it existence it is supposed to be the sole is not a specimen of his mode of governevidence. Thus far Hume's argument ment. Whatever he does govern, he is conclusive. But it is far from being governs by second causes. This was equally 'so when the cxistence of a Being not obvious in the infancy of science; it who created the present order of Nature, was more and more recognised as the and, therefore, may well be thought to processes of nature were more carefully have power to modify it, is accepted as and accurately examined, until there a fact, or even as a probability resting on now remains no class of phenomena of independent evidence. Once admit a which it is not positively known, save God, and the production by his direct some cases which from their obscurity volition of an effect, which in any case and complication our scientific proowed its origin to his creative will, is no cesses have not yet been able completely ·REVELATION 99 to clear up and disentangle, and in is, therefore, a vast preponderince of which, therefore, the proof that they probability against a miracle, to counteralso are governed by natural laws could balance which would require a very not, in the present state of science, be extraordinary and indisputable congruity more complete. The evidence, though in the supposed miracle and its circuinmerely negative, which these circumstances with something which we constances afford that government by second ceive ourselves to know, or to have causes is universal, is admitted for all grounds for believing, with regard to the except directly religious purposes to be divine attributes. conclusive. When either a man of This extraordinary congiuity is supscience for scientific, or a man of the posed to exist when the purpose of the world for practical, purposes inquires miracle is extremely beneficial to maninto an event, he asks himself, What is kind, as when it serves to accredit some its cause ? and not, Has it any natural highly important belief. The goodness cause? A man would be laughed at of God, it is supposed, affords a high who set down as one of the alternative degree of antecedent probability that he suppositions that there is no other cause would make an exception to his general for it than the will of God. rule of government for so excellent a Against this weight of negative evi- purpose. For reasons, however, which dence we have to set such positive have already been entered into, any evidence as is produced in attestation of inference drawn by us from the goodexceptions; in other words, the positive ness of God to what he has or has not evidences of miracles. And I have al- actually done, is to the last degree preready admitted that this evidence might carious. If we reason directly from God's conceivably have been such as to make goodness to positive facts, no misery, the exception equally certain with the nor vice, nor crimne ought to exist in the rule. If we had the direct testimony of world. We can see no reason in God's our senses to a supernatural fact, it might goodness why, if he deviated once from be as completely authenticated and the ordinary system of his government made certain as any natural one. But in order to do good to man, he should we never have. The supernatural cha- not have done so on a hundred other racter of the fact is always, as I have occasions; nor why, if the benefit aimed said, matter of inference and specula- at by some gtven deviation, such as the tion; and the mystery always admits the revelation of Christianity, was transcenpossibility of a solution not supernatural. dent and unique, that precious gift To those who already believe in super should only have been vouchsafed after natural power the supernatural hypo- the lapse of many ages; or why, when it thesis may appear more probable than was at last given, the evidence of it the natural one; but only if it accords should have been left open to so much with what we know or reasonably surmise doubt and difficulty. Let it be renemrespecting the ways of the supernatural bered also that the goodness of God agent. Now, all that we know from the affords no presumption in favour of evidence of nature concerning his ways a deviation from his general system of is in harmony with the natural theory and government unless the good purpose repugnant to the supernatural. There could not have been attained without ·100 THEISM deviation. If God intended that man of the wonderful stories, such multitudes kind should receive Christianity or any of which were current among the early other gift, it would have agreed better Christians; but when they do, excepwith all that we know of his government tionally, name any of the persons who to have made provision in the scheme of were the subjects or spectators of the crcation for its arising at the appointed miracle, they doubtless draw from traditime by natural development; which, lettion, and mention those names with it be added, all the knowledge we now which the story was in the popular mind possess concerning the history of the (perhaps accidentally) connected; for hunian mind tends to the conclusion whoever has observed the way in which that it actually did. even now a story grows up from sone To all these considerations ought to small foundation, taking on additional be added the extremely imperfect nature details at every step, knows well how, of the testimony itself which we possess from being at first anonymous, it gets for the miracles, real or supposed, which names attached to it; the name of some accompanied the foundation of Chris- one by whom, perhaps, the story has tianity and of every other revealed re- been told being brought into the story ligion. Take it at the best, it is the itself first as a witness, and still later uncross-examined testimony of extremely as a party concerned. ignorant people, credulous as such It is also noticeable, and is a very imusually are, honourably credulous when portant consideration, that stories of the excellence of the doctrine or just miracles only grow up among the ignoreverence for the teacher makes them rant, and are adopted, if ever, by the eager to believe; unaccustomed to draw educated when they have already bethe line between the perceptions of come the belief of multitudes. Those sense and what is superinduced upon which are believed by Protestants all them by the suggestions of a lively originate in ages and nations in which imagination; unversed in the difficult there was hardly any canon of probaart of deciding between appearance and bility, and miracles were thought to be reality, and between the natural and the among the conimonest of all phenomena. supernatural; in times, moreover, when The Catholic Church, indeed, holds as no one thought it worth while to con an article of faith that miracles have tradict any alleged miracle, because it never ceased, and new ones continue to was the belief of the age that miracles in be now and then brought forth and themselves proved nothing, since they believed, even in the present incredulous could be worked by alying spirit as well age--yet if in an incredulous generation as by the spirit of God. Such were the certainly not among the incredulous witnesses; and even of them we do not portion of it, but always among people possess the direct testimony; the docu- who, in addition to the most childish ments of date long subsequent, even on ignorance, have grown up (as all do who the orthodox theory, which contain the are educated by the Catholic clergy) only history of these events, vewy often trained in the persuasion that it is a duty do not even name the skipposed eyc- to believe and a sin to doubt; that it is witnesses. They put down (it is but dangerous to be sceptical about anything just to admit) the best and least absurd which is tendered for belief in the name ·REVELATION of the true religion, and that nothing is position that they were either mere coso contrary to piety as incredulity. But incidences, or were produced by natural these miracles which no one but a means, even when no specific conjecture Roman Catholic, and by no means every can be made as to those means, which Roman Catholic, believes, rest frequently in general it can. The conclusion I upon an aniount of testimony greatly draw is that miracles have no claim surpassing that which we possess for any whatever to the character of historical of the early miracles; and superior, espe- facts, and are wholly invalid as evidences cially in one of the most essential points of any revelation. --that in inany cases the alleged eye What can be said with truth on the witnesses are known, and we have their side of miracles amounts only to this: story at first hand. Considering that the order of nature Thus, then, stands the balance of aſſords some evidence of the reality of a evidence in respect to the reality of Crcator, and of his bearing goodwill to miracles, assuming the existence and his crcatures, though not of its being the government of God to be proved by sole prompter of his conduct towards other evidence. On the one side, the them: considering, again, that all the great negative presumption arising from evidence of his existence is evidence also the whole of what the course of nature that he is not all-powerſul, and considerdiscloses to us of the divine government, ing that in our ignorance of the limits of as carried on through second causes and his power we cannot positively decide by invariable sequences of physical that he was able to provide for us by the effects upon constant antecedents. On original plan of Creation all the good the other side, a few exceptional in which it entered into his intentions to stances, attested by evidence not of a bestow upon us, or even to bestow any character to warrant belief in any facts part of it at any carlier period than that in the smallest degree unusual or impro- at which we actually received it-conbable; the eye-witnesses in most cases sidering these things, when we consider unknown, in none competent by charac- further that a gift, extremely precious, ter or education to scrutinise the real came to us which, though facilitated, nature of the appearances which they was not apparently necessitated by what may have seen,' and moved, morcover, had gone before, but was due, as far as by a union of the strongest motives appearances go, to the peculiar mental which can inspire human beings to per- and moral endowments of one man, and suade, first themselves, and then others, that man openly proclaimed that it did that what they had seen was a miracle. not come from himself, but from God The facts, too, even if faithfully reported, through hin, then we are entitled to say are never incompatible with the sup- that there is nothing so inherently impossible or absolutely incredible in this St. Paul, the only known exception to the supposition as to preclude any one from ignorance and want of education of the first hoping that it niay perhaps be true. generation of Christians, attests no miracle but say from hoping; I go no further; for I that of his own conversion, which of all the cannot attach any evidentiary value to miracles of the New Testament is the one which admits of the casitst explanation from natural the testimony even of Christ on such a subject, since he is never said to have 1 I causes.

·102 THEISM declared any evidence of his mission which came to them, they knew not (unless his own interpretations of the how, were an inspiration from God; the Prophecies be so considered) except in best men always being the readiest to ternal conviction; and everybody knows ascribe any honourable peculiarity in that in pre-scientific times men always themselves to that higher source rather supposed that any unusual faculties / than to their own merits. PART V.-GENERAL RESULT From the result of the preceding exami of a providential government by an nation of the evidences of Theism, and Omnipotent Being for the good of his (Theism being pre-supposed) of the evi- creatures must be entirely dismissed. dences of any Revelation, it follows that Even of the continued existence of the the rational attitude of a thinking mind Creator we have no other guarantee than towards the supernatural, whether in that he cannot be subject to the law of natural or in revealed religion, is that of death which affects terrestrial beings, scepticism as distinguished from belief since the conditions that produce this on the one hand, and from Atheism on liability wherever it is known to exist are the other; including in the present case of his creating. That this Being, not under Atheism the negative as well as being omnipotent, may have produced a the positive form of disbelief in a God-machinery falling short of his intentions, viz., not only the dogmatic denial of his and which may require the occasional existence, but the denial that there is interposition of the Maker's hand, is a any evidence on either side, which, for supposition not in itself absurd nor most practical purposes; amounts to the impossible, though in none of the cases same thing as if the existence of a God in which such interposition is believed to had been disproved. If we are right in have occurred is the evidence such as the conclusions to which we have been could possibly prove it; it remains a led by the preceding inquiry, there is simple possibility, which those may evidence, but insufficient for proof, and dwell on to whom it yields comfort to amounting only to one of the lower suppose that blessings which ordinary degrees of probability. The indication human power is inadequate to attain given by such evidence as there is points may come not from extraordinary human to the creation, not, indeed, of the power, but from the bounty of an intelliuniverse, but of the present order of it, by gence beyond the human, and which an Intelligent Mind, whose power over continuously cares for man. The possithe materials was not absolute, whose bility of a life after death rests on the love for his creatures was not his sole same footing-of a boon which this actuating inducement, but who, never- powerful Being who wishes well to man theless, desired their good. The notion may have the power to grant, and whichy ·GENERAL RESULT 103 if the message alleged to have been senting states of existence superior to the by him was really sent, he has actually human leaves the imagination of higher promised. The whole domain of the things less provided with material from supernatural is thus removed from the the domain of supposed reality. To me region of Belief into that of simple it seems that human life, small and con- Hope; and in that, for anything we can fined as it is, and as, considered merely see, it is likely always to remain; for we in the present, it is likely to remain even can hardly anticipate either that any when the progress of material and moral positive evidence will be acquired of the improvement may have freed it from the direct agency of Divine Benevolence in greater part of its present calarnitics, human destiny, or that any reason will stands greatly in need of any wider be discovered for considering the realisa- range and greater height of aspiration tion of human hopes on that subject as for itself and its destination, which the beyond the pale of possibility. exercise of imagination can yield to it It is now to be considered whether without running counter to the cvidence the indulgence of hope, in the region of of fact; and that it is a part of wisdom imagination merely, in which there is no to make the most of any, even small, prospect that any probable grounds of probabilities on this subject, which furnish expectation will ever be obtained, is imagination with any footing to support irrational, and ought to be discouraged itself upon. And I am satisfied that the as a departure from the rational principle cultivation of such a tendency in the of regulating our feelings as well as imagination, provided it goes on pari opinions strictly by evidence. passu with the cultivation of severe reason, This is a point which different thinkers has no necessary tendency to pervert the are likely, for a long time at least, to judgment; but that it is possible to form decide differently, according to their a perfectly sober estimate of the evidences individual temperament. The principles on both sides of a question and yet to which ought to govern the cultivation let the imagination .dwell by preferand the regulation of the imagination-ence on those possibilities which are at with a view on the one hand of prevent- once the most omforting and the most ing it from disturbing the rectitude of improving without in the least degree the intellect and the right direction of overrating the solidity of the grounds the actions and will, and on the other for expecting that these rather than any hand of employing it as a power for in others will be the possibilities actually creasing the happiness of life and giving realised. elevation to the character-are a subject Though this is 'not in the number of which has never yet engaged the serious the practical maxims handed dwn by consideration of philosophers, though tradition and recognised as rules for the some opinion on it is implied in almost conduct of life, a great part of the hapall modes of thinking on human character piness of life depends upon the tacit and education. And I expect that this observance of it. What, for instance, is will hereafter be regarded as a very im- the meaning of that which is always portant branch of study for practical accounted che of the chief blessings of purposes, and the more in proportion as life cheerful disposition? What but the weakening of positive beliels respect the tendency, either from constitution or ·104 THEISM habit, to dwell chiefly on the brighter depend on us, it is not solely for the sake side both of the present and of the of a more enjoyable life that the habit future? If every aspect, whether agree :s desirable of looking at things and at able or odious of everything, ought to mankind by preference on their pleasant occupy exactly the same place in our side; it is also in order that we may be imagination which it fills in fact, and able to love them better and work with therefore ought to fill in our deliberate more heart for their improvement. To reason, what we call a cheerful disposi- what purpose, indeed, should we feed tion would be but one of the forms of our imagination with the unlovely aspect folly, on a par except in agreeableness of persons and things? All unnecessary with the opposite disposition in which dwelling upon the cvils of life is at best the gloomy and painful view of all things a useless expenditure of nervous force: is habitually predominant. But it is not and when I say unnecessary, I mean all found in praclice that those who take that is not necessary cither in the sense life cheerfully are less alive to rational of being unavoidable, or in that of being prospects of evil or danger and niore needed for the performance of our duties careless of making due provision against and for preventing our sense of the them than other people. The tendency reality of those evils from becoming is rather the other way, for a hopeful speculative and dim. speculative and dim. But if it is often disposition gives a spur to the faculties waste of strength to dwell on the evils of and keeps all the active energies in good life, it is worsc than wastc to dwell working order. When imagination and habitually on its nicannesses and basereceive each its appropriate nesses. It is necessary to be aware of culture they do not succeed in usurping them; but to live in their contemplation each other's prerogatives. It is not makes it scarcely possible to keep up in necessary for kecping up our conviction oncself a high tone of mind. The that we must die, that we should be imagination and feelings become tuned always brooding over death. It is far to a lower pitch ; degrading instead of better that we should think no further elevating associations become connected about whut we cannot possibly avert, with the daily objects and incidents of than is required for observing the rules life, and give their colour to the thoughts, of prudence in regard to our own life and just as associations of sensuality do in that of others, and fulfilling whatever those who indulge freely in that sort of duties devolve upon us in contemplation contemplations. Men have often felt of the inevitable event. The way to what it is to have had their imaginations secure this is not to think perpetually of corrupted by one class of ideas, and I death, but to tnink perpetually of our think they must have felt with the sanie duties, and of the rule of life. The true kind of pain how the poetry is taken out rule of practical wisdom is not that of of the things fullest of it, by mean assomaking all the aspects of things equally ciations, as when a beautiful air that had prominent in our habitual contempla been associated with highly poetical tions, but of giving the greatest pronii words is heard sung with trivial and nence to those of their xspects which vulgar ones. All these things are said in depend on, or can be modified by, our mere illustration of the principle that in own conduct. In things which do not the regulation of the imagination literal reason ·GENERAL RESULT 105 truth of facts is not the only thing to be the enlargement of the general scale of considered. Truth is the province of the feelings; the loftier aspirations being reason, and it is by the cultivation of the no longer in the same degree checked rational faculty that provision is made and kept down by a sense of the insignififor its being known always, and thought cance of human life-by the disastrous of as often as is required by duty and feeling of “not worth while." The gain the circumstances of human life. But obtained in the increased inducement to when the reason is strongly cultivated, cultivate the improvement of character the imagination may safely follow its own up to the end of life is obvious without end, and do its best to make life being specified. pleasant and lovely inside the castle, in There is another and a most imporreliance on the fortifications raised and tant exercise of imagination which, in maintained by Reason round the outward the past and present, has been kept up bounds. principally by means of religious bchef, On these principles it appears to me and which is infinitely precious to manthat the indulgence of hope with regard kind, so much so that human excellence to the government of the universe and greatly depends upon the sufficiency of the destiny of man after death, while we the provision made for it. This conrecognise as a clear truth that we have sists of the familiarity of the imagination 110 ground for more than a hope, is with the conception of a morally perfect legitimate and philosophically defensible. Being, and the habit of taking the The bencficial effect of such a hope is approbation of such a Being as the far from triling. It makes life and norma or standard to which to refer human nature a far greater thing to the and by wlach to regulate our own frelings, and gives greater strength as characters and lives. This idealisation well as greater solemnity to all the senti- of our standard of excellence in a l'erson mcnts which are awakened in us by our is quite possible, even when that Person fellow-creatures, and by mankind at is conceived as merely imaginary. But large. It allays the sense of that irony religion, since the birth of Christianity, of Nature which is so painfully felt when has inculcated that belief that our highest we see the exertions and sacrifices of a conceptions of combined wisdom and life culminating in the formation of a goodness exist in the concrete in a living wise and noble mind, only to disappear Being who has his eyes on us and cares from the world when the time has just for our good. Through the darkest and arrived at which the world secms about most corrupt periods Christianity has to begin reaping the benefit of it. The raised this torch of high-has kept this truth that life is short and art is long is object of veneration and iinitation before from of old one of the most discourag- the eyes of man. True, the image of ing parts of our condition; this hope perfection has been a most imperfect, admits the possibility that the art em- and, in many respects, a perverting and ployed in improving and beautifying the corrupting one, not only from the low soul itself may avail for good in some moral ideas of the times, but from the other life, even when seemingly useless mass of moral contradictions which the for this. But the benefit consists less in deluded worshipper was compelled to the presence of any specific hope than in swallow by the supposed necessity of ·106 THEISM our complimenting the Good Principle with hand, they are not encumbered with the the possession of infinite power. But it moral contradictions which beset every is one of the most universal, as well as form of religion which aims at justifying of the most surprising, characteristics of in a moral point of view the whole human nature, and one of the most government of the world. They are, speaking proofs of the low stage to therefore, enabled to form a far truer which the reason of mankind at large and more consistent conception of Ideal has ever yet advanced, that they are Goodncss than is possible to anyone who capable of overlooking any amount of thinks it necessary to find ideal goodeither moral or intellectual contradic ness in an omnipotent ruler of the world. tions and receiving into their minds The power of the Creator once recog. propositions utterly inconsistent with nised as limited, there is nothing to disone another, not only without being prove the supposition that his goodness shocked by the contradiction, but with is complete, and that the ideally perfect out preventing both the contradictory character in whose likeness we should beliefs from producing a part at least of wish to form ourselves, and to whose their natural consequences in the mind. supposed approbation we icfer Pious men and women have gone on actions, may have a real existence in a ascribing to God particular acts and a Being to whom we owe all such good as general course of will and conduct in- we enjoy. compatible with cven the most ordinary Above all, the most valuable part of and limited conception of moral goud- the effect on the character which Chrisness, and have had their own ideas oftianity has produced by holding up in a morality, in many important particulars, Divine Person a standard of excellence totally warped and distorted, and not- and a model for imitation is available withstanding this have continued to con even to the absolute unbeliever, and can ceive their God as clothed with all the never more be lost to humanity. For it attributes of the highest ideal goodness is Christ, rather than God, whom Chriswhich their state of mind enabled them tianity has held up to believers as the to conceive, and have had their aspira- pattern of perfection for humanity. It tions towards goodness stimulated and is the God incarnate, more than the encouraged by that conception. And it God of the Jews or of Nature, who, being cannot be questioned that the undoubt idealised, has taken so great and salutary ing belief of the real existence of a Being a hold on the modern mind. And whatwho realises our own best ideas of per ever else may be taken away from us by fection, and of our being in the hands of rational criticism, Christ is still left; a that being as the ruler of the universe, unique figure, not more unlike all his gives an increase of force to these feel precursors than all his followers, even ings beyond what they can receive from those who had the direct benefit of his reference to a merely ideal conception. personal teaching. It is of no use to This particular advantage it is not say that Christ as exhibited in the possible for those to enjoy who take a Gospels is not historical, and that we rational view of the nature and amount know not how much of what is admirof the evidence for the existence and able has been superadded by the tradiattributes of the Creator. On the other tion of his followers. The tradition of ·GENERAL RESULT 107 followers suffices to insert any number that mission, who ever existed upon of marvels, and may have inserted all earth, religion cannot be said to have the miracles which he is reputed to have made a bad choice in pitching on this wrought. But who among his disciples man as the ideal representative and or among their proselytes was capable of guide of humanity; nor, even now, inventing the sayings ascribed to Jesus, would it be easy, even for an unbeliever, or of imagining the life and character to find a better translation of the rule of revealed in the Gospels? Certainly not virtue from the abstract into the concrete the fishermen of Galilee; as certainly than to cndcavour so to live that Christ not St. Paul, whose character and would approve our life. When to this idiosyncrasies were of a totally different we add that, to the conception of the sort; still less the early Christian writers, rational sceptic, it remains a possibility in whom nothing is more evident than that Christ actually was what he sup. that the good which was in them was posed himself to be-not God, for be all derived, as they always proſessed that never made the smallest pretension to it was derived, from the higher source. that character, and would probably have What could be added and interpolated thought such a pretension as blaspheby a disciple we may see in the mystical mous as it seemed to the men who conparts of the Gospel of St. John, matter demned him—but a man charged with imported from Philo and the Alexandrian a special, express, and unique commis- Platonists and put into the mouth of the sion from God to lead mankind to truth Saviour in long speeches about himself and virtue; we may well conclude that such as the other Gospels contain not the the influences of religion on the character slightest vestige of, though pretended to which will remain after rational criticism have been delivered on occasions of the has done its utmost against the evidences deepest interest and when his principal of religion are well worth preserving, followers were all present; most promi- and that what they lack in direct strength nently at the last supper. The East was as compared with those of a firmer beliet full of men who could have stolen any is more than compensated by the greater quantity of this poor stuff, as the multi- truth and rectitude of the morality they tudinous Oriental sects of Gnostics after- sanction. wards did. But about the life and Impressions such as these, though not sayings of Jesus there is a stamp of in themselves amounting to what can personal originality combined with pro- properly be called a religion, seem to me fundity of insight which, if we abandon excellently fitted to aid and fortify that the idle expectation of finding scientific real, though purwy human, religion, precision where something very different which sometimes calls itself the Religion was aimed at, must place the Prophet of of Humanity and sometimes that of Nazareth, even in the estimation of those Duty. To the other inducements for who have no belief in his inspiration, in cultivating a religious devotion to the the very first rank of the men of sublime welfare of our fellow-crcatures as genius of whom our species can boast. obligatory limit to every selfish aim, and When this pre-eminent genius is com an end for the direct promotion of which bined with the qualities of probably the no sacrifice can be too great, it superadds greatest moral reformer, and martyr to the feeling that, in making this the rule an ·108 THEISM of our life, we may be co-operating with often almost insensible progress by which the unseen Being to whom we owe all good is gradually gaining ground from that is enjoyable in life. One elevated evil, yet gaining it so visibly at considerfeeling this form of religious idea admits able intervals as to promise the very of, which is not open to those who distant, but not uncertain, final victory of believe in the omnipotence of the good God. To do something during life, on principle in the universe, the feeling of even the humblest scale if nothing more helping God-of requiting the good is within reach, towards bringing this he has given by a voluntary co-operation consummation ever so little nearer, is which hc, not being omnipotent, really the most animating and invigorating needs, and by which a somewhat nearer thought which can inspire a human approach may be made to the fulfilment creature; and that it is destined, with or of his purposes. The conditions of without supernatural sanctions, to be the human existence are highly favourable Religion of the Future I cannot entertain to the growth of such a feeling, inasmuch a doubt. a doubt. But it appears to me that as a battle is constantly going on, in supernatural hopes, in the degree and which the humblest human creature is kind in which what I have called rational not incapable of taking some part, scepticism does not refuse to sanction between the powers of good and those them, may still contribute not a little to of evil, and in which every, even the give to this religion its due ascendancy smallest, help to the right side has its over the human mind. value in promoting the very sluw and ! The next RP. A. Cheap Reprint will be W. R. GREG'S CREED OF CHRIS- TENDOM, carefully revised by Dr. W. R. WASHINGTON SULLIVAN, who will also contribute an Introduction to the work.

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