·The Ramakrishna Mission
Institute of Culture Library
Presented by
Dr. R. C. Majumdar
107 961

·No text on this page.

·No text on this page.

·No text on this page.

·No text on this page.

·INDIAN RESEARCH INSTITUTE PUBLICATIONS
INDIAN HISTORY SERIES No. 3.
THE EARLY HISTORY OF BENGAL
(From the Earliest Times to the Muslim Conquest )
Vol. II.
INDIAN
RESEARCH
INSTITUTE
faUISTGHET
CALCUTTA.
By
PRAMODE LAL PAUL, M.A.
Professor of History, Sir Asutosh College, Chittagong. Sometime
Lecturer in the Dacca University. Pormerly of Viswabharati,
Santiniketan. Author of the "Development
of the Bengali Script" Etc., Etc.
Published by
SATIS CHANDRA SEAL M.A., B.L.
Hony. General Secretary,
THE INDIAN RESEARCH INSTITUTE
170, MANIKTALA STREET, CALCUTTA, (India).
Jaland Price Rs. 4/-)
( Foreign Price Sh. 77.

·To be had of- THE INDIAN RESEARCH INSTITUTE 170, MANIKTALA STREET, Calcutta, ( India ) 8 CALCUTTA BOOK HOUSE 1/1COLLEGE SQUARE, Calcutta. RAIC LIBRARY Aro. No.107 CIMA No., 8.8.80 Dare St. Cor. Chann. Com I Card L.m W. R C. Majumdar Printed by GOUR CHANDRA SEN, B. COM. AT THE SREE BHARATEE PRESS 170, MANIKTALA STRET, CALCUTTA:

·To
Hon'ble Moulvi A. K Fazlul Huq
Chief Minister of Bengal.
As a token of my deep-respect for
his untiring efforts for the educational
uplift of the masses, and the rural
regeneration of the province.

·No text on this page.

·A NOTE The publication of this Second Volume completes the Early History of Bengal by Prof. P. L. Paul, M.A. It goes as the third number of the Indian History Series of the Indian Research Institute publications. It is expected that it will throw a flood of light on the obscure corners of the social, religious and cultural history of Ancient Bengal. It deals with dry topics in a lucid style and new materials have been digested and marshalled with accuracy and artistic skill. Properly speaking this being the first attempt of its kind, we expect it will stimulate further and more claborate researches. Unfortunately, inspite of best efforts few discrepancies in diacritical marks and misprints have crcpt in, and they will be rectified in the next edition. We earnestly hope that the scholars and lay readers alike will offer it the welcome il deserves. SATIS CHANDRA SEAL. Janināștami Day. Dated the 26th August, 1940. THE INDIAN REASEARCH INSTITUTE, Calcutta.

·Errata list Page 1 Heading line 15 Learniug omit 4 fn, 5 read . 16 3 22 line 25 insert for Learing In before Dandin JBORS for JBOSB Dr. B. Bhattacharyya for Dr. V. Bhattacharyya a, before contemporary priests for priest Yakşas for Yokşas Like for Ikie Mahasahasraprainardane for Mahasabarapramardain JASB for SASB 28 16 read 30) 8 9 48 30 88 17 96 fr. I 99 line 20 at for as 104 22 Višvakarmasastra for Vigvakarma-satra 105 2 Insert a after was 9) 106 8 read 107 10 Omit Kartikeya for Karikeya As after vehicle ASIR for ARIR . fr. 3 read ·Author's Preface This is the first attempt to write the social, religious and cultural history of ancient Bengal on a comprehensive scale. I have spared no paius to make it thorough and exhaustive so far as materials at present permit. I have endeavoured my best to interpret the history of ancient Bengal in all its phases. I shall cousider my labour worth while if these two volumes help others to go deeper into the subject. In the publication of this volume I must express my thankfulness to my friends and colleagues Profs. G. G. S. Ghar M. A. and P. R. Burua M. A. for going through the proofs and to Prof. K. C. Chakravarty M. A. and Mr. Chittaranjan Das B. A. for preparing the Index. My best thanks are due to Mr. Satis Chandra Seal M.A., B.L, Secretary of the Indian Research Iustitute, for publishing these two volumes under the auspices of the Institute. Øth June, 1940 PL. Paul ·List of Abbreviations ASI ASIR BI BD. Icon. BS. CHI CII DH DM DMC DMS EHI Archæological Survey of India (Cunningham) Archæological Survey of India, Reports Banglara Itihasa Buddhist Iconography Bengali Sau. Cambridge History of India Corpus Inscriptionun Indica Dynastic History of Northeru Iudia Dacca Museum Catalogue of the Dacca Museum Dacca University Studies Early History of India Epigraphia Indica Eastern School of Mediaeval Sculptures Gaekwad Oriental Series Indian Antiquary Inscriptions of Bengal Indian Historical Quaterly Indian Museum. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal Journal of the Bibar and Orissa Research Society Journal of the Buddhistic Society Journal of the Department of Letters EI ESMS GOS IA IB IHQ IM JASB JBORS JBTS JDL

·ii
JIH
JRAS
MASB
PHAI
SBE
SII
SPP
Journal of Indian History
Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society
Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Beugal
Political History of Ancient India
Sacred Books of the East
Southern Indian Inscriptions
Sahitya Parisat Patrika
Vangera Jatiya Itihasa
Varendra Research Society
Varendra Research Society Catalogue
Varendra Research Society Museum
Varendra Research Society Reports
Vangiya Sahitya Parisat Catalogue
Vangiya Sahitya Parisat Museum.
VJI
VRS
VRSC
VRSM
VRSR
VSPC
VSPM

·Contents
Author's Preface
Chapter VIII
Chapter IX
Chapter X
Chapter XI
Chapter XII
Literature, Learned Men and Centres of
Learping 1-30
Social Condition
31-61
Religious Condition
65-89
Religious Condition (continued) 90-115
Art and Architecture
116-128
APPENDICES
61-62
62-64
Appendix E
Appendix F
Appendix G
Appendix H
Authorities
Different agains
Coiuage
Tue Gaudas and Gauda
129-132
33-136

·THE EARLY HISTORY OF BENGAL CHAPTER VIII Literature, Learned Men and Centres of Learing The task of writing the literary history of a particular province is in one way more difficult than that of ancient India as a whole. The question of settling the chronology is common to both. But as many authors are silent on their place of origin, it is sometimes hardly possible to arrive at any satisfactory conclusion on that point. It is not unoften that in order to determine the nativity of an author, we have to rely on his cognomen, the popularity of his work in a certain locality and the provenance of the manuscripts. It is to be admitted by all that in the absence of some other stronger proof the claim of a particular locality or country on the above grounds rests on a very weak foundation. The fact being so, 'provincialism' is sometimes at work now-a-days in claiming the honour of adding many great writers of the ancicnt period to the native province of sonic modern writers. Kālidāsa has been claimed by, many provinces and the so-called 'internal evidencc' has not helped much and on thc very same ground a claim has been put forward for the Bengali origin of Višákladatta.? The Vaidika Brahmanas of Bengal regard Muräri, the author of Anargha-Raghava, as one of thcir kinsmen, but this cannot bc subs. tantiated in any way. Grammar-The science of grammar was cultivated assiduously. Candragomin, founder of the Candra school of granımar, seems to have belonged to Bengal. There were two other Candragomins. One was a logician and another appears to have been a Tántrika scholar. "These three Candragomins have been confused by Täränāthas and by the 1. ABI, X111, pp. 235 ff. 2. JABS, 1980, pp. 240 ff, 8. Tarinatha. pp. 148 ff, 159 ff.

·2 EARLY HISTORY OF BENGAL author of Pag-Sam-jon-zang. The grammarian Candragomin has been assigned to the period between 450-660 A.D.? and was a contemporary of Candrakirti. There can be no doubt about the fact that he was the earliest, for the other two flourished in the ioth. century A.D.8 It is definite that the grammarian Candragomin hailed from eastern India and he has been connected by a story with Varendra and Candradyipa in Tibetan books. Later, the other two were also confused with him. He followed Pāņini in many respects but he omitted Påņinian rules about Vedic grammar in order to make his work free from the "traditional Brahmanical element". The really original contributions of Candragomin amount to about 85 sūtrast and these have been borrowed by Käsika without acknowledgement. Most probably his work was popular with the Buddhists and it is still used in Tibet and in a modified form in Ceylon. It was very popular in Java also. It has been said that the Buddhist grammarian Jinendrabodhi, the author of Käsikå-virarana-paiijikå or Nyasa, may be looked upon as a native of Bengal or one who had lived and worked long in that province. The utmost that can be said in the present state of our knowledge is that his work was extensively used and some commentaries were written on it in Bengal. Govardhana, Damodara. sena and Indumitra are threc grammarians who seem to have flourished in Bengal in the cleventh century. Govardhana's Uņadivilli is known only froin quotations, and Damodarasena is the author of Upadhyaya-sarvasva. Induqivra is known by his Anu-nyā sa, a commentary on Nyasa. It has been suggested that Maitreya Rakṣita, the author of Tantrapradipa and Dhätupradipa, was a northcrn Bengali Brahmana but nothing can be said in support of this 1. S. C. DAs, Pag-Sain-jon-zango pp. 8, 139 2. Belvalkar, Systems of Sanskrit Grammar, p. 35. 3. S. C. Vidyabbusana, History of fodian Logic, pp. 383 838 4. Belralkar, op. cit., pp. 69-64. 6. lbid. 8.' Journal of Greater Iodia Society, Vol. Mi pp. 108 ff. 7. Sir Asutosh Silver Jubilee Voluurt, 111, p. t. I pp. 194.197, &. Ibid.

·LITERATURE, JKARNED MEN AND CEINTRES OF LEARING conjecture'. Purusottamadeva flourished in the 19th century and in his Bhäşavytti he depended on Käsika and Nyasa. He was a Buddhist and excluded the texts appertaining to the Vedas. He simplified difficult grammatical rules in such a way as would make them easy to be understood by preliminary students of the subject, and his quotations and illustrations are to the point. Besides this great work, he is credited with the authorship of Lalita-paribhäşå, jñānapakasamuccaya, Uņādivşlti and a commentary on Mahābhāsya'. Sarņadeva, another Buddhist granaarian, was the author of Durghatavstti. He was a younger contemporary of Puruşollamadeva from whom he quoted extensively and was patronised by Lakşmaņascna®. Lexicography Side by side with grammar, the science of lcxicography was cultivated with equal zcal. The carliest writer scems to have been Vandyaghāļiya Radhiya Brahmana, Sarvånanda. He finished his Țikäsairasva, a commentary on Amarakoşa int159 A.D.*. Purușoutamadeva's fame does not rest only on his grammatical works; as a lexicographer he is equally famous. His Trikāndašeşa is not a commentary but a supplement to Amarakoșa. It adds the words that had come into use sincc Amara's timc. Many new names of Buddha, Avalokitesvara, Tantrika gods and goddesses are to be found in it, which were not perhaps known 10 Amara". He was not satisfied with writing a supplementary book but also wrote a separate book called Haralila. It consists of 278 Slokas and in it are to be found words that were obsolete or were not in common use in his time. In the opinion of Mm. H. P. Sästrid his chief title to greatness lies in the fact that he is said to have composed a separate lexicon on spelling. Spelling in Bengal was greatly influenced by Prāksta and many words were capable of two spellings and double meanings. He laid stress on this aspect and his work was an example 1. Mr. D. C. Bhattacharyga wants us to believe that the bame was Raksita Maitreya, and as Maitreya was the surname of a gain of nor. thern Bengali Brahmanas he was a Varendra. But it is in the least crovincing. Ibid. 9. Ibid. 3. Ibid. 4. Published by Ganapati Shastri, Madras 1911, 1017 $. SPP. 1339, 8. 8. P. 1. 8. Ibid.

·4. THE EARLY HISTORY OF BENGAT, of accuracy and preciseness in spelling. Another Buddhist, Mahe śvaral wrote a book on spelling in 1111 A.D.. Gaudi-riti-Gaudi-riti was one of the principal styles of poetic composition, the other important one being Vaidarbhi-. Gaudi derived its name from the place of its origin and Daņdin calls it paurastya, i.c. castern, and therefore there can be no doubt about the fact that it had its origin in Bengal. Båņabhaſta informs us that the people of different places followed different poetic devices and the Gauçlas are fond of the display of bombastic words. Bhảmaha (7th-8th cent.) distinguishes betwicen Vaidharbha and Gauda Kavyas, though he does not use the term ritil. He refers to the opinions of previous writers according to which there are differences of manner and treatment but hic does not attach much importance to the differencc". In Daņçin's timc (8th-gth) the difference was very' wide and markedº. In Daņçin scems to be very severe in his condemnation of Gaudi which is "loosc, more often cumbrous and bombastic, is vitiated by an inordinate craze for verbal juggles and alliteration and casts to the winds clarity of cxpression and all sense of proportion and welcomes verbosity, pedantry and hyperbolc?". But it is also clear from Dandin that the Gaudas laid grcat stress on ojase and attempted at artharyakti' i.c., explicitness of meaning. Våmana (91h A.D.), who follows Dançlin, admits that Gaudi has two gumas, ojas and känti, but is wanting in mädhurya and saukri. märya (tenderness) and is full of harsh-sounding words. Rudrata (guh) says that in Gaudi compounds are formed by as many words 1. Ibid. 2. The minor two are Påncall and Lati 3. Hargacarita Si, 7 4. S. K. De, History of Sanskrit Poetics II pp. 100 ff; we follow the dates of Ilie writers on ritis as deterioined by Dr. De. 8. I, 31-35. 6. Jacobi holda that the Vaidarbhi style which came into existence in the third century d. D. was a reaction against the older and more ornate Gaudi ( Maharastri pp XV!: Dr. Nobel also holds that the Gaudi was earlier ( Foundations of Indian Poetics, Ch. VI). But Dr. S. K. De maintains that Gauri is # sign of further develop ment or decadence ( History of Savsluit Poetics, 11, p. 116 n ). 7. IHQ. III, pp. 377-78. 8. 1, 80. 9. 1, 75 ·LITERATURE, LEARNED MEN AND CENTRES OF LEARNING 5 as possible. Rajasekhara (10th) takes the sitis as forms of specch without further explaining them, and Mammata considers them repetition of the same consonants. Thus the ritis lost their import ance as given by Dandin'. It is not to be supposed that Gauci was used only in the land of its origin or eastern India. The Mandasor inscription of Yåśodharman, Harala inscription of Iśänavarman and Nålandă inscription of the time of Yasovarman were written in this style. Bhavabhūti, Bhatta-Narayana, Murāri, Kșemišvara, Sandhyākaranandi and Sriharşa followed this style, and therefore it secins that different authors chose their style according to their convenience and predilections. The poetry portions of the Nidhanpur plates of Bhaskaravarman and of thc Tippcra plate of Lokanatha and of the Påla and Scna inscriptions were written in this style which was evidently suited for prašastis. Medical literature--In ancient India importance of the medical science was realised, as Ayurveda or the Science of Longevity was called an Upa-l'eda. Yuan Chwang tells us that great stress was laid on it in the Nälandă monasterya. The Tantrikas were expected to have minute knowledge of human anatomy and physiognomy, as they tried to control the senses by regulating breathing and by some process of physical exercises. Madhavakara, author of Rug-viniscaya, or Nidāna, which enjoyed all India popularity and was translated into Arabic for the Caliphs of Bagdad in the latter half of the 8th century, has been claimed to be a Bengalee on the grounds that (a) his cognomen was “Kara", (b) his book was extensively used in Bengal and (c) many Bengali words occur in another of his works, Paryāya-ratnamálar. But it has been questioned in the absence of stronger proofst. We are, however, on surer grounds in case of Cakrapāņidatta. He came of a celebrated family of physicians. His father Náråyaṇa was the superintendent of the culiniary department of the Påla king, Nayapăla, and seems to be identical with the author of Ratnamåla, a medical vocabulary, and with Narayana 1. Dr. Nobel, Foundations of Indian Poetry pp. 124-5 2. Beal, Records. pp. 77-79 ; Life, p. 112 8. IC, III, pp. 158-156 4. Ibid, 1, pp. 973-4 ·6 THE RABLY HISTORY OF BENGAL Kaviraja who has been quoted in the Saduktikarņāmſla!. Cakrapåņi's brother Bhånu has been called an antaranga which means a physician of a high family Çakrapāņi was a prolific medical writer. His famous work, Cakradatta, was written on the model of a previous work, Siddha-Yoga of Vịnda, and was meant for medical practitioners. It was very ably commented on by Sivadasasena of the Pabna district in the 16th century. His Dratrya-guna-Sangraha is a glossary of medical drugs and Sabda-candrika is a vocabulary of vegetables and mineral substances. Besides, Cakrapāņi is credited with the authorship of the Bhanumati and Ayurveda-dipikå which were mcant to elucidate the sarhitās of Suśruta and Caraka. We know of another family of celebrated physicians who serve cd in many courts. Bhadreśvara was the physician of Råmapāla. His grandfather, Devagaņa, served in that capacity to Govindacandra who may be identificd with the king of that name known from the Tirumalai inscriſuion. Sureśvara, son of Bhadreśvara, was the important man of this family and was the physician of Bhimapåla, described as Padiśvarat (lord of Pädi) who cannot be satisfactorily identificd. He composed a dictionary on medical botany, called Sabdapradipa, and another work on mcdical use of iron, called Lohapaddhati. Another medical writer called Gadādhara-vaidya in the SaduktikarņāmȚla may be identified with Gadadhara, a commentator of SuśrutaVangasena, the reputed author of Cikitsa-sära-samgraha, was born in the housc of Gadadhara and was an inhabitant of Kanjikā. According to Hærnlc?, his work was a compilation from different medical writers, although he himself declares at the end that his work is a new recension of a previous one, named Agastya- Samhita. Hemädri in his commentary on Aşļänga-hğdaya of Våg. bhata II quotes extensively from Vangasena who can therefore be 1. For the first time suggested by Mr. N. N. Dasgupta, ic, III, P, 166 IC, I. p. 684 3. IC, III, pp, 156-58 4. Eggeling, Catalogue of Sanskrit Mss in the India office Library, 1898, Pt. V. pp. 994-5. 5. 1C, III, pp. 157 , 6. Iwid.; also, IV, p. 109. 7. JASB, 1891, p. 183.

·LITERATURE, LEARNED MEN AND CENTRES OF LEARNING 7 placed in the 12th-18th century. The commentaries of Aruņadatta, Vijayarakṣita, Niscalakara and Srikantha gained great popularity in Bengal but it is not certain whether they were Bengalces. An interesting work on the taming and treatment of elephants has been ascribed to one Palakäpya, son of the sage Lomasa. It is written in Sütra style and Mm. H. P. Shastri assigned it to a period before the Christian Era, and it was composed where “the Brahmaputra flows and the Himalaya is in the north". Strict ly speaking, it was written in Assam. The Pala kings were strong in elephants and they were a great drcad to the other contemporary dynasties. It is therefore quite likely that the science of taming and treating elephants was cultivated in Bengal. Astronomy-The astronomer Mallikarjuna Suri hailed from Vanga and flourished in the 12th century. He wrote a commentary on Sisyadhi-mahālantra by Lallăcărya and no other commentary on this is known. He also sccms to be the earliest coinmchtator on Süryasiddhānta. He was of the kaundinya goliu but his name Suri and proficiency in astronomy suggest that his family might originally have been Jaina. It is to be noted that he invokes Vişņu and Gancśa in his works and his grandfather was an acārya. (SPP, 1940 pp. 88 ff.). Philosophy-Various branches of philosophy were cultivated. Acording to Sureśvarácārya', the Vedantic work Gauda pada-kärikā cmbodied the vicw of the Gauçlas. It is admillcd by all that it is a very old work. Udayanacarya refers to a Gauçla Mimārsaka and his commentator Varadaraja says that it refers to Pañjika-kāra. Therefore Salikanátha, author of Pañjikā, scems to have been a Bengalec". Sridharadasa, author of Nyaya-kandali, hailed from Bhúrīśreşthi (in the Hoogly district) in Radha and composed his work in 918 S.E. under the patronage of a local Kayastha chief, Påņdudása by name. In his Nyāyakandali there is reference to Salikanátha and also there are re- 1. IC, III, pp. 595 ff. 2. Ibid, III, pp. 159-160 ; also IV, p. 276. 8. JBORS, 1919, pp. 307 ff. 4. Naipkarnye-siddhi, IV. 41-44 5. LA, 1929, pp. 203.4 ; Belvalkar and Ranade, Hist. of Ind. Philosophy, H, P. 963. 6. LA, 1929, p. 202 ·8 THE EARLY HISTORY OF BENGAL ferences to two of his own works, Advayasiddhi and Tattva-bodhasaṁgraha-fiká, none of which is known from any other source. The Nyāyakandali was much used outside Bengal and commented on by non-Bengtilee authors. The Tautätita-matatilaka of Bhatta Bhavadeva, minister of Harivarınadeva, was a gloss on Kumärila Bhatta's Tuntravārtika. Haláyuddha, a judge of Lakşmaņascna's court, wrote a' work on Mimāmsă, called Mimāṁsä-sarvasva, which is a running commentary on the sutras of Jaiminī”. It has been argued by some writers that Sriharşa cnjoyed the patronage of Vijayasena in the early part of his carcer, but in his philosophical work Khandana- Khaņda-Khadya (in which he criticises the main schools of Indian philosophy) he says that he was honoured by a Kanyakuvja king. Therefore this work does not seem to be a production of Bengal. Smſti and ritualistic literature-The first Smsti-writer of note is Bhajta Bhavadeva. His Karmānuşthāna-paddhati, also known as Daša karma-paddhati, gives detailed description of the purifying ceremonies of marriage and domestic ceremonies to be performed by the Brahmanas in accordance with the Chandogya schools of the Sämaveda. This work is very important for the Radhiya and Värendra Brahmanas, most of whom belong to the Kauthuma-sakhă of the Sämaveda, His Prayascitta-nirü pana deals with sins and modes of their expiation. Murder of men, women and animals is called great crimes. Other crimes are the taking of forbidden food and drink, thefts, sexual intercourse with forbidden persons, forbidden marriages, sale of forbidden goods and contact with untouchablest. Govindasāja, son of Madhava Bhajța, wrote a commentary on Manusamhita and the manuscript was copied in 1145 A.D. It seems to be a prehensive compilation of domestic and social regulations for the Brahmanas of Bengal."S Traditionally Jimülaváhana is known as amatya and prádviveka of Vijayasena". He is styled in the colophons Paribhadriya Mahāmahopädhyaya or Paribhädra-kulavadhita. Paribhadra is the Pari gåiñ of the Radhiya Brahmanas. Mr. M. Chakravarti? draws 10 com- 1. IC, IV, p. 276. 2. JASA, 1916. p. 328. 3. IC, II. pp. 676 ff. See fra. 4. JABB, 1912. pp. 936 ff. 8. JBORB, V, p. 173. 8. Dbaldra Itihasa, 11, p. 934, 7. JABB, 1915, p: 821.

·LITERATURE, LEARNED MEN AND CENTRES OF LEARNING 9 attention to the fact that in his Käla-viveka "Radha is mentioned along with Ujjayini and suuggests that he was referring to his homeland. The same scholar after a detailed examination of all literary references has come to the conclusion that Jimůtaváhanx is to be placed in the beginning of the 19th century. His Käla-viveka deals with appropriate months and scasons for religious duties and festivals. The Dharmasútras, Purāņas and Bralımagupta and Varahamihira arc cited as authorities. The l'yavahāra-mätykā deals with legal prom cedure in the court of justice and the nature of evidence. It is interesting to note that oral evidence, written documents, possession, and inference constilute various kinds of evidence, while trials by ordeals have no place in this book. “Like the Käla-viveka, it is full of quotations, some six hundred in number." This fact alone shows Jimūtavahana's wide study and learning. His chief title to fame rests on the Dāya-bhäga which is the leading authority of the Bengal school of law and still determines the succession and inheritance of the Hindus of Bengal. “The Daya-bhāga cnunciatcs considerably advanced idcas of law on inheritance and partition, and displays an acule intelligence, a wide grasp of the subject and a skill in marshalling authorities in favour of its view." Aniruddha-bhatta was the preceptor of Vallalasena and composed two works on rituals, namely, Suddhi-viveka and Häralatal. It was at his instance that Danasāgara was compiled by his royal disciple, which deals with various kinds of gifts and ceremonies connected therewith. The composition of the Adbhutasägara is also ascribed to Vallalasena and it deals with omens and portents. Halayudha, a judge of Lakşmaņasena, was a prolific writer on Smộti. His father Dhananjaya was also a judge and he himself was at first a rāja-paņdita, mahāmatra and finally a dharmadhikära. In some of the introductory verses and final colophons hc styles himself 'ävasathika'. If avasathika is a mistake for avallika, he may be identified with avallika pandita Halayudha of the Våtsya gotra, one of the donces of the Sahitya Parişat" plate of Višvarūpascna?. His mother belonged to the Cochasaņņi Kula (identifiable with Gocandi 1. JASB, 1906, p. 158. 2. The suggestion that āvasathi is a mistake for Äventila is unwarranted. IC, 1. pp. 502-6.

·10 THE EARLY HISTORY OF BENGAL gäiſ of the Värendra Brahmanas of the Bharadvāja gotra). It may be that his father was also a Värendral. Of all his works, Brähmaņa Sarvasva is the best known. It deals with the daily rites and periodi. cal ácaras of the Brahmanas. He has explained the rites and ceremo nies of the Brahmanas in the light of the Mantra-bhāsya of Uvata and the GȚhya-mantra-bhâsya of Guņavişņu. This work was meant for thc Brahmanas of the Vajasaneyi Kāņvasākha. Besides, he is credited with the authorship of the Vaisnava-sarvasva, Saiva-sarvasva and Pandita-sarvasva. His two elder brothers, Pasupati and iśāna, also composed scveral books. In the Daśakarma-paddhati, Pasupati is called Rajapaņdita and it deals with the ten domestic ceremonies according to the Sukla-Yajurveda. Pasupati also wrote Sraddha-kſiyapaddhati and Päka-yajña-paddhati. Išāna is said to have written a book on rites relating to the ähnika of the Brahmanas, called Dvij. ähnika-paddhati. Kávya-Tradition connects Bhajţa-Närāyaṇa, the author of Venisamhära, with Adiśúra, but this is not corroborated from any other source. Mention may be made here of one Bhatta Nārāyaņa of Uttara-Raçlha, belonging to the Vätsya gotra. His son emigrated to Orissa where he figures as a donee of a grant of the eighth century. But it is to be noted that Bhaya Narayana connected with Adiśūra was of thc Sandilya gotra. A strong case has been made for regarding Abhinanda, the author of Rāmacarita, as a writer who enjoyed the patronage of a Påla princc nained Häravassa belonging to the family of Vikramasilat. As Vikramasila was another name of Dharmapala, the suggestion of identifying Häravassa with Devapåla is reasonable, though this is not corroborated from any other source. Abhinanda who enjoyed an all India fame and has been compared with Kálidása) must have pro duced a work of high poetic merit like Ramacarita. But it must be noted that most of the verses attributed to Abhinanda in the antho logies cannot be traced in Ramacarita and only a few are traceable. Either Abhinanda composed other works or some other verses which 2. Ibid. 2. JASB, 1906. pp. 158A. 3. EI, XXIII, p. 74, introduction, Råmacarita published in Gos. 8. Ibid, 6. Ibid.

·LITERATURE, LEARNED MEN AND CENTRES OF LEARNING 11 are not yet known, or there was another Abhinanda. It is also to be noted that in the anthologies Abhinanda is occasionally called Gaudábhinanda. The father of the author of Ramacarita was Satananda, and it is a significant fact that some verses have been attributed to one Satananda in Sadukti-karnämſta, and they cither precede or follow those attributed to Abhinanda. It is his father's name that enables us to distinguish him from another Abhinanda, son of Jayantabhatja, and the author of Kadambari-katha-sära and Yagaväsiştha-sára. The family of the latter originally belonged to Gauça but migrated to, and settled, in Käśmira six generations earlier!. His grandfather Saktivarman was the minister of Lalitäditya Muktăpida and his father Jayantabhata was the author of Nyāyamanjari. The author of Rimcarita and the author of Kadambarikatha-sära belonged to the same time. Rimacarita fulfils all the tests of a Mahäkävya and is written in the l'aidarbhi-rili. It seems that Abhinanda ended his work with the 36th canto, and threc other cantos have been added later. Sandhyakaranandin's Ramacarita? is a unique historical work. It is written in double en tendre. In one way it gives the story of the recovery of Sita by Rama and in another way it narrates the story of the recovery of Varendra by Råmapäla from the Kaivarta chief Bhima. Most of the words used are capable of two meanings and the author has been called "not only a poct but also a linguist." It is very difficult to understand the verses without the commentary which only comes upto the first canto and 36 verses of the second. The Sena period has been called the Augustan Age of Sanskrit literature in Bengals. The Sena kings lavishly patronised the scholars, and in Saduktikarņāmặta many verses are attributed to Laksmanasena, Keśavasena, Višvarūpasena and Madhavascna; and Vallalasena himself was a reputed author. The Sena court resembled Dhåră under Paramära Bhoja, and ancient Ujjayini. The outburst of Brahmanical learning made itself felt in two directions-in ritualistic works and in the production of Kávyas. Sriharşa, the author of Naişadhiya, is said to have enjoyed at first the patronage of Vijaya- It has been suggested that this book has got some covert allusena. 2. Published in MASB, III, pt. I 1. Ibid. S. JASB, 1906, p. 157, ·12 TAR KARLY HISTORY OF BENGAL sion in it to the Sena dynasty. It deals with the story of Nala and Damayanti, and Nala is described as the son of Virasena. It is known from the Sena inscriptions that Virasena of Puranic celebrity was the remote ancestor of the Senas. It may be noted in this connection that the Sarnath inscription of Kumaradevi, queen of Jayacandra, was composed by Sri-Kunda, a friend of the king of Vanga. In Khan dana-khand-khădya it is said that he was honoured by the Kányakubja king Jayacandra. In the above inscription Sri-kunda has been decsribed as a " lion to attack the crowds of the elephant like heretics, and as a Rohaņa mountain of the flashing jewels of poetical composition". If this has any reference to the above philosophical work and to Naişadhiya, Sri-Kunda may be identified with Sri-Harsa, though this does not prove his Bengali origin. Umapatidhara, the coniposer of the Dcopara prašasti of Vijayasena, is quoted extensively in Saduktikarņāmſta and hundred verses have been attributed to him? Referring to himself, the poet says that "his understanding has been purified by the study of words and their meanings " and this is amply proved even from this prasasti. Jayadeva is said to have criticised his fellow-poets of Lakşmaņasena's court thust-"Umapati is verbosc in style, but devoid of sweet words. Sarana has the merit of coinposing poems within a short time but his verscs are very difficult to be understood. Govardhana is expert in crotic compositions. Dhoyi could remember what he heard but is vain." In Saduktikarņāmſla many verses have been quoted under Saraṇadeva and Cirantana-sarana all of whom according to Mr. M. Chakravarti,' refer to the same man. The poct Sarana has been identified with the grammarian of the same name. Acarya Govardhana is known by his Arya-saptašali which is full of crotic sentiment. EI. IX. PP 1. IC, II, 578-9. 2. S23 af, 3. JASB, 1906, p. 159 ff. 4. Then he praises himself with the remark that Jayadeva alone possesses all the inerits of a good poet. I think this verse about his fellow poets and himself in a later interpolation, though it brings into prominence the characteristics of the five poets. 5. JASB, 1906. pp. 173 ff. B. S. C. Chakravarty, Intro. Durghafavrtti, p. 7.

·LITERATURE, LEARNED MEN AND CENTRES OF I,FARNING 13 Pavanadütam of Dhoyi is a důta kavya and has been written in imitation of Meghadüta from which expressions have been sometimes borrowed. In spite of this, he exhibits a good deal of poetic skill. He wrote in an elegant and casy-going language and his descriptions are sometimes "vivid, lifelike and full of pathos.." Of all the authors of Bengal Jayadeva is the best known. He was born at Kendubilva in the modern Birbhum district. His Gila-govinda is one of the most popular books ever written in Sanskrit language. It is very sacred to the Vaişņavas. There are very few hearts from which its sweet melody does not get response, and Jayadeva is known as the nightingale of Sanskrit poets. Besides these, there are many authors like Udayana, Yogeśvara. Bálabhadra, Madhu (dharmadhikära), Verála, Vyasa (Kavi. rāja) whose verses in praise of the king of Gauçla or Vatudása, (the father of the anthologist) have been quoted in Saduktikarnamytas They were cither poets of Bengal or connected with the Gauda court. This anthology deserves more than a passing notice. The work was finished in 1205 A.D.. Vatudása is called a mahäsämantacüdamani and a friend of Laksmanasena, and Sri-dharadasa was a mahåmāndalika. The work contains the names of more than 450 authors and "bcars ample testimony to his taste and industry. .... the authors have been fairly selected and sorted under different subjects; and they bespeak a fairly wide culture with formation of librariesg". The above account, incomplete as it is, is sufficient to indicate the extent and nature of the Brahmanical culture in various branches. Rajasekhara in his Katyamimamsat twice refers to the extreme popularity of Sanskrit in Gaucła. From the foreign accounts and epigraphic records we can trace the following centres of learning in different parts of Bengal.. In Ráðha-Fa-helit peaks of Tamralipti as an important centre of learning. There he lived two years in copying manuscripts. Yuan Chwang was very much impressed by the love of learning of 1. C. Chakravarti, Pavanadatam, latro., p. 18, 2. Published by H. D. Sharma; see also JASB, 1906, pp. 157 ff. 8. Ibid., 4. Pp. 81, 51. p. 175.

·14 THE EARLY HISTORY OF BENGAL five capital towns of Bengal that he visited. It-sing learnt the Brahma language and science of grammar at Támralipti and describes in detail the organisation and working of Bha-ra-hà monastery there. It is thus clear that Tamralipti was an important centre of learning in the Gupta and post-Gupta periods. Bhurisrestha where Nyāyakandali of Sridharăcărya was composed was in Dakşiņa-Rådha and it is identified with the Bhursut pargana in the Hoogly district. It seems to have been a famous seat of learning. Krşņa Misra in his Prabodha-candrodaya (it was dramatised in the court of the Candella king Kirtivarman c. 1065 A.D.) caricatured the pride of Gauda philosophers thus, "Gauda kingdom is the best; in that the town of Radha is above all comparison; the residence of Bhuriśreșſhaka is excellent; there my father is best!." It is known from an inscription" in the temple at Mandhata in the Central Provinces that Halayudha, an emigrant from Navagrāına in Dakşiņa-Raçlha, composed 64 verses of that record, dated in 1180 V.E. There exists a village named Navagrama in the pargani of Bhursut*. Siddhala, home of Bhatta Bhavadeva, is in the Birbhum district, and in the Bhuvanesvar prasasti an account of his seven ancestors has been given. 'The village itself has been described as an ornament of Uttara-Racha and a pride of Aryavarta. All his ancestors were learned men. His seventh ascendant was the recipient of a śāsana of the village Hastinibhafta from a Gauda king, and his grandfather Adideva was a minister of a Vanga king and he himself a Sändhivigrahika of Harivarmadeva. His extant works have already been noted. In the panegyric he is described as 'omniscient '. Having scen the other shore of the sea of Siddhānta, Tantra and 10 1. Prabodha-candrodaya, Canto ir. 2. Hiralal, Inscriptions of c. P. and Berar., p. 84. 8. IC, 1, p. 603. Mr. J. C. Ghose refers the date to the Saka era but without any reason. He is also inclined to regard the three donces of the Mandhata plates of Devapāla and Jayavarmaa, dated in 1280 81 A. D. as emigrants from Bengal. One of them was an emigrant from Navagrima, another from Tarkari apd the other from Ghatan. shari. It is not unlikely that a batch of Bengal Brahmadas emigrated to C, P. after the fall of Nadia.

·LITERATURE, LEARNED MEN AND CENTRES OF LEARING 15 Ganila, producing world-wide wonder in Phala-Samhitas, the maker and proclaimer of a new Horāśāstra, he became manifest as another Varaha (v.21). In the paths of Dharma-šāstra, by composing good treatises he blended old productions. By good glosses elucidating the Dharmagåthås of sages, he wiped away doubt on points of legal acts '(v.22). In Mimāṁså hc composed, following the sayings of Bhatta, a guide in which thousands of maxims etc., etc....." (v.23). In Varendra-Thc Garuda pillar inscription introduces us to a Sandilya family of hereditary ministers of the Palas. Their political activity has already been noted but their learning also finds a conspicuous mention in this record. Darbhapāņi was a master of four vidyās (most probably the four Vedas) and so also his son Kedármiśra. Gurava Mišra, minister of Nārāyanapåla, was proficient in many subjects, viz., in Agamas (sacred lore), Jyotișa (astronomy) and in Vedas. He semes to have composed a book on Srutis (v.24). He was a keen fighter in assembly as well as in the battlefield. The Silimpur prasasti' of Prahasa supplies us with the information of the existence of a learned Bharadvija family and of soine villages and localities where Brahmanical learning and rites were in a flourishing condition. The family originally lived in Tarkari within the limits of Srávasti” and migrated to Balagrama in Varendra in the Puņçlra country and again to an adjacent village named Siyambaka. All these places were abodes of learned Brahmanas and Vedic rites and homas werezcalously performed. Palæographically Prahasa may be assigned to the eleventh century and his grandfather Tapo nidhi attained perfection in the doctrines of Kumärila Bhatça. His father Kartikeya was proficient in Mimāínsă, Srutis and Smſlis. Prahása himself was learned in logic, Tantras, and Dharmaśāstras, The king Jayapåla of Kamarúpa tricd to induce him to emigrate to that country with thc promise of a gift of goo gold coins and a grant of land yielding an annual income of 1000 coins. This offer was refused. He set up an image of Varaha and alsorbed himself in pious and charitable activities. In his old age he retired on the bank of the Ganges. 1. Ei, X111, p. 288. For location sce supra.

·16 THE EARLY HISTORY OF BENGAL . BUDDHIST LITERATURE Mm. H. P. Shastri' classificd the literature of the Pala period under four headings-(1) Sanskrit Brahmanic, (2) Sanskrit Buddhist (3) Vernacular Brahmanica and (1) Vernacular Buddhist Literature. Though we cannot strictly follow this classification, it has got the merit of bringing into prominence the huge mass of Buddhist literature that was produced in the Påla period. The later Buddhist literature has not yet been adequately studied, and we are not in possession of all the materials. Sometimes discoveries of some important books are announced from Nepal libraries. Many of the books are prescrved in the Bstan-hgyur some of whose originals scem to have been lost. In studying this vast literature scientifically, there are various difficulties, some of which cannot bc at present solved. Thc later Buddhist literature is generally Tantric in character. Five important centres of Tantrikism were Kamakhyā. Srihalta, Purnagiri, Uçlçliyana and Zahore. The first two are well-known places, and it is to be mentioned that Srihatta or Sylhet, though at present included in Assam, is linguistically and culturally a part of Bengal. Purnagiri cannot be located. The last iwo localities are frequently mentioned as important centres of Buddhist Tantrikism and there is considerable disagreement among scholars about the location of Uçldliyana and Zähore. Uddiyanat has been sought to be located in in Swat valley, Kasgarh, Orissa, on the north-east fringe of Bengal and in the Chiltagong region ; and Zähore' has been identified with Mandi in the Panjab, Lahore, Jessore, Sabhar in Dacca and Sahore in Radha. It is difficult to accept any one of these suggestions in the abscnce of definitc evidena. Apart from the consideration that the stronghold of Tantrik Buddhism was in castern India, the sug- 1. JBORS, V, p. 171. 2. Mm. H. P. Shastri could not wention any book of this class, though he asserted that there was such a class of literature, Ibid. 3. THQ. V1, pp. 576ff ; Dr. M. Bhattacharyya, Sadhadāmāſta (GOS) intro. pp. xxxii-xxxix ; IHO, X1, p. 142. 4. Le Nepa, 11, p. 177 : Francke, Antiquities of Indian Tibet, Il. p. 87 sadhani.olla, lotro., pp. XYXVII-XIXVII ; IHQ, XI p. 144 ·LITERATURE, LEARNED MEN AND CENTRES ON LEARNING ti gestion to locate Uddiyana in Bengal gains additional support from the simple fact that while Lui-päda, Sarahā, Advaya-vajra and Tailaka-pada have been described as of Uddiyana, they have been again called natives of Bangalal (Vangala ?). Again, Säntarakṣita has been described as a scion of the royal family of Zahore. But according to the Pag-sam-jon-zang, he was born in Bangala. This can be satisfied by locating Uddiyana and Zähore in Bengal or by the supposition that there were two sets of Tantric scholars bearing the above names-a contention not easily to be conceded without strong proof. Another difficulty that confronts us is the settling of the chronology of the authors. Information on this point comes from Tárănătha, Bu-ston and the Pag-sam-jon-zang whose chronologies and genealogies are admittedly faulty and inaccurate, and therefore these Tibetan authorities cannot be much relied on. In order to fix the time of the Tantric authors attempt should rather be made from some definite known dates, say from Santarakṣita and disciples (guru-paramparas) as preserved by the Bstan-hgyur and the Pag-sam-jon-zang are to be utilised with the cautions that, "the mystics still believe that the Siddhas do not die..........such alleged relation only speaks of a spiritual connection and not of any historical one." The confusion of their chronology is worse confounded by the fact that many scholars of different periods bear the same name. There were at least three Candragomins,' threc Nagarjunas, two Lui-pass and two Santidevas.7 I have got no doubt about the fact that there are many such cases of confusion in the Tibetan accounts. The apparent inconsistency and confusion in the Tibetan books cannot be solved until and unless the scparate identity of different 1. HQ XI pp. 141.3 2. Ibid. pp. 142-43. 3. Sadhanamala Intro. p. xl xli Dr. P. C. Bagchi, Kaulujyana-nirpaya. Intro. pp. 25 26 4. History of Indian Logic pp. 833 336 6. Sadhanamala, Intro., p. XIV: JASB, 1930, pp. 142 ff 6. Lui-pā who has been identified with Hatayendranatha cannot be the same person to whom Sintarakgita refere; former secus to have Aourished in the 10th century, while the latter in the 8th. 7. saatideva, the author of the sikea-Samuccayą, ( whose latest possi ble date is the 8th century) cannot be identified with Santideva, disciple of Dipatikana Grijpdua of the 11th centary ·18 THK KARLY HISTORY OF BENGAL scholars of different periods can be definitely established. This perhaps explains also why a great many books have been attributed to a single author in the Bstan-hgyur. The numbers come sometimes to thirty or even to forty, and it may be that they are not the pro ductions of one author. But it must also be said that we need not be surprised by these numbers, for twenty works of Advayavajra, when published, contain only about sixty pages. The carliest known Buddhist author seems to be the grammarian Candragomin. Sisya-lekha-dharma, an epistle in Kavya style, which has been addressed to the pupils, propounding Buddhist doctrines, is also attributed to him.? Silabhadra, the preceptor of Yuan Chwang, was a scion of the Brahmanical royal family of Samataţa. He enjoys a unique position in the Buddhist world as one of the celebrated heads of the Nålandă University. He was a disciplc of Dharmapala and is said to have clcfeated a learned Brahman from southern India in a discussion and the local king (most probably of Magadha) was so much satisfied with his victory that he made an offer of a city to Silabhadra which he reluctantly accepted, as it was opposed to the spirit of the Holy Master's teaching. He made a religious offering of the city and built a monastery there. The Chinese pilgrim and disciple pays eloquent tribute to his learning and liberality and says that he wrote several trcatises.? "Hc rose to be cminent for his principles and subtletics and his fame extended to foreign countries." A work entitled Arya-Buddha-bhimi-vyakhya, preserved in the Bstan-ngyur, has been attributed to one Silabhadra. Saraha is said to have belonged to Uậdiyanat but according lo Pag-sam-jon-zang, he hailed from Bangala." He was also known as Sarahabhadra and Rahulabhadra and was one of the carliest Tantrika 1. GOS, No. XL. Edited by Mui H. P. Shastri. 2. Nariman. Lit. Hist. of Sans. Buddhism, p. 100. 3. Watters, II, pp. 105, 109. 4. Cordier, II. p. 375. 8. Index, p. cxdi.

·LITERATURE, LKARNED MEN AND CENTRAS OF LEARNING 19 Buddhist scholars. He was equally learned in Brahmanical and Buddhist lore and has been assigned to the seventh century. In the Bstan-hgyur twenty-one books are attributed to him. Sabaripa or Sabariśvara came of a Sabara (huntsmen) tribe in Bangala and was a disciple of the Tantrika Nágårjuna. He has been assigned to the seventh century and a Sãdhana of Kurukulla in Sadhanamåla is attributed to him. Some of his vernacular songs arc known.8 Lui-pāda, according to the Pag-sam-jon-zang, hailed from Uddiyana but in the Bstan-hg'ur it is mentioned that he belonged to Bangala." He came of the fisherman caste. He is said to have been the first Siddhācārya and has been assigned to the seventh century." In the Bstan-hgyur five works on Tantrika Buddhism are attributed to him. Some of his vernacular songs have been published.? Nagabodhi was born in Varendra and was the disciple of Någårjuna who has been assigned to the 7th century." The authorship of thirteen works is ascribed to him in the Bstan-hgyur. Thc Pag-sam-jon-zango states that Säntarakṣita was a contenporary of Gopāla I and Dharmapala and was a scion of the royal family of Zahore and a native of Bangala. He was a pandita of the Nálandă University and was invited by the Tibetan king Khri. sron-den-tsan to visit Tibct. He established the first Buddhist monastery Sam-ye in 749 A.D. and stayed there for 18 years and died in 762 A.D.. Såntarakṣita is one of the greatest Buddhist scholars. His literary fame mainly rests on his monumental work 1. Sadhanamala, Intro , p. xliv. 2. Idid , p. xlvi. 3. Published by Mm, 11. P. Sliastri in the Bauddha-GA11a-o-Dolia. 4. Index, p. cxv. 5. Cordier, II, p 38. 6. Sadhanamala, Intro., p. xlvii. 7. Bauddha-Gana-o-Dola. 8. Sadhanamala, Intro.. p. xiv. 9. Index, p. xcix, p. 112 ; Mr. S. C. Das, the famous Tibetan scholar, wrote that he was a Hatire of Gauda. See JBTS, I. pt. II. p 10.

·20 THE EARLY HISTORY OF BENGAL called Tattva-sarhgraha. It is an exposition of the Mandyana and refutation of other systems of Indian philosophy. He quotes from no less than sixty previous authors, the hollowness of whose arguments is exposed in this book. A learned commentary on Tattva-sarngraha was written by his own disciple, Kamalasila. Besides, Sántarakṣita is said to have written eight books.? Haribhadra flourished during the reign of Dharmapala at whose request hc is said to have written a commentary on Aştasahasra-Prajñā-paramita in order to work out a compromise between Sünyavāda and Vijñanavāda of Någärjuna and Maitreyanåtha. Kayastha Tankadása was the chief lekhaka of Dharmapåla.* . He wrote a commentary called Suvisada-sampuļas on Hevajra-tantra. Various legends have grown around the name of Matsyendranátha, also known as Minanátha and Minapada. It is really difficult to know the truth about this man who occupies a foremost place among both the Buddhist and Hindu Tantrikas. He was the guru of Goraksanātha and is much revered by the Nätha sect all over northern India. Most probably he was a fisherman by caste and was born in Candradvipa. He preached his doctrine in Kämarupa. Dr. P. C. Bagchi after a careful examination of all the available legendary accounts is inclined to place him in the beginning of the 10th century A.D. and accepts the identification of Matseyndranatha with Lui-pa. His Kaulajñana-nirnaya deals with the Kaula doctrine of the Saiva Tantrikas but shows his acquintance with Buddhist Tantrika doctrines. Acārya Jetári came of a Brahmana family. He was a teacher of Dipankara and may be assigned to the last part of the 10th century. His father Garbhapåda served the local king of Varendra, Sanatana by name. Jetări is said to have been expelled by his kinsmen and consequently entered the Buddhist order. Three books on 1. Published in GOS, No. XXX. 2. Ihd., Intro., P., Hist. of Ind. Logic, pp. 828 ff. 8. JBORS, V. p. 177. 4: Spp, 1918, p. 254. 5. Cordier, II, p. 87. 6. See the learned låtroduction by Dr. P. C. Bagchi to Kaplajnina pirnaya, pablished in the Calçætta Sanskrit Series, No. III, ·LITERATURE, LEARNED MAN AND CNTBXA OF LEARNING lagic called Hetu-lattvo padeśa, Dharmadharma-viniscaya and Baldurs tära-tarka are attributed to him in the Bstan-kgyur.' Tailika.påda or Tilopå was a contemporary of Mahipala. In the Bstan-hgyur he is described as of Uddiyana, while the Pag-sam. jon-zange records that he was originally a Brahmana of Chittagong and lived in the Pandita Vihara there. Several books on Tantrika Buddhism are attributed to him. According to Tårānátha, Avadütapada Advayavajra was a contemporary of Mahipala I, and Dipankara. Fifty-three works have been attributed to him. Twenty of them have been published under the heading Advayavajra-saingraha.. Jñánaśri Mitra was born in Gauçla. He was a gate-keeper of the Vikramasilá monastery during the time of Dipankara's visit to Tibet and he is said to have owed a grcat deal to Jñanaśrī." He was at first a follower of the Srávaka school but later accepted Mahāyāna. Three works, entitled Karyakarana-bhava-siddhi (on logic), Tantra-müla-vítti (a Tāntrika Buddhist work) and Villi-måla. stuti (on metre) are attributed to him. Dipankara śrijñāna Alisa is a greal name in later Buddhist history and in Tibet he occupies a place, second only to Buddha himself. His biography is known from a Tibetan source. He was born in 980 A.D. in the royal family of Vikramaṇipura in Bangala. He was the son of Kalyäņaśri and Prabhavati, and his original namė was Candragarbha. He learnt five minor sciences from Jetäri and pitakas of the Mahayana doctrine, Madhyamika and Yogäcara metaphysics from Rähulagupta. At the age of thirty-one he became a full: fledged bhikṣu and spent 12 years in Suvarnadvipa in studying under Dharmakirti. His vast learning won for him the exalted position of the high priest of Vikramasila. He mediated the hostilities between king Karpa and Nayapăla. In course of the description of a 1. For short notices of these books, see Hist. of Ind. Logic, p. 837. 2. Cordier. II, p. 79. 3. Index, p. xli, 4. GOS, No. XL. 5. Hist. Iod. Logic. p. 887, 6. JBTS, I, p. 9 # ·22 THE EARLY HISTORY OF BENGAL convocation at Vikramasila, the Tibetan envoy who was deputed to escort him says, “When all the rows of seats were filled up, there came lord Atīša, the Vencrable of Venerables, in all his glory at whose sight the eyes felt no satiety. His graceful appearance and smiling face struck every one of the assembly. From his waist hung down a bundle of keys. The Indians, Nepalese and Tibetans all looked at him and looked upon him for a countryman of their own. There was brightness mixed with simplicity of expression on his face, which acted as a magic-spell upon those who beheld him."! After repeated invitations he went to Tibet to reform the Buddhist church there. He died in 1053 A.D. at the age of seventy-three. Twenty of his works are known in the Bstan-hgyur. Besides, with the help of some lotsavas (Paņditas) he translated many Sanskrit books, more than hundred of which are mentioned in the Bstanhgyur. Ratnakara Santideva, also known as Bubhukşu, was a gate keeper of the Vikramasila monastery. Táránátha says that he was a disciple of Dipankara and was a native of Zähore in Bangala. He composed a sådhana. He went to Ceylon to preach Buddhist doctrine. A work on prosody, called Chando-Ratnakara, is attributed to him. Two works on logic Vijñapli-mätra-siddhi and Antarryapti, are also known and some of his vernacular songs have been published. Prajñāvarman hailed from Káva in Bhongala (Vangala)* and was contemporary of Dånaśīla who Aourished during the reign of Nayapăla. Prajñavarman is known as a translator of Sanskrit books in Tibetan. He composed two works on Tantrika Buddhism and a commentary on Udäna-varga. Besides the above-mentioned authors and writers, there must have been many other Bengali scholars. In the above account only those have been included, about whom there is some definite evidence to show that they belonged to some part of Bengal. Some of the 1. JASB, 1891, pt. I, pp. 46-59. 8. No. 78. of Sadhuamala, Intro., y. cui.. 8. Htst. of Ind. Logic. Pp. 342-3. 4. Rockbul, Udånevarga, Intro.. p. XII, ·LITERATURE, LEARNED MEN AND CENTRES OF LEARING 23 scholars whom we know only as teachers of the monasteries of Nålanda, Vikramasila, Jagaddala, Pandita Vihåra and Vikramapuri Vihara must have hailed from Bengal but the fact is that nothing is known of their nativity. Vernacular Buddhist Literature - Mm. H. P. Shastri published the mystic vernacular songs of 84 authorsi and he regarded all of them as Bengalees because he noticed use of some cbsolete and peculiar Bengali words in them. These mystic songs were composed by Mahäsiddhas who are said to have performed great miracles. There are various legends connected with their lives current in Nepal and Tibet, and it is difficult to know their real life-stories. The songs show that they were teachers of Buddhist Sahaja cult and seem to have some connection with the Saiva Natha-panthis. Matsyendranätha, Goraksanātha and Jalandharipă are clained by both the secls and held in great reverence. It is also clear that the Siddhas practised esoteric doctrines and yoga. Attempts have been made sometimes to explain abstruse philosophy in a popular way through these songs. The distinguished linguist Dr. S. K. Chatterjeenotices distinctive Bengali traits of speech in the dohäs of 20 writers Lui-pa (2 poems), Kukkuri (2), Virüpa or Birūwa (1), Gu(n)dari (1), Cåțila (1), Bhusuka (8), Kámali or Kambalánabara (1), Dombi (1), Sånti (2), Mahittà or Mahidhara (1), Bijjila or Viņā-pada (1), Sabara (2), Aja or Aryadeva (1), Dhendhana (1), Dårika (1), Bhåde or Bhadrapada (1), Tadaka (1), Kankaņa (1), Jaya-nandi (1), Guñjari (1). The only exceptions are the dohás of Saraha (4) and Kanha (12) which arc written in A pabhraíša dialect. Judging from the language, he expresses the opinion that these authors should be assigned to the period between 950-1200 A.D. and finds great influence of Western Sauraseni Apabhraíía, "the most cultivated literary language" of that period on these songs, and he further says that their language seems to be 1. Banddba-Gäna-o-Doha, Intro. 2. Origin and Development of the Bengali Language, I. pp. 119-28, 117.

·F24 THE EARLY HISTORY OF BENGAL based on a West Bengali dialect. The same scholar: admice that in the 8th-11th centuries Bengali, Maithili and Oriya characteristics were probably in "formative fluid" and only in the 14th century they were fully developed. Though there is difference of opinion about the date of these dohäs, it is generally admitted that they cannot be posterior to 1200 A.D.. It is therefore reasonable to hold that in the period of these Ascarya-carya-caya: the distinctive features of Oriya, Bengali and Maithili were not fully developed from their common parent Magadhan Apabhramsa. There is nothing to show that all the authors were Bengalees. These songs were meant for the people at large and were very popular in eastern India. Most probably they belonged to different parts of castern India, if not to other parts of northern India. Budhist Universitics-The account of the Buddhist scholars remains unfinished without the description of the Buddhist Vihäras in which they congregated for higher studies. Nalanda-The first and foremost one was the famous Nålandă University. It came into prominence as a scat of learning from the time of Kumäragupta I, and since then many other kings bestowed their favours on it. The royal patrons mentioned by Yuan Chwang were Sakråditya, Budhaguptarāja, Tathagatagupta, Bälädityaraja, Vajra and Harsavardhana or Siladitya. The Nålanda inscription of the time of Yasovarman of Kanouj records that his minister's son, Målada by name, made various offerings to the monks of this Vihåra. With the establishment of the Påla power over Magadha the Buddhist Påla kings played an important part in the growth of the University of Nälandå. A oopper plate of Dharmapäla has been found in course of excavations but the object of this grant cannot be ascertained because of its defaced condition. The two inscriptions of the time of Devapala throw a flood of light on the importance of this international seat of learning. The Nalanda grant of his 39th regnal year records that king Bälaputradeva of Suvarna- 1. Ibid, p. 97. 2. IHQ, 1980, p 160. After the publication of this note, these songs should be better deuoted by this term and not Garryylcaryyaviolacayu. 1. ASIR, 1996-27. pp. 188-19 ·MERATURE, LAARNED MEN AND CENTRES OF LEARNING dvipa and Yavadvipa (Sumatra and Java) was "attracted by the mani. fold excellences of Nalanda" and built a monastery there, which was the abode of the assembly of monks of various good qualities and was white with series of stucco and lofty buildings." This king request ed Devapăla to grant five villages for the offerings, oblations, shelter, garments of the assembly of monks. This proves beyond doubt that it was a far-famed seat of learning and its fame was not confined within the borders of India. The Gosarawa inscription or Viradeva prašasti supplies also some interesting information. Vīradeva, a native of modern Jalalabad, after visiting Kaniska-vihāra at Puspapura and meeting the monks of his own country at Yašovarmapura (which perhaps could not satisfy his thirst for knowledge) was attracted by Nálandā. His vast crudition won for him the admiration of Devapåla? and the exalted position of the head of the great University. Many images were installed there during his regime and it seems that he added some structures to the establishments. A votive stūpa was built in the reign of Mahindrapala* who is most probably to be identified with the Pratihåra king Mahendrapala. An image of Vågišvari was covered with golden leaves in the reign of Gopāla II.“ In the sixth year of Mahipala I the Aşța-sahasrika-Prajñā-paramita was copied by one Kalyāṇamitra. In the 11th year of his reign a temple was rebuilt by one Bălăditya, a jyävişa of Tiladhaka (modern Telera) who had emigrated from Kauśãmbi. In the fourth year of Råmapāla's reign the Asfa-sähasrika-Prajña-paramita was copied7 and the same book was copied there in the 4th year of Govindapála. All these show that the Palas exercised control over the University of Nalandă upto their last days. 1. The remains of the monastery of Balaputradeva form one of the levels of Monastery No. 1. Kurashi, Guide to Nalanda, p. 4. 2. It is not clear whether he was appointed by Devapala or elected by the assembly of the monks. 3. ASIR, 1020-6, p. 86; EL, VIII. App., p. 118, Note 2. 4. JASB, NS, IV, p. 105. 8. Bendall, Cat. of Bd. San. Ms. in the Camb. U. Library, p. 101. 6. JASB, IV, 7. Cat. Sans. Mus. in the Bodelian Library, p. 250. 8. JRAS, NS, VIII, p. 3. P. 108.

·28 THE EARLY HISTORY OF BENGAL Vikramasila– The other important monastery of which some interesting details are known from the Tibetan accounts is that of Vikramasila. As regards its origin various legends have been nar rated in Tibetan books, but it seems that it was founded by Dharmapala who bore the title Vikramasila, and as such it is sometimes called "Srimad-Vikramasila-deva-vihara.": Opinions of scholars are divided as to the site of this famous monastery. It has been sought to be identified with Silas near Baragaon, with Patharghata* and Keur. All that is definitely known from the Tibetan account is that it was situated on a precipitous hill in Bihar on the right bank of the Ganges. "Patharghata" says Mr. N. L. De, "is about six miles to the north of Colgong, 24 miles to the east of Bhagalpur and 28 to the east of Campanagar; while “Keur is in direct line with Nalanda and Odantapuri and within 15 miles of Nalanda, and its close similarity with Nålandă remains, amply satisfics every known detail of Vikramašīlā." Dharmapåla provided it with four establishments and 27 monks were accommodated in each of them. Provisions were also made for the maintenance of resident monks and pilgrims. In his time the head of the vihåra was Buddha.jñana-påda. In Nayapala's time the central hall had six gates which opened six colleges. Each college had one hundred students and eight professors. There was an encircling wall around the whole establishment. The portraits of Någarjuna and Atisa Dipankara adorned the main entrance and the subjects on which great stress was laid were grammar, theology and philosophy. But the most important subject that was taught here and which gained high recognition was Tantrikism. Vikramasila's fame rests mainly on producing great Tántrika scholars and it seems that because of this it outshone Nålanda in importance. Distinguished scholars like Jetäri of Varendra and Ratnavajra of Kašmira received the diploma of "pandita" from the kings themselves. It may be men- 1. 8. C. Das, Indian Pandits in the Land of Snow, pp. 10-11. 2. R. L. Mitra, Nepalese Bd. Literature, p. 229; Bhārati, B. S., 1818, p. 2, JRAS, 1910, pp. 150-51 ; QOS, Rimacarita, Intro.. p. xi. 3. Cunningham, ASR, VIII, p. 76 4. JASB, V, p. 7; Samıddar, Glotes of Magadba, p. 157. 8. JBORS. XV, p. 276. 8. Hist. Ind. Logic, p. 520.

·LITERATURE, LEARNED MEN AND CENTRAL OF LEARNING 87 tioned in this connection that the titles of the Buddhist scholars were generally Acārya, Mahåcårya, Upadhyaya, Mahopadhyaya, Pandita, Mahapandita and Bhikṣu. When Dipankara was the head, there were 108 professors and each of the six gates had a gate-keeper., Only erudite scholars were appointed gate-keepers. Students seeking admission were put to a test before one of the gate-keepers who, I think, should be better called Heads of the Departments as in modern Universities. A board consisting of eminent professors supervised the affairs of the University and issued instructions to the professors. Disciplinary action against a monk was only taken on consulting the whole congregation of the monks. The life and character of Dipankara, so vividly described by the Tibetan envoy Nag-tsho, shows the regard for truth and the high sense of duty of the monks of Vikramasila. In Bengal proper there were many monasteries. Nothing in partciular is known of the monastery of Acārya-Santideva to which Vainyagupta granted land in 508 A.D. for providing perfumes, flowers, lights and incense and also garinents, food, beds, seats and medicines for the sick. The vihára of Acarya Jitasena is also men. tioned in this record. It is recorded by Yuan Chwang! that in his time there were at least two famous colleges. In the Po-chi-po sangharama which has been identified by Cunningham with Bhasu Vihara, four miles to the west of Mahästhana,there lived 700 Mahayäna priests and many renowned priests from castern India also dwelt there. Its courts were lighty and roomy; its towers and pavilions were very lofty. In the Raktaviti sarighārāma at Karņasuvarņa congregated all the most disitinguished men of the kingdom, who strove to promote each other's advancement by exhortation and to perfect their character. Its halls were lighty and spacious and the storeyed towers were lofty. The monastery of the revered teacher Sanghamitra to which Devakhadga granted land for the longevity of his son Rajara. jabhata seems to have been an important institution, although nothing is known about it. It is also to be mentioned that we have 1. Watters, II, pp. 184-191; Beal, Records, II, pp. 195.202. 2. ASR, XV, pp. 1047.

·3 NARLY HISTORY OP BRNGAL reference in the second Asrafpur plate to four others (vihara viharikd-catustaya). We are rather fortunate in having a vivid account of the Bha-ra-hå monastery at Tamralipti from I-tsing. The residents did not themselves cultivate lands of the monasteries but the tenants did it for them. The priests received only 1/3 of the vegetables. "Thus they live their just life, avoiding worldly affairs, and free from the faults of destroying lives by ploughing and watering fields." Every morning the managing priest examined the water of the well in order to see if there was any insect or animate being in it. Every business was done with the asscnt of the assembly of the monks There was no head. If any priest did anything according to his own will in disregard of the decision of the assembly, he was expelled from the monastery as he behaved like a householder. The nuns wishing to visit the priests were to inform the assembly of their purpose of visit. The pricst were to go to nuns' apartments after making an inquiry. When the nuns walked outside the monastery, they walked in a company of two and when they went to any layman's house, they were to go in a company of four. When women visited the monastery, they did not go to the apartments of priests but talked in the corridor. Monastic rules and rites were explained on the four U posatha days of every month to the assembly of the monks. A junior monk had to leave the monastery because of playing trick on a tenant's wife, although it was not considered an offence. The pilgrim observes that Rähulamitra of excellent character, who had never spoken with any woman face to face except his mother and sister, was the model of all monks and was the most honoured priest in the eastern districts of India. Learned monks who had mastered the pițakas were provided with the best rooms and servants. If they delivered daily lectures, they were relieved of the usual duties of an ordinary priest. Oo account of the priests' mutual confession, their faults were prevented before their growth and as a rule they submitted to laws. The rites of Nålanda, we are told, were still stricter and hence its great fame and greater number of students, 1. Takakasa, Ch. X, pp. 62 65. %. Ably discussed by Sankalia, Vniversity of Nalanda, Ch. II, pt. H; Ch. VHT.

·LITERATURE LEARNED NIAN AND CENTRRB OF LEARNING 29 Somapurl Maħávihara-Although nothing definite is known from literary source regarding the site of this great monastery, the evidence is now overwhelming for its identification with the Paharpur temple. A clay seal found in course of excavations at Paharpur supplies the information that the Vihåra was founded by Dharmapala.? Tárånătha and the author of the Pag-sam-jon-zango attribute its foundation to Devapăla, and this perhaps indicates that he added some structures: which were begun by his father. About the middle of the 19th century a Buddhist monk, Vipulasrimitra by name, built a shrine of Tärā, and this temple has been identified with that of the same goddess, exposed at Satyapira Bhita at Pahar. pur. The Nålandă inscription of Vipulaśrīmitra further informs that Karuņāśrīmitra died at Somapura when his house was set on fire by an army of a Vangăla king. Karuņåśrimitra was removed from him by two generations of teachers, namely Maitrīsrimitra and Asokasrfmitra. Besides the building of the shrine of Tåra, all other pious activities of Vipulaśrīmitra have been enumerated in this record. On a festival day he offered a casket to the temple of Khasarpaņa for the Prajñāpäramità manuscript, installed four images at its alms-houses at Choyandaka, installed an image of Dipankara Buddha at Harsapura and offered a gold ornament for the decoration of an image of Buddha at Somapura. It is known from a Bodh-Gaya inscription? that a Mahayana monk named Viryendrabodhi who hailed from Samatata and was a resident of the Somapura-vihara installed a Buddha image near the Mahabodhi temple (in c. the tenth century). Other celebrated scholars connected with this monastery were Mahapandita Bodhibhadra and Advaya- 1. VRS, Monograph No. 5, p. 97. 2. ASIR, 1626-7, p. 149 ; 1227-21, pp. 105-6. 9. IA, IV, p. 866, 4. Inder, p. CXIX, 8. A colophon of Aliſa Dipankara's Ratna-Karapod ghata ascribes the foundation of the Vikramabila-vibára to Devapala who most probably, as Mr. N. N. Dasgupta suggests, added some structures to both the monasteries started by his father, see IC. 1, p. 229 8EI, XXI, p. 101. 7. $PP. 1823, B. S., p. 70. 8. Çordier. II. PP. 88, 280.

·30 THE EARLY HISTORY OF BENGAL vajra. Atila passed some time in it in translating the Madhya. maka-Ratna-Pradipa.. . Jagaddala-vihåra-This last great Buddhist monastery was built by. Ramapala at the confluence of the Ganges and the Kara. toyä. Its renowned alumni were Bibhūticandra, Danaśīla, Mokfakaragupta, Subhakaragupta and Dharmákara. The works composed by its panditas are grossly Tantrik in character and generally deal with Pisacas, owls Någas, Yokşas etc., and their sadhanas. One special feature of Jagaddala-vihara was that many lotsavas (Tibetan scholars) thronged here and translated many Sanskrit books in Tibetan. 1079 61 Other minor Vihåras-The existence of Vikramapuri-vihara is known from the Bstan-hgyur but nothing definitely is known about its origin. Kumăracandra belonged to this monastery. The existence of the Traikutaka-vihara in Bangala is known from Pagsam-jon-zang, and it was here that Haribhadra wrote his commentary on Aşta-sähasrikā-Prajñāpāramitā. The same book refers to the Pandita-vihåra in Chittagong where flourished Tailikapäda.? The Suvarna-vihara was in Nadia.8 The Kanaka-stupa-vihåra was situted in Pațçikară, easily identifiable with the Patikera paragană of the Tippera district. From the Mainamati plate of Raņavankamalla Harikaladeva, dated in 1141 S.E., it is further known that there was a vihara in that locality and it was dedicated to the goddess Durgottară, a form of Tårå. Chittagong is the only place where a Buddhist community still thrives and traces of Buddhism can be found in many localities.to 1. Ibid, pp. 116, 120 ; III, p. 5. 2. Ibid, III. p. 299. 8. IC, I. p. 232. 4. Sankalia, University of Nalanda, p. 189 8. Mr. N. N. Dasgupta suggests that it owed its origin to Dharmapala, Bharat varsa, 1841 B. S., pp. 982-970 ; IC, I, p. 280. 6. Index pp. xciv, ali ; MASB, III, No. 1, p. 8. 7. Index, p. Lii; JASB, 1898, p. $ 8. SPP, 1821, B. S. p. 205. 9. IHQ, IX, pp. 289 ff. 10. IHO, 1999, pp. 888 #f, . -3 ·CHAPTER LX SOCIAL CONDITION Brahmana Immigrations-The genealogical books of the Bengali ghatakas (match-makers) form a class of literature by themselves and it is a separate $ästra by its special importance like the Śrutis and Smytis. There is an extensive literature on the subject, variously called Kulašāstras, Kulagranthas' or Kulapanjikås. The main object of the genealogical books is to keep a correct record of the lineal descendants of important families, their branches and subbranches with their social impurities and indignities in order to enable to gauge their social rank and status. The list of the ascen. dants of a family is necessary on some ceremonial occasions and they are supremely useful in forming matrimonial relationship, as connection of a pure family with a lower one will degrade the former also. Generally the lists coming from different sources agree with one another. But it is very difficult to handle these books for historical purposes. None of them has proved to be old and most of them are based on current traditions, sometimes orally transmitted from generation to generation. But what diminishes their historical value is that they are 'propagandist' in the extreme sense of the term. The Rådhiya and Värendra Brahmanas assert that they are the pure descendants of the five immigrants alleged to have been imported by king Adiśūra. The contention of their books is that the original Brahmanas of Bengal lost their purity and competence in performing religious rites and rituals correctly and hence the importation of five pure Brahmanas at the instance of Adiśūra. The Pascatya Vaidikas declare that the Rådhiyas and Värendras were incapable of understanding the proper meaning of the Vedic mantras, and so king Samalavarman had to invite some Vaidika Brahmanas from the western provinces because of their profound knowledge in Vedic lore and rites. Not to speak of the important sections like the Radhiyas, Varendras and Vaidikas, every genealogist or protagonist trica to prove the purity and superiority of those whose cause he ·THE EARLY HOR O CAL espouses. In course of the development of Kulinism with all it intricacies and complexities there arose a class of professional ghatakas who may properly be regarded as beralds. There are instances of their tampering with the Kulapahjikås with not very disinterested or good motives. What is most instructive and interesting in this connection is that even most of the modern writers on the subject (though they profess to be critical and scientific) suffer from this defect. Few would give out the social stigma, if there were any, on their own families and by distoning truths by every possible meanis they would prove their purity and superiority. Above all, it must be borne in mind that the desire to associate one self with a celebrated man or family or to claim a high pedigree is more or less inherent in human nature. In spite of these defects, it may be said that the traditions may contain some historical truths underlying them. In the Kulašāstras are to be found the social organisations and reorganisations in various ranks and grades that were made by great social reformers to meet the needs of the changing circumstances from time to time, and some of them still hold good in case of the majority of the Hindu society of Bengal. They offer us a glimpse into the Hindu society during the Muslim rule which it is impossible to have from any other source. Scholars with a scientifat bent of mind have generally expres. sed grave doubts on the Kulatåstras as reliable sources of evidence. Thus Messrs. R. D. Banerjee and R. P. Chandaa who have discussed the historicity of Adilura at great length have ultimately come to the conclusion then so long as his name is not to be found in some other more reliable recrods, it is futile to determine his place in history. But both of them conceded the historical existence of a king of that name because of the unanimity of all traditions from differenti Kulapafjikas. The introduction of Kulinism by Vallalasena has also been doubted by this school of wirters because of the absence of its mention in the Sena grants X 1. Land and &rd Appendice unty the p7h ·SOCIAL CONDITION The opposite school is led by Mr. N. N. Vasul and the native orthodox school of writersa who are ready to accept the evidence of the Kulapanjihäs in toto. They write generally from the social standpoint. Excepting Mr. N. N. Vasu, none of them seems to be well acquainted with the archäological materials for history, and naturally the accounts of these books are given prominence and preference. But it does not seem that the 'scientific school of writers have gone deep into this class of literature from the standpoint of social history. Most of the books are in MSS. and ade quate study of the subject has not been made. A critical study of the subject is worth attempting It must be made clear that the accounts of the royal genealogies in Kulagranthas are faulty and inaccurate, and their composers were not so much concerned with political history. Samalavarman is spelt as-Syamalavarman and Vijayasena has been made his father. They were written long after the Sena period, and their authors do not seem to have based their accounts on accurate history. Only echoes of some historical truths are sometimes heard, when Vallalasena is connected with the Sūta dynasty through his mother's side and the date 1079 A.D. is mentioned as the time of Såmalavarman. Their importance lies in the fact that they give a picture of the Hindu society which cannot be found elsewhere. The Kulatattvärņavas (about the genuineness of which we have grave doubts)* states that a king named Sūdraka imported Sarasvala Brahmanas in. Vanga in order to perform a putresti sacrifice, but this lacks corroboration from any other book. All books agree in stating that king Adiśúra brought five Brahmanas 1. His ten volumes on Castes and Sects of Bengal (in Bengali ) called Winger Jatiya Itihaaa. 9. For names of authors, lee Appendis L. 8. V. 10-2. bec my nowarto an this book ia Winternitz commemoration volame. 6 ·THE EARLY EISTORY OF BENGAL from Kanouj or Kolánca. In most of the books' the names of the five Brahmanas are Kşitīša of the Såndilya gotra, Vitarága of the Kasyapa gotra, Sudhānidhi of Vätsya gotra, Medhitithi of the Bharadvaja gotra, and Sambhari of the Såbarna gotra. The story of their migration is as follows:-Adisura was the lord of Panca Gaudas and vanquished many kings of different parts of India. He had a rival in Virasimha who is described in some books as king of Kanouj and in others, of Käsi. This king was not subdued by ordinary warfare. Therefore seven hundred armed Brahmanas of Bengal were sent on cows' back by Adīsúra to fight with him. There could not be any fighting without killing the cows and Brahmanas, which, as a pious and religious-minded man, Virasimha could not do: Thus he was compelled to send five pure Sägnika Brahmans to Adiśüra in whom Bengal was lacking. The Kulatattvārņava supports this story but adds that Adiśūra needed these Brahmanas for the performance of a putreşti sacrifice. The Värendra Kulapañjikā: supplies the information that Adiśūra brought the Brahmanas from Kanouj for fulfilling the wishes of his wife Candramukhi, the daughter of the Kanauj king Candraketu, who wanted to perform a vrata by pure Brahmanas. The dates of the migration of the five Brahmanas in differnet books fall within the period between the eighth and the eleventh centuries. The earliest is 654 S.E.=732 A.D., and it is mentioned in many books. The dates S.E., 954, S.E., 994 S.E. and 999 S.E. are 1. There is some discrepancy in the names of the five immigrants, According to the Varendra Kulapanjika, Bhatta Nārāyana, Dalsa, Chandada, Harpa and Vedagarbla are the original settlers. Mf. N. N, Vasu cites a book in which Bhatta Närāyapa, Susema, Dharadhara, Gautama and Parasara are the original settlers but are called the sons of Kpitiba, Vitaraga, Sudhanidhi, Medbatlth and Sambhari. We therefore take this list (which is found in Radhiya booka) as more trostworthy and reliable. (VJI, I.p. 102). 2. VJI, I pp. 73-83, see different versions of the story. Ibid. 4. ' ILL. XI, pp. 73-74, Appendis F.

·SOCIAL CONDITION 36 also met with. It is definite that Adisura was not responsible for the migrations of the Brahmanas on all these dates which fall within three centuries. Either these dates are wrong or they record the time of migrations of different batches of Brahmanas. It is also interesting to note that at the time of Vallalasena there was the 18th generation of the Bharadvājas and Sabarņas, the 12th of the Sandilyas and Vätsyas and the 8th of the Käśyapas in Rådha; and in Varendra there was the 14th of the Sandilyas, the 15th of the Käsyapas, the 18th of the Bharadvajas and Sabarnas and the 4th of the Våtsyas of the descendants of the five immigrants. All the difficulties can be solved by the natural presumption that the Brahmanas came to settle from time to time, and every migration has been associated with the name of Adiśúra (whose zeal and effort were perhaps the cause of one) in the K’ulašāstras which were composed long after that event. It may be that all dates have not been remembered. It is not to be believed on the authority of the Kulašāstras that there had been no Brahmanas of the above five gotras before the alleged migration through the efforts of Adisůra. The evidence of the Faridpur plate (No. 3), the Vappagoshavata plate of the time of Jayanaga and the Nidhanpur plates is conclusive on the point, as they mention many Brahmanas of the five gotras. This may explain in a way why the ancestors of Sabarna Bhatta Bhavadeva and Bharadvāja Prahāsa of the Silimpur inscription and Såndliya Guravamisra have not been described as immigrants from outside, as their families had been settled in Bengal from very remote times. There has been much discussion on the vexed question of Adiśüra, and previous writers could not offer any satisfactory solution of the problem. The present writer drew attention to a hitherto unnoticed king, Magadhadhiraja Adisimha of the Dudhpani Rock inscription, who may be identified with Adiśūras of the Kulašāstras with some degree of plausibility. There is no difference in the meaing of the names, the words 'śūra' and 'simha' being used in the sense 2. VJI. I. 1. See Appendix F. S. IHQ. XI, p. 70, ·86 THE EARLY HISTORY OF BENGAL of hero. Palæographically the record has been assigned by Kielhorn to the eighth century. The earliest date 782 A.D. of the migration has been mentioned in the majority of the books so far known. The king Adisimha is to be placed after the Later Guptas and before the extension of the Pala power over Magadha. There could not have been any room for Magadhādhiraja Adisiṁha when these two dynasties were ruling there. There is nothing improbable in the fact chat a king of Magadha had some portion of Gauda under him. Gauda and Magadha were on many occasions politically united. The unnamed king of Gauda who was defeated and killed by Yasovarman of Kanauj in the first half of the eighth century has been described by Våkpati as Mägadanātha also. It is mentioned in the Kulašastras that the five Brahmana immigrants were granted the villages of Pancakoţi in Manbhum, Vatagrama in Burdwan, Harikoţi in Midnapore, Kåmakoţi in Birbhum and Kaňkagråma not far from Bånakunda. After the discovery of the Saktipur grant of Lakşmaņasena? the last mentioned village can be identfied with some degree of certainty, and it seems that it is represented by Kågråma in the Kandi sub-division of Murshidabad. It is also to be mentioned that Bårakuņda, a locality in P. S. Suri, may be identified with Banakunda near Kankagräma of the Kulapanjikās. Most of the books record that the five immigrants came from Kanouj or Kolañca., Only one Värendra Kulapañjikát states that they migrated from different places-the ſandilya family from Jamhucatvara, the Våtsya from Tädita, the Bharadvāja from Audumbara, the Sābarna from Madra and the Käsyapa from Kolánca. The fact that in this account there are the names of three important places like Audambara, Madra and Kolañca gives it some degree of credibility, though Jambucatvara and Tadita cannot be located. There are many epigraphic evidences of the fact that many Brahmana emi- 1. VJI., I, pp. 109-111. 9. EI., XXI, p. 214. 8. SPP, 1840 B.S., 4. VJI, I, p. 109,- pp. 78.

·SOCIAL CONDITION grants from Tarkari' (variantly called Tarkkäri, Tarkkärika), Krodafija: or Kroçlänca or Kulāñca (easily identifiable with Kolañca of the Kulašastras) and from Madhyadeśa figure as donees of royal grants of different provinces. Let us first take the case of Tarkari. It is recorded in the Silimpur prasasti of Prahasa that his ancestors (a Bharadvaja family) originally lived in Tarkåri within Sråvastijanapada from where they migrated to Balagrama and Siyamvaka which have been described as ornaments of Varendra. In two inscriptions it has been definitely stated that Tarkåri was in Madhyadesa, and it deserves particular notice that in one of the Baudh plates of Raṇabhañjadeva of the year 50 Tarkäri has been specifically mention. ed to have been in Śrävastideśa. In the Ajayagar inscription Tarkarikå has been called the chief abode of the Srivastava Kayasthas who are still now an important section of the Kayasthas of the United Provinces. All these point to the fact that there was a Tärkäri within far-famed Sråvasti in the Gonda district of U.P. Brahmana emigrants from Srávasti-mandala, bhukti and vişaya figure as donees in the Mahāśivagupta Yayāti's Patna plates, the Katak plates of Mahāśivagupta II, the Sonpur plate of Someśvaradeva, the Madhuvan plate of Haryavardhana, the Dighwa-Dubhali plate of Mahendrapala and the Lucknow Museum plate of Kirtipäla. .The donee of the Bangarh grant of Mahipala I has been described as an emigrant from Hastipäda. The donees of two grants from Orissa? also hailed from a village of that name, and in one of them it is mentioned that Hastipäda was in Madhyadeśa. The donees of the Irda plate of the Kamboja king Nayapåla and the Jajilpara grant of Gopāla II have becn described as emigrants from Kuntira and Muktāvastu which cannot be located at present. The ascen. dants of the donees of the Beläva plate of Bhojavarman and the Barrackpore plate of Vijayasena have been described as Madhya. 1. SPP., 1941 B. S., pp. 28 ff ; see also IA., 1931, pp. 14 ff; XLVIII, p. 208. 2. IC., II, pp. 898 ff. 8. IA., XLVIII p. 280. 4. IHQ X, pp. 477. 8. N. N. Vasu, Kdyastha Varna-Nimpaga, p. 12 8. SPP., 1841 B. S. pp. 95 #f. 1. IDỊg.

·BS THE EARLY DISTORY OF BENGAL desa-vinirgata. There are at least seven charters' which record land grants to Brahmana emigrants from Krodanja, the location of which is not yet certain ; but it is to be observed that the tradition as preserved in the Kulašāstras unanimously associates it with Kanauj i.e., in Madhyadeśa. It is almost certain that there was a Sråvasti in northern Bengal, the existence of which is perhaps indicated by a sloka. in the Matsya and Kurma Puranas and is proved by the evidence of the two inscriptions of the Kámarūpa kings Dharmapala and Indrapala and the Vaigräma plate. Its location in Bogra and Dinajpur Districts is also certain. It is also quite possible, as has been sug. gested by some scholars, that there was a Kolañca* within the locality of Srävasti in Bengal (which has been identified with Kulañca in the Bogra district). It is to be noticed that this Srāvasti and Külánca were not far removed from the city of Gauda in northern Bengal. Long ago Cunningham pointed out that there was a Gauda in the Gonda district, and the Rāmāyaṇa and Väyupurāņa also mention a Gauda in Uttarakośala.? It seems that northern Bengal had very important relations with Srävastideśa, so far as the migrations of the Brahmanas were concerned. The far-famed Srävasti was not only a centre of Buddhism, Jainism and Ajivikism but also a strong-hold of the Brahmanical religions, as it has been. shown by Dr. B. C. Lawas even from the stray references in the early 1. IC, II, pp. 886 ff. 2. Ei, XIII, p. 290. 3. Kamarpa-basadavall p. 187; Ei, xxIII, p. 108; IC, II. p. 386 ff. The Assam inscriptions refer to Savathi and ode of them mentions a place called Vagirama in it, the identity of which is established by the Vaigrar: plate. 4. Ibid, 8. Ibid. & ASI, I, p. 827 ; IX, pp. 131-132. 7. EI., XIII, p. 290 ; IHO, XIII, p. 182. Xs. B. C. Law, Srivasti in Ancient Indian Literature. p. 28, ·SOCIAL CONDITION go Buddhist literatures. According to Baudhayana? and Vašīstha? it was in Madhyadeśa that the practice and tradition of the Aryas or sistas (cultured men) prevailed and the customs of this place were regarded with special veneration. According to Manu, Madhyadeša is the country which lies between Himavat and the Vindhya, to the west of Prayaga and to the east of Vinasana, where the Sarasvati disappears. It was here that the Brahmanical rituals and social institutions like the caste were developed and elaborated and hence it became "the model country for all ages" and for all Aryavarta. Viewed in this light, the tradition of the Kulašāstras seems to reflect some truth and the migration of the Brahmanas from Madhyadeśa and the honour shown to them are historically intelligible, if not a necessity of the Hindu society of ancient Bengal. Bengal is not the only province where in epigraphic records the Brahmanas, significantly described as Madhyadeša-vinirgatá, have been honoured with grants of land and other endowments. The instances of the Brahmanas who emigrated from Sråvasti -bhukti, mandala and vişaya have already been noted. In the neighbouring province of Orissa there are about six or epigraphs) and there is no doubt that such cases can be easily multiplied from the inscriptions of other provinces. As regards the incident of the migration, there is nothing improbable in the tradition that a king brought some Brahmanas from upper India in course of an expedition. An instance exactly of this nature may be cited.' It is known from a southern India inscription, that Bițsiga of the Härita gotra, a minister of the Hoysala king Narasimha I, descended from one of the fifty chief Brahmanas whom Ganga kings brought from the agrahāra of Ahichatra in the north when he had gone there in course of a seven 1. SBE., XIV. 143-4, 147. 2. Ibid, 1-3. 8. Ibid, XXV, 83 ; IAQ., IV, pp. 84 f. 4. Mr. N. K. Datta, Aryanisation of India, pp. 89-91 8. SPP., 1841 B. 9., pp. 25 ff. 8. Ep. Carn. IV Intto., p. 91.

·46 THE KARLY HISTORY OY BENGAL victorious expedition. The allegation that there were no pure Brahmanas in Bengal perhaps to be understood with references to the manner and way in which tribes or parts of eastern India have been mentioned in the Aitareya Brāhmaṇa, Aitareya Aranyaka and by Baudhayana. In the later Vedic period Bengal was inhabited by non-Aryan and nomadic tribes and peoples, and orthodox writers like Baudhayana did not deem it a proper place for Aryan habitation. There is no denying the fact that Bengal received her stock of Aryan population later than the Upper Gangetic countries. In discussing the Brahmana immigrations, the early spread of two manifestly non-Brahmanical religions-Jainism and Buddhism-and their gaining strong foot-holds should also be taken into consideration. There seems to be much truth in the broad generalisation of Prof. Bhandarkar? that Bengal was first Sramanised and then Brahmanised. But definite evidence regarding the active propagation of the Brahmanical religion and a vigorous movement for Brahmanisation of the country we have in the Gupta period, and in this connection the testimony of the five Damodarpur plates is very significant. The objects of the purchase of land as stated in these plates were as follows :-for the purpose of conducting agnihotra, rites by a Brahmana (N.I), for conducting the daily sacrifices of a Brahmana (N.2), for settling some prominent Brahmanas (No.8), for erection of temples of two Brahmanical gods (N. 4), and to make some repairs in a temple by an inhabitant of Ayodhyā (No. 5). The Dhangidaha and Vaigram plates also had almost similar objects in view. All these transactions were made within the confines of the Pundravardhana-bhukti and in most cases in the Kotivarsavisaya in the Dinajpur district. These plates bear ample testimony to the fact that during the rule of the staunch Brahmanical Gupta emperors Brahmanical influence was being spread in northern Bengal by the Brahmanas themselves, by local officers and chiefs (No. 3) 1. See Ante 2. ABI, XII, pp. 111 8. 8. EI, XV, p. 113. The same fact is to be noticed in the Faridpur plates (IA 1910, PP 198 ff) ·SOCIAL CONDITION and even by outsiders who were deeply interested in this faith (No.5). The Nidhanpur plates' also go to show how almost in the same period Bhutivarman, great-great-grandfather of Bhaskaravarman, was inviting Brahmanas from western provinces by conferring rent-free land in Sylhet. It has been shown by Dr. N. K. Bhatcasali that the land granted by these plates is to be located in Panchakhanda in the Sylhet district. The plates are also very important in so far as they preserve the names of more than 200 Brahmanas with their gotras and the Vedas they studied. The Tippera grant of Lokanatha is extremely interesting as it reveals the process and way in which a jungly (and presumably non-Brahmanical) tract was brought under the influence of the Brahmanical religion. It is stated therein that in the vişaya of Suvanga (not yet located but most probably in the Tippera district) "in the forest region, having no distinction of natural or artificial boundary, having a thick network of bush and creeper, where deer, buffalocs, boars, tigers, serpents etc., enjoy according to their will all pleasures of home life" a Brahmana Samanta Pradoşaśarman built a temple of Anantanåráyaņa and prayed to his chief Lokanatha for some land for the maintenance of the daily worship of the god. This plate also records the names of more than 100 Brahmanas but not their gotras and Vedas. The Brahmanas mentioned in the Nidhanpur and Tippera plates deserve more than a passing notice. It has been pointed out by Mr. J. C. Ghoset and Prof. Bhandarkars that they were Nägara Brahmanas who emigrated from western provinces. The issues in. volved in the latter's illuminating paper on the Nägara Brahmanas and the Kāyasthas of Bengal are various and many, but it is perhaps to be conceded that Vádanagar or Anandapura, Ahichatra and Sapädalaksma were important centres of the Nagara Brahmanas, from where they migrated in course of time to different parts of India. What is more important for our purpose is that, similar to the tradi- 1. Ibid. XIX, p. 116. 245. L. JASB., 1935. p 419. 8. KI., XV, p. 301. IHD., 4000, p.02. LA, 1893, pp. 41, 91.

·THE EARLY HISTORY OF BENGAL tion of the importation of five Brahmanas from Madhyadeba by Adisura, there is a strong tradition among the Såmpradåyika Brahmanas in Sylheti that five of their ancestors were imported from Mithila by a king named Adi Dharmapha in 641 A.D.. The influence of the former tradition on the latter is perhaps easily traceable, but the date agrees fairly well with the time of Bhaskaravarman and Lokanatha. If there be any truth underlying the tradition current among the Sampradayikas in Sylhet, the most interesting point is that those who claim to be their descendants have entirely forgotten the real identity of their forefathers.2 Mention may also be made of the existence of the Läta Brahmanas in Bengal who were placed in charge of the temple of Nanna-Narayaņa built by Mahasamantadhipati Näräyaņavarman during the reign of Dharmapala. Another significant fact is also worthy of special notice in this connection. While in the Gupta and post-Gupta periods private persons or officials and semi-officials in their personal capacities made gifts of lands to the Brahmanas or temples, the Pala and Sena kings conferred lands of their own accord out of the traditional royal policy, as outlined in the Arthaśātras that the king should reward the pious and learned men of the country or because of some services done to the kings or queens. Therefore it is quite reasonable to take the pro-Brahmanical activties of the Gupta and post-Gupta periods as active steps for Brahmanisation of the country. In the story of the migration of five Brahmanas it is also obvious that there is a propaganda to discredit and lower the ori. ginal Brahmanas of Bengal. The sendnig of a Brahmana army on cow's back is an absurd thing and it needs no comment. In their zeal to prove their own purity and superiority the Rådhiya and Värendra writers forget that this would reflect discredit on the king whose religious fervour was at the root of the immigration of their . 1. IHQ . 1991. p. 716. 8. Dr. K. M. Gupta suspects that Sampradayika is a modern Uterary infltration of the long forgotten vigalbcant term sapadalakpa. & Prof. Bhandarkar is of optaion that these Lata Brahmans were aleo Nagan Brabdianas.

·SOCIAL CONDITION 43 five illustrious predecessors. It is said that there were seven hundred Brahmanas in Bengal before that event and hence they were called Sapta-sati. Again, it has been suggested that the word 'Såtsati" is the vernacular from of Sarasvata but has been again sanskritised into Sapta-sati. Acceptance of this view means that the original Brahmanas were all Sarasvatas, but it has no basis to support it excepting the Kulutattvarnava. The Goșthikatha sarcastically remarks that their knowledge of the Vedas was very poor and were engaged by the Súdras as priests. The Sapta-satis in Rådha had at least seven gotras, while those in Varendra had five. The Sapta-satis had gåins like the Rādhiyas and Värendras and the number amounted to about forty.S In the Påla and Sena grants there are many Brahmanas who, judged by their gotras,' are to be regarded in all reasonableness as Sapta-satis. Their learning in the sästras is evident from their their description in the grants. They sometimes performed sacrifices and were readers of moral texts and religious books. Mention may be made of a Kausika gotra Brahmana who migrated from Pundravardhana to the Räşțrakūta kingdom in the ninth century. The charge of impurity and ignorance of the śåstras laid against the Sapta-fatis is, therefore, altogether unjustificd and must be regarded as merely a propaganda. But the most important fact is that this persistent prapaganda has met with complete success. Few Brahma. nas will give out the fact that they are really Sapta-satiis and in the Census of 1931 only nineteen persons were returned as Sapta-satis. . 1. VJI. I. p. 88. They are Saunaka, Gautama, Kaundanya, Parabara, Vasistha, Harita and Kautsa. sandilya and Ālambana are also inentioned by N. N. Vasu for which he cites no authority. 2. Ibid., p. 89. 3. See Appendix F. 4. The donee of the Bagagrh grant of Mahipala I was of the Parabara gotra and followed the Vajasenya lakha of the Yajur Veda , of the Manahali plate is of Kautsa-gotra of the Kauthuma-sakha of the Slm iveda ; of the Amgachi plate is of the Kausika of Yajurveda ; of the Madhainagara grant of the Kaylika-gotra and Paippalada-bakhi of the Atharvaveda ; of the Sunder. ban plate is of Gårgya-gotra apd of Afvaļāyapa-bakha of the Rgveda. 8. IA, w, p. 320.

·TER EARLY HISTORY OF BENGAL A careful investigation into the gotras and gains will undoubtedly reveal the existence of a greater number of them who are concealing their identity in order to escape the social stigma and odium due to this propaganda. Some have managed to merge themselves in the Radhiya, Värendra and Vaidika societies and it is impossible to discern them. This explains why the number of the descendants of the Sapta-satis or seven hundred men has been returned as nineteen only, while those of the five Brahmana immigrants of the time of Adiśúra have reached such a big figure as 851,136 in course of 1000 to 1200 years. The Kulašāstras bear testimony to the fact that the Sapta-satis entered the Värendra and Rädiya societies not in inconsiderable numbers. What is more interesting is that at a subsequent period three other gotras, viz. Parašara, Vašiştha and Gautama, were added to the original five of the Rādhiyas. A modern Bra. hmana author confesses that besides these eight gotras, three others, Ghytakausika, Kaundanya and Alamnyana, are also met with in the Rådhiya society. Radhiyas and Vårendra-There is a veritable wordy warfare between the Radhiyas and Virendras for the claim of regarding the five immigrants as their own countrymen. Sändilya Nåråyaņa, Vätsya Dharădhara, Kasyapa Suşeņa, Bharadvaja Gautama and Såbarna Paräsara whom most of the Kulapañjikās claim to be the earliest ancestors of the Vårendras appear to be the sons of the five predecessors of the Radhiyas. It is quite possible that some of the sons of the Brahmana immigrants migrated to northern Bengal. This is quite in agreement with our location of the five villages granted by Adiśúra in Richa. But the Radhiya and Värendra quarrel does not end there. The Värendras accuse the Radhiyas of Sapta-fati contamination and declare that they are the sons of the five immigrants by their Sapta-sati wives. The Rådhiyas countercharge their Värendra brethren with the same blemish. But the 1. K. P. Bliattacharsya, RAQlitra kulattatva, pp. 124-128. 2. For the charges aud cunter.cha.ges see Sainlandha Siitara by L. Vidy anittui ( pp. 617.(S4). After Iefuting the charges of the Viiendin, the author himself coputer-charges them. The author, it needs the teesitioned, was a Radhiya, ·SOCIAL CONDITION plain truth is that both the groups got Sapta-sati contact from vety early times. But as thc Varendras seem to be a sectionally conscious community and as the Rädhiyas excel them in number, the Sapta-fati contact was perhaps more in case of the Radhiyas. The descendants of the five inmigrants in Radha came to be known as Radhiyas and those in Varendra as Värendras. Their emergence as two separate endogamous groups was not perhaps sudden and various causes might have contributed to this. There are few instances of Rädhiya and Varendra inter-marriages in the Kula. sästras even at a late period, but the geographical situation, political condition and difficult communications of that period did not promote such marriages. In course of time different social customs and usages grew up in two parts of Bengal and from that point of view such marriages were not perhaps liked also. Kulinism, the foundation of which is ascribed to Vallalasena by both the sections, has diffcrent history and developments in the two localities. It is difficult to say when these two sections had got separate denominations in spite of their common ancestry. Radha as the name of western Bengal is mentioned in ancient books like Jaina Acaranga Sütra, while the name Varendra is not known before the tenth century. The existence of the Radhiyas and Vārendras as two separate sections is definitely known for the first time from the Brāhmaṇa-sarvasvas of Halayudha, who was the chief judge of Lakşmaņasena. He takes both these groups severely to task for their ignorance of the proper meaning of the Vedic mantras, and from his description it seems clear that the Radhiyas and Värendras as two separate sections were quite well-known in his time. It may not be out of place here to note that there is no section or class of Brahmanas who arc known by the territorial name of eastern Bengal, though a section of the Kayasthas is called Vangaja. Again, it would be a mistake to think that there were no Brahmanas in eastern Bengal, as the tesitmony of the four Faridpur plates, Nidhanpur and Tippera grants is conclusive on that point. In this connection it may be mentioned that thc Cheedivlasa plates 1. Ibid. p. 720 : Appendix C, p. 204. 2. Soe Introduction. 8. T.C, Vidyananda's edition, pp. 9-10 ·18 THE EARLY HISTORY OF BENGAL of the Ganga king Devendravarman, son of Bhupendravarman, record grants of land to Vangaja Brahmanas who have been described as "eager in performing sacrifices and studying Vedas, well-versed in Vedas and Vedangas, and practising Dharmas as described in Srutis and Smytis"It seems that the early Brahmana inhabitants managed to get into the Radhiya, Värendra and Vaidika societies of eastern Bengal and their real identity cannot be traced at all. But it is also true that many Brahmanas from western and northern Bengal migrated to eastern Bengal. The Kewar image inscription records the migration of a Värendra sandilya family and from palæographical considerations this is to be assigned to the 12-18th century A.D. The Adavadi plate of Dasarathadeva refers to the settlement of a batch of Radhiya Brahmanas in Vikramapura. After the occupation of western and northern Bengal by the Muslims castern Bengal remained under the Hindu kings for about a century more and it can be easily understood that with the fall of the Hindu political power in Gauda many Brahmanas migrated to the neighbouring Hindu kingdoms. What is important for our purpose is that in eastern Bengal, which was not their early home, the Rådhiyas and Vårendras could establish their superiority and the earlier Brahmanical population was absorbed in their societies. It is stated in some Kulapanjikås that Bhůśúra, son of Adiśūra, was compelled to take shelter in Rādha owing to the rise of the Påla power. His son Khítiśūra is said to have granted 56 villages to the 56 descendants of the five immigrants in Rådha.8 It deserves special mention that it is by the names of these villages or gåins that the Brahmanas at a later period became known. The surnames Chatterjee, Mukherjee, Maitra, Bhaduri, etc. are derived from the names of these villages. It is to be noted that even in the Pala grants some of these 56 gåins have been mentioned in course of 1. Jour. Andura. Hist. Res. Soc. II, p. 149. 2. EI. XVII. p. 356. 3. IHQ., XII, pp. 81-83. 4. VGI., 1. pp. 118-127. The location of Mr. N. N. Vasu is not always correct and in some cases hus proved to be wrong.

·SOCIAL CONDITION the introduction of the Brahmana donees. The donee Khodulašar. man of the Amgachi plate is described as Matsavåsa.Vinirgata, and and Matsyasi is a well-known gäint of the Kasta śrotriya Varendra Sandilyas. The donee Vateśvarasvámi of the Manahali plate is described as Campahitfiya Campahit? vastavya.' Campati is a wellknown gåin of the Virendra Sandilyas. It is known from the Bhuvanesvara prasasti of Bhafta Bhavadeva that his mother belonged to a Bandyaghăți family which is an important gäin of Rådhiyas. Important is in this connection the evidence of the Adavadi plate of the 19th century in which all the Brahmana donces have been particularly introduced by their respective găiñs, and all of them correspond to those named in the Kulagranthas. Dharaśūra, another Sūra king, is said to have classified these 56 gains into two divisions. Twenty-two were raised to the status of Kulácala and the remaining thirty-four became sat-śrotriya. It is not known on what basis this classification was made. If there be any truth underlying this, Vallålasena seems to have at least one precedent. Those who had got matrimonial connection with the Kulácalas commanded greater respect and honour, and inter-marriages between the two classes were not restricted. The history of the Våren.dras prcatically begins from Vallåla. sena and the Kulašāstras are absolutely silent about them for the period intervening between Adiśūra and Vallalasena. The reason is not far to seek. Northern Bengal was under the Buddhist Palas for about four centuries with very few short breaks. No doubt the Palas were tolerant towards other religions. But to promote the welfare of a religion by actively associating with it is one thing and to be tolerant towards a religion is another. Their granting of lands to Brahmanas can be explained by the fact that they were following the traditional policy of rewarding the learned and the pious. 1. Y.C. Chakravarty, Kalabastre dipika, p. 84, 85, 280. 2. He was of the Kantor gotra but Champati is a gåin of the sandilays. His pravaras were sandilya, Asita and Devala. The last two are also the preverus of the sandilya gotru. It is not unlikely that this Kautua family, hav. ing the prviru of the sandilyu and living in Chanapati, became sandily.. 3. Bharatverka 1832 B, 8., pp. 78-81, Appendix F.

·THE EARLY HILTORY OR PENGAL The assurances in the Mongyr and Amgachi plates that Dharmapala and Vigrahapala III preserved the four varnas in their proper order are indications of their official policy towards the Brahmanical society. As protectors of the body politic, it was their duty to see that no one should deyjäte from the rules of the sástras and social orders. The building of new monasteries, reconsuctions of old ones and huge expenditure on Buddhist establishments clearly indicate where their active sympathies lay. The Kulašāstras on one or two occasions' refer to the gift of lands by the Påla kings but otherwise they do not make the slightest reference to them. Strictly speaking from the point of view of the Kulašāsttas which were mainly concerned with the Brahmanical society, the Påla period was a social and religious interregnum of which it is better not to take any cognisance at all. Another fact also needs special emphasis. If our identification of Adisimha with Adiśúra be accepted, the Súras seem to have originally belonged to Magadha. Samalavarman at whose instance the Vaidikas are reported to have migrated belonged to the Varman dynasty whose original seat of power was at Simhapura which seems to have been outside Bengal. Again, Vallalasena of the Sena dynasty who is credited with the foundation of Kulinism was Karnatic in ori. gin. All the dynasties, which, according to the Kulašāstras, took vigorous steps and measures in spreading the Brahmanical religion, seem to have come from outside. It appears, therefore, clear that these outside dynastics which seized political power played an important role in the Brahmanisation of Bengal. Apart from the migrations of some Brahmanas, it may be surmised that in the royal entourage and retinue from their native country that necessarily settled with the establishment of such political dynasties, there were in all probability many Brahmanical elements (Ikie their domestic priests and the like) whose influence was not perhaps inconsiderable. Vallalasena and Kulinism in Rådha-It is well to mention in the beginning that on the subject of the organisation of the Brahmanical society on the basis of Kulinism evidences come from two 1. Adigtôt Ojha, son of Bhatte Nariyapa, is said to have received village from Dharmapala. It is said in some books that the Stras fought with to Pulas.

·SOCIAL, CONDITION 49 interested parties. Those who are placed in privileged position and are consequently supporters of the system speak of some well-recognised principles on which the different grades of social standing were created. The other party or parties which are placed in an unfavourable position have fabricated stories by: distorting facts which go to discredit the whole system. The fact being so, it is difficult to judge what propagandist account comes fjom:which of these parties, because both these ponits of view have been junibled together and the account of the Kulapanjikas is confused. But something is so avowedly pro-Kulinstic and something so maniſcstly anti-Kulinstic that their significance or motive behind them is clear to every intelligent reader.. The Rådhiya Kula-mañjaril states that Vallālasena through the grace of a goddess whom hc worshipped for full one year with severe austeritics was in a position to understand properly the nine essential virtues that are the tests of a good and pure kula. They are (1) acara, ceremonial purity; (2) vinaya, discipline; (3) vidya, learning ; (4) pratisthå, reputation for purity; (5) nişthå, piety; (6) tirtha-darśana, zeal in pilgrimages ; (7) avſlti, observance of marriages with men and women of equal rank ; (8) tapah, ascetic self-devotion ; (9) dana, liberality. The Sena king is said to have examined the qualifications of 750 Radhiya Brahmanas of his time on the basis of these principles to determine their social status. Of the twenty two Kulācala gaiñs of the time of Dharaśūra only cight stood all the nine tests and were raised to the status of thc mukhya kuliņa (highest in status). In the remaining fourteen all the nine qualifications were missing and became gauņa-kulina (inferior kulina). On a further examination of the cight gāiñs selected for the highest rank, only nineteen men strictly fulfilled all the requirements and they were the recipients of the highest honour. Further, Vallalasena is said to have attempted to classify the thirty-four srotriya gåiñs of Dharåśūra into two divisions, Suddha and Kastha, according to their respective qualifications. But this was upposed by them. The Kula-Mañjari gives a very graphic account of the meeting in which a party of the śrotriyas headed by Vikartana protested against this and left the kingdom. They questioned the royal prerogative 1. VJI., I. pp. 146-52 7 ·60 THE EARLY HISTORY OF BENGAL Co judge the qualifications or disqualifications of a Brahmana. "Every Brahmana is born pure par excellence and no earthly deed can make him impure. This is the divine dispensation. Like fire the utterer of the Gayatri mantra is the purifier of everything." They challenged the king to cite any precedent for his proposed Kulinism. Indignant at this insolent conduct, the king is said to have left the meeting with the remark, "you must be satisfied with the tank of the śrotriyas." The anti-party gives the following account: Vallålasena invited the Brahmanas to a meeting on a certain day to decide the question of Kulinism. Some came at 8-30 A.M., some at 11 A.M. and some at 1-80 P.M.. The daily duties and observances of a strict Brahmana take a long time and the presumption was that those who came earlier did not strictly observe their daily duties. Those who came last were regarded by the king as pure and stricttly religious and were recipients of Kulinism. The next batch were made gauna and the early-comers śrotriyas. Contrary to the wellrecognised principles mentioned above, the obvious motive behind this account is to show that Kulinism was based on nothing else than the royal whims. So far as we know, the earliest reference to these stories is to be met with in the Vallalacarita, a book which has been handled and rehandled many times by or for interested people like the Suvarnavaņikas and the Yogis. This book, according to the confession of the interpolators, was not finally redacted before 1510 A.D., and there are sufficient reasons to disbelieve even this confession, becausc the sources from which the Mss. were procured are not above suspicion. But there are evidences to show that this sort of anti-propaganda was counteracted by the supporters and advocates Kulinism by counter-propaganda of equal nature. The section of the śrotriyas who revolted against the imposition of the artificial distinction settled in an intermediate tract between Midnapore and Orissa and were called Madhyaśreņi, but they were called by their opposite party Madyadasi, i.e., guilty of drunkenness. This propaganda and counter-propaganda have made the confused story 1. H. P. Shastri, Vallalacarita and Eag. Trans. by him; and also Vallillacarita by Sasibhuwan Bhattacharyya.

·SOCIAL, CONDITION 31 of the development of Kulinism worse confounded. But the very fact that one party credits Vallälasena with the organisation of the Brahmanical society on the above basis-and this still governs the higher grades of the Hindu society of Bengal even now-a-days-and that the other party without denying the fundamentals want to discredit the system itself is somewhat clear proof of the fact that some sort of social reorganisation was attempted by Vallálasena, though it is difficult to determine its nature and extent because of the different and diverse colours it has received at the hands of different writers, parties and also in popular imagination in subscquent periods. Circumstantial evidence also goes to indicate that some social reorganisation was necessary in the Sena period. The Buddhist Pålas were ousted by the Senas, who came from the Karnata country and were Brahmakștriyas, i.e., originally Brahmanas who became Kșatriyas afterwards by wielding the sceptre instead of tcaching the scripture. It is natural that the royal power under them should be used for the welfare and promotion of the Brahmanical religion and society. The fact that during the long period of the Påla rule, only seven charters recording land grants to the Brahmanas have come to light, while during the single reign of Lakşmaņascna no less than seven grants for the same purpose were at least issued, is perhaps a clear indication of the rising ide of the Brahmanical religion. The accession of the Brahma-Ksatriya Scnas certainly gave a fresh impetus to the Brahmanical religion whose star was perhaps already in the ascendant. It has been emphasised by late Mm. H. P. Shastri' that it was during the Sena period that many Buddhists were converted to the Hindu religion, and that for these new converts and adherents some castes and subcastes of Bengal were organised or reorganised and even new ones were formed. There are positive evidences of somewhat definite character which go to affirm that the Senas were deeply interested in the reorga. nisation of the Hindu society. The Senas were preceded in eastern Bengal by the Varmans who also seem to have espouscd the cause of Brahmanism to a great degree. The Paścătya Vaidikas associate 1. A. P. Shastri's Introduction to Modern Buddhism in Orissa by N. N. Vasu, pp. 14-28, ·$2 THE EARLY HISTORY OF BENGAL their migration with Samalavarman, and Bhatta Bhavadeva, the Brahmana minister of Harivarman, seems to have typified the spirit of assertive Hinduism over decadent Buddhism and other 'heretical religions. His Tautātimata-fiká, a gloss on Kumäril's Tantra-vārtikā, and well-known smrti works, Karmānusthana . paddhati, and Prāyaścitya-prakaraņa are perhaps indicative of the forces employed to fight Buddhism and of the steps taken to make new converts, to regain the faltering ones and to purify the impure. Doubtless, ministers like Garga, Darbhapāņi, Kedaramiśra, Guravamišra, Jogadeva, Bodhideva and scholars like Prahasa and Sridharadasa, the author of Nyāya-kandali, kindled Brahmanical learning and religion in all their lustre and glory during the Påla period. But when the king of a dynasty which boasts of their zeal in the propagation of the Vedic religion to counteract the preaching of the naked ascetics? is styled Dharmavijayis (applied to Harivarman) and chooses a man like Bhţta Bhavadeva as his minister, it must be taken to have a special significance. It is now an admitted fact that in the Sena period there had been a renaissance of Sanskrit Icarning and literature. In that renaissance, it is to be specially noticed, there were a great number of Smrti books, dealing with ähnika (daily rites), Sańskära (periodical rites), suddhi or asuca (purification), prāyaścitta (expiations) Sraddhā (funerals), kȚtya (festivals), pūjā (worship), pratistha (consecration), dāna (gifts) and kāla (appropriate tine). To refer to the Kåla-uiveka, Dāyabhāga, Vyavahāra-mätykā of Jimutaváhana and the Brahmapa-sarvasva, Duija-nayana, Sräddhā. paddhati-ţikā is to name only a few of them. The works of Aniruddha Bhatta, Iśäna and Pasupati also should be taken into consideration in this connection. From the middle of the eleventh to the close of the twelfth century all these writers wrote on Brahmanical rites and observances, having the Srutis and Smrtis as their authority. It seems that these psuedo-smrti books were composed with a view to suit the changed social and religious condition of Bengal and the 1. Bhuvanesvar prasasti, v. 20. Sv. Belava plate, v. 5. 8. Bhuvanesvar.prabanti, v. 16.

·Wingur in Milo16), SOCIAL CONDITION 53 * growing needs of the Hindu society. What is more important to bear in mind is that all these writers were connected with the court and were liberally patronised and highly honoured. The Sena kings were not content with patronising only. Two encyclopaedic works, namely the Dānasagara and the Adbhutaságara, are attributed to Vallalasena. He died before the completion of the latter work which was finished by his son. It is thus clear that the Sena kings and their court actively associated themselves with the propagation of the Brahmanical rituals and observances for which so many works were composed. These evidences read along with the strong tradition in the Kulaśāstras make it almost plain that some steps were taken to organise the Hindu society in the Sena period. Some scholars have summarily discussed the question of social organisation by the Senas by asserting that the foundation of Kulinism attributed to Vallālasena cannot be credited with historicity, because there is not the slightest reference to it in the Sena grants. Deeper social and religious forces that were at work in Bengal in the twelfth century were not taken into consideration by this class of writers. But still more significant is the silence of the pseudo-smſti books written by men like Halayudha who were intimately connected with the Sena court. But this silence cannot be taken as an irreconcilable bar to the acceptance of the view that Vallālasena selected nineteen persons out of the twenty-two gāiñs of Dharāśura. If that be true, there seems to have been at least one precedent for his action and there was continuity in determining the social status. It was perhaps no deviation or any departure from old rules and customs. It did not appear to be such a revolutionary or a very important measure to the contemporaries as would merit reference in the land grants in which generally the politictal and military achievements of the kings are given prominence. Nor is it to be believed that it was universally accepted by the Hindu society all at once that it would find a place in the smộti books which have got the sanction of centuries behind them. When the Government of India with the advantages of modern communication and propaganda and with its elaborate administrative machinery cannot enforce all the provisions of a ļ. BI. See two Appendices on the Saras.

·THE EARLY HORY OF BENGAL moderate bill like the Sarda Act for the prevention of child marriages, it is hardly to be expected that a royal decree (if that was really the case) enforcing Kulinism which makes some socially higher than others, was accepted by all in the twelfth century. Such a measure must have taken a long time even for recognition, not to speak of acceptance. When people from other religions were entering into 'the Hindu fold and the Brahmanas themselves were contaminated to a certain extent by extraneous influences, Vallālasena and Lakşinanasena perhaps selected some pure and religious-minded Brahmanas who would serve as models to others by their conduct and conviction. It has been observed rightly that "It is interesting to trace in Vallalaesna's inquiry the survival or reassertion of the principlc as recognised in ancicnt tiimes, that the Brahmanhood depends not merely on birth, but also upon personal endowments. It is a question of virtue, not a question of descent. Vallālasena, of course, could not go so far as this. The tinic had long passed when a Ksatriya could transform hiinself into a Brahmana by a penance or self-denial. But the Sena monarch sought to affirm the ancient principle, so far as was then possible, by testing the qualifications of cach Radhiya family for the pricstly office and classifying them, in order of their virtue, according to the results of the examination." Vallalasena was not perhaps conscious of the fact that he was taking a step which had in it the seeds of such far-reaching importance and consequence as the complicated and claboratc system that aorse out of it had. Kulinism in the Muslim period underwent such radical and startling changes through extraordinay circumstances as its authors could not even dream of. Strictly speaking, Vallalasena cannot be called the founder of later day Kulinism though he seems to have made some beginning in that direction. The word Kulina was not unknown in ancient literature and signified men of good social standing because of their learning and high heredity. In the above-mentioned nine qualifications the word ävyti, which in the Kulasastras means "marriage within equal ranks" contained the germ of later day Kulinism. It became the back-bone of the whole system and was carried to an unhappy climax. But in Vallälasena's 1. Risley. Tribes and Çastes of Bengal. Vol. I, p. 146.

·1 SOCIAL CONDITION 55: to one Own conies time it was one of the nine qualifications. He is said to have instructed his son to take particular and special notice of it and to judge the rank of the Brahmanas with reference to it only. The Kulinas must marry their girls to Kulinas only and not to any one of inferior status but they themselves could marry girls of their immediate lower rank. When the paryāya has been fixed with reference to avrtti, amsa was to be determined, which was divided into three grades. The best is årti which is gained by a man who marries his daughter to a man belonging to his father's generation. When married of his generation, he gains madhyamsa and the lowest when married to a man of his son's generation. The generation (paryāya) is to be counted from the five illustrious immigrants of the time of Adiśūra. The nine disqualifications by which K’ula is lost arc-(1) miserliness, (2) aversion to ascetic self-devotion, (3) addiction to sensual pleasure, (4) greediness, (5) illiteracy, (6) extinction of the family, (7) offering of pinda of a living man, (8) adultery and (9) to live a bachelor. It is reported that these instructions he left for Lakşmaņasena for his guidance in tackling the question of Kulinism. It is difficult to say how far this is true but we have the incontestable and incontrovertible evidence of the Mahavamsa of Dhruvananda Miśra that Lakşmaņasena made two examinations (called Samikaraña) for judging the status of the Kulinas. After his first examination seven men were declared to be of equal rank and in the second fourteen others were added to the list. Of these twenty-one, seventeen were the same persons as were recipients of Kaulinya honour from his father and the other four were the sons of the two deceased Kuliinas. It is also to be noted that in the Mahāvarsa the division of arsa which a Kulina shared has been mentioned. 1. We are not prepared to accept the remarks in the Kulamanjail that Lakşmapasena made a further sub-divisions of .arti. and madhyanisa into 15 sab-divisions (see VJI, I. PP 182-4). No other book refers to this. He is said to bave introduced five Hads of paribarta, viz., Adana, pradana, kuba-tyaga, yoga? and vara. Most of the Kulakáslras are silent over it and there is no doubt that Kunertyiga was introduced at a later period..

·66 THE EARLY HISTORY OF BENGAL to It has been recently suggested by some scholars that the real cause behind this movement was political rather than social and religious. Those who were recipients of Kaulinya rank were royal favourites who helped the establishment of the Sena rule and on whom the Senas could rely for support in future. Mention must be made here of Vijayasena's marriage with a princess of the Súra dynasty. If the Kulašástras are be believed, the Śúras were the champions of the Brahmanica religion. The matrimonial alliance of the śúras and Senas might have some political importance. There are instances in the history of many countries that after a period of political religious and social upheavals the new kings and rulers try to crcate a new social order plaint to them. Legione de Honours of Napoleon, the champion of Liberty, Equality and Fraternity, is an instance in point. But it is difficult to say how much Vallálasena was actuated by political consideration in offering the Kaulinya rank to some Brahmanas. Incidental reference from l'allālacarita go to indicate that the political considerations might have weighed with him in degrading the status of the Suvarnavaņikas and the Kaivartas. The banker Vallabhånanda, the leader of the Suvarnavanika community, refused to offer a loan to the Sena king except on certain conditions and was suspected of helping the Påla king of Magadha with whom the Senas were at war. His community also incurred the jealously of the Brahmanas by wearing the sacred thread and by their enviable personal beauty. Vallalasena in alliance with the Brahmanas found an opportunity to degrade the mercantile community to the status of the Sūdras by a royal proclamation. The Vanikas retaliated by the prohibition of slave trading in Gauda, which seems to have been their monopoly. The Kaivartas were employed in domestic service and were made a clean caste by a royal order and their headman Mahesa was raised to the rank of a mahamandalika. There is no doubt about the fact 1. K. P. Bhattacharyya, Ruhiyu-Kula-tatva, p. 93 ; Dr. N. K. Bhatta Aall has gone so far as to assert that Vallalisena adopted the policy of divide and rule in order to secure his own position against possible dangers, Bhārat. varna, 1948 B. S., Asadhe issue, under the heading Kaivartardja Divya; also Census of India. V, Pt. I. pp. 627-28.

·SOCIAL CONDITION 57 that the Senas were at war with the Pålas for a considerable period and that the Vanikas might have sided with the Buddhist Palas. In the latter part of the eleventh century the Palas were ousted from Varendra by the Kaivarta chiefs Divyoka and Bhima, and the raising of the social status of the Kaivartas, when the Påla- Sena war was not over, might have some political significance. The story of the degradation of the Yogis is also interesting. The royal Brahmana priest is said to have been insulted by a Yogi Buddhist priest in charge of the Mahasthana religious establishment and this provoked Vallalasena's wrath on the community and hence their degradation. Judging the question from every possible sources, it seems that causes behind the social reorganisation by Vallālasena were various and it is not unlikely that contemporary political events influenced this to a certain extent. The Kulašāstras confess that the genealogics of the Brahmana families had not been properly preserved before the time of Vallalasena and this perhaps explains some of the discrepancies regarding the number of the generations of the five immigrants of the time of Adisura. It is also not unlikely that the details regarding their migration became very dim and faint and that those gotras from which some Brahmanas received the Kaulinya rank have been associated with the name of Adiśúra. But henceforward the genealogies are more or less correct. Great attention and care was given to preserve them, as the Kulina families formed the social aristocracy of the Brahmanical society. This necessitated the rise of a professional class namely the ghatakas or match-makers, who should be properly called the heralds. Várendra Kulinism-It is said that at the time of Vallalasena there were 350 descendants of the five Brahmana immigrants brought at the instance of Adiśūra, and the Sena king sent sixty of them to Tibet, sixty to Rabhänga, forty to Utkala, fifty to Magadha and forty to Maudánga. It is difficult to say how much truth is there in this statement. Of the remaining 100, eight received Kaulinya rank, and eight siddha-śrotriyas. Nothing more of the acti- 1. VJI. II, Varendra Brahmapa-Vivrana, p. 21. %. Idid.. Pp. 21-28. 8 ·58 THE EARLY HISTORY OF BENGAL vity of Vallalasena with regard to the handling of the rank of the Varendra Brahmanas is reported in the Kulagranthas. The hero of Värendra Kulinism is the famous ghataka Udayanăcărya who seems to have belonged to the 14th-15th century, and his rules and regulations do not fall within the scope of this book. The Pascatya Vaidikas – The special trait of a Vaidika Brahmana is that he is said to be very learned in the Vedas. The Bhavabhūmi-vărtă by Rāghavendra Kavisekhara! which is said to have been written in 1581 S.E. is the only book which states that Gangågati Miśra was thc carlicst Påścâtya Vaidika to come to Bengal from Karnavati on the bank of the Sarasvati during the reign of king Harivarman. But it is to be noted that this book became known' only after the discovery of the Samantasara plate of Harivarmadeva. It is also said in that book that Gangagati Misra induced Yaśodhara Miśra to migrate to Kotalipara (in the Faridpur district) through the offer of his daughter. All other Påścătya Vaidika books are unanimous in declaring that their ancestors came on the invitation of Syāmalavarman in 1079 A.D.. The story that has been made much of is the fall of a vulture on the royal palace which was taken to be nothing but a foreboding of a coming evil. There was no competent Brahmana to perform the requisitc ceremony for the prevention of this evil. At the suggestion of the queen (whose name is given in some books as Sudakşiņās and in others as Susila“) the king requested his father-in-law Nīlakantha, king of Kāśi (in one books the name is Jayacandra), to send a competent pricst for that purpose. This priestly hero is Saunaka Yaśodhara Miśra who along with four other Brahmanas came to Bengal in 1001 S.E.. Again, it is also said that Yasodhara was presented to Syåmalavarman by his father-in-law on the occasion of his marriage. The four other Brahmanas? of the sandilya, 1. VJI, II, Vaidika Brahmana-Virarapa. Intro. 2. For different versions of the atory, Ibid, pp. 25-38. 3. Ibid., p. 19 16. 4. Ibid., p. 18. 8. Ibid., p. 18. 6. Ibid., 7. There is no agreement regarding their namics and gotras, Ibid, p. 41 P. 16 ·SOCIAL CONDMTION 59 Vašistha, Såbarna and Bharadvåja gotras were induced by Yaśodhara Misra to settle in Bengal in 1067 S.E. The time of their migration mentioned in the Kulagranthas is in agreement with the Varman chronology. As regards their allegation that there were no competent Brahmanas to perform a ceremony, it is difficult to believe that all the Brahmanas of Bengal lost their aptitude in their profession in the 11th century. It is corroborated in one way only from the Brāhmaṇa-sarvasva of Halä. yudha that the Radhiyas and Värendras were not acquiring them. selves very creditably in that aspect.? Kaulinya system in the Vaidika society is entirely of another kind but it does not fall within the scope of this work. Other Castes-Thc Bệhaddharma Purana, the internal evidence of which suggests that it was written in Radha not long after the Muslim conquest, deals with the origin of the so-called thirtysix castes of Bengal. It was perhaps in the mind of the author to give an account of them but in fact, he named about forty castes and divided them into thrce grades in accordance with the prevalent notion of his time.*. (1) Uttama-Sankaras (best mixed castes) who cngaged Śrotriya Brahmanas as their priests. They arc (1). Karana (expert in civil service and in writing), (2) Ambaștha (expert in medical science), (3) Ugra (warriors), (4) Māgadha (originally Ksatriyas but now bards), (5) Gandha-Vaņikas (trader in spices), (6) Karnsa-Vaņikas 1. Ibid., 39 2. Halāyudha observes, "the Utkalas, Pabcatyas and others only read the Vedas, while the Radhiyas and the Varendras without reading by means of Karna-mitādisa discuss only the nature of sacrificial rites in connection with the Vedas. But there can be no (proper) knowledge of the Mantras froming the soul of the Vedas......... In this way the Radhiyas and Viendras merely create improper conduct." T. C. Vidyananda's edition, pp. 9-10; see also JASB, 1915, p. 211. 8. Bhāratvarka, 1837 B, S., Pt. II, pp. 673 i. 4. Brhaddharma Purdņa, Vangabāsl edition.

·60 THE EARLY RORY OU MENGAL (braziers), (7) Sankha-Vaņikas (shell-dressers), (8) Kumbhakaras (potters), (9) Tantuvayas (weavers), (10) Karmakaras (blacksmiths), (11) Gopas (milkmen), (12) Dåsas (Cäsi-Kaivartas), (13) Rajputas (fighters), (14) Näpitas (barbers). (15) Modakas (sweet-meatmakers), (16) Varajivis (growers of betel-leaves), (17) Sütas (bards and reciters), (18) Mäläkāras (gardeners), (19) Tämbuli (seller of betel-leaves), (20) Tailikas (traders in oil). (II). Madhyama Sankaras-mixed castes of intermediate status, (21) Takşa (wood-cutters), (22) Rajakas (washerman), (23) Svarņakāras (goldsmiths, (24) Suvarna-vaņikas (traders in gold), (25) Abhiras (milk-men), (26) Tailakāras (oil-pressers), (27) Dhivaras (fisherman). (28) Saundika wine-sellers), (29) Națas (dancers and musicians), (30) Savakas, (31) Jälikas fishermen). (III). Antyajas or outcastes-(32) Gșhis, (33) Kudavas, (34) Caņdālas, (35) Badura, (36) Carmakāra, (37) Ghatļajāvis, (38) Dolāvähis, (39) Malla. Besides, the author speaks of the Sakadvipi or Devala Brahmanas from whom the Gaņakas originated, and of the Mleccha tribes (non-Aryans) like Pulindas, Kakkasas, Khasas, Yavanas, Sauhmas, Kambojas, Sabaras and Kharas. The account of the origin of these castes is as it should be expected from an upa-Purana. The wicked demon king Veņa compelled men and women of different castes to procreate children. When the Uttama-Sankaras were born, he compelled them to procreate the rest. Sins and crimes were very common because of the confusion of castes and the Rșis effected Vena's death through super-natural power, and the pious and good Pfthu was created to restore order. With his help the Brahmanas fixed the proper duties and occupations of each caste. The criticism that it is an artificial systematisation composed long after the origin of castes, which is generally laid against Manu's theory, equally holds good in case of this account. The above-mentioned castes or peoples can be divided into three classes-professional, functional and ethnic or tribal. There cannot be any doubt about the fact that in a professional and functional caste there were peoples of many castes and the author of a Smrti or Purdna could not otherwise explain thiq ·SOCIAL CONDITION 61 state of things excepting referring to fictitious mixed breeding. These castes are doubtless of mixed origin, as peoples of many castes followed one profession or were engaged in a single occupa. tion and then formed a caste. The words Varna-sarkara and Jåtisankara are important, as in case of the professional and functional castes there has been really confusion of Varnas and Jatis in a single caste. Appendix E. Authorities. The genealogical list of the Mukherjees, Banerjees,' and Boses have been published. Two important Kärikäs dealing with Kulinisń are attributed to Harimiśra and Edumiśra who are said to have flourished during the reign of Danujamadhavadeva. Their works have not yet come to light, but later writers have occasionally quoted many passages from their works. The most important work on the subject discovered so far is that of the Mahavamsa of Dhruvånanda Miśra who composed his work in 1407 S.E.=1485 A.D.. It deals with the Samikaraņas of the Radhiya Kulinas from the time of Lakşmaņasena. The Radhiyas have Rädhiya-Kula-Mañ. jari, while the Värendras have Värendra-Kulapañjikā. Mr. N. N. Vasu quotes extensively from the Kulārņava of Vacaspati Misra but I do not know whether this work has yet been published. Mahesa Miśra's Rådhiya Nirodosa-Kula-Panjikă is also an important work. Nula Pañcảnan's Goșthi-Kathå offers a scathing criticism on the whole system. Many witty couplets on the subject transmitted in oral tradition are attributed to him. It must be noted that none 1. Mukha-Vamsa and Bandhya-Variisa published by Mr. L. M. Mukherjee. 9. Baru-Vazba by B. Roy Chowdhury ; Mr. J. X. Kumar has publi. hed in bis Vatsa-Pericaya the gencalogies of many important familim..

·62 THE EARLY HISTORY OF BENGAL of these works excepting the Mahavamsa has been properly edited. The Dacca University has got in its collection about twenty Mss. of various descriptions. Few of them are complete by themselves, and of some only four or five leaves remain. Mr. N. N. Vasu refers to and quotes from many books collected by him from various sources. It is reported that they amount to about 200. Mr. Vasu's volumi. nous works on Castes and Sects of Bengal (Vangera Jatiya Itihasa) in ten volumes are mainly based on them. But his works are to be utilised with caution. Gaude-Brahmana by M. Majumdar and Sambhandha-Nirņaya by L. Vidyanidhi are also important from one point of view. It is well-known that interested parties have tampered with the Kulašāstras. Cases have occured that with the discovery of an inscription or an important book thc genealogical list of a royal dynasty or of the author, quite in keeping with their evidence, has suddenly sprung into existence. The genealogy of the Nandi family after the publication of the Mahasthana inscrip. tion and of Sandhyakaranandi, the author of the Ramacarita, are instances to the point. The older books like Gaude Brāhmaṇa and Sambandha-Nirnaya supply us what were really the current traditions in the 19th century. Historical researches have made considerable progress since their publication. An interested and clever person can now fabricate a story or tamper with a Kulapañjikå but that was not easy in the previous century. Further references to other books or authors have been cited in the footnotes. Appendix F. 1. Forty-two gãiñs of the Saptašatis. Sagai, Surai, Nälsi, Yagai, Håsăi, Kalai, Dhãi, Bānsi, Bånturi, Dhānsi, Kätäni, Kušala, Ujjvala, Käśyapa-Käñjäri, Båtari, Pitäri, Nätări, Beru Bågräi, Ulluka, Jhajhjhara, Mulluk, Pharphara, Kunduka, Kerala, Cercaru, Balthubi, Parisika, Dighala Bhädadi, Bhatrašali, Karañja, Tài, Aditva, Kamadeva, Koyadi, Nagadi, Digadi, Hámasecãi, Kauņdinya, Bapdri, Bārgrāi and Beladi. H. JASB. N. S., XVIII, p. 489, ·SOCIAL CONDITION 63 2. These forty-two are mentioned by Mr. N. N. Vasu. Mr. L. Vidyanidhi speaks of forty gäiñs excepting very few most of them agree. According to Vacaspati Mišra, there were only twenty-eight gãiñs of the Saptašatis. Fifty-six gáiñs of the Rädhiyas. Some add Purba, Cautkhandi and Dighal, thus making fifty-nine găiñs. Sandilyas (16) Bandya, Gaçlgad, Keśarakoņå, Kusumakali, Parihãi, Kulabhi, Ghosala, Sejaga, Masacataka, Bädala, Basuyadi, Kadala, Kuśårī, Kuliša or Kulkuli, Akäśa, Dirghaçi. Käsyapas (16) Guçla, Ambula, Bhuri, Tailabhāti, Pitamundi, Catta, Palsai, Hada, Poçlari, Påladhi, Koyari, Påkråsi, Simlai, Pushali of Pushilal, Bhatta, Mula. Bharadvajas (4)-Mukhaçi, Dinçlisäñi, Sähudiyan, Rayi. Sabarnas (12)-Gänguli, Kundalala, Siddhala, Dåyi, Nandi, Bali, Sihari, Pungsika, Sandleśvari, Påli, Ghanţeśvari, Nāñadi. Vätsyas (8)-Mahinta, Ghoşåla, Simbalála, Båpuli, Pippalai, Putituņda, Käñjilala, Kånjiādi. 3. The following gäiñs were made Kulinas - Mukhya Kulinas (8)—Bandya, Caçţa, Mukhaji, Ghoşăla, Putituņda, Gånguli, Käñjilala, Kundalala. Gauņa Kulinas (14)-Rayi, Guda, Mahinta, Kulabhi, Caut. khaņdi, Pippalai, Gaçlagadi, Ghanţsvari, Keśarakoņā, Dimsăi, Parihala, Hada, Pitamundi, Dirghați. The rest are Srotriyas. 4. The following gãiſts are mentioned in the Advadi plate of Daunjamadhavadeva :- Diņdi Gañi, Pāli gåñi, Seu gåñi, Måsacaçaka, Mula, Sehandài, Puti, Mahantiyada, Karañja gäſi. 5. Hundred gaiñs of the Värendras – Vätsayas (24)-Sännyāla, Bhimkali, Bhattašali, Kåmkali, Kudamudi, Bhåriyala, Lakşa, Jämrukhi, Simli, Dhosali, Tanuri, Vatsagrāmī, Deuli, Nidrali, Kukkuţi, Bodhagrāmi, Srutobaçi, Akşagrami, Sahari, Kaligråmi, Kalihal, Paundrakali, Kalindi, Chaturbandi. Bharadvājas (24)–Bhädada, Läduli, Jhåmal, Jhampati, Atur- ·THE EARLY HISTORY OF BENGAL thi, Rai, Ratnávali, Uccharakhi, Gocchasi, Bala, sakāçi, Simbi, Bahal, Säriyala, Ksetragrami, Dadhiyala, Puti, Käcchţi, Nandigrámi, Gogrami, Nikhatī, Pippali, śringa, Khorjar, Goswalambi. Sabarnas (20)-Smgdiyada, Päkadi, Dadhi, Sringi, Medadi, Undhudi, Dhundhuri, Tatoyar, Setu, Naigrami, Nedhudi, Kapali, Tutturi, Pañcabati, Nikadi, Samudra, Ketugrämi, Jasogrami Sitali. Käsyapas (18)-Maitra, Bhādudi, Karañja, Bålayaşçhi, Modhăgrami, Balahäri, Moyāli, Kiral, Bījikuñja, Saragrāmi, Katigrāmi, Saragråmi, Madhyagrami, Mathagrami, Gangagrămi, Belagrămi, Chamagrāmī, Asukoţi. Sandilyas (14)-Rudrabāgchi, Lähidi, Sadhubagchi, Campati, Nandanabási, Kämendra, Sihari, Taçoyalabisi, Matsyasi, Champa, Suvarna, Totaka, Puşana, Beluri. 6. The following gāiñs were made Kulinas by Vallālasena. Lähidi, Bagchi, Bhädudi, Maitra, Sännyala. Bhädada became Kulina for the sake of metre. The găin of another man cannot be stated precisely. Siddhya Śrotriyas-Karañja, Nandanabāsi, Bhattaśāli, Läduli, Campati, Jhampaţi, Āturthi, Kalihal. Sadhya Srotriyas-Uccharakali, Jämrukhi, Ratnávali Sihari, Rai, Goswalambi, Biſi, Khorjard. The rest are Kasta Srotriyas. 7. The different dates of the migration of the five Brahmanas through the instrumentality of Adiśūra :- The Varendra Kulapañjikā places it in vedakalankașațavimite i.e., in 654 S.E.; Vacaspati Mišra vedabānangasake i.e., in 654 S.E.; and the Kularnava in vedabanahimésåke. The Kulatattvärņava place it in 675 S.E.; the Vallalacarita in 954 S.E.

·CHAPTER X RELIGIOUS CONDITION Jainism-The districts of Manbhum, Singhbhum, Birbhum and Burdwan derive their names from Mahåvira or Vardhamana. Of the Jaina tirthankaras no less than 20 attained Nirvana on the Sametśikhara (Samadhi-sikhara) in the Paresnath Hill in the Hazaribagh district. It is narrated in the Ayaranga Suttal that Mahavira had to undergo much suffering and hardship in Vajjabhūmi and Subbhabhūmi in Rådha. It was difficult to travel in the country and the natives treated the ascetics vcry cruelly. They incited dogs to bite them and the ascetics had to carry bamboo staves to keep off the dogs. It seems, therefore, that western Bengal felt the tide of the rise of Jainism at the time of Mahävira. The VỊhatkathākoşa of Harissena, written in 931 A.D., records that the famous Jaina pontiff Bhadrabahu, the preceptor of the Maurya emperor Candragupta, was the son of a Brahmana of Devakota in the Pundravardhana country. One day when Bhadra. bāhu was at play with other children at Devakota Govardhana, the fourth Srutakevali, happened to see him and perceived that the boy was destined to be the next śrutakovali. He took charge of him with his father's consent, and the boy afterwards succecded him as the great Jaina pontiff. Whatever may be the truth underlying the story of killing 18,000 people in Puņçravardhana for the crime of a Nirgrantha in the Divyävadāna, it tends to show that there were many Jainas in northern Bengal in the grd century B.C. 1. IHQ., IV. p. 44 ; SPP, 1322, p. 5; JBORS., 1927, p. 90. 2. SBE., XXII, pp. 85-5. That Pundravardhana was a Jaina centre at the time of Buddha is corroborated by the story of Sumagadha, daughter of Anathapiadaka (Somågadhavadana ia the Bodhi Sattvävadana-Kalpalata, Bengali translation by S. C. Das. pp. 768779 ).

·66 THE EARLY HISTORY OY BENGAL Anga and Magadha are the eastern countries that occur in the list of Solasa-mahajanapadas of the Anguttara-nikāya. The 15th chapter of the Jaina Bhagavati Sutta also gives a list of sixteen countries, and the occurrence of the names of Anga, Vanga and Ladha (Radha) in it shows that the Jainas had more acquaintance with Bengal than the Buddhists in an early period. The Kalpasūtra mentions four säkhäs of the Godāsagana of the Jaina monks as Tämalittyä, Kodivarsiya, Pondavardhaniya and (Däsi) Khabbadiya. Tämralipti, Koţivarsa and Pundravardhana are in Midnapore, Dinajpur and Bogra districts respectively, and Khabbadiya has been identified with the principality of Kharvåga in western Bengal. The Jaina U pāngas, redacted in c. 454 A.C. but preserving earlier traditions, include Tamalitta and Vanga among Aryan lands, as opposed to Milikka (=Mleccha or barbarian) peoples like Saka, Yavana? etc. All these literary references go to show unmistakably that there had been considerable proselytising activity by the Jainas since the days of Mahavira, and Jainism had got strongholds almost in every part of Bengal. If the maltreatment of the ascetics narrated in the Ayāranga Sutta is to be believed, the Jainas seem to have met with much opposition from the natives. But the spread of the religion over the whole country shows that they were ultimately successful in their mission. Though we do not know of any royal patron like Candragupta Maurya of Khåravela after the Christian era, Jainism did not lose much ground in Eastern India, as it is generally believed. A Mathură inscriptions records the erection of a Jaina image in the year 62 of an unspecified era 140 A.D.?) at the request of a Jaina monk of Råră (Radha P). The Paharpur plate of 159 G.E. records the gift of some land by a Brahmana couple for the maintenance of worship with sandal, incense, flowers for the arhats at the vihāra of Vac-Gohåli.' This vihara was presided over by the disciples of the disciples of the Nirgrantha preceptor Gúhanandin, belonging to the Pañcastupa section of Benares. The evidence of the Paharpur 1. SBE., XXII, p. 288, also Kalpasatra by Jacobi, p. 79; for the location of Khabbadiya or Kharvatn see IHQ., VIII, pp. 529-80. 2. IA., 1891, pp. 874 ff. 3. JASB., V, p. 239. 4. EI., XX, 639.

·RELIGIOUS CONDITION 67 plate, read along with the account of Yuan Chwang, testifies to the fact that Pundravardhana, as a great Jaina centre, maintained its position at least up to the first half of the seventh century A.D. Yuan Chwang's observations on the religious condition of India are, no doubt, of great importance for the proper understanding of the relative position of the important religions of the time. But it must be noted that in his account the details about all other religions excepting Buddhism arc lacking and that he speaks of the Nirgranthas rather incidentally and summarily. The fact being so, the Buddhist pilgrim was constrained to remark that in Vaišali, Pundravardhana, Samatata and Kalinga-all in Eastern India-the Nirgranthas were numerous. It is, therefore, clear that in these regions the Jainas had the largest number of adherents in the seventh century. The Chinese traveller does not refer to the Nirgranthas of the other localities specifically, but when he says that other religions live in pell-mell, it is to be understood that Jainas werc included in them. His silence cannot be taken to mcan that there were no Jainas in other parts of Eastern India. Thus in his description of RäjagȚha no mention is made of the Jainas, but he found many Nirgranthas near a tope (stūpa) on the Vipula mountain on the spot where Budha once preached. Many Digambaras now lodge here and practise austerities incessantly; they turn round the sun, watching it from its rising to its setting." Rajagſha, famous both in Buddhist and Jaina literature, is still a place of pilgrimage to the Jainas. A considerable number of Jaina images lie scattered in or about this place.a We are quite in the dark about the state of this religion in Bengal after the seventh century. Its history, disappearance or absorption by another religion, is wrapt in complete obscurity. The fate of two other rival religions or sects is interesting and instructive in this connection. Whatever might have been the relation between Mahāvīra and Makhaliputta Gosala at first, it is admitted by all 1. Watters on Yuan Cawang. Vol. II, p. 154. %, ASIR, 1995.98, pp. 146 ff.

·THE XARLY HISTORY OF BENGAL that as founders and champions of two rival religions, their relation at a later period was far from being friendly, if not one of bitter rivalry and heinous propaganda against each other. The Jainas refer to Gosala and his followers not in very honourable terms. If the Bhagavati account of Gosala and Mahavira is to be believed, they lived together for six years in Paņitabhūmi, which was, according to some Jaina commentators, in Vajjabhúmi, one of the divisions of Radha. Mahavira in course of his wanderings in Rådha found ascetics carrying bamboo staves in their hands, who, in accordance with Påņini's description of maskarin, are to be identified with the Ajivika ascetics and were also active in propagating their religion in western Bengal in the 6th century B.C. Maurya kings like Asoka, Dasaratha and prince Vitaśoka sometimes patronised the Ajīvikas. The Nägarjuni and Barabar caveså go to show that the Ajivikas had got a fair number of followers in Eastern India in the grd cen. tury B.C. The Bhagavati refers to a king of Mahåpauma of Punda, a patron of the Ajivikas. Punda is said to be at the foot of the Viñjhă mountains and Mahapauma's capital is described as having hundred gates. The very name Punda suggests that it was most probably Pundra. Whatever may be the truth underlying the episode that Asoka put to death 18,000 Ajivikas in Pundravardhana for the crime of a Nirgrantha, it unmistakably shows that it was also a centre of the Ajivikas. But the most important point in this episode is that the Ajivikas were mistaken for the Nirgranthas, and there are other 1. Por relation with Mabivira and Gosila, see Ch. on Jainism in CHI and also the excellent paper on the Ajivikas in JD, II, by Dr. B.M. Barua. 2. Ibid., p. 67. SBE., XXII, p. 264, Note. 4, It is a to be noted that other Jaina books have Paisacabhumi instead of Panitabhumi. (See Mr. U. D. Barodia'. History and Literature of Jainism. ) 8, JBORS., XII. p. 58. 4. Dr. Barua identifies Punda with Patalipatra because Mahapadma's capital is described with bundred gaten p. 67; cf. Megasthenes, description of Pataliputra ·RELIGIOUS CONDITION 60 passages in the Divyävadana' in which the Ajivikas have been confounded with the Jainas. We are, therefore, inclined to accept Dr. B. M. Barua's opinion that at the time of the composition of the Divyāvadāna 'the meaning of the confounding of the Ajivikas with the Jainas is that the two sects living side by side at Puņdravardhana differed so slightly from each other, whether in their views or in their outward appearances, that it was difficult for a Buddhist observer to draw any sharp distinction between them.' In Southern India the Ajivikas were regarded by the Jaina authors as a sect of the Buddhist bhikṣuis.' It is quite natural to think that there were many Ajīvikas whom Yuan Chwang also confounded with the Jainas or at his time they became identical with the Jainas to all intents purposes and lived completely absorbed in Jainism, as thc followers of Devadatta were living absorbed in Buddhism at Karņasuvarna, only retaining their individuality in the matter of taking food. Broadly speaking, the differences between the Ajivikas and the Jainas were not very fundamental. Amalgamation was perhaps possible when the initial bitterness was over and it was also possibly necessary in view of the vigorous activity of other rival religions in the field. Devadatta, the veritablc Satan of the Buddhist Jatakas, was the founder of a sect, differing only in very minor points from Buddha? but it was, according to the testimony of Yuan Chwang, living within the bosom of Buddhism in the seventh century, and to a non-Buddhist it was then nothing but Buddhism, pure and simple. Although proofs are still lacking, it may be surmised that Jainism was at a later period absorbed by Buddhism and by the different sects of the Brahmanical religion. The Paharpur monastery which seems originally to have been a Jaina establishment was at a later period converted into a Brahmanical one and finally into a Buddhist Vihara, the famous Somapura-vihåra of northern Bengal. Mallikarjuna Súri, the celebrated writer on astrology, who flourished in Vanga in the 12th cen- 8. Dr. Barua, Op. Cit. P. 65. 4. JA., 1912, pp. 88ff, 1. Iean Ghose's Bengali translation of the Jatakas, Vol 1, Appendix, pp.214-6 ; 1A., 1923, p. 267 ; 1994, p. 125, ·70 THE EARLY HISTORY OF BENGAL tury A.D., seeems to have been a Jaina, but in his books he pays homage to the Hindu gods Ganapati, Vişņu and Kršņa. Nothing is known of the existence of Jainism after Yuan Chwang's account excepting a few images of Jaina tirthankaras. The Jaina images are not so rare in Bengal, as has been observed by late Mr. R. D. Banerjee who could number four of them only. The exploration of a certain part of the Sunderbans by Mr. K. D. Mitra has brought to light no less than ten Jaina images. The fact that so many Jaina images have been found in one part of the Sunderbans, read along with the evidence of the Barrackpore plate of Vijayasena.* tends to lead to the conclusion that north-western Sunderbans were also included in the old principality of Samatata where Yuan Chwang saw the preponderance of the Nirgranthas. A careful investigation in the districts of Birbhum and Bankura, where occasional finds of Jaina images are reported and which fall within the region which Mr. R. D. Banerjee calls the 'Jaina zone of influence, 'o may add to the known numbers of the sculptural remains of the Jainas in Bengal. Of about twenty-five images so far discovered only one belongs to the Svetambaras. This would go to indicate that the Svetambaras had a very small following and that the Digambaras had a greater number of adherents. The images of Rşabhanātha, Adinatha, Neminátha, Santinátha and Pårsvanātha have been found, those of the last being more popular. The image of Rşabhanåtha in the VRSM. from 1. The very name ending in-Suri suggests that he was a Jaida. The Jainas and the AjIvikas were famons for their proficiency in Astrology, Beal, II. p. 168 ; also see Dr. Barua's paper and Mr. P. C. Sen's paper, Vicitra, 1840 B. S., pp. 659 ff. Dr. B Dutta takea Mallikarjuna Sari to be a Hindu because of his paying homage to Hindu god. SPP, 1310 B. S. p. 83, 2. ESMS., p. 144. 3. VRSR, 1921-29, 1980-81. Antiguties of "Khari and antiquities of North-Western Sunderbans. 4. IHQ., XII, p. 67. 6. ASIR., 1921-22, pl. XXIXD. Birbhūma-vivarapa, p. 188 ; another Taina image in Saptagrama, JASB., 1900, pp. 239, 245 8. R. D. Banerjee, Op. cit. 7. VRSR., Op. cit., 1998-19. 2 ·RELIGIOUS CONDITION 71 Surhor in Dinajpur is interesting from the iconographical point of view and deserves more than a passing notice. The central figure with the perfect meditative pose, the oval nimbus over the head, the attendants with fly-whisks, the flying couples of Vidyadharas with garlands, the umbrella between 4 pairs of hands, indication of celestial offerings, resembles in many respects a seated Buddha image of the Påla period. The perfect nudity of the figure, the bull, the cmblem of Rşabhanátha, and the presence of 23 lirihankaras who have come as if to pay their homage on the occasion of the installation of this remarkable image are clear indications of the fact that it was a Jaina image. In the representation of 24 tirthankaras in the Hanuman cave at Khandagiri the vāhanas of Sumatinátha, Supärávanátha and and Anathanātha are krauñca, svasti and syena respectively and this is also the direction in Hemacandra's Abhidhana-cintamani. In this image the lāñchanas are the dog, wheel and bear. Most probably the Bengal school followed a different manual in the representation of the tirthankaras. From stylistic considerations all the Jaina images may be assigned to the Pāla period. The small number of Jaina images in comparison with the large number of the Buddhist and Brahmanical images is perhaps indicative of the fact that Jainism was losing ground in the Påla period. It is known from the Vasantaviläsas that Vastupāla (1219-1238 A.D.), minister of Calukya Viradhavala, who went on a pilgrimage, was attended by the Sanghapatis from Låça, Gauda, Maru, Dhara, Avanti and Vanga. It is important to notice from this incidental evidence that even in the 13th century there were heads of organised associations of the Jainas in Gauda and Vanga, however small their influence might have been in this period. Buddhism-Bengal was the last strong-hold of Buddhism in India, but it is very strange that it has been very rarely referred to 1. Ibid., 1983-84. 2. This iconographical point of difference was first noticed by Mr. N. B. Sanyal. 8. Vasantavllius, Sarga X ·THE EARLY HISTORY OF BENGAL in early Buddhist literature. It has been mentioned in the Samyutta Nikayal that Buddha once lived at ſetaka, a town of the Sumbhås ; and it has been suggested that they may be the Suhmas of western Bengal. A Buddhist teacher Upasena has been described as Vangånaputto in the Anguttara Nikāya,and it has been suggested on the analogy of such epithets as Videhaputto and Mallaputto that Upasena was originally perhaps an inhabitant of Vanga. No locality or city seems to have gained high recognition or to have been of much importance to the early Buddhists, and it is also doubtful whether in these two cases there has been really any reference to Bengal. The story of Sumagadhā, daughter of Anathapindaka, narrates how Buddha came to preach in Pundravardhana at the instance of this pious and devoted lady. According to Yuan Chwang, Buddha is said to have preached in that city for three months and in Samatata for seven days and also in Karņasuvarna. In these localities the pilgrim also saw the places where past Buddhas walked. But in spite of these allusions to Buddha's personal ministration in Yuan Chwang's account, it is doubtful whether Budha really came in person, though it may be that Buddhism was making some headway in Bengal during his life-time. It seems that there were vigorous attempts at proselytising activities during the reign of Aboka. Yuan Chwang saw many Aśokan topes at Puncravardhana, Samataţa, Tämralipti and Karnasuvarņa. The vigorous religious propaganda of the Maurya emperor naturally produced its effects. The recently discovered Mahasthan inscription which is to be palæographically assigned to the Maurya period records that oil, tree, paddy and small coins (gandhaka and käkaņikā) were ordered to be stored for the sadvargikas in case of emergencies due to 1. W, 89, 168-170. 2. Dr Majumdar, Early History of Bengal p. 8. 9. 1. XIV. 8. 4. Bodhi-Sattvävadana-Kalpalata Bengali Translation by 8. C. Das, pp. 768-779. 5. IHQ., 1834, p. 84. We follow Dr. B. M. Barua's interpretation of this inscription.

·RELIGIOUS CONDITION 73 water, fire, parrots. Oil was to be conveyed from Pundranagara. This store-house was not far from the Pundravardhana city, the find-spot of this epigraph. Although the fact by whom this order was made is not known, it seems that like the Sohagaura plate this was also an official direction. The Sadvargiyas have been identified with the Chabhagiyas of the Vinaya texts, who formed a 'Band of six men with thcir adherents' and who are said to have acted always contrary to the intent and purpose of the Vinaya discipline. The Chabhagiyas, like the followers of Devadatta, might have differed on some points of discipline, which the strict followers of the Vinaya texts did not like and approve. What is important for our purpose is that as early as the Maurya period Pundravardhana became a centre of activity of the Chabhagiyas, so much so that provisions were to be made for meeting their cmergencies. There are also cvidenccs to show that pious Buddhists from Pundravardhana visited the holy and sacred sites like Sanchi.' A Nāgārjunikonda inscriptionwhich is to be palæographically assigned to the grd or 4th century A.D. states that Vanga was one of the countries that gladdened the hearts of the Theravädin teachers. That the Sthavira school Nourished in castern Bengal is also confirmed by Yuan Chwang, when in the description of Samataţa thc Chinese traveller observes that it had 30 Buddhist monasteries and above 2000 Brethren, all adherents of the Sthavira school. The Gunaighar plate of Vainyagupta, dated in 508 A.D., records the grant of land to a congregation of Buddhist monks belonging to the Mahāyāna sect in the Tippera district. From Yuan Chwang's account it appears that at the time of his visit the thrce principal religions, viz. Brahinanism, Buddhism and Jainism had each a fairly large number of adherents in Bengal. The details about Buddhism left by him may be noted hcrc. In Kajangal (modern Rajmahal) there were six or seven monasteries and above go0 Brethren. In Puņgravardhana there were 20 monasteries and above 3000 Brethren and both the Great and Little 1. EI., II, p. 108, 880. 2. EI., XX, p. 23. 8. IHQ., 1980, pp. 40 #. 10 ·74 THE EARLY HISTORY OF BENGAL vehicles were followed. In Samataţa there were more than 30 monasteries and above 2000 Brethren, all of the Sthavira school. In Tâmralipti there were above 10 monasteries and more than 1000 Brethren. In Karņasuvarņa there were more than 10 monasteries and above 2000 Brethren who were all adherents of the Samatiya school. There were also three monasteries in which in accordance. with the teaching of Devadatta milk products were not taken as food. Besides, there were two Universities-one in Pundravardhana and another in Karnasuvarņa. It seems from the accounts of the Chinese travellers that Buddhism was declining in Tamralipti. In Fa-hien's time there were 22 monasteries in all of which monks resided. In Yuan Chwang's time the number of inonasteries were ten and I-Tsing saw only five or six.? He has loſt a graphic account of the University of Bha-rå-hã in Tamralipti. But Buddhism increased its influence in Samatata. In I.Tsing's time the number of monks rose from 2000 of Yuan Chwang's to 4000. The increasing influence of Buddhism within filty years was perhaps due thc ardent and vigorous support of thc Khaçlga dynasty which ruled in Samataja within the period between 625 and 725 A.D. All the known independent kings of Bengal before the middle of the seventh century were followers of the Brahmanical religion. The Khadgas were devoted Buddhists, and we are fortunate to have a picture of the flourishing condition of Buddhism and of the part played by Rajabhata: in its propagation at the time of Seng-chi. "He was an ardent worshipper of three jewels and played the part of a grand upasaka. His sincerity was profound and faith very great. His glory exceeded that of his predecessors. Every day be made 100,000 statues in moulded clay and read 100,000 stanzas of Mahaprajñā-paramitasutras and made use of 100,000 fresh flowers. ...." When the royal party went, an image of Avalokitesvara was placed in the front His banpers and standards concealed the sun, and instrumental to 1. Legge, p. 100. 2. 'Takakasu, lotro. XXXIV. 3. Chavannes at first restores the text as Harsabhata but in a foot. poto says that it may be constructed as Rajabhata.

·RELIGIOUS CONDITION 75 music filled the space. The statues of Buddhas, bhikṣus and upāsakas all marched in front and the king followed behind them. In the capital city there were more than 4000 monks and nuns. All these were entertained by the king. Every morning royal messengers went to them and said, “I am commanded to ask if you have passed a good night." The monks and nuns replied, "We hope His Majesty is in good health. May he live long and his kingdom remain in peace." Only after these messengers had come back and reported, did the king begin to transact the business of the state. The best and most learned bhikṣus in the whole of India were assembled in this kingdom, being attracted by the renown of the king, which reached far and wide."1 Seng-chi himself lived in the royal temple and received extraordinary honour. It is, therefore, no accident that silabhadra, a scion of a royal family of Samataţa, rosc to the exalted position of the head of the Nālandă monastery and under his tutelage Yuan Chwang was placed,” and to his lcarning and libcrality the pilgrim pays glowing tribute. Tantrikism-The Tantras claim great antiquity. The Hindu Tantras claim origin from the Vedas," while the Buddhists trace the Tantrik, doctrines to thc Mudras, Mantras Mandalas, Dhäranis and Yoga, as preached and practised by Buddha. But no avowedly carly Tantrik books like the Guhya-samaja, Manjusri-Mülakalpas and the Kaulajñāna-nirnaya can be placed bcfore the 7th century A.D. It seems that from the 7th or 8th century onward both the Brahmanical and Buddhist religions were greatly influenced by Tantrikism. It is said in an early Jaina book that Sabaras, Dråvidas, Kalingas, Gaudas and Gandhåras succeed by occult sciences. 1. I am thankful to Dr. R. C. Majumdar for translating the relevant portion from Chavannes''Memorie les Religien eminents' pp. 128-29. 2. Beal, Life pp. 158-60. 8. IHQ., IX, pp. 1 ff. 4. Sadhanamala, Intro. pp. XVI i. 8. IHQ., IX, pp. 1 ff. 8. SBE., Vol. XLV, Sutrākstangas, p. 866.

·76 THE RARLY HISTORY OP BENGAL In the description of the centres of Tantrikism in the Sammola Tantra: Anga, Vanga and Kalinga are mentioned first. It is very difficult to define Tantrikism. MM. H. P. Shastri? expressed the opinion that "The word Tantra is very loosely used. Ordinarily people understand by it any system other than the Vedas.... the union of male and female energy is the essence of Tantra.” Winternitz® holds that the term "Tantra ought to be restricted to the texts connected with śakti worship." This is, no doubt, one of the main aspects of the Tantrika literature. Saivas look upon this union of male and female energy as that of Siva and Sakti, the Särikhyas, of Puruşa and Prakſti, and the Vajrayanists, of Boddhicitta and Nirátma (śünya) or Upāya and Prajñā. Besides this abstrusc philosophy, we find various other topics discussed in the Tantras, viz. the story of the crcation, royal duties, social customs, male and female characteristics, curing of descascs, mantras for the extraction of snake-poison and even the introduction of the smoking of tobacco in human society. Above all, thc Tantras are the repository of the esoteric beliefs and practices. In course of time the Tantras have become thc encyclopædias of knowledge of varied kinds. Tantrika goddesses like Ekjata and Mahācinatără seem to be of foreign origin, and it is quite likely that every Tantrika doctrine or practice was not of indegenous growth. In the Tantras the mantras have very special significance. Like the muttering of the name of Hari by the modern Vaisnavas, they are thought to be highly efficacious. The mantras are the "verbal expression of the idea of god." Almost every god has a mantra of his own and to the uninitiated the mantras appear to be meaningsless strings of letters. An instance taken. The cight thousand couplets of the Prajñā-paramita-fástra after successive abbreviations and condensations were reduced to the syllable 'Pra,' which is the Bija mantra of the goddess Prajñāpäramita. The proper muttering of the mantras not only helped spirimay be 1. IHQ., VII. p. 8. 3. latro. to N. N. Vasu's Modern Buddhism in Orissa, p. 10, 8. IAQ., IX, p. 4. 4. Ibid., VII, pp. 1 #f.

·RELIGIOUS CONDITION 77 tual success but also could prove helpful in mundane affairs, as marana (destruction of enemics) and äkarşaņa (attracting). The Tantras advocate thc worship of gods and goddesses in Yantras (instruments, more properly magic diagrams). Some of the Tantrika Yantras in stone with figures of gods and goddesses have come to light. The devotce is to concentrate on the Yantra his mind which is fastened to the object of worship. The full correspondence between the mind and the body was aimed at. The intellectual process was supplemented by physical discipline to be attained by Yogas of various kinds like the controlling of senses and breathings. It is quite natural that in such a mystic system the role played by the guru (preceptor) was a very important one, and the Tantras realise it. For the proper understanding of the mantras and for correct application of csoteric practices, initiation by, and the guidance of, a guru were cnjoined as absolutely essential. Pcoplc irrespective of caste, creed and scx were initiated. Thc usc of Panca- Makäras? somctimes advocated for attainment of siddhi. There were three distinct stages of sūdhanā, viz., Suddhi (purification), sthiti (illumination) and arpana (unification), and there were three classes of sådhakas (devotccs), vi... Pasu, Vira and Divya.' It was the duty of the guru to prescribe to his initiales their modc of sādhanā according to their mental and spiritual capacities. If any disciple misused the mode of worship for his physical enjoyment, he was severely taken to task and the guru was also held responsible to a certain extent for his degeneration. The disciple was regarded as a spiritual son of his preceptor and was sometimes named after the guru after his initiation. In Tantrika sādhană the devotec was identified with the deity and the preceptor cnjoyed a higher status than the deity itself. Divergent views have been expressed as to the valuation of Tantrikism. It has becn claimed that it is the greatest contribution of India to the world and that the Tantrika method of sådhand werc 1. They are madya, marisa, mataya, modra and maithuna 2. Dr. N. K. Brahma, Pbilosophy of Hindu Sadhana, p. 291. 3. Dr. B. Bhattacharyya, An Introduction to Buddhist Esoterism, ne concluding repiarky.

·78 TAE EARLY HISTORY OF BENGAL combines in it "yoga, bhakti, mantra, homa (oblation), jñana and karma and can be best studied as the "synthesis of all that was good in the various forms of sådhana in vogue and as such its claim to be the shortest route to the summum bonum, and its promise to its adherents of the easy and speedy attainment of the end are perhaps justified."1 On the other hand it has been condemned as the most revolting and horrible practice that human depravity could think of, and compared with which the worst specimens of Holiwell Street Literature of the last (18th century would appear absolutely pure. But thc plain truth is that the vast Tantrika literature has not been. adequately studied with the care and attention that it deserves and it remains yet an enigma to us. We may hope with Avalon that the true spirit of scholarship will endeavour to be just. There remains enough to show that Tantrikism necessitated multiplicity of gods and goddesses and "satisficd everybody, the cultured and the uncultured, the pious and habitual sinners, the lower and the higher ranks of people and devotees."4 The Buddhist Panthcon-The study of the later Buddhist religion has been simplified by the publication of the Sadhanamālā, a special class of literature dealing with the Buddhist pantheon. This literature was mostly written in the monasteries of Bengal and Bihar, and the Buddhist images so far discovered answer in most to their descriptions in the Sädhanås. The task is made easier by the fact that the Buddhists were scientific in the classification of their gods and goddesses, most of whom were affiliated to a particular family of the five Dhyani Buddhas. Dhyani Buddhas and Bodhisattvas–The conception of five Dhyani Buddhas and their association with their female counterparts (šaktis) are for the first time met with in the Guhyasamāja Tantrase and Jñānasiddhi? of Indrabhūti, nope of which can be at cascs 1, Dr. N. K. Brahma, Op. cit. p. 275. 3. R. Mitra, Sanskrit Buddhist Literature, p. 261. 8. Tantrik Texts, VII, Foreward, pp. IV.V. 4. Sadhanamala, intro., P. XXXVI. 8. Our thanks are due to Dr. B. Bhattacharyye for his painstaking work in this direction and we follow him in the main. 6. GO9, No. LIII, Intro., p. XI 7. BD. Icon., Tatro. p. IV, ·RELIGIOUS CONDITION 79 present assigned before the 8th century. They are Vairocana, Ratnasambhava, Amitabha, Amoghasiddhi and Aksobhya. Later on Vajrasattva was added, thus raising the number 10 six, and in Nepal Vajrasattva is the pricst of five Dhyani Buddhas. Dhyani Buddhas generally appear as the sires of other gods and goddesses and their separate representatioin is rare. Only two images of Ratnasambhava are known so far. The VRSM. specimena is from Vikrampur and the VSPM. one3 from Bhagalpur. Only one image of Vajrasattva with an inscription in the tenth century script has been discovered from Sukhavaspur, Dacca. The six Divine Bodhisattvas are Samantabhadra, Vajrapāņi, Ratnapäņi, Padmapäņi, Viśvapāņi and Ghançapāņi and they are affiliated to the six Dhyani Buddhas. Three images of Vajrapāņi come from Bihary but none from Bengal. It is quite possible that the images described in the VRSC as Bodhisattva, Lokanātha, Padmapāņi are those of this Divine Bodhisattva. Images of Maitreya, the Buddhist Messiah, are not very rare in Bihar and Bengal. He is represented separately either standing? or seated and also appears in the company of seven mortal Buddhas.. Adi-Buddha-The conception of Adi Buddha or Primordial Buddha cannot be traced in literature10 earlicr than the 10th century. In the later Buddhist pantheon he occupics the highest place, for it is said that the five Dhyani Buddhas originated from him.11 In Nepal he is called Sayambhū and thc Vịhat-svayambhū-purāņa deals with his cult. Again, some identificd Akşobhya with Adi-Buddha.12 According to Getty,13 Prajñāpäramită is his Sakti and he is to be -Y 1. JASB., 1926, 169 ff. 2. No, A (a) 6/138. 3. No. C (a) 6/271. 4. DMC., No. 1A (1) alt.. 6. Bd. Icon., PI. XIIbc ; IM. Nos. 3784, 3783, VRSC. & (b) 6/165. 7. ASIR, 1929-80, PL, XLIII f. from Jhewari, Chittagong : VRSC. No. A (b) 13/351. 8. An excellent image from Biowanpur Tandwa, Bihar, ESMS, PL. XXXIIb. 9. IM, B.G., Nos. 88, 189. 10. Bd. Icon. Iatro. pp. XVII-XVIII 11. Ibid. 1. Ibid. 18, Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. &.

·80 TAX EARLY BISTORY OF BENGAL represented as a 'crowned Buddha' with ornaments and princely garments. Many crowned images of Buddha have been found in Bengal and Bihar, and their identification with the saintly Säkyasimha in monkish robe has been questioned. According to Mr. N. G. Majumdar, the representation of the principal incidents of the life of Buddha around the crowned figurc' is explained by the fact that "Säkyasimha was given a place in the unreal mythological domain and has been thoroughly identified with the Primordial Buddha" and that eight (or four) important incidents of his life were regarded as signs of his Buddhahood. Buddha Śākyasirisha-The images of Buddha illustratc one of the cight-Principal incidents of his life. Besides (1) the birth (Máyā. devi standing under the Sāla tree) and (2) the mahaparinirvana (death), we have (3) the enlightenment at Bodh-Gaya in Bhumisparśamudrā, (4) the first sermon at Sarnath in Dharnacakrapravartanamudră, (5) the descent from the heaven of 33 gods in Varada-mudra, where he went to preach to his mother, (6) the submission of the clephant Nalagiri or Ratnapăla in Abhaya-mudrā, (7) the attempt of Devadatta to kill him with the help of assassins and (8) the miracle at śråvasti in Vyakhyana-mudra. In addition to these incidents, two other events of the master's life are also illustrated in the separate images of Buddha, viz., (1) protection from rains by the hooded canopy of the serpent Mucalinda and (2) the gift of honey by a monkey at Vaišali. The images of Buddha in one of the above attitudes are common in Bihar and Bengal. There is another class of Buddha images in which the central figure is represented by Buddha in Vajrasana or by a crowned Buddha or Buddha in one of the above eight attitudes, but on the back slab we find all the principal incidents of his life. Sometimes some other additional incidents are also to be found. The addi.. tional incidents are (1) the taking of first seven steps by inf Buddha, (2) the casting of the horoscope by the sage Asita Devala, 1. VRSR, 1929-29. pp. 7-10; for crowned images, see, IM, B. G. No. 80, Br. No. 68, Nos, 3713, 8703, 3766, 2071 ; VSPC, No. C(c) 2/185. 3. See the huge image of Baddha from Jagadishpur dear Nalanda and the sib-bati Buddha image from Kaalga, ESMS, Pls.. XIXC, XXA; also IM, No. Br. 8. pl. XIXb.

·RELIGIOUS CONDITION 81 (3) the boy Buddha at school,2 (4) his concern at the sight of an old man,a (5) the mahābhiniskramana or the great renunciation on the back of Kaņghaka followed by the groom Chandaka, (7) the changing of the dress with that of Chandaka, (8) the cutting of hair, (9) the meditation of Buddha, (10) the attack of the Māra's army, (11) allurements by his two daughters and (12) failure of that attempt. After a comparison of the representations of these scenes from the master's life with those of other schools, R. D. Banerjees observes that the Pala school of sculptures introduced the representations of many incidents which had not been portrayed by the intermediate schools like Mathura and Sarnath after that of Gandhara. The same 'scholar very appropriately described these scenes on the back slabs as "images bas-reliefs" and the evolution of this style is peculiar to the Påla school. Mañjušri–The gods, Mafijuấri and Avalokitesvara, require special treatment owing to their great importance. Their conceptions are known in early Buddhist literatures like the Sukhávali Vyüha and Karandavyuha and they are therefore carlier than their parental Buddhas. Manjusri is the god of learning and his worship confers "wisdom, retentive memory, intelligence, eloquence for mastering the scriptures." Two Dhyani Buddhas claim his allegiance and on some varietics of his images the five Dhyānſ Buddhas appear. Besides, there are independent forms. Våk and Dharmadhatu Vågiśvara are emanations from Amitabha. Their representations in images are not known. Mañjughoșa, Siddhaikavira, Vajrananga, and Nāmasangiti are emanations from Aksobhya and of them no imagt is yet reported from Bengal and Bihar. Vägisvara, Mañjuvara, Manjunatha and Manjukumára forms bcar the images of five Dhyani Buddhas. The IM. possesses an image of Văgisvara. Of this variety Manjuvara seems to have been popular. His two forms . 1. Only in IM. No. Br. 8, the identifization intuestionable, as it is not very distinct. 2. Ibid. 3. ESMS., p. 44. 4. Bd. Icon, Pl. XIVa. 11 ·82 THE EARLY HISTORY OF BENGAL are prescribed in the Sådhanamála. An image of the simpler form in Dharmacakra-mudră of the late Pala period has been discovered at Bara in the Birbhum district. The VRSC. No. A (b) 12/264 describes a six-handed image of Bodhisattva Manjuſri surmounted by five Dhyani Buddhas (one of them missing). The independent forms of Manjusri are Aparcana, Sthiracakra, Vadirat and Manjunåtha. The DMC. No. 9A (ii) b/1 most probably represents Aparcana. He is holding the book against the breast in the left hand, brandishing a sword in the right, and it agrees with the Sadhana excepting that it bears the effigies of four Dhyani Buddhas. The DM. also possesses a wooden image of standing Sthiracakra of high artistic excellence. The VSPC. No. C (d) 8/16 also agrees with the Sadhanå excepting that the right hand shows Varada-mudra and the left holds the stem of a lotus on which appears the sword. An image of Manjusri in bronze of the Gupta period has been discovered at Mahasthan. It bears, an effigy of Aksobhya. Avalokitesvara-He is the most popular god of the Buddhists and is in charge of the world during the period betwcen the disappearance of Säkyasimha and the advent of the future Buddha Maitreya. In the Maccandar Vdhåra at Katmandu there are paintings of 108 varieties of Lokesvara. In the Sadhanamāla his fifteen forms have been described. Excepting Vajradhara, all others are emanations from Amitabha. They are Şaşakşari, Simhanada, Khasarpana, Lokanatha, Halåhala, Padmanarteśvara, Harihariharivähana, Trailokyavasankara, Rakteśvara, Mäyäjälakarma, Nilakantha, Sugatisandaršana and Pretasantarpita. Padmanarteśvara has three sub-varieties and Raktalokeivara has two other forms. Of these different varieties the images of Şadaksari, Sirhanada, Lokanatha and Khasarpana have been found in Bengal and Bihar. A representation of the Sadakşarī group (in the company of Manidhara and Maha- 1. Ibid.. Pl. XVp. 2. Modern Review, 1888, March busut. 8. Bd. Icon., p. 30. 4. VRSR, 1986-87. PI. I, ég. 2.

·RELIGIOUS CONDITION 83 vidya, broken) has been found in the Birbhum district. The VRSM., DM. and IM. each possesses a fair number of Simhanāda images. Images of Lokanātha are very common. The DMC. No. IA(ii)a/2 is a fine specimen of Khasarpaņa and agrees faithfully with the description in the Sadhana. It is one of the best products of the Pala school of art. He is in Ardhaparyanka-âsana in Varada-mudră with his companions Tára, Sudhanakumăra, Bhỉkuti and Hayagriva with a lotus stalk in hand. The IM. No. 38082 represents another image of Khasar. paņa. The VRSM.3 possesses an image of Avalokiteśvara in bronze from Mahasthan and has been assigned on stylistic considerations to the Gupta period. R. D. Banerject classifies the Avalokiteśvara images by the number of hands and attributes in them :- (1). Avalokitesvara with two hands-the lotus stalk in the left hand and the right in the Varada-mudra. (*). With four hands-the two additional ones holding a rosary (akşamälä) and a kamandalu or a book. (3). With six hands—the .other two hands holding a snare (påsa) and a jewel-like substance. (4). With multiplicity of hands. The VRSC. No. A(b)1/47 is a 12-handed image of Avalokiteśvara, but the attributes are not distinct. The VSPC. No. C(d)7/9 is also a 12-handed one with the figure of Amitabha over the serpent canopy. The VRSC. Nos. A(b)2/37 from Bogra and A(b)3/122 from Vikrampur, Dacca, represent a twelvehanded god and are surmounted by five Dhyani Buddhas. The VRSC.. No. A(b)4/93 from Vikrampur describes a Bodhisattva Lokanätha surmounted by five Dhyani Buddhas.? No such description is to be found in the Sadhanamala. The presence of five Dhyani Buddhas on so many images cannot perhaps be explained as "ornamental rather than parental," and it may be that we have not yet 1. ASIR, Eastern circle, 1920-21, p. 27. 8. RSMS, pl. XXXIII. 8. Report, 1927-28, pl. V. 4. ESMS, p. 87 8. 6. IM. No. 6880. 6. See ESM&. pl. XXXIV 7. For another image see ASIR, 1980-84, pl. CXXXIb, ·84 THE XARLY HISTORY OY BENGAL known thc Sadhane which prescribes Avalokiteśvara as an emanation of five Dhyani Buddhas. The VRSC. No. A(b)4/124 has been described as Bodhisattva Trailokyavasankara, corwned with an image of Buddha. It is a threc-faced and four-handed figure. In the Sadhanamåla Trailokyavasankara is one-faced, two-armed and three-eyed, and therefore, its identification does not seem to be correct. The image may be a representation of Haláhala or Sukhăvati form but in the Sådhanas both are described as six-handed.1 Family of Amitabha-He claims complete allegiance of the gods, Mahávala, Saptaśatika and Hayagriva and the goddesscs, Kurukullá, Bhskuți and Mahäsitavati. Kurukulla has four sub-varieties. It is reported that there are thrce images of Kurukulla among the large Kurkihara finds. No other image of this group is known. Family of Akşobhya-He commands the allegiance of a large number of gods and goddesses. His male emanations are Caņdaroşaņa, Heruka; Buddhakapala, Vajradāka, Hayagriva, Yamări and Jambhala. Heruka has three varietiese-Dvibhuja Heruka, Heruka in Yab-Yum (in close embrace) with his Sakti and Caturbhuja Heruka. The DMC. No. JA(iv)b/1 is a Dvibhuja Heruka in Ardhaparyanka or dancing pose with a horrible look, hurling a Vajra and wearing a garland of skulls. Vajradāka has three varieties-Samvara, Saptáksara and Mahåmaya. The IM. has recently acquired an image of Samvara from northern Bengal. The Sadhana prescribes four heads but this image has three. Otherwise it agrees in details with the description in the Sadhanamälä. Yamäri has two varieties- Rakta (red) and Krşņa (black).' Krşnayamäri bas again three subvarieties and one image of the sub-variety, namely, Yamāntaka, has been discovered at Nalanda... Jambħala has another variety called Ucchuşma.Jambhala. The female emanations of Akşobhya áre Mahäcinatără, Jan- 1. Bd. Icon. pp. 40, 46, 6D. 2. Proceedings and Transictians of the seventh Oriental Conference, pp. 796-796. PASIR, 1934-38. p. 80. pł, XXIVc. 4. Bb. Icon., pl. XxVb.

·* W40 Situic of RELIGIOUS CONDITION 86 guli, Ekajată, Parnasavari, Prajnaparamita, Vajracaracika, Dhvajagrakeyüră, Vasuhdara and Nairătmă. Jänguli has three forms, Ekajaţă has two and Prajñāpåramită has four. The IM.' possesses a representation of Ekajață who offers a horrible and grim look and flames are gushing out from her person. A broken image of Parņa- Savari with six hands, three faces and trampling on Gancía is in the Indian Museum. Prajñápăramită is the deification of the spirit of the popular Mahāyāna book of that name. The DMCs describes an image of this goddess. Vasuhdara is the Sakti of Jambhala and is the goddess of plenty and prosperity. One image of Vasudhară has been found in the Murshidabad district. The goddess Nairåtmå is the deification of the idea underlying Sunyavāda or Nirätma (soullessness) The IM. No. 3941 represents an image of Nairātmā. She is dancing in Ardhaparyanka attitude on a corpse with a garland of skulls. With angry cyes, canine teeth and burning flames from her person she presents a terrible appearance. A bronze in VSPM." seems to represent this goddess. The only thing that goes against the identification is that her sire Akşobhya is not to be found on the top. Family of Vairocana-In the Sådhanamålå no male emanation of Vairocana is known. His female emanations are Mårici, Uşņīşavijayā, Sitatapatra, Aparăjită, Mahasahasrapramardani and Vajravärähi. Of these goddesses Mårici was very popular. She has six varieties, of which only the images of Astabhuja Mårici are common. She is the Buddhist goddess of dawn and her chariot is drawn by seven pigs. She is four-faced and a Caitya appears on her head. In her four faces four sentiments, bhaya, bibhatsa, raudra and sånta were directed to be expressed. One of the faces is that of a boar. The IM. possesses an image of Uşnişavijaya which agrees in all details with the Sadhana excepting that it bears the effigy of Aksobhya in 1. Ibid., pl. XXVIII. 2. No. 9957. 3. No 'IB (1)/1. 4. ASIR, 1997-28, pl. XLIXe. 3. Bd. Icon., p. 91, pi, XXXb. B. Ibid., pi XXXIC AU ·86 TAK EARLY HISTORY OF BENGAL 1 stead of Vairocana. Vajravärähi is the sakti of Hevajra, and has thrée varieties. Though no male emanation of Vairocana is known in the Sadhanamälä, a bronze image of Hevajra with this parental Dhyani Buddha has been discovered in the Tippera district. He is in fighting attitude and in his sixteen hands there are different attributes, mostly weapons. Eight goddesses dance a war dance around him. Another image of Hevajra in Yab-Yum has been found at Paharpur. Family of Amoghasiddhi-Like Vairocana only female emanations of Amoghasiddhi are known and they are Khadirvani-Tåră, Vaśyatáră, Şadbhujá Sitatårt, Dhanada-Tårå, Parņaśavari, Mahåmayari and Vajraśpikhală. The images of Khadirvani-Tåră are very comon. Both standing and seated forms are to be found. She is accompanied by Asokakantă Marici and Ekajată. Two fine images of Parnaśavari come from the Dacca district. She appears in fighting attitude and presents an angry look. The diseases and pestilences which are represented in human shape flee at her approach. Family of Ratnasambhava-His male emanations are Jambhla and Ucchusma Jambhala. Jambhala is the Buddhist god of wealth and is represented with a pot belly and decked with ornaments. In his right hand he carries a mongoose which vomits jewel. He is a popular god and his allegiance is claimed by Ratnasambhava, Aksobhya and five Dhyani Buddhas. The DMC.* describes two fine images of the present type from Vikrampur. His female emanations are Mahapratisara and Vasudharå. Two eight-handed images from Dacca are generally identified with Mahäparatisarà but they do not belong to this form. Dr. B. Bhattacharyya' refers to an independent form of this goddess in the 1. DMC, Addenda, pl. Ia. 2 ASIR, 1997-98, P. 107. pl. XLİXA. DMC. Nog. Pl. XXIII. 4. Nom. pls. XIb, e. 8. Bd. Icon. Pla. XXXVbc.

·RELIGIOUS CONDITION 87 Sadhanandala. They agree well with the independent form excepting that they have three faces, while the Sadhana prescribes four. One image of Vasudharå from Jhewari, Chittagong,” is known but the parental Buddha is lost and it is difficult to say under whose authority (Akşobhya or Ratnasambhava) she is. Emanations from five or four Dhyani Buddhas-The gods included in this group are Jambhala and Mahåkäla and the female emanations are Vajratäră, Prajñäpăramita, Sitatäră and Måyåjålakarma Kurukulia. The two images discovered at Majbari (Faridpur) and Patharghata (Bhagalpur) within a full-blown lotus with eight movable petals, are generally taken to be representations of Vajran tåră. But Dr. N.K. Bhattasalis draws attention to the description of an image of Cakra-Mahásukha in the Cakra-sambhara Tantra and is perhaps right in his disagreement in so far as there are no parental Buddhas in the above two instances. The IM. No. 100* represents the goddess Prajñāpäramită of this form. The VRSC. No. A(d)2/187 describes an image of Marici and the rim of its chariot roof contains five Dhyani Buddhas. The only known emanation from four Dhyani Budhas is the goddess Vajratārā. Family of Vajrasattva-His two emanations are Jambhala and Cundå. Independent forms-Under this heading may be included the gods and goddesses who do not claim their origin from any of the five Dhyani Buddhas or any combination of them. Independent gods are Ganapati, Bighnanäţaka, Vajrahunkára, Bhútaçãmara, Vajrajvåla. mälákåra, Trailokyavijaya, Paramaśva and Námasangiti. One image of Trailokyavijaya from Bodh-Gaya is only known. He is fourfaced, eight-armed and tramples 'on Gauri and Siva. The VSPM. possesses an image of Bighnanätaka. Its provenance is not known but it seems to be a product of Nepalese workmanship. p. 117. 1. Ibid., 2. ASIR, 1927-28, PI. XLIXb. 8. DMC.. p. 61. The reproduction of Vajratar& from Nepal by Dr. Bhattacharyya is of entirely different type. Bd. Icon., Pl. XXXV.. 4. Ibid., Pl. XXXVIc. 6. Ibid., XXXIXc. 8. Ibid., Pl. XXXIXb.

·THE EARLY HISTORY OF BANGAL Independent goddesses are Sarasvati, Aparajita, Vajragandhárſ, Vajrayogini, Grahamätſka, Ganapatihrdaya and Vajravidarani. The Buddhists seem to have borrowed Sarasvati, the Brahmanical goddess of learning. That she was highly venerated and very popular is attested by the fact that five of her forms are found in the Sadhanamålă, viz., Mahäsarasvati, Vajraviņā Sarasvati, Vajrasårada,1 Aryasarasvati and Vajrasarasvati. The IM. has an image of Aparajita.” The goddess is in fighting attitude and tramples on Ganesa. Another broken image from Nalanda probably represents her. Miscellaneous gods and goddesses-Härití, protectress and giver of children, is not described in the Sådhanamālā but is known from Buddhist mythology. The DM.* has an image of this goddess with a fish and bowl in two hands and in the other two she holds a baby. The VRSM.5 has four specimens. Two images of Häritſ have been found in the ruins of Khåời. The goddesses consisting of the Tantrika Pañcarakşå Mandala are “Mahapratisară, Mzásaharapramardani, Mahamantrånusäriņi, Mahämäyūri, and Mahaluavati.? All the Tară images have not been properly classified. There are many varieties. - Dr. B. Bhattacharyya classifies them under two general headings-(1) ordinary and (2) extraordinary. Ordinary Taras exhibit the Varada pose in the right hand and hold a lotus in the left. Ordinary Tårås are again sub-divided into Green and 1. One image from Nalapda has been identified as Koţiéri (?) and is, in the opinion of Dr. B. Bhattacharyya, probably that of Vajrasärada. Both these identifications are questionable. There is no similarity of this image with the Nepalese painting of this goddess reproduced by him. Bd. Icon., Pla. XL de, p. 15%, 2. Ibid., Pl. XLII.. 8. Ibid., Pl. XLIS. 4. No. IB (VII)/c 5 A (e) 1/327. A (€) 3/106, A (@) 9/899, A (e) 4/115. G, VRSR, 1928-29. p. & 7. These five goddesses are illustrated in Bd. Icon by miniatures from a manuscdpt of Pancarakall & Ibid, p. 185 fo.

·RELIGIOUS CONDITION 89 White Tárås. Green Tară has four varieties-Khadirvani, Vasyatära, Aryatáră and Mahattari Tárå. Most of the Tåră images belong to this category. White Tårå has two varieties-Mrtyuvañcana and Astamahābhaya. Extraordinary Tårås include a large number of goddesses we have described already. The above account does not exhaust the number of known images? and it is also to be noted that all the Sådhanas have not been discovered. In spite of some cases of doubtful and questionable identifications it is to be admitted that the Buddhist images as a rule faithfully agree with their descriptions in the Sadhanamälă. The extant literature and the number of images hitherto discovered from different quarters make it abundantly clear that Buddhism in its later phase commanded a large following in the Pala period. 1. The following identifications appear to'us very doubtful. The VRSC No. A (g) 1/110 describes a ten-handed goddess as Vagiávarl, the DMC No. IB (iv) a/1 as Sitapatra and No. 1A (v) a/1 as pipcola-Buddha, God of Medi. cine. The sixteen-handed image (IM. No. 20761 cannot be identified at all. the eight-handed goddess from Bara (BirabhQina-Vivarana, fiig. 80) appear either to be an image of Uspisavijayd or Mahāpratisari. Another image reproduced iu the same hook (fig. 27) appears to represent a Buddhist god. I am unable to suggest any iudeatification from the indistinct photograph. 12 ·CHAPTER XI RELIGIOUS CONDITION (CONTINUED) Brahmanical Pantheon Vaişnavism-The Harivaṁsal narrates the story of a quarrel between Yadava Krşņa and Väsudeva of Pundra. The latter was a friend and ally of the Magadha king Jarasandha and an enemy of Kripa. It is said in this story that Pauņraka Våsudeva considered himself to be the real Vasudeva, the holder of sankha, cakra padma and gada, and regarded Devakiputra Väsudeva as an impostor. In the battle that ensued on this account the Pundra king lost his life. The story tends to show that at the time of the composition of the last part of theHarivansa Vasudeva with his usual attributes was regarded as a fullfledged god, but it may reflect the spirit of a previous age (as we know from the story of Sisupalavadha in the Mahabharata) when there was a considerable opposition from a section of the people of eastern India to looking upon Krşņa as an incarnation of Vişnu. It may be noted that Paundraka Vasudeva was one of the kings defeated by Bhima in his eastern expedition. The earliest epigraph referring to Vaişņava worship in Bengal is the Susunia inscription which records the setting up of a wheel of Vişnu by king Candravarman. The Vaigram plate of 129 G.E. refers to a temple of Govindasvånin (a form of Vişņu) and the Damodarpur plate No. 4 refers to a temple of Svetavaráhasvämin.2 The Tippera grant of Lokanatha records grant of land to a temple of Narayana. The Khalimpur plate of Dharmapala mentions grant of land to a temple of Nanna-Närdyaņa in the Vyåghrataçi-mandala. The Brahmanical images and terracotas unearthed in course of 1. Vadgaväsi edition. Udyrttøbhavipyat-pasva, pp. 488-446. 2. Most probably it means Vippu in Varihivatăre. This record also mention. Kokamakban min. Dr. R. G. Baxak saya that Kokamukha may mean a she-wolf. It cannot be ascertained what god was meant in this CUM ·RELIGIOUS CONDITION 912 excavations at Paharpur are assignable to the Gupta and post-Gupta periods. Stories and exploits connected with the life of Krsna are illustrated profusely in panels and they go to show that the Krsna cult was popular in Northern Bengal even in the Gupta period. Before the Paharpur excavations our knowledge of Radha-Krsna cult of ancient Bengal was very poor, the stone representations being the doubtfully identified 'Mother and Child' images as the birth of Krsna. His sports with the milk-maids and the part played by him in the Mahābhārata have been mentioned in the 4th verse of the Belava plate of Bhojavarman, the last known king of the Vais. ņava Varman dynasty. Jayadeva, the court-poet of Lakşmaņasena, immortalised the love of Rådhå and Kșrņa in his Gila-Govinda. The Krşņa panels' at Paharpur which are possible of definite identification are lifting of the mountain Govardhana, the death of the demons Cāņura and Muşçika in wrestling combat with Krsna and Balarama, the uprooting of two Arjuna trees and the killing of the demon Keśí.2 An amorous pair with halos round their heads have been identified with Krsna and Radha. There are separate representations of Balarama and the river goddess Yamuna. There are various other panels which may be representations of some scenes of Krsna's life. Two scenes -a monkey carrying stone on his head for making the bridge in order to cross over to Lanka and the fight between Bäli and Sugriva-show the wide popularity of the Råmā. yāņa stories in that period. Besides the Paharpur finds, a bronze image of Vişņu from Rangpur may be assigned to the Gupta period." An ordinary Vişņu and Vişnu Sesa-Sayin in the Topa collection at Rangpur, Vişņu from Laksmankathi, Backerganje," and another from Jogirsoan, Rajshahi, and a baked clay scal of the god from Sabhar, Dacca, may be assigned to the post-Gupta period. 8. ASIR, 1926-27, Pl. XXXc. 1. ASIR, 1926-27, pp. 142 if. 2. IC, III, p. 195. 4. Ibid., Pl. XXXIVa. 8. Ibid., 1929-80, Pl. XXXVb. 6. VRS. Monograph, No. 4. & VRSR, 1880-31, fig. 1. 7, DMC, p. 87. 8, DMC, R. &3.

·92 THE EARLY HISTORY OF BENGAL Vişņu images of the Påla period lie scattered and uncared for all over Bengal, and all the museums and private collections possess a fairly large number. This is a clear proof of the wide popularity of the worship of this god. Vişnu is generally represented as standing with his four well-known attributes in four hands. He is accompanied by his two wives Lakşmi and Sarasvati, Vahana being the devotee Garuda. Sometimes the door-keepers of Vaikuntha, viz., Jaya and Vijaya, also appear. Most of the Bengal images belong to the Trivikrama and Vasudeva varieties with the order of attributes PGCS and GSCP. in four hands. A specimen of a four-headed bust of Vişnu is in the Tepa collection at Rangpur. The central face is normal, the left and right are those of Varāha and lion. The back one is described like that of a Bhairava.? The pedestal of a seated image of Vişņu (Yogdsana) from Itahar, Dinajpur, has been noticed by Mr. S. K. Saraswati. A standing Vişņu with a seven-hooded snake canopy has been found in the north-western Sunderbans. A Seșa-Sáyin image is at Vainyesvara, Murshidabad. On some Vişņu images we find the representation of his ten incarnations on the back slab. The ten incarnations are Matsya, Kurma, Varáha, Narasimha, Vámana, Rama (Dášarathi), (Parašu). råma, (Bala)ráma, Buddha and Kalki. Of these we have some remakable specimens of Matsya, Varåha, Narasimha and Våmana incarnations in separate images. Representation of the Matsyavatára in a separate image is not very common in India, and Bengal can claim two-one from Vajrajogini,. Dacca, and the other from Serpore, 1. For different varieties of Viepu, see Vippumdrti-Paricaya by V. Vidyavinode. So far as we know, varieties of Nardyapa, Hrsikeka and Sridhan have been discovered. See VSPC No. F (a) 1/302 ; JASB, 1982, p. 179; VRSR, 1998-29. p. 18. 9. VRS, Monograph, No. 4, pp. 80-3). 8. JASB, 1936, p. 11. Pl. II, fig. 1. 4. VRS. Monograph, No, ., PL, III, No. 19 6. 'Birabhima Vivarapa, fig. 88; 6. DMC., No. 3A (1) a/5; K8M8, p. 103. 7. ASIR, 1994-85, p. 154. 8. DMC., No. 8A (1) 8/4 8. Pravkal, 1888.B. 9. pp. 616 , ·KELIGIOUS CONDITION 93 Bogra. On ordinary images of Vişņu this form is indicated by a fish. In these two specimens the god is represented as half-fish (lower half) and half-man with usual attributes in four hands and with Lakşmi and Sarasvati on his two sides. Images of the Varáhaavatara are rather common, the VRSM. possessing the largest number. The images of Narasimha-avatāra are also fairly common. Threc Narasimha images in the Abdullapur Vaişņava monastery have six hands instead of four, the two additional ones being in the Abhaya and Tarjani mudrás. In the images of the Vamana-avatära the attempt to chastise the demon king Bali by raising the left foot in order to cover three worlds is cleverly depicted. The image of Paraśurama is extremely rare in Bengal. The DMC.: describes one from Ranihati Deul, Purapara in Vikrampur. The only difference from an ordinary Vişņu image is that the god holds a parašu instead of the gadā. Many square slabs of stone or metal with the image of Vişņu on one side and his ten incarnations on the other in a circular order have been discovered and very appropriately called Vişnupattas.* Most probably they are the Yantras used by the Tantrika Vaişņavas. The finest specimen is from Khadi, Sunderbans. The images of Balarama are not very common. The VRSM. possesses one from Dinajpur. The god is standing under a fivehooded snake canopy. The first right hand holds a cup of wine ?), the second a club and the first left a plough and the other rests on the knee. It may be noted that one image among the Kurkihar 1. DMC., Pl. XXXVII bcd. 2. A pot-bellied and comparatively short sized Vippu in IM, in the. usual standing postare is described by R. D. Banerjee as Vamana. We think there is nothing to regard it as an image of Vamana-avatara except its short size. ESMS, PI. XXVIIa. 3. Pl. XXXIXb 4. DMC. p. 89. 5. Antiquities of Khadi. (Sunderbans) by Mr. K. D. Mitra in VRSR, 1928-29. 0. E (a) 1/886.

·TAR EARLY HISTORY OF BENGAL (Bihar) finds has been identified with Balarama, and another of the reign of Devapäla has been found at Nålandā.? Garuda appears in Vişņu images as kneeling on the right knee. with folded hands in adoration. He is sometimes represented as a human beings and occasionally as a "bird proper The separate images of two-winged Garuda with folded palms are common. They might have adorned the pillars in front of Vaişņava temples. The crowning figure of the Dinajpur Vaişņava pillar is a double-sided Garuda. The DMC. describes a fine specimen of a double-sided Garuda image. The VRSM. specimen from Nagail, Rajshahi, is aslo a good piece of sculpture. The wooden image of Garuda from Raghurampur is of fine workmanship.? The images of Lakşminārāyaṇa are not very common and only four of them are known.8 Representation of Lakşmi in separate images is not also very common. The VRSC. reports the acquisition of three metal images from Bogra and the VSPM.' has one from Bhagalpur. Separate images of Sarasvati are also rare. The DM. specimen comes from Tolbari Bhita near the Năstika Panditera Bhita (generally supposed to be Atisa Dipankara's home) at Vajrayogini, Vikrampur. In the three specimens in VRSM. from Bogra and Raj. shahi the ram appears as her vāhana, while the known Dhyanas direct it to be the swan. Dr. N. K. Bhattasali10 draws attention to the 7th Adhyâya, 12th Kända of the Satapatha Brahmaņa, which connects a ram with Sarasvati worship. The practice of sacrificing the ram is still observed in some parts of the Dacca district. 1. Transaction and Proceedings of the Seventh Oriental Conference, p. 799. 2, ASIR. 1990-91, p. 85. ESMS, p, 106 ; VRSC, No. E (a) 17/8 4. Ibid. (a) 1/9. 8. 8A (1) c/2. 6. ESMS, Pl. XCIA, 7. DMC, No. SA (i) e/1. 8. DMC., No. 8A (1) 6/1 ; dr. 8. K. Saraswati notices three images in bio reports of his tours in Maldo and Dinajpur. See JASB, 1936, pp. 9 ff. Another image reproduced in Birabhama-Vivarapa. 2. K (a) 1/285, 10. DMC, P. .187.

·Religious CONDITION 95 Saivism-The spread of Saivism in Bengal is obscure. In the Gunaighar grant of 508 A.D. Vainyagupta is styled as paramasaiva, and in course of the description of the boundary of the donated land to the Buddhist monastery.a temple of Pradyumneśvara has been referred to. The existence of a Saiva temple in the Tippera district in this period indicates that Saivism had considerable influence by that time. The bull symbol of the coins of Samåcáradeva and Sasanka shows that they most probably belonged to this sect. The seal of the Asrafpur plates of the Khadgas bears a bull couchant, and the queen Prabhåvati, wife of Devakhaçlga, consecrated a Sarvāṇi image. In spite of their ardent devotion to Buddhism it seems that the Khadgas had Sivaite sympathies also. Siva has been represented in various forms at Paharpur and four of them have been described in the report of the Archæological Survey. In these four forms he has the urdhva linga (penis erectus) and has his third eye on the forehead, which along with the presence of akşamåla and kamandalu go to signify his ascetic aspect. (1) The scene of offering poison has been depicted in a simple but dignified way. (z) There is another standing Siva image with a knecling bull to his right with a heavy staff (trifūla?) in the left hand. (3) In another image his right hand shows varada pose and the left holds the tričūla. (4) In another there is a halo round the head and his two hands hold akşamäla and kamandalu. In the Påla and Sena periods Siva was worshipped in various forms, of which two-armed Siva, Sadasiva, Bhairava, Kalyanasundara or Vaivåhikamúrti, Umá-Maheśvara or Umalinganamurti and Nataräja types seem to have been popular. Four images of two-armed Siva are known. They look like Vişņu images excepting their characteristic Saiva symbols, the bull, tridents and Urdhvalinga. The seal attached to the Sena grants bears the figure of ten-armed Sadāśiva. The VRSM. has three Sadasiva images and the VSPM., 1. 1926-27. pp. 146-47 % Two in the VRSM, described in VRSC as Harlher, p. 11; and two is the IM., ASIR, 1980-84, p. 262, PL, CXXXII. &.

·06 THE EARLY HISTORY OF BENGAL two.1 Bhairava was originally an attendant of, or emanation from $iva and instead of the bull, the dog is the vähana of Bhairava. The VRSM. has four, the DM. possesses one and the Nahar collections, Calcutta, contains a fine specimen. Kalyanasundara images can be divided into two classes. In one class Gauri stands in front of Sivas and in another to his left.4 Umå-Maheśvara images predominate over all other Siva images, and both metal and stone specimens are common. It is noteworthy that all the known images of Națarăja Siva excepting one from Govindapur in N.W. Sunderbans5 come from eastern Bengal (Dacca and Tippera districts). The Nataraja images can be divided into two classes-ten-handed and twelve-handed varieties. A rare type of Śiva with a trident and a rosary in two right hands and a skull-head staff and skull bowl in the left two is worshipped at Kasipura, Backerganje. Părvati and Gangå stand on two sides and small figures of Ganesa and Kartikeya are also noticeable. The eight-armed Aghora images are not common and only three specimens are known. The VRSM. possesses aunique specimen of Ardhanarisvara from Purapara, Vikrampur, whose images 1. Another image has been discovered recently from Dinajpur and it in reported that it will be preserved in the IM. Mr. H. D. Jitra contributes a very informative paper on Sadasiva worship in Bengal, see SASB, 1983, pp. 171 ff. Mr. Mitra places the earliest image of Sadasiva in Bengal iqc. 950-1000 A. D. Most probably the ten-handed Siva in Birabhūmia-Vivarana, fig. 19. is an image of Sadasiva. It may be noted that there is none from castern Bengal. 2. The image described in VRSC. 36, as Revanta seems to be a representation of Blairava The image illustrated in Birabhuma-Vivarapa against page 188 appears to be that of Bhairava. 3. DMC., Pl. ILVIIa. 4. Ibid., Pl. XLVIIb. 8. VRS, Monograph, No. 5, fig. 7. 6. DMC., P. III, Nos, SA (ii) a/8 are broken. 7. Dr. N. K. Bhattasali calia it Nilakantha but admits that the Dhyana prescribes fire heads, while the present image has only four bat the attri. butes in the hands agree. DMC, p. 117. '&.' DMC., 'Pl. XLVIY; Vrs, Monograph, No. 6, fig. 9, another at Bhardrakula, Dinajpur, JASB, 1996, p. 11 .

·RELIGIOUS CONDITION 92 are of extreme rarity in Bengal. The images from Purapara, Vikrampur, are said to have been worshipped by Vallalasena and one of his queens. It may be mentioned that the Naihati plate of Vallalasena opens with an invocation to the Ardhanárisvara form of Siva. The VSPM. has one broken image which appears to represent a seated Siva (Dhyani Siva?) The worship of Siva in his phallic emblem was widely popular. The known Lingas can be divided into four classes. (1). The plain Linga with yoni or agrapatfa is represented as plain cylinder with a circular platform around its middle. They are very common and one inscribed in the 7th-8th century script has been found along with the Śarväņi image of qucen Prabhāvati.* (2). The cylinder with one face of Siva is called Ekamukha Linga. is). Lingas with the bust of Siva on four sides of the cylinder is called Caturmukha Linga lo which reference has been made in the Bodh-Gaya inscription of the 26th year of Dharmapala. One specimen is at Aminpur, Dinajpur. (4). The VRSM. has four Lingas cncircled by four cffigics of Devi and a similar one is at Delbandh, Dinajpur.? The bull, the Vahana of Siva, was generally placed in the outer wall of his temple. The DM. and VRSM. each has a massive bull and another is in the Dinajpur Collectorate. The images of Ganeša are common. Generally we meet with seated or dancing Ganesa with four or cight hands. The VRSM. 0 1. The VRSC. No. C (e) 2/288 is a fragmentary image from Aksayavata. Gaya. 2. DMC., p. 131. 8. G (c) 1/341. 4, DMC., pl. LXX. 5. VRSC., No. C (a) 1/82 ; one from Mangolkot, Burdawn. see ESM8. pl. Kla, one at Unakoti, Tipper. 6. JASB. 1933, p. 187 ; for two others sot infra. 7. Ibid, pp. 188-89. 8. Mr. B. Bhattacharyya describes eight varities of Gapebas. But us the attributes do not agree with his lists, it is difficult to classify them accor: dingly, see lading Images, p. 18 18 ·98 THR EARLY HISTORY OF BENGAL has the largest number of dancing Gaņešas. The DMC. and VRSC. each describes a six-handed Ganeša. The DMC. describes a unique five-faced and ten-armed dancing Gaņeśa from Vikrampur, and the learned compiler of the Catalogue has quoted a Dhyāna from the Sáradatilaka Tantra, which enables him to identify it as an image of the Heramba variety of Ganesa. Images of Kārtikeya are not very common. The DMC. describes only one and the VRSM. has three, of which No. C(8)1/181 is described as very old. The IM.* has acquired a splendid image of Kärtikeya from northern Bengal. Saiva and Säkta goddesses-Durgå is the sakti of Siva and was worshipped in various forms. Her images of different varieties have been discovered but not properly classified. It can well be understood how many different forms she had froin the simple fact that the Devipurānas alone nientions 62 types. A remarkable image of a goddess is worshipped at Kägajipaglā (paper-makers' village), Vikrampur. The lower half is a finely carved Linga from which she emerges. She holds a rosary and a book in the upper two hands and the lower two are placed one on another in Dhyanamudra. The goddess has been tentatively identified as Mahamaya. Images of Gauri are The DMC. describes three and most of the ten images described in the VRSC. under the heading Candi with Godhika (mongoose) as the vehicle are representations of Gauri. The VRSC. N. D(a)7/184 appears to be an image of Umă, as the goddess holds a mirror which differentiates her from Gauri and Parvati.8 common. 1. DMC p. 146 9. G (b) 1/224. For another six-banded dancing Ganesa, see Medieval Indian Sculptures iu the British Museum by R. P. Chanda pl. XXI 8. DMC. pp. 146.47 4. ASIR, 1984 86, pl. XXIVA 6. Vangavast edition, Ch LK, pp 180 ff 6. DMC, pp. 192-8, pl. XIV., 7. Also see the goddess at Mabesvara pasa, Khalda, ESMS, pl. LVIIC and the image illustrated in Birbhume Viverapa against page 192 (Vol II) fig. 67 8. Gopinath Rao, Elements of Hindu Iconography, Vol. I, Pt. II, pp. 113, 120 ·RELIGIOUS CONDITION 99 Images of Parvati are fairly common. The Linga along with the rosary in the right hands is her distinctive fcature. Three images? have been described in the VRSC. as Simhavähini. One has eight hands and the other two have four each. The attributes in them have not been mentioned. But it seems clear that they represent Durga in one or another form, as the Vähana lion shows. The standing goddessa with the lion as Vähana from Mangalbari,, Dinajpur, holds in her upper two hands a trifüla and an ankusa and the other two are lost. She also represents a form of Durgå. An uncommon type of Caņdis of the grd year of Laksmanasena's reign is worshipped in the Dacca town. There is a lion couchant on the pedestal and the goddess has a battle axc in her upper right hand. Two elephants sprinkle water on her and two females with fly-whisks attend her. But for the short inscription which labels her as Caņdi, it would have been very difficult to identify her, as it differs from known examples. The metal image of ciglit-arıcd Sarvāṇi installed by queen Prabhávati was discovered at Deulbadi, Tippera. Two rare and unique images of Devi have been discovered in Jessore and Birbhum, and their identification is far from certain. A sixhanded goddess scated on a lotus, which is supported by a lion, is worshipped at Sankhahati, Jessore, as Bhuvancśvari. R. D. Banerjee labels it as Parvati. She is seated in ardha paryaika-isana with her right foot pendant on the lion and the pedestal contains two other small lions. The two lower left hands hold the Kamandalu and Triſula and the other shows Abhaya pose. The two upper right hands hold a lotus and a rosary and the other exhibits the Varada pose. The form of Bhuvaneśvari as described by Mr. Gopinath Rao is four-handed. Otherwise, it agrecs with the details. The 1. Nos. D(0)1/130, D(c)2/82, D(c)3/29 2. ESMS, pl. LVIA 3. DMC; pl. LXIX. 4. S. C. Mitra, History of Jessore and Khulna ( in Bengali) p. 240. S. ESMS, pl. LVilla, 8 Op. cit., Vol. I Pt. II, p. 37 ; see also Ran's descripiion of Tulasi. devi; see also the descriptions of Vijaya and Uma in the Devipurana. pp. 185 ff. But all of them are four-ban led. Mr. S. C. Mitra proposes to identify her with Triparębvart of the Teatrasara.

·100 TAR KARLY HITORY OP BANGAL other image! at Deuli, Birbhum is a ten-armed goddess, standing in Atibhanga pose. Three images discovered from that village are said to have been installed by the Sena kings. The Váhana seems to be a lion. The attributes in four left hands are Trifüla, Darpana, Dhanuh, and Kamandalu, and the attribute or the posture in the lowest left hand is indistinct. The two upper right hands hold Khadga and Pasa and the attributes in other three are indistinct. The image seems to be a representation of Mangala as described by Gopinath Raoor Mahadevi of the Devipurāna. An eighteen-handed goddess seated on a lotus supported by a lion has been discovered at Simla, Rajshahi, and has been indentified with Mahalaksmi.“ The above forms of Devi show, on the whole, beatific countenances inspite of many weapons in her hands and she does not actually fight. Let us now describe her images in fighting mood. Three Vágiśvari images are known. The VRSC. No. A(g)1/110 and the specimen in Dinajpur Raj palace have eight hands. Six additional hands hold different weapons and one of the normal two shows Abhaya pose and the other is engaged in drawing out the tongue of the demon. The specimen from Kachra is a four-handed image. The known images of Mahișamardini can be classified according to the number of hands. Eight and ten?-armed varieties are common. A splendid and remarkable six-armed image with an inscription written in seventh century script has been acquired by the VRSM. from Gangarampur, Malda. A specimen of twelve-armed variety in metal was discovered at Kesavpur, Dinajpur. Two specimens of cighteen-handed Mahisamardini are known and the distinctive feature of the image at Vakreśvara, 1. Birbhama-Vivarpa, Vol. II, illustrated against p. 23 2. Rao. Hluda Iconography, Vol. I, Pt. II, p. 359. S. p. 185. VRS, Monograph, No. 6, Ag. 4, pp. 21 ff. 8. JASB, 7932 p 183 6. VRSR, 1932-84. pl. IV. fig. 7. It is difficult to naderstand why both R. D Banerjee and Dr. N.' K. Bhattasall think ten-armed varietjes mure. The DMC. describes two sach images and the VPSM. bas tbree. 8. VRSR, 1831-82. pl. 1. 9. ESMS. pl. LuIq.

·RELIGIOUS CONDITION 101 Birbhum, is that the goddess is surrounded by other fighting goddesses. Mr. S. K. Saraswati has discovered a remarkable and unique image with thirty-two hands (called by him a form of Candika) at Betna, Dinajpur. Cåmunda is one of the terrible forms of the Devi in which she appeared to kill the demons Caņda and Muņça. Various forms of Cámundă are known. (1) Ksama with two hands. The image at Amadi, Jessore, seems to represent this type. It is defaced and broken and the identification is therefore uncertain. The PSPC. No. J. (b) 1/945 appears to be an image of this type. (8) The VRSC. No. D (d) 9/207 is a four-handed Cåmunda on an ass with the words Pišitåsană inscribed on it. Dr. N. K. Bhattasali is inclined to identify this image with the variety of Kälika Cámundā of the Matsyapurana. (3) Dhäntura is represented with her left knce pressed against the ground and the right one raised. The left hand is placed on the seat and the right one rests on the raised knce. Threc images of this type are known. The earlicst is at Katason, Dinajpur, and another at Dinajpur. The best specimen is in VSPM. from Attahasa, Burdwan. (4) Rudra-Cåracikå has six hands. The VRSC. Nos. D (d) 10/880 and D (d) 7/384 represent this variety and on the former the word Caracikā is actually inscribed. (5). Rudra-Camuñçla has eight arms. The image illustrated in the Birabhūma-Vivarana, Vol. II, against p. 124 seems to be an image of this type. (6). Siddha-Cámunda has ten arms and images of this type are fairly common. (7) Siddha. Yogesvari and Rupa-Vidyā have twelve arms. The VRSC. No. D (d) . 1. Birabhama-Vivarapa, illustrated in Vol. II, against p. 168. The other is at Panighat, Kbulna, illustrated in S. C. Mitra'. History of Jessore and Khalpa against p. 170 2. JASB. 1932. pf, IX, Ag. 2 8. Illustrated in the History of Jessore and Khulna, against p. 166 4. JASB, 1932. pl. V. III. fig. 8 6. It is described in the above book as Follebyart Deri 6. The image illustrated io Birabbama-Vivarana against p. 144 appears to be of this class and also VRSC, Nos. 3, 6, 6 and also Çamupda at Beton, JASB. 193%. OL IX, fig. 8 ·102 THE EARLY HISTORY OF BENGAL **/252 and DMC. No. 3B (ii) h/1 may belong to these two varieties. I A few representations of Mätykås have been found, but their worship is not prevalent at present. The VRSM. has two slabs. No. D (c) 1/7 represents nine Mätskás-(1) Brahmani, (8) Raudri, (3) Kumārl, (4) Vågišvari, (5) Mahisamardini, (6) Varihi, (7) Indråni, (8) Camunda and (9) Simhavähini. The other specimen contains seven of them. Besides, the VRSM. has three Varăhis and one Vaişnavi. The VSPM. has one slab from Devagram, Nadia, representing Brahmäņi. Generally, images of Gangå and Yamuna adorn the doors of temples. All the images of Gangå discovered so far are good pieces of sculpture and the Vahana Makara is tastefully represented. The VRSM. has two, and the Birabhuma-Vivaraņai illustrates two. One Ganga image is worshipped in the Jaśoreśvari temple, Khulna, and another at Bhadrasila, Dinajpur. Separate images of Yamună are rare, The section on Saiva images cannot be closed without a passing reference to two important Saiva centres at Unakoti in Hill Tippera and Deopara in the Rajshahi district. The name Onakoţi is in imitation of the Koti-tirtha (Käsi) in which place, according to tradition, there are a crore of Saiva images, and Onakoți was, as its name implies, second to Koţi-tirtha in importance to the Saivas. There are many sculptures lying scattered here and there on the hill and on the rocky bed of the stream there. What is more interesting is that there are a series of colossal heads and figures carved on the rock. The central figure is a colossal Siva head of "about goft. high, including the high embroidered head-dress which is itself soft. in height." There are other gigantic figures of Siva and Ganesa. A standing figure of Siva holds the conch and the rosary in the right and left hands respectively. Figures of six and eight-handed Gaņeša stand erect with attenuated waists with three and four tusks. There is a Vişnu image, resembling that of the Sun-god. Besides, there are images of Hara, Gauri, Hari- 1. In the description of Camanda images we have followed the Aguipurapa 2. Vol. II. against pp. 74,78 & KOMS, pl. LXID. 4. JASB, 1836, pl. I. 8. $ ·KELIGIOUS CONDITION 103 hara, Narasimha, Hanumana, Ekamukha and Caturmukha Lingas.. The site seems to have been sacred to the Saivas since the gth century A.D.1 The gorgeous and magnificent temple of Pradyumneśvara (siva and Vişnu combined) at Deopara which has been described by Umapatidhara in flattering terms is no more. The tank in front of it is called Padumsahar tank and the numerous sculptures found in it in course of excavations and preserved in the l'RSM. go to show its importance as a religious centre. Two inscriptions from southern India enable us to form an idea of the esteem and veneration in which the Saivas of Gaugla were held there. A Tanjore inscription records that Rajendra Cola built the Rajarajeśvara temple and appointed Sarvasiva Pandica-Sivåcårya as the priest of that temple and further directed that thenceforth the šisyas and their šisyas alone, belonging to Aryadeśa and Gaudadeśa should be eligible for the office of the chief pricst. It is stated in a commentary on the Siddhanta-Säravali of Trilocana Sivåcårya that Rajendra Cola imported Saivas from the banks of the Ganges. A record of the fifth year of the Cola king Parakeśarivarman (Räjá. dhirăjadeva) states that the worship of Siva by Umåpatideva, alias Jñana Sivadeva, a native of Dakşiņa-Lala in Gaudadeśa, was responsible for the defeat of an invading Ceylonese army which was desolating the Pandya country. For this act by which the grace of Siva was attained, Sivācārya was granted a village, the income from which he distributed among his relations. According to Venkyya, this invasion took place in the grd quarter of the 12th century. Saura images-Next to those of Vişņu, the images of the Sun-god are the most numerous in Bengal, but his worship is now dying out. He is generally represented with four hands, the upper two holding lotus stalks. He is dressed in udicya-veša, ie., northern dress. The upper half of the body is covered with a coat of mail and the lower . 1. ASIR, 1921-82. p. 87 2. SII., Pt. I, p. 105 8. Nilakpatha Bastri, The Colas, p. 254; an image of Ganebs of the Pele Achool bus been found in a Tanjore temple, and it has been suggested that it wu amied by the army of Rajendra Cola, JIH, 1984. 800-11 4. Rangachariar, lascriptions of the Madru Presideocy, I. p. 808 ·,104 THE EARLY #ISTORY OY BENGAL half is clad in a short skirt tied by an ornamental belt with two daggers on two sides. His legs are covered with boots in accordance with the canonical injunction that they should not be shown bare in any case. This feature is characteristic also of his attendants. His two wives Uşå and Pratyuşă stand by his two sides and the third Mabásveta in front. His male attendants are Danda and Pingala and his chario teer is half-bird Aruņa. In some images the Adityas, the seven Rşis, seven Mäiskäs, the planets and the zodiac signs are represented. The VRSM. has some unique varieties of Surya images. The VRSM, No. 693 is a two-handed Sürya with a circular halo round his hcad and has been assigned to the late Gupta period. The lower parts of his legs are not shown at all and are covered by the figure of Aruna. The only other image of this type has been discovered at Khadi (Sunderbans). In this image the driving of the chariot by holding the reins of the horses is clearly exhibited and has made it more realistic. In these two specimens his three wives are conspicuous by their absence. Thc VRSM. has acquired a six-handed Sürya from Mahendra, Dinajpur. The two uppermost hands hold lotus stalks, the intermediate hands have Aksamäla and Varada-mudra and the remaining iwo have a Kamandalu and Varada-mudra. It has been suggested that it represents the first of the twelve Adityas, as described in the Višvakarma-sálra." The only discrepancy is that it prescribes four hands and the two hands showing Varada and Abhaya mudrås were not perhaps considered essential in the A ten-armed and three-faced (or four faced with the uncarved one at the back) Sürya has been acquired from Manda, Rajshai. Its existing six hands hold Sakti, Trišala and Khavanga (right) and lotus, canon. 1. According to some description his wives Sarenu and Nikgabhi are on two sides, and the other than in front 8. DMC, Nos. 8A ( ili ) 472. 3 (iii) a/4, and pl. LX, illustrating Surya from Sonaning 8. VRSR, 1926-27, fig I, p. 8. 4. Ibid., 1998-20, fig 17. 6. Ibid., 1982-84, 8g 1. JABR. 1943pp101-09 ·RELICIOUS CONDITION 106 Damaru and Sarpa (left). The attributes show, as has been rightly observed, that it was composite image of Suryal and Bhairava, and it most probably represents Sürya in his Märtançla-Bhairava form, as described in the Såradatilaka Tantra.. But it is to be noted that this Tantra prescribes four heads and eight hands. Seated Surya images are rare. A metal specimen, datcable in the 7th or 8th century A.D., was found at Deulbadi. A stone image of a seated Surya has been discovered at Ekdala, Dinajpur, and the god looks like a Dhyanimūrti. The pose is unrealistic for one who is mounted on a moving chariot. A few images of the hunting god Revanta, son of the Sun-god, are known. The VRSM. has two and the DM. has one only and another is at Sonapur, Dinajpur.Navagrahas or nine planets were worshipped. They are the Ravi, Soma, Mangala, Budha, Brhaşpati, Sukra, Sani, Rahu and Ketu. A fine specimen of a Navagraha slab has been discovered at Kankandighi in the Sunderbans. The VRSM. has four slabs. It is to be noted that Gaņeía also appears in the company of nine planets. Other gods and goddesses-Brahma, Vişņu and Siva constitute the Hindu Trinity. While Vişņu and Siva each has such a large following, the god of crcation docs not claim the allegiance of many. Even his wife Sarasvati has been afterwards appropriated by Vişņu. A fairly large number of images of Brahmä have been found in Bengal but it is to be noted that not a single specimen from eastern Bengal is known. The VRSM. has about ten images but the best specimen' is in the VSPM. from Rajganj, Dinajpur. 1. IHQ., 1980. p. 465 &. 2. DMC, LIX; For another seated Sorya, kec Birabhama-Vivaraya, Vol. II, against 140. 8. JASB, 1932, pp. 147 ff. 4. Ibid, 1986, P1. 2. fig. 4. The IM. possesses four from Bihar, 6. VRSR, 1928-29, fig 3. 6. Ibid., 1980-81, fig 8 ; 1928-29, fig. 6. 7. V8PC, PI, VI. 14 ·106 TAX KARLY HISTORY OF BENGAL on а A fair number of a species of bas-reliefs showing mainly the mother and the child have been found in northern Bengal. A controversy is raging about its identification. A lady is represented lying down couch in reclining position with her left elbow pressed against a pillow and supporting her head. A child is shown lying down close to the left side. A female shampoons her feet and other females attend her, ministering to her comforts. Ganesa Karikeya, Linga and Navagrahas are placed above the couch. According to Dr. N. K. Bhattasali,' their presence points to the Saiva nature of the Mother and Child images and he proposes to identify the child with thc Sadyajāta form of Siva but admits that no appropiate Dhyana can be cited. Mr. N. B. Sanyal” refers to the description of the birth of Krsna in the Bhavisyottara Purana in order to support the view that the Mother and Child images represent that scene. According to him, "the Navagrahas indicate the benign influence of the planets on the newly born baby. Linga (signifying Siva) is connected with the birth of Krsna, as he (Siva) is said to have addressed a hymn to Krsna when in his mother's womb. The presence of Ganesa means allaying of all troubles". The worship of the snake goddess Manaså is very popular in Bengal and her innages are common. She seems to have overshadowed Sarasvati and the Buddhist Jāiiguli who are also destroyers of the snake-poison, so far as that aspect of these two goddesses is concerned." The IM. No. 8950 shows a goddess under a hood of seven serpents with the book and pitcher in her left hands and with the rosary and boon in the right. The goddess Manasă seeins to be an importation from southern India and has not been included definitely in any pantheon, Vaisnava or saiva. Generały Manasă is represented with two hands, seated on a lotus under a seven-hooded snake canopy with a snake in her hand. A pitcher is seen underneath her seat on the pedestal. In a slotras she is conceived as the spiritual daughter of pp. 184 ff. 1. DMC. 2. VRSR, 1998-28, pp. ff; Transactious and Proceedingt of the seventh Oriental Conference, p. 74. 8. The section on Manadby, Dr. N. K, Bhattasali ix DMC, fe rery loformative on this point. I think his conclusions are worth accepting. 4. Ibid.

·* RELIGIOUS CONDITION 107 Siva and in a VRSM. specimen the Linga appears on the top of the halol" The Rangpur Sahitya Parisat collection has a four-handed Manaså with a child on her lap and another specimen of a miniature Manasd has been discovered at Paharpur. Another metal specimen of a Manasa image with a child on her lap has been recently added to the IM. from northern Bengal.3 Images of Indra, Agni and Yama have been found in the old Paharpur temples as guardians of quarters. The VRSM. has two images of Yama with the buffalo as his Vāhana and has also an image of Agni with the goat as his vehicle. As in the Paharpur speciment of Agni flames are shooting out from his person. An image of Kuvera has been found at Chatrabhog, Sunderbans." Separate images of Naga and Naginīs are rare in Bengal, although some specimens of their representations in the IM. come from Bihar. An image of Kama has been recently added to the IM. from northern Bengal. In the Varaha images in VRSM. from Silimpur the lower parts of the Nagas and Näginis are gracefully intertwined. In the Manasa image from Silghat we find Nägas and Näginis hanging on two sides of the goddess, thus making a suitable back-ground for the snake goddess, the daughter of the Någas. The above account does not exhaust the images of the Brahmanical gods and goddesses and many of them (specially in the VRSM.)10 remain unidentified. The current dictum that the Hindus 1. ASIR, 1921-22, p. 119. 2. VRS, Monograph, No, p. 80. For a Dhyana of four-haoded Manasa as Madonna, see DMC, p. 227, 8. ARIR, 1981 86, P. XXVb. 4. Ibid., 1928-27, PI. XXXIId. 6. VRSR, No. 4, fig. 11. 6. The IM has four of them. 7. ASIR, 1984-85, p. 79. 8. VRSR, 1930-81, fig. 3. 9. DMC., PI, LXXIII. 10. VR8C, pp. 81-88 ; JASB, 1986, PI, III, fig. 6; See the broken image illustrated in Birabbame Vivunga, Vol. I, against p. 140.

·108 THE EARLY HISTORY OP BRNGAL have thirty-three crores of gods and goddesses may not be actually true but it goes to indicate the richness of their pantheon. The majority of the sculptures discovered in Bengal belong to the period between the 10th and 12th centuries A.D. Only four Buddhist images can be somewhat confidently assigned to the Gupta and post-Gupta periods. Besides the Paharpur finds, we have noticed a comparatively large number of the Brahmanical images of this period. Very few images of Bengal can be definitely assigned to the 8th and 9th centuries. From the 10th century onward the Brahmanical images far excel in number those of the Buddhists, and of them the images of Vişnu and Sürya predominate. Saivas and Såktas worshipped large number of gods and goddesses, and if none of them singly did command so great and wide popularity like Vişņu and Sûrya, their combined strength indicates that they had a grcat following and were as important in influence as the Vaişņavas and Sauras. It was in this period that we meet gross Tantrik images, and both Buddhist and Brahmanical gods were represented with their respective Saktis in different poses. The Hindus did not go to excess like the later Buddhists by repesenting their gods and goddesses in Yab-Yum. Relation between different religions and sects-A study of the inscriptions and images reveals some interesting facts on this topic. 1. Buddha from Biharail, Maajubri and Bodhisattva from Mahasthan and Tara from Sukhavaspur (in DN.). For references see supra. 2. R. D. Banerjee, "observed in this period there is a great paucity of Brahmanical or Hindu images in app. Bihar as well as northern and western Bengal, but such is not the case in castern Bengal The collection in DM. is specially rich in Bralwanical images of the 9th and 10th centuries and at the same time, it must be admitted that as none of them la inscribed, their attribution is open to doubt." Hlayview was based on the date of the Khadgao who, according to him, flourished in the oth and 10th centuries. This can no longer be maintained and consequently the sarokpi and Sarya inugou from Dealbadi of the time of Prabuvau cannot be assigned to the oth century. we do not find any image in the DM. which can be assigned definitely to that period. But it is to be admit find that many Buddhist images of Bihar belonged to this period. (ESMS, pp. 188-94) ·RELIGIOUS CONDITION 109 'The Chittagong plate of Kantideva offers an instance of the fact that different members of a family followed different religions according to their personal predilections. Bhadradatta, grandfather of Käntideva, was a Buddhist. His father Dhanadatta was proficient in the Purápic literature and his mother was a otee of Siva, but he himself was a Buddhist. The Pålas were Buddhists and their seals show Dharmacakra (Buddhist wheel of law). It is stated in the Badal pillar inscription that the king särapåla I attended the religious ceremonies of his Brahmanical minister Kedaramiśra and accepted holy sacrificial water with great respect. Mention may be made of the grant of land by Nārāyanapåla for providing couches and seats, medicines for the sick to the congregation of Pasupata tcachers at Kalosapota within the vişaya of Kaksa in Tira-bhukti (Tirhut). He is said to have built hundreds of temples for the Saiva ascetics. That he had great devotion for Siva is also proved by the fact that the land donated by the Bhagalpur plate was done in the name of Siva (Siva-bhajjåraka), while all other Päla kings made their grants in the name of Lord Buddha. Madanapala granted land to a Brahmana in reward for his teaching the Mahabharata to his chief queen Citramatikädevi like the Hindu custom of paying daksiņā. It appears that the Buddhist king Śricandra, like the Pålas, took part in the Brahmanical ceremony. The Rampal plate of this king was granted in favour of a Santivărika (i.c., the pricst in charge of propitiatory cercmonies) and his Dhulla grant was issued on the occasion of the perforniance of a certain propitiatory rite, called Adhuta-santi, during the Homacaluştaya. The seal of the Irda plate of the Kamboja king Nayapåladeva shows Dharmacakra device like that of the Palas, but the record opens with an invocation to Siva. Rajyapala, the first known member of the family, was a Saugata (Buddhist). His son Narayanapala was a devotee of Vasudeva and his other son Nayapåla was a Saiva. From these instances of the different royal families it seems that the line of demarcation between a Buddhist and a Hindu was not very wide. Different members of a family could pay their homage to different gods according to their personal likings without affecting their normal relationship. There are instances of borrowing and incorporating some gods and goddesses from one pantheon to another. It is admitted that the Buddhists borrowed Sarasvati and Vighnanátaka from the Hindus.

·110 THE EARLY HISTORY OP BENGAL Cáracika and Mahäkäla are common to both. The representations of Yogasana Višņu and Dhyani Siva seem to have been modelled after Dhyani Buddha. Appearance of small figures of gods on the top of Brahmanịcal images' reminds us of the presence of parental Dhyani Buddhas. Buddha was regarded as an incarnation of Visqua perhaps at a time when Hinduism had begun to absorb Buddhism, because the importance and popularity of so great a figure auld not be neglected. It was positively advantageous to do so in order to gain the support and following of the faltering ones or of those who had no definite and clear-cut religious convictions. It is now admitted that the Hindus have borrowed Tårå from the Buddhists. In the Rudrayamåla and Brahmayamåla Vasistha has been asked to go to learn the secrets of Tårå worship from Buddha in Cinabhumi where he has been residing." Sometimes peculiar images are discovercd, and it is diffiult to ascertain whether they are Buddhist or Brahmanical. An image with a four-handed standing figure (looking like Vişnu) has been discovered in northern Bengal. Two main malc attendants stand on two sides, and two small figures stand close to them. On the top of the main figure is a small figure (looking like a parental Dhyani Buddha) and on thc pedestal there is a small six-handed dancing figure. The attributes in the four hands of the principal figure appear to be Gada, Padma, Sankha and Cakra but it is to be admitted that these attributes differ from the representation in an ordinary Vişņu image. Mr. N. G. Majumdar suggests that these images may represent the conception 1. See Viona from Laksmanakati, Ugratära from Sikarpur and Gaarl at Mahesvarapaga, Khalna (ESMS," Pl. LVIIc). 2. RD. Banerjee refers toʻn slab of ten Avatāras at Bodh Gaya where the figure of Buddha is defaced. According to him, this was intentional and was due to sectarian jealousy. But this may be accidthtal too (ESMS, p. 108) 3. For full discussion, bec Sadhanawala, Intro. Pp. CXXXVII ff; Memoirs, ASI, No. II; DMC. p. 4. VRSR, 1928-28, p. 98 : Modern Review, 1929, February Imme This image is frou Kalandarpar, Abgram 5. Ibid., 30.

·RELIGIOUS CONDITION of Hindu Trinity, the seated figure at the top being Brahma and the dancing figure representing Nagaraja Siva. Again, it has been contended that the god without his Váhana Garuda and without Laksmi and Sarasvati and with the figure of Amitabha on the top should be regarded as a form of Manjusri. Two almost similar images have been found in northern Bengal" with the only difference that the god stands under a seven-hooded snake canopy, which, it has been observ. ed, "probably shows that Višņu is conceived here as Ananta, or the Eternal, the hoods of snake Ananta being utilised to give an idca of eternity". Four images illustrated from different parts of Bengal by R. D. Banerjee are regarded as the blending of Avalokitesvara and Vişņu Three of them have a hooded canopy on the hcad of the god and on two of them we find a seated figure on the top. The upper parts of the other two are broken and most probably they had also the small seated figure on the top. It is difficult to say what particular deity these images represent, as we have no Dhyana to prove their identity. Two other images from Sagardighi, Murshidabad, look like Vişņu or Avalokitesvara and in them the attendants of Vişnu are absent. The attributes in hands are not also clcar. One represents a standing figure and the other a scaled one and both of them have four hands. Whatever god or gods all these images may represent, the predominant Vaisnava element is evident. In Java there was a Siva-Buddha cult in which Buddha was completely identified with Siva." No definite evidence of the existence of such a cult is known. But it may be noted that at present images of Buddha and Täră are worshipped as Siva and Durgå by ignorant village-folk. It is now accepted by many that in many of the later Tantras there has been an admixture of Hindu and Buddhistic doc- 1. VRA, Monograph, No. 4, 11 ff. 2. VRSR, 1932-84, fig 4 ; JASB, 1982, PI. IX, fig. 1. 3. ESMS, Pl. XXVIII. pp. 184. 124. Three of them are twelve-handed and the specimen in metal bao six hands, See also Ibid, pp. 96-98. 4. BI. Ple, XXVI, XXVII. 8. IC, I, p. 284. 6. ERM8, p. 46; Bisbham-Vivarana, p. 488, ·112 THE RARLY HISTORY OF BENGAL trines, and it may be noted that the Hindu Tantras are in dialogue forms between Siva and Parvati. The Saivite Matsyendranatha and Goraksanátha were respected by the Buddhist Sahajayanists. This shows one side of the picture only. There were enthusiasts in every religion to champion and fight for their own. The Chinese, tarvellers record many incidents' which go to show that there were debates by important personages of different religions, each trying to uphold their own doctrines and tenets and decrying those of the opposite school. Defeat sometimes meant humiliation and conversion to the victor's side. The Bhuvanesvara prasasti alludes to the fact that the scholar-minister Bhatça Bhavadeva was a great enemy of the Buddhists. Saroha-vajra, a follower of Sahaja-yåna, attacks other systems vehemently and glorifics the efficacy of his own. He shows the inherent inconsistency of the caste system, challenges the authority of the Vedas and criticises the conduct of the ascetics who covered their bodics with ashes. He argues if the nudity of the Jainas is capable of leading to the desired goal, the jackals and dogs would easily attain siddhi. In his opinion the great Sramaņas with a large number of disciples earn their livelihood by deceiving the people and the Mahayanists attempt to explain thc Sutras without grasping their meaning Finally he cxalts Sahajayana, the best of all paths and the only surcst guarantee to salvation. There is one aspect in the representation of the Buddhist dieties which has not attracted sufficient attention that it deserves. The desire to prove the superiority of their own gods by humbling those of the Hindus is evident in some of the Sadhanas. Hariharihari. 1. See the accounts of the lives of Yuan Chwang, Silabhadre, and Karpaduvarpun specially. The History of Indian Logic shows how the Hindas, Buddhists and Jainas tried to dieprove the arguments and reasonings of one another. . 18, Bhuvanesvara prakti, Va. 80. & Iotro. Baudha-Cha-0 Doha, pp. Bud. 4. Our thanks are agalm me tp Dr. B. «Bhattacharyya who for the Brut time emphasised this positiu dhe Icon. p. 109, latro. Siddaramala, pp. IX.

·RKLIGIQUS CONDITION 113 vihanodbhava (a variety of benign, Avalokitesvara) is 'to be represented as riding on Nårāyaņa Nårāyana on Garuda. Brahma, Vimu, Śiva and Indra are called the Maras? (wicked beings and hence enemies). Siddhidätä. Gaņeśa is often the target of attack and is trampled upon by many gods and goddesses like Aparăjită, Parņašavari and Mahapratisarā. Siva is trampled by Dasabhujå Mårici, and Siva and Gauri by Traifokyavijay Indra who holds the parasol of Aparăjită is trampled as by Astabiluja Marici,·Paramasva and Prasanna Tära and pays homage to Ubhayahedhnapå Märīci. Indråņi is also mishandled by Paramašva. The severed head of Brahmå is carried by Prasanna Tära and Ubhayavarahånana Mårici. Such humiliating position of the Hindu deitics served well the purpose of showing the powerfulness of the Buddhist gods and goddesses to the people at large. The Sunya-purana, admittedly of, Buddhist origin but of uncertain date,a gives vent to its wrath against the Hindus when Gaņoša is identificd with Kazi, Brahmå with Mu. hammad, Vişņu with Payagambar, Siva with Adain, Nárada with a Sheik and Indra with a Maulana. The question has been raised : Does the presence of thc Hindu deities Šiva, Vişnu, Parvati, Gaņeśa and Manaśă in Nålanda (we may add Bodh-Gaya and the Somapuri-Vihāra at Paharpur) testify to the catholicism and cclccticism of the Buddhists and the assertion of Hinduism over Buddhism ? Mr. Sankalia? suggests that the desire of the Buddhist to manifest the deity in various modes and forms as found in Vaisnavism and Saivism and then to show the superiority of their own gods hy humbling, thein was nor perhaps absent. If the Hindu gods could have been regarded as manifestations of Bud. dhistic deities, it is to be admitted that the line of demarcation was also becoming thinner. With the destruction by the Muslims of the monasteries the chief centres of Buddhistic influence and activities 1. See the Badhanes of Prasagna-Tarı, Vajrajjvalkalarke, Vidyujjvalikarali. 2. It seems to have been composed after the advent of the Muslims, as the subject matter and developed Bengali fprpot of time book show. Edited by C. Bandyopadhyaya, pp. 229 8. 8. University of Nalandit. p. 139. 16 ·114 TH# KARLY HISTORY OP BENGAL were almost extinct, and it is an admitted fact that the Buddhists did not claim so much loyalty and discipline from their lay followers as the Brahmanical religion did. Those who could put a fight with the Hindus became scattered. Their strength was broken and resisting power gone. As the Hindu gets had already begun to satisfy them, there was no great difficulty in merging them in the Hindu society, as the history and fate of Buddhism in India show. Therefore the presence of Hindu gods in the Buddhist strongholds may be taken as the sign of the growing popularity, if not of assertion and encroachment, of Hinduism upon Buddhism. The relation between different sects of Hinduism is not much Wow Most probably the combined images of Brahma-Vişnut and Harihara indicate the attempt to show the harmony and amity between the three principal gods constituting the Hindu Trinity. *To a Hindu gods are after all gods and inspite of sectarian differences all gads are to be worshipped and respected, to whatever class they may belong. In the Pala and Sena periods we have already noted the preponderante of Vişņu images which tends to show the popularity of his cult also. In the Tippera* grant ot Lokanātha ((7th century) Nariyana is adored by the chief gods, the Asuras, the Sun, the Moon, Kuvera. Kinnaris, Vidyadharas, chief serpent gods, Gandharvas, Varuna, the Yakşas and also by thc Brahmanas. The presence of the images of Vişnu at Unakoți and Deopar., two important centres of Saivism, certainly testifies to its popularity, if not something more. Siva is regarded now as a devotee of Vişnu, so much so that in Bhuvanesvara Siva in the Lingarajz temple is not worshipped until the worship of Vişnu has been finished in the adjacent Ananta-Vasudeva temple and Siva has no separate culinary department and he gets prasåda from Vişnu. Laksapapusena was a Vaisnava and his ins- 1. , AIR, 1881-88, pp 79 80. 2. Ibid, 1999-30. Pl. XXVIC. 8. It is rather surprising that R, D. Banerjee finds in them difference of opinions between different sect ESMS, p. 105, 4. We enquired of a Panda in charge of a temple how long slpce this has been the castem. He told me from the beginning of the creation when these two temples were be .by Visvakarma. The Linga-raja and Aannte-Vlaachwa tampiu are not to removed in duten."

·RELIGIOUS CONDITION 115 criptions open with an invocation-lo Narayana. But the seat attached to them bears the figure of Sadasiva. Vaişnava influence was felt on the Tantras also, which are sometimes referred to as Agamas and Nigamas. "An Agama is so called because it proceeds from the mouth of Sambhu (Siva) and goes to Girija (Pärvati), being approved by Vişnu, and a Nigama is so called because it is emanated from the mouth of Girija to enter the ear of Girija (Siva), being approved by Vasudeva."1 In the Rg Vedic literature Surya occupies a more prominent pasition than Vişnu. In the Satapatha Brühmana Vişnu is one of the twelve Adityas. But afterwards Vişņu superseded Surya in importance. The large number of Surya images discovered in Bengal is indicative of the popularity of the Saura cult but his worship has now-a-days almost fallen into disusc.2 Iconographically the represcri* tation of a standing four-handed Surya on a lotus scat with two wives on two sides and with the chariotcer Aruņa closely resembles that of an ordinary Visuu in the company of Lakşmi and Sarasvati with his vähạna Garuda. Danda and Pingala may be compared with Jaya and Vijaya. Visvarüpasena and Kcsavasena styled themselves parama saura i.e. devout worshippers of the Sun. But their records open with an invocation to Nardyaņa. Vijayasena and Vallalasena were Saivas, Lakşmanasena a:Vaişnava, and Viśvarüpasena and Keśavasena Sauras. But the scals of their inscriptions invariably bear the figure of Sadasiva. This is perhaps an indication of the fact that sectarianism was not carried too far, and that gods of other sects who did not command special reverence from one particular individual were not disrespected, if not actually worshipped. o 1. Intro. the Principles of Tantras, XXI, fo. SPP, 1840 B. S. p. 1. 8. B. Bhattacharyya, Iodiap Images, P. 18 for further fucidation of this point, ·CHAPTER XII ART AND ARCHITECTURE Very few images of Paharpur finds of the Gupta and post-Gupta periods have been illustrated. The illustrated images show soft, fine and lively modelling and easy flow of lines that are characterics of Gupta art. It has been said that Paharpur images "combine in them the broad intellectualism of the Gupta cpoch with the emotionalism of Bengal", but it must be observed that they appear to be of inferior workmanship in suggestiveness and refined dignity to the famous panels of the Daśávatára temple at Dcogadh, Jhansi. The standing Buddha image from Biharoil, Rajshahi, in Cunar sandstone has the common characteristics of a Sarnath Buddha with its diaphanous robe, curly hair, and had not the find-spot been known, it could have easily passed for a Sarnath image. The copper image of Vişņu from Kumar. pur, Rajshahi, is a crudc product and has no artistic pretension. Mahigamardini from Gangarampur, Malda, has an inscription in the seventh century script and is in gray sandstobic. It has the majesty and grandeur of the Saiva panels of Elephanta. Súryat in black stone from Deora, Mañjuáriº in bronse from Mahasthan, Vişņu at Rangpuro and at Lakşmankathi are assignable to the late Gupta period and exhibit quiet, restrained dignity and calm conviction in which, to use Coomaraswamy's words, the inner and outer life are indivisible." Vişnu8 from Deora (the same find-spot as that of the Sürya image) is perhaps not earlier than the Baghaura Vişņu image of the grd year . 1. ESMS, PI. XIXa. 2. Ibid., PI. LXVIIIA. 8. VRSR, 1981-82. Pl. I, 4. Ibid, 1296-27, fig. 1. 8. Ibid., fig. 2. 6. VRSR, monograph, No 4 ; Rangpur Sahitya Parimad Collection. 1. DMC. Pl. XXXII. 8 ESMS, PI. XLIV, ·ART AND ARCHITECTURE 112 of Mahipala 11 but is the product of Gupta artistic tradition and legacy. Amongst numerous Vişņu images of the Pala, period it stands apart in elegance and meditative calm. The position of Garuda suggests that a celestial being has condescended to climb down for a purpose and his stay will not be very long, as the bird is trying to rise up with his Lord. "It is now an admitted fact that a new school of art flourished in Bengal and Bihar simultaneously with the establishment of the Påla power. Tårănătha records, "In the time of kings Devapåla and and Dharmapala there lived in Varendra an especially gifted artist, named Dhimăn; his son was Bitapala; both produced many works in cast metal, as well as sculpturcs and paintings which resembled the works of the Nägas. The father and the son gave rise to two distinct schools; as the son lived in Bengal, the cast images of gods produced by their followers were called gods of the Eastern style, whatever might have been the birth-place of their actual designers. In painting the followers of the father were called the Eastern school, those of the son, as they were most numerous in Magadha, were called followers of the Madhyadeśa school of painting." We arc not concerned with the Madhyadeśa school of painting, the existence of which yet remains to be established. Numerous stope images, bronzes and a few miniatures from Bihar and Bengal go to show the existence of the eastern school of Tårănătha. As its rise synchroniscs with that of the Påla power and its main activity was within the Påla kingilom, it should be properly designated as the Pala school. In the Sena period too this school continued its activity and does not show any separate and distinctive artistic development Products of this school have been found in Gorakhpur, Gonda and Basti districts of the United Pro- 1. DMC, Pl. XXXa. 3. IA, IV, p. 103. 3. Coomanusway alad galls it Pala school, see History of Indian and Indonesian Art, p. 1184 R: Þ. Chanda calls it Pala or Gandian school, Medieval Sculptures in the British Museum, p. 48; R. D. Banerjee call. It "Restern school of Medieval Sculptures", ·THE BARLY ENTORP PO Box vinces. Art of Konarak and Khiching, Mayurbhanj, both in Oritsa, was influenced by this school, but Assam seems to have stood outside its influence. The art of Nepal and Tibet is regarded as direct continuation of the Pala school. Its deep influence on some images at Pagans and on Java bronzest has been established beyond doubt. All these go to strengthen the opinion of M. R. Grousset that this school had an influence not infcrior to that of the art of Gandhåra and the Gupta Empire. Every image of the Påla period is an interesting study by itself and full justice cannot be done to the subject in a work like this. A great majority of the images are in relief, but the tendency to carve in the round is noticeable when the main figure is separated from the back slab. Pála art is to be understood in terms of its inheritance and in relation to its environments. Its clear delineation and definition of the features and decorated nimbus can be traced to Gupta art and so also the diaphanous robe of many bronzes. 'l hc curly hair, presence of ürnd and drapery of Buddha images are reminiscent of the Gandharan school as modified by the subsequent schools of Mathura and Sarnath. As in literature, language and religion, so also in art claboration and ornamentation of old ideas, conceptions and techniques were due to the spirit of the age. In the absence of any inscription it is the richness of ornaments of the deities and the exubcrance of decorations on the back slab that help us to determine the comparative date of an image, though it must be admitted that to fix it by the so-called style is always hazardous. The round top and the plainness of the back slab are generally the characteristia of an early Päla image. But gradually the slab becomes pointed at the top and decorative devices and designs increase lavishly and profusely, which are finally conventiona. lized. In an ordinary Vişnu or Surya image we find leographs, scrolls, flying gandharvas, kinnaras and kinnaris, swans, cloud-motives 1. ASIR, 1908-7, pp. 1991 107. 2. ASIR, 1998-24, pl. XIV; 1924-85. Pl. XXV S. Ibid., 1922-23, dl. XXMI; N. Roy: Brahmanloul goda in Burma, Pp. 80-01, 4. Kempers, the Bronnes Nalanda and Hinda "Japanese Art, pp. 70.

·AM AND ARCHITECTURE 119 and featttr-arabesques. Sometimes the Våhanas and attendant figures are represented as part of decorations (Hamsa in the Sarasvati of the DM, the bull.in the IM. Sival and the plumage of the petcock of the pleasing and graceful image of Kårtikeyain the IM). In the remarkable image of Rşabhanåtha from Surhor the representation of each of the other ag thrthankaras in a separate temple appears to be a decorative device rather than due to iconographic prescription. The snake in the hands of Nataraja Siva or in one hand of seated Manaså serves both the purposes quite well. The ugly Kirtimukha on the top was perhaps to express more effectively the beauty of the deity beneath it by producing a striking contrast. The asthetic excéllence of Pala art lies in the combination of its wealth and exaberance of decorative designs with the translation of the inner state of mind of the deity. Whep worked out by a master hand symmetrically and proportionately, the decorative designs lend an added 'grandeur and beauty to the whole piece. Påla art is emphatically convincing and definite in its purpose. It is a plastic commentary on the Silpašāstras. What the Sädhaka conceived in his inspired moment in Dhyanas the artist gave expression to by his chisel, but to do it in numerous shapes and forms with the growth of variegated religious and spiritual experiences is the supreme achievement of the Pala artists. It is doubtful whether so many mudrūs, asanas, poses and postures and attributes can be found in any other Indian school. Every one of them is full of deep meaning and special' significance; and when rightly interpretech they make Påla art most expressive and suggestive. The Pála artists could well produce the conception of a Madonna, an ineffable smile, benignity, grace, loveliness, serenity, juvenileness, horror, terror and wrath and almost every sentiment, as the subject matter demanded, and of them sänta and sundara types predominate. The definition of masculinity and femini. alty was well understood. The image of Ardhanarisvara (half-man and half-woman) is round illustrates a clear conception of the phy. siognomy of the two sexcs. in spite of multiplicity of hands in many images the figures are generally organic, and when in fighting atti. 1. ASTR, 1980-8. PL CXXXIII. 2. Ibid.. pk. XXIV.

·THE EARLY BISTORY OF BENGAL tude, the whole energy is concentrated in two normal' hands. The artists had to perform a difficult task when in different faces of the gods or goddesses (Márici, Parnasarvari, etc.) they had to produce different sentiments. Those who have intimate knowledge of the Pala sculptures will perhaps admit that the sculptors acquitted themselves creditably. The attendant figures are represented in keeping with the mood of the main figure. A squatting and cmaciated figurine with its bones and veins vividly shown offers an appropriate setting for Camunch. The bull dances in ccstasy of joy with Naqaraja and so ato the mice with Cagesa. Liveliness and vivacity that permeate the produchons of this school are no less due to the minure carving, high polish and oily Anish which are possible because of«ube afon crystalline grains of the black basalt, the most commonly used material, and even stone sculptures approximate to metal specimens in, fine workmanship. The only specimen of rock-cut carvings found in Bengal are at Onakoţi, Hill 'Tippera. Mı. K. N. Dikshit, who examined them in situ, observes, "the style betrays a rudimentary and crude conception of the sculptor's art and illustrates in a remarkable way the canons of of primitive art. The anatomical features of the different parts of the body are treated only in broadest aspects without any attempt to to harmonisc theni." The large finds of bronzes at Nålandā,' Kurkihar, Bihar and at Jehwari, Chittagong, and the actual remains of bronze-casting disa covered at Nalandas and Paharpur show the high degree of excellence and wide currency of this art. The Indian name of the metal is astadhatu and from that point of view as well as from the chemical point of view the coining of the term Octo-alloy is happy and appro- 1. ASIR, 1980-88 pls. CXXXIV.CXI. 2. Amounting to 218, Proceedings and Tradiactions of the Seventh Oriental Conference, pp. 701 ,AJIR, 1960-84, pp. 120 Ibid. p. 14.

·w ego "*STITUTE ART AND ARCHITECTURE 121 priatel The bronze Maſījušri from Mahasthan and the Sarväpi image from Deulbadi were gold-plated, and a silver image of Vişnu of very fine workmanship has been discovered at Curain, Vikrampur, (now in the art-gallery of the IM.). Other important finds are Surya from Candimundu, Lokanāthat from Sylhet, Pindola from Sonarang,s a Buddhist goddess (Sitapătra Tärá ?) from Tippera, Vajra Tärás (?) from Faridpur and Bhagalpur," four Visnu images from Rangpurs and four Vişnu or Avalokiteśvara images from Sagardighi, Murshidabad, three miniature images from Comillalo and Manasa from Rajshahi in the IM.11 This last one was set with precious stones. The VRSC. describes about eleven and go also the VSPC. and the DMC. supply the whereabouts of about a doxen more. The bronzcs show finer workmanship than their stone prototypes and the figures appear more sensitive and sensuous. Temples there were many in ancient Bengal and we have already referred to some for whosc maintenance provisions were made by kings and other important personages. The finds of many images from certain localities of thc Dacca, Tippera, Rajshahi, Dinajpur, Bogra and Birbhum districts suggest that there had been temples in those sites. The discoveries of door lintels and jambs go somctiincs to confirm it. Plinths and walls of many temples have been exposed by the Archæological Department. The recent excavation at Vaigram, Dinajpur, has perhaps laid bare the remains of the temple built by Sivanandin, which has been mentioned in thc Vaigram plate of 128 G. E. All that can be surmised is that it had a garbhagyha, a 2. Ibid., pl. XXIX 1. DMC., Iotro, p. XX. 3. Idid pl. KIX 4. Ibid., pl. IV 5. Ibid., IA (V) 2/1 6. Ibid., IB (IV) a/1. 7. Ibid., ple. XV, XVI, XVII, 8. ASIR, 1911-12, pp. 104 ff. 9. ESMS pla. LXVIII, LXXIVa. ,10. Bupam, 1998, p. 26. 11. ASIR. 1804-35, ph, XXIVb. n. 16 CHICHI ·122 THE EARLY HISTORY OF BENGAL circumbulatory passage enclosed by a wall and on four sides there was an open terrace adjoining the wall.1 The most important and imposing structure hitherto unearthed is the temple of Paharpur, Rajshahi. It is described thus by its principal excavator, Mr. K. N. Dikshit,“The temple is one of the most extensive buildings of antiquity ever unearthed in India, its length from north lo suth being 356' 6'' and its breadth from east to west being 314' gh. The ground plan consists of a colossal square cross with projecting angles in cach corner, the number of such projections being four each in the north-cast and north-west sectors and three each in the remaining two. The upper terraces were apparently reached by a stair-case on the north, opposite which was the quadrangular enclosure. The temple rose in threc terraces above the basement in the first and second terraces. The plan of cach tcrrace was more or less parallel to thc ground plan, but the number of recessed angles between the arms of the cross naturally grew smaller at cach higher terrace. The first and second terraccs have cach a spacious verandah or circumbulatory passage for worshippers, walking round the main shrinc. At the second terrace level there arc halls or manda pas, with stone pillars and antcchambers bchind them at each of the cardinal points. The main shrine at the summit was probably a squarc chamber with a verandah all round. "The most striking feature of the monument is the scheme of decoration of the walls of the basement and those flanking the circumbulatory passages. The walls are of fine-jointed masonry of wellburnt brick in mud. The plainness of the surface is relicved at intervals by projecting cornices of ornamental brick, bands of terracotta panels and stone sculpturas at the corners and in recessed niches in a lower part of the bascment. The artistic level of the terracotta plaques and some sculptures leaves no doubt as to their age, which cannot be far removed from the best period of Gupta art and must be relegated approximately to the 5th and 6th centuries. 1. Ibid., p. 19, 2. ASIR, 1928-26, 1000-87. 1977.98, pp. 107-118. pp. 140-49 and pp. 101.11 respectively. Also ASIR, 1948-19, 1988-80 and 1930-8, pp. 98-00, pp. to, pp. 180-148 and pp. 118-128 mapectively.

·ART AND ARCRITACTORX 123 "It is quite probable, as it has been suggested from the find of the Paharpur place of 159 G.E.' recording grant of land to the Jaina Vihara of Vata-Gohåll, that the temple was originally associated with Jainism and its shape may be traced to a Caturmukha Jaina temple with probably an antechamber on cach side forming what may be called a Sarvatobhadra (equal on all sides) templc. It seems quite clear that both Buddhism and Brahmanism were amply represented in the scheme of reconstruction and decoration adopted in the fifth or sixth century, when the present outline of the nionument must have come into existence. The reconstruction of the pillared halls on the second terrace, the repairs to some of the verandah walls and the provisions of cloisters for monks on a large scale, inarked the establishment of the vihara. There must have been at least 200 cells in the entire establishment, occupying a quadrangle of about 900 square and providing accommodation for about a thousand monks. No single monastery of such dimensions has yet come to light in India." The temple uncarthed at Satyapir Bhita to the cast of the Main Temple of Paharpur has been identified with the one referred to in the Nålandå inscription of Vipulasrimitra. It had a sanctum, pillared hall, circumbulating passage and vestibulc, surrounded by rows of volive stūpas. There were residential blocks for the monks to the south of the central temple. Excavations of the mound at Bairagi Bhita, Mahasthan, have revealed the remains of temples of three distinctive periods, Gupta, early and late Pala. At Govinda Bhita the remains of a huge temple have been uncarthed and constructions of late Gupta and carly Påla periods are discernible. At Medh or Lakhindarer Medh, about a mile to the south of Mahasthangar, a group of small brick. built chambers, ranging themselves in parallel rows and rising in tiers or terraces, together with a huge and massive wall, have been unearthed. On the top of the mound a shrine, polygonal in plan, has 1. RI, XX, pp. 88 ff. 8. Ibid., 1980-34, pp. 112-28 2. ASIR, 1927-28. pp. 38-89. 4. fbid, 1928-29, pp. 90 8.

·124 THE XARLY HISTORY OF BENGAL been found. The structure has been assigned on grounds of the style of the ornamental bricks to the late Gupta period. Traces of an ancient city have been found at Rangamati in the Murshidabad district, and the remains of a structure of different periods of constructions have been unearthed, of which the lowest was probably a Buddhist monument of the 6th-7th century A.D. Other noteworthy remains are of a stúpa-mound of the Gupta period at Bharat Bhayana' in thc Khulna district and of a large temple measuring 195' by 150' with four gateways, a porch and mandapa at Bairat in the Rangpur district. The shrine was provided with a beautiful black basalt pedestal with a spout.* Most interesting are the temples at Dihar in the Bankura district, which have been assigned to the cleventh century A.D. They are built of conglomerate and are cruciform in shape. The šikharas are lost. "It scems that the lower parts were plastered and whitcwashed. Over the plinth mouldings therc is plain with the exception of the portion lying over the lintels of cach opening. Above this portion begin the numerous cornices supported by elephant dwarfs, acting as brackets in different attitudes or brackets containing different animals." The extant stone temples at Barakar, (known as Begunia temples), at Chatna and at Harmaslıra, (Bankura) bear close similarity to the Jaina temple of Chotanagpur but do not seem to fall within our period and so also is the small stone icmple at Gauri near Asansol. The extant examples of brick-built old temples are at Siddhesvari (Bahulara,) Bankura, Ichai Ghose's temple in Burdwan,? at Govindapur, Dculbari and Jatar Deul in 24-Parganase and at Sat-Deul, Burdwan. Their attribution to the Hindu period in the absence 1. Ibid., 1830,34, pp. 1049. 2. Ibid., 1198-29, pp. 98 ff. 8. Ibid., 1921-22. p. 26. 4. Ibid., 1995-96, p. 118 8. ESMS, p. 150 8. ASIR, 1999-28 pp. 150.111; ESMS, p. 150, 7. IMC. pl. XXXIIbc. 8. VRS, Monograph, No. 8, 8gr. 1, 8, 6, 8,6 9. ASIR, 1984-38, pl. XIX.

·ART AND ARCHITÁCTURE 125 of some positive data is questionable. Coomarswamy assigned the Bahulara temple to the noth century, but Mr. K. N. Dikshit? cautiously observes that "it is possible that the carlier (10th century) date is a century or two early, but there can be no doubt that these two examples (Bahulara and Jatar Deul) cannot be far removed in date from their stone prototype so well-known from the Bhuvanesvara style of architecture, the latest example of which is dated in the 12th century A.D." Their śikharas are slightly curvilinear, the garbhagrha square in size and the entrance has a triangular corbelled arch over it. They seem to have been surmounted by amalakas. We are somewhat on surer grounds as regards the age of the temples represented on the images of the Påla period. The most common is the Bhadra type of temples, the roofs of their receding terraces being surmounted by a dominating sikhara. The trifoil arch is supported by pillars. The crowning amalaka on the sikhara is very prominent in the image of Rşabhanátha from Surhor. It appears that this type was most popular in ancient Bengal. 'The miniature beautiful temple from Bangar (now in Maharaja's palace at Dinaj. pur) deserves more than a passing notice. It shows the use of Caityawindows on each facade which bcars a niche, containing a figure of Buddha or Bodhisattva. Stone pillars were extensively used in tcmples, the best cxamples of which are one from Sonarange in the DM. and four from Pabna.? The old practice of erecting monumental columns as in the Maurya and Gupta periods was continued. Best examples are one from Rajmahal (originally at Gauda), thc Kamboja king's pillar from Bangar, two inscribed pillars from Paikore, 10 Birbhum, Badal pillar of Gurava Misrall and the pillar in the Dhibar Digheer in 1, History of Indian and Indonesian Art, p. 108 2. ASIR, 1927-28, p. 41. 8, IMC/pl. LXXXI. 4. VRSR, 1282-84, p., III. 6. ESMS, pl. LXXXVIc. 8. DMC, LXXV.. 7. Ibid., pp. 157-58, XCIVD. 8. lbid., plo. LXXXIXa xcd. 9. Ibid., pl. LXXXIX.. 10. Ibid., pls. LXXXIXbc, 11, ASIR, 1927-98, p. 140. 18 Gaaganajamala, against p. 49.

·128 THX KARI,Y AISTORY OF BENGAL Dinajpur asseclared with the name of the Kaivarta king Divya. The carvings on the first two art of exquisthe workmanship and they perhaps belong to the tenth ceritufy A.D. The carvings on the two Palkore pillars are not of much artistic excellence. The fifiial on Vijayasena's piller is a broken image of Manasa. The Salva pillan had hulls, while the Valspava Ones had Qaruda. The Kaivarta king's plllar is almost equal in heighi in the highest Asokan column and has not been examined with the care that it deserves: A large number of terracottas have been found at Pahat put, Mahasthan, Rangamati and Sabhar (Dacca). They were generally used to embellish the exterior of the temples of the Gupta and post-Gupta perlods in Bengal. Of the pre-Gupta finds mention may be made of a few at Tâmrallpul, one frtim Murshidabad in the VSPM.) and a few from Mahasthan. Very fcw terracotta plaques of the Pala period ate known, while the Paharpur finds of the prc-Pála period alone amount to about 8.000, of which about 1,800 arc in situ. It has been remarked that if all of them are arranged in a line, they would cover a distance of about a mile. The subject-matiers dealt with in the plaques are most varied and of absorbing interest. Of gods we have representations of Brahmå. Vişnu, Siva, Gancía, Buddha and Avalokitesvara: Vidyadharas, lion-faced, bird-winged men and men with short tails belong to the class of semi-human beings; various classes of men like soldiers, musicians, ascetics, amorous couples and others have been represented. The animal world is also well represented by clephants, deer, buffalves, foxes, horses, tigers, dogs, cows, to mention a few only, and of the birds the common are parrots, peacocks, cocks and goesc. More interesting are the representations of the stories from the Pancatantra like t'anara-kilaka-katha and Sinha- Sasakn-kathi and scenes depicting inborn animosity between mongoose 1. ASIR, 1921-22, pp. 74-75. %. SPP, 1849 B. S. pp. 809 8. 8. ASIR, 1880-84, p. 184. 4. All of them have not been described ; a detailed monograph on Paharpur with the full description of the terracottas is a pressing gecessity and will add much ta pur knowledge of the life of ancient Bengal.

·ART AND ARCHITECTURE 127 and snake, the peacock devouring the snake, and of daily life and work. It has been rightly observed that "the delincation of homely subjects, everyday scenes of rural and out-of-door life must have made the artist in terracotta keen of observation and fully responsive to his environ. ment. As a folk art of the soil to which it belongs the terracotta plaques of Bengal hold a very distinct and important position." of other important specimens of potters' art found at Paharpur, mention may be made of several thousands of miniature votive slūpas, made of clay, and three remarkable picces of glazed polychrome pottery with chocolate coloured and whitc floral ornament or white and green foliated leaves on a brown background. Al Medh ornamental bricks bcaring floral patterns and a motif simulating the window have been found.” Painting-Eight Mss. of the Pala period, illustrated with miniatures, are known. They are-(1) Ms. of the Asfasahasrika-Prajňa. páramită, dated in the 15th year of Gopāla Il and copied in the l'ikramasilat-deva-vihira, (2) Ms. Idd. 1464 of the same lxxok in the Cambridge Library, dated in the 5th year of Mahipala 1,' (8) Ms. of the same book copicd in the 6th year of Mahipala in Nálanda, (4) Ms. of the samc book in the Ghose Collection, Calcutta, probably of the roth century, (5) Ms. Addl. 1688 of the Panca-raksă copied in the 14th year of Nayapăla (in the University Library of Cambridge),? (6) Ms. of the Aşgasihasrikū-Prajñüpüramilā copicd in the 89th ycar of Råmapälar in the collection of Vandenburg, (7) Ms. of the same book, copied probably in 1186 A.D." in the Boston Muscum PP. 108.01. 1. ASIR, 1980-34, p. 126, PI. Lillcd. 2. Ibid., pl. XVIII. 3. JRAS, 1910, pp. 150-41. 4. Beudall, CƏMC, 3. Des. Cal. of Sans. mss. in Asiatic Society of Bengal, pp. 1-2. 6. Rupam, 1929, p. 78 7. Bendall, Op. cit., b. 100, 8. Rupam, No. 1, p. 9. 9. Intro. to Indian Art, p. 110; History of Indian and Indonesian Art, p 141.

·128 THE XARLY HISTORY OP BENGAL and (8) damaged last leaf of a Ms. of the same book copied in the 18th year of Govindapála.Miniatures in a few Ms. copied in Nepal also show the same style of painting. The miniatures are "not organically and decoratively associated with the script but they occupy spaces left by the scribe to be filled by the painter." "The technique is calligraphic. The draughtsmanship is unusually strong and having regard to the material-fragile and soft plam leaf-on which the drawing is made, the beauty of line and colour evokes our admiration." The miniatures illustrate the divinities of Tantrika Buddhism. Figures are extremely sensuous and even the male figures have femi. nine grace." 1. H.P. Shastri, Des. Cat. p. 6 2. Rupam, 1929, 78A. 8. Ibid. 4. For some good illustration, see DMC, Pls, I, II, ·APPENDIX G COINAGE The earliest known coins of Bengal arc gandaka and kåkaạika mentioned in the old Brahmi inscription of Mahasthan. Many punch-marked coins have been discovered from different localities. The Tamluk High School preserves 350 coins of which the rectangular cast type predominates. The obverse of the rectangular cast coins shows Taurine, tree-in-railing and caitya with three windows, and the reverse shows square cross, elepahant, svastikä and triangularheaded symbol. The obverse of the round cast oncs shows thrce arches with crescent, and the reverse, clephant. Six rectangular copper coins have been found at Beracampa, 24-Parganas. The DM. cabinet has recently acquired a large number of them from Bhairavbazar, Mymensingh, but they have not yet been classificd. One silver punchmarked coin was discovered at Jakra, 24-Parganas, and another at Tamluk. Thirty-five silver coins have been found near Manda, Rajshahi and of them five are in the IM. cabinet. It seems that gold coin was current in the beginning of the Christian era. Alluding to the foreign trade of Bengal, the author of 1. There are differences of opinion regarding the weight of Kakani. Prof. Bhandarkar is of opinion that half-Kakayl was equal to 1. 14 grains at the most ( Carmaichael Lectures, 1921, p. 112 ), while Dr. S.N. Chakravarti hold, that it was heavier than that ( A Study of Ancient Indian Numismađ 119). 1. ASIR, 1921-22, pp. 71-74. 8. Ibid, 1922-23, p. 109. 4. JASB, 1879, p. 245. 6. Ibid, 1882, p. 112 6, ASIR, 1980-84, pp. 266-68.

·130 THE EARLY HISTORY OF BENGAL the Periplus says that there is a gold coin which is called Caltis.1 About six gold coins of the Kushana kings, Kaniska, Vasudeva I and Vasudeva II have been discovered from Midnapore, Murshidabad and Bogra. A large number of Gupta gold coins have been found in almost every part of Bengal, and besides important recorded finds and collections, there are many private collections too. In 1789 a large hoard of about 200 gold coins were discovered at Kalighat and they were transmitted to the Directors of the East India Company. Unfortunately many of them were melted down. Only a few coins of Candragupta II, Narasiri hagupta, Kumāragupta II (?) and Vişņugupta are in the possession of the British Muscum, Hunterian and Boxlclian Collections. In the same year 18 gold coins werc found ncar Hooghly," and they consisted of i Standard type of Samudragupta, 5 Archer type of Candragupta II, 3 Archer, 3 Horeseman, i Lion-slayer types of Kumāragupta I. The other notable finds are froni Muhannadpur, Jessore," and Mahanad, Hooghly. At the last mentioned place onc unique coin of Kumåragupla I of the Elephantrider type has been found. R. D. Banerjee notices a number of coins of Candragupta II," Kumäragupla 18 and Skandagupta" from Burd. wan, Midnapore, Hooghly and Faridpur. In all probability Gupta gold coins are dinaras, so often mentioned in the land-sale documents of the period, the word being derived from the Greek Denarius. Silver and copper coins were also used in the Gupla period. R. D. 1. Benfy thought that it was derived from Sanskrit Kalita, meaning numbered'. Vincent Swith mentions one class of Bengal coins, called Kallais. Schoff is inclined to indeutify it with Kallais of southern India. ( Schoff, Periplus, p. 259 ), Rai Bahadur K. L. Barua observes that the Kalita merchants of Assam used the gold coins called Kaltis ( Early History of Kawardpa, p. 189.) 2. BI, pp. 88 89 : JASB, 1983, pp. 187ff. 3. Allan, Catalogue of Indian Coins, Gapta Dynastice, Intro. p. cxxvi. 4. Ibid. p. cxxviii. 5. Ibid., p.csvii. 6. BI, pp. 67 ; ASIR, 1984-85, p. 48. 7. BI, pp. 69ff &. Ibid. pp. 688, 9. Ibid., pp. 718.

·COINAGE 131 Banerjeel refers to two copper coins from Katwa, Burdwan, with the legend samudra. It is reported that silver coins of Candragupta II, Kumäragupta I and Skandagupla were found at Muhammadpur, Jessore. Rüpakas have been mentioned in thc Vaigram plate of 198 G. E., from which it is known that threc kulyavā pas and two dronas of land were purchased by paying 6 dinaras and cight rūpakas at the rate of two dināras per one kulyavāpa.. It is certain from the Paharpur plate that eight dronas were equal to one kulyavápa. From this it has been concluded by Dr. R. G. Basaks that 16 rūpakas were equivalent to i dinära. But it is to be noted that in the Vaigram plate three kulyavā pas of khila (uncultivated) land were bought by paying 6 dinaras, and two droņavāpas of vastu (homestead) land were bought for 8 rūpakas.. Prices of khila and västu lands might have varied and in that case the above ratio between dinara and rüpaka does not secm to be correct. Gold coins were current in Bengal after the fall of the Imperial Guptas; the coins of Saśänka and Jaya (någa?) have been found not in inconsiderable number. Two coins of Samaca (radevar) should also be taken into consideration. The unattributed 'Imitation Gupta' coins from Muhammadpur, (Jessore), Kotalipara in Faridpur, Sabhar in Dacca and from Rangpur are crude in exccution and have no pretension to artistic excellence. The legend on the reverse of four of them reads Sudhanyaditya, and the figure is that of a six-handed goddess. It is strange that while coins of the Gupta and post-Gupta periods have been found in large numbers coins of Pala and Sena periods are very rare. But it would be a mistake to conclude that there was no metalled currency in that period. The Bodh-Gaya stone inscription or Keśava prasasti records that Keśava excavated a tank at a cost of 8,000 drammas. Dramma is derived from the Greek word Drachma, and Prof. Bhandarkars has shown that its weight approxi- '1. The Age of the Imperial Guptas. p. 214. 8. Allan, op. cit., p. cxxvii, 3. EI, XXI, p. 788f. 4. Allan, Op. Cip., p. 164 ; JASB, N. 8., pp. 68-64, 3. Carmaichael Lectures, 1922, pp. 208-11.

·132 THR RARLY HISTORY OF BENGAL mates to 65 grains of silver. Five copper coins have been found at Paharpur and they have becn assigned to the early Pala period and a silver coin (dramma) found there has been attributed to Vigrahapala 1. Three silver coins of the Sassanian type with the legend Sri Vi or Vigraha from Bihar have been attributed to Vigrahapala III by V. A. Smith. Twenty-five silver coins from eastern Magadha with the same legend and of the same type have been mentioned in the Supplementary Catalogue of the IM. It is very curious that of all the Påla kings the coins of the Vigrahapalas have come to light. In the grants of Laksmanasena,- Visvarüpasena and Keśavasena the income yielded by the donated land has been mentioned in terms of purånas and kapardaka-purānas, but we do not know any specimen of them. Prof. Bhandarkar” suggests that "kapardaka-purana is a puråņa which is shaped like kapardaka or kauri.” This is perhaps strengthened by the statement of Minhaj when he values the gifts and charitics of Lakşmanasena in terms of kauris. 1. ASIR. 1927-28, pp. 101ff. 2. Catalogue of the Coins in the Collection of the IM. 1, pp. 283, 289. & Pp. 66-67. 4. See Ch. on Administration $. Op. cit., pp. 189-40, ·APPENDIX H. THE GAUDAS AND GAUDA The division of the Brahmanas from broad geographical point of view into Panca-Gauda and Panca-Dravida is well-known. The five Gaudas are the (1) Sarasvatas, (2) Kanyakubjas, (3) Gaudas (4) Utkalas and (5) Maithilas. It is evident that they derive their names from the countries in which they setuled and about the location of four (excepting the Gauslas) there is no doubt whatsoever. There were more than one Gauda. Firstly, Gauçadeśa meant north-western Bengal in ancient and mediæval times. It was by far the most famous of all the countries of that name. Secondly, it is known from the Ramayana and the Väyupuriņal that there was a Gauda in Utarakośala. It has been contended by Dr. R. G. Basak' from the passage, "nirmitā yena Srävasti Gaudadese dvijottama” (or Mahapuri)" in the Matsya, Kurma and Linga Puriņas that this Sravasti is to be located in Bengal. If we accept that there was a Gauda in Uttarakośala, which has been identified with the Gonda district and the neighbouring tracts, this Mahapuri Srivasti may be identified with the famous city of Sråvasti of the Buddhist literature or present Sahct. Mahet. In the Sahyadri section of the Skandapuräna, in which the division of the Brahmanas into Panca-Gaudas and Paſca-Dravidas has been mentioned, Gaudas figure after Sarasvatas and Kanyakubjas and before Utkalas and Maithilas. It seems that they have been described in the geographical order from the west to the east, and if by the Gaudas the Brahmanas of Bengal were meant, Gaudas would have figured after the Maithilas. It is to be noticed that in the Brhat- Sanhita* of Varahamihira the territory of Gauçla is placed along with Matsya, Påncala, etc. in the middle section of India. Thirdly, 1. BI, XIII, p. 200 : the pamages discussod by Dr. h. G. Basak in connection with the location of Srivasti of the Bilimpor stone inscription. Ibid. 8. XIV, 8.

·134 THE KARLY HISTORY OP BENGAL there was a Gauda between Khandesa and Orissa, and Cunningham identified it with the districts of Betul, Chindwara, Seoni and Mandal. The five Dråvidas are the (1) Maharastras, (2) Tailangas, (3) Drávidas or of the country of the Tamil language, (4) Karnatakas and (5) Gurjaras. It is difficult to say when the Brahmanas came to be known by these names. Yuan Chwang speaks of Harsavardhana as the king of five Indies. It cannot be precisely stated what the pilgrim meant by this expression, but from the extent of Harya's empire it does not secm improbable that it extended over five Gaudas. It is stated in the Rajatarangini that the Kaśmira king Jayapida made his father-in-law Jayanta, king of Puncravardhana, the emperor of Panca-Gaudas. The romantic element in the story of Jayapica's visit to Pundravardhana has led many scholars to doubt the veracity of the whole episode, and no king of Pundravardhana, ruling in the 8th century over such a vast kingdom, is known. In one southern Indian inscription the epithet Parca-Dravideśvara has been applied to Rajendra Cola.? The Gauda Brāhmaṇas are scattered over different parts of India. Writing in 1887, Wilson notices 17 classes of them.* A careful search will reveal still great many other varieties. Ainong the Kāyasthas there is a section called Gauda-Kayastha living ncar modern Delhi. Again, among the Rajpucas there is one section called Gauda-Rajaputas. There is a separate caste called Gaudatagås who claim their ori. gin from Gauda Brāhmaṇas. The distribution of Gauda Brahmaņas over almost all parts of India and the existence of Gauda-Rajaputas, Gauda-Kāyasthas and Gouda-lagås cannot be very casily explained. 1. Cuaniagliam, ASIR IX. p. 130 ; sec also VII, 1, in the Chapter on Panca-Ganda. Dr Roy Chowdhury is of opinion that Gauda in the Matsya, Kurma, Linga Mss. may be inverted as a Sanskriided form of Gonda. He cited the example of the Central Provinces where the name Gond is very often Sanskritised into Ganda ( PHẢI. p. 489 ) But Cunningham concladed just the opposite of it. 2. SII, I, p. 118. 3. Wilpon, Indian Castes, Vol. 11. p. 64-66. 4. See Visvakona on Oandu-Rajapatas, Gaura-Riyuthas and Gauda- ·THE GAUDAS AND GAUDA 188 By way of analogy an explanation can be suggested. The issues raised by Prof. D. R. Bhandarkar in his illuminating paper on the Nagara Brahmaņas and Kayasthas of Bengal' are various and many, but his conclusion that there was a tribe called Någara in ancient India which in course of time spread over different parts of the country is perhaps to be accepted. The same also seems to be the case with the Gaudas. The Gauda tribe seems to have migrated to different parts and entered into the Rajput and Kayastha societies. It may be noted that the Agarwala Vaņikas utilise the services of the Gaucla section of the Brahmanas and it may be that this mercantile community might have some remote connection with the Gaudas. It is not known where was the carliest home of the Gaudas. The Sarasvatas called themselves Adi Gaudas, and it may be that their first settlement was in the region watered by the river Sarasvati. Again, Gauda in Uttarakošala might have been also the original land, because it seems that it has prescrved the name of the tribe. There are epigraphic evidences to show that even in the historical period the Brahmanas from Ullara-kośala migrated to different provinces. Therefore the claim of Gauda in Uttarakośala as the original home of the Gauda tribe cannot be brushed aside. But of all the scttlements of this tribe, Gauca in the cast was undoubtedly the most famous and important. It was certainly an ancient country. Påņini associated it with the cast. Il rose in great importance under Dharmapála and Devapåla, and it is not unlikely that thc tide Panca-Gaudeśvara is "reminiscent to the Gaucla cmpirc under them because it cannot be cquated with the ancient realm of Gauda kingdom in the early centuries of Christian era.5" With the great importance of the Gauda kingdom in mcdiæval India the title of Gaudeśvara had some imperial glamour around it and it was difficult for the kings of Bengal to part with it when they had no authority 1. IA., 1932, pp. 41, 61. 2. For Ādi Gandas see Wilson, op. cit. 8. Vide Supru. Brabman Immigrations in Bengal. 4, VI, II, 99. 8. Dr. Roy Chowdhury, op. cit.

·186 TEE KARI'Y HISTORY OF BENGAL over Gauda. Kesavasena and Visvarupasena, sons of Laksmanasena, ruled over eastern Bengal after the conquest of north-western Bengad by the Muslims but they retained the title of Gaudesvara. Govinda. påla is generally taken to be of the Pala dynasty but it is doubtful whether he had had any authority over northern and western Bengal; yet the title Gaudesuara was applied to him. This proud title was assumed by the kings of Cuttack in the 16th century. Like the story connected with the reported immigration of five Brahmanas at the instance of Adisura, one tradition is current among the Gauda Brahmanas and Gaudatagås of Delhi region that the services of their ancestors from Gaucla in Bengal were in great demand by the epic king Janamejaya at the time of his snake sacrifice and hence their migration there. It is doubtful if Bengal itself was Brahmanised at the time of Janamejaya and therefore much weight cannot be attached to this story. It may, then, be concluded that the Gaudas were an important tribe in ancient times. They settled in different parts of the country and on account of their settlements many places were named after them. In the Brahman, Rajput, Káyastha and Gaudatagă societies many men of this cribe had entered and formed separate sections in these castes. Of all the settlements of this tribe, Gauda in Bengal outshone all in view of its great importance under the Palas and many Gaudas try to establish some connection with this famous country? 1. IA, XL11, p. 49. 9. French ways that there is strong and continuous tradition among the Panjab Hill: tribes that the ruling families in certain states are descended from the Raja of Gauda in Bengal. These are Sukhet, Keonthal; Kastwur and landi. See Art of the Pula Empire, p. 19; Journal of the Panjab Histo rical Society, Vols. 111, IV, VI. Rood: op. 8.6.80 A. NO. 78201 6:30396 ·Early History of Bengal. WORD INDEX, Vol. II А Abdullapur 98 Agarwalå Vanikas 195 Abhaya 99, 100, 104 Agastya Sanhita 6 Abhidånachintamani 71 Aghora 96 Abhinanda 10,11 Agni 107 Acårangasutta 45 Agnihotra 40 Acaras 10 Agrahara 89 Acárya 7, 27 Ahichatra 89, 41 Acaryaśāntideva 27 Aitreya Aranyaka 40 Acărya Jitasena 27 Aitareya Brahmaņa 40 Adam 118 Aja 23 Adavadi 46, 47 Ajayagar 37 Adbhutaságara 9 Ajīvika 68, 69 Adbhutaśånti 109 Ajivikism 38 Adi Buddha 79 Akarşaņa 77 Adi Dharmapåla 48 Akşamålå 95, 104 Adi Gaudas 135 Aksobhya 79, 81, 82, 86, 87 Adideva 14 Alamyana 44 Adinatha 70 Amadi 101 Adisimha 35, 36, 48 Amalakas 125 Adiśúra 10, 31, 34, 35, 42, 44, 46, Amarakosa 3 47, 48, 55, 57, 186. Amatya 8 Adityas 104 Ambaşçha 59 Advayasidhi 8 Amgachi 48 Adrya-vajra 17, 18, 21, go Aminpur 97 Advyavajra-sangraha 21 Amitabha 79, 81, 82, 83, 84, 111 Ağamas, Lithi 116 Amoghasidhi 79, 86 ·( 138 ) Atba 55 Ananta 111 Ananta Vasudeva 114 Anandapura 41 Anantanátha 71 Anantanarayana 41 Anargha Raghava 1 Anathapiņdlaka 72 Anga 66 Anguttara-Nikaya 66, 72 Aniruddha-Bhatta 9, 52 Ahnika 10 Antyajas ho Antaranga 6 Antarvyapti x2 Annunyasa 2 Apabhramsa 28, 24 Aparajita 85. 88, 118 Aparcana 89 Arabic 5 Ardhanåriśvara 96. 97. 119 Ardhaparyankäsana 89, 99 Arjuna 91 Arthasastras 42 Arthavyakti 4 Aryasarasvati 88 Aryasaptasati 12 Aryavarta 14, 39 Asanas.. 119 Asansol 124 Ascarya-carya-caya 24 Asita Devala 80 Asoka 68, 72 Asokan 126 Ašokanta måricitt 86 Asokaśrimitra 29 Asrafpur 28, 95 Assam 7, 16, 118 Aşgadhatu 120 Astanga-hrdaya 6 Asta-sahasra-Prajña-paramita 25. go, 127 Asura 114 Ališa 22, go Atisa Dipankara 26, 94 Alibhanga 100 Allahasa 101 Audumbara 36 Avallika 9 Avalokiteövara 8, 14, 81, 82, 83, 118, Arti 55 121, 196 Aruņa 104, 115 Arupadatta 7, Arya-Buddha-bhumi-vyåkhyå 18 Arya Govardhana 12 Aryadeva ay Aryapafta 97 Aryas 39 Avanti 71 Āvasathika 9 Avadutapáda 21 Avsti 54. 55 Ayårangasuatla 65, 66 Ayurveda 5 Ayurveda-dipika 6 B Balabhadra 13 Baladitya 25 Bålådityaraja 24 Balagrama 15. 37. 91, 93 94 Bålaputradeva 24 Balavatára-tarka 21 Báli 91, 99 Bapakunda 36 Bandyaghati 47 Backerganje g. 96 Badal 10g, 185 Badura 60 Bagchi Dr. P.C. 20 Baghaura 116 Bahulara 184, 185 Bairagi Bhita 129 Bairat 194 ·( 139 ) Basti 117 Bangala 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 30 Bhasu-vihåra 27 Bangarh 37. 125 Bhajfa 15 Bankura 20, 124 Bhatça Bhavadeva 8, 14, 35, 47, 58, Banerjee 61 Bhajtanarayana 5, 10 Banerjee R.D. 32, 70, 81, 89, 99, 111, Bhattacarya, Dr. B. 86, 88 Barabar -68 Bhattasali, N. K. 41, 87, 94, 101, 106 Barakar 124 Bhava-bhumi-värta 58 Bargaon 26 Bhababhuti 5 Barakunda 36 Bhabişyollara Purana 106 Barrackpore 37, 70 Bhikṣu 21 Barua B. M. 69 Bhiksus 69, 75 Basak R.G. 181, 198 Bhima 11, 57 Bhirapala 6 Baudh 87 Bhiharoil 116 Baudhayana 39, 40 Bhojavarman 37. 91 Begunia 124 Bhongala 22 Belava 37, 91 Bhskuti 88 Benares 66 Budhaguptarăja 24 Bengali 24 Bhupendravarinan 45 Betna 101 Bhuiadámára 87 Bhade 28 Bhüriśreştha 14 Bhadra 125 Bhuriseşthi 7 Bhadrabahu 65 Bhursut 14 Bhadrapada 23 Bhusuka 28 Bhadrašilä 102 Bhuśúra 46 Bhadreśvera 6 Bhutivarınan 41 Bhaduri 46 Bhuvanesvara 112 Bhagalpur 26, 79, 94, 109, 191 Bhuvanesvara prasasti 47 Bhuvanešvari 99 Bhagavati 68 Bibhuti Candra go Bhagavati Sutta 66 Bhairava 95, 96 Bighnanátaka 87 Bhairab bazar 129 Bihar 26, 79, 80, 94, 107, 117, 120, Bhamaha 4 182 Bhandarkar, D. R. 41, 181, 182, 185 Bijjala 28 Bhånu 6 Birabhūmna-Vivaraņa 101, 102 Bhånumali 6 Birbhum 13, 36, 65, 70, 89, 99, 100, Bharadvaja 15, 36, 37, 59 101, 121, 125 Bharadvája gotra 10, 34 Biruwa 28 Bharadvaja Gautama 44 Bitapåla 107 Bharadvajas 35 Biçtiga 89 Bha-ra-ha 14, 28, 79 Bocelian Collection 1go Bharat Bhayana 124 Bodh Gaya 29, 80, 87, 97, 119, 181 Bhasavsti s Bodhibhadra 29 Bhaskaravarman 5, 41, 42 Bodhi-citta 76 ·( 140 ) Bodhideva 5% Bodhi-sathva 82, 84, 125 Bogra 88, 89, 93, 94, 121 130 Boses 61 Brahmå 14, 105, 111, 119, 126 Brahma-Vişou 114 Brahmagupta 9 Brahmaksatriyas 51 Brahmana-Sarvasva 10, 45, 52, 59 Brahmaputra 7 Brahmayamala 110 Brahmi 199 Bshaddharma Purana 59 Brhaspati 105 Brhat-Samhita 133 British Museum 1go Bstan-hgyur 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, go Bubhuksa 98 Buddha 9, 81, 81, 105, 109, 111, 126 Buddhism 38, 40 Buddhists 108, 109, 110 Burdwan 36, 101, 124, 190, igi Buston 17 Caitya 85, 125, 129 Cakra 110 Cakradatta 6 Cakra-mahásukha 87 Cakrapani 6 Cakrapāņdatta 5 Cakra-samvåra-Tantra 87 Calcutta 56, 127 Caltis 1go Calukya 71 Cambridge Library 127 Campanagar 26 Campahici 47 Campati 47 Cammupca 101, 102, 118 Canda 101 Canura 91 Candals 60 Candarasana 84 Candella 14 Canci 98, 99 Candiká 101 Candimundu 191 Candra, Candradvipa 2, 20 Candragarbhá 21 Candragomin 1, 18 Candragomins 17 Candragupta 65 Candragupta II 130, 131 Candragupta Maurya 66 Candraketu 84 Candrakirti 2 Candramukhi 84 Candravarman go Cåracikå 101, 110 Caraka 6 Carinakära 60 Cåsi-Kaivartas 60 Catila-28 Caturmukha 109,123 Caturmukha Linga 97 Central Provinces 14 Ceylon 2, 22 Ceylonese 109 Chakravarti, M. 8, 12 Chanda, R. P. 39 Chandaka 81 Chando-Ratnakara 88 Chandogya 8 Chatra 124 Chatrabhog 107 Chatterjee 46 Chatterjee Dr. S. K. 29 Chabhagiyas 73 Cheediviasa 45 Chindwara 194 Chinese 18, 67, 73, 74, 112 ·( 141 ) Cinabhumi 110 Chittagong 16, 21, go, 87, 109, 180 Chotanagpur 184 Choyandaka 29 Cikitsa-sära-samgraha 6 Cirantana-Sarana 12 Citramatika-devi - ? Coomarswamy 116, 185 Colgong 26 Comilla 121 Cunar 116 Cunda 87 Cunningham 27, 38, 194 Curain 181 Cuttack 136 . Cola 109 D Dacca 16, 89, 79. 91, 99, 121, 126. 191 Dakşiņå 109 Dakşiņa-Lala 108 Dakşiņa-Racha 14 Damayanti 12 Damaru 105 Damodarpur 40, 90 Damodarsena 2 Danasagara 9, 59 Dånasila go Danda 4, 5 Danda 104, 115 Dandin 4. 5 Danujamädavdeva 61 Darbhapāņi 15, 52 Dårika 28 Daśabhujá mårici 119 Dasakarma-paddhati 8, 10 Dasaratha 68 Dasarathadeva 46 Dåsas 60 Daśávatar 116 Dåyåbhäga 9, 52, 97 Delbandh 97 Delhi 196 Denarius igo Dendhana 28 Doora 116 Deogadh 116 Deopara 12, 102, 103, 114 Deulbadi 99. 105, 191 2 Deulbari 124 Dculi 100 Devadatta 69, 7, 8o Devagana 6 Devagráma 102 Devakhadga 27 Devakiputra 90 Devakoja 65 Devala-Brahınana 60 Devapala 10, 24, 25, 29, 94, 117, 185 Devendravarinan 45 Devi 97, 100, 101 Devipuriya 98, 100 Dhanadatta 10g Dhanaidaha 40 Dhananjaya 9 Dhanalurá 101 Dhårá 11, 71 Dharma 75 Dharáśūra 47, 49, 53 Dharnias 46 Dharmacakra 109 Dharmacakramüdrå 82 Dharmadharmaviniscaya 21 Dharmadhatu 81 Dharmadhikara 9 Dharmagáthás 15 Dharmakara go Dharmakrtya 21 Dharmapala 10, 18, 19, 20, 24, 26, 29, 38, 48, go, 97, 117, 185 Dharmasastras 9, 15 ·( 142 ) Dharmavijaya 52 Dinaras 190, 191 Dhätupradipa 2 Dipankara 20, 21, 22, 27 Dhimana 117 Dipankara Buddha 29 Dhibar Digheer 125 Divvoka 57 Dhivaras 60 Divya 77, 126 Dhoyi 18 Divyävadana 69 Dhruvanandamisra 55, 61 Dohás 23 Dhulla 109 Dolåvåhis 60 Dhvajagra Keyura 85 Dombi 23 Dhyana 98, 106, 111 Drachma 131 Dhyanas 119 Dramma 131 Dhyanamurti 105 Drammas 191 Dhyanamudrå 98 Drávidas 75, 134 Dhyani Buddhas 78, 79, 81, 88, 89, Dravya-guna-Sargraha 6 84, 87, 110 Drona 191 Dhyani Siva 97, 110 Dronavapas 191 Digambaras 67, 70 Dudhpåņi 85 Dipar 194 Dürgå 99, u Dighwa-Dubhali 87 Dürgottara go Diksit K. N. 190, 189, 125 Dütakavya 13 Dinajpur 38, 40, 66, 71, 92, 93, 91 Dvijähnika-paddhati 10 97, 99, 100, 101, 102, 104, 105, 121, Dvija-nayana 5% 185, 186 E East India Company igo Edumisra 61 Ekamukha 109 Ekamukhalinga 97 Elephanta 116 Ekdala 105 Ekajata 76, 85, 86 Fahien 19. 74 Faridpur 35, 45, 58, 87, 121, 190, 191 Gadå 110 Gadhadhar-vaidya 6 Ganakas 60 Gapapati 70, 87 Ganapatih daya 88 Gandhaka 129 Gandháras 75, 81, 114, 118 Gandharvas 118 Gandha-Vanikas 59 Ganesa 7, 85, 88, 96, 97, 98, 102, 105, 106, 113, 180, 126 Ganga 39, 46, 96, 102 Gangarampur 100 Ganges 15, 30, 109 ·... ( 143 ) Gapita 15 Godásagana 66 Garbhagtha 181, 185 Godhika os Garbhapada 20 Gouda 88, 117. 133 Garga 52 Gopala I 19 Garuda 92, 94, 110, 119, 115, 117 Gopala II 37. 127 1:6 Gopas 60 Gauda 4. 7, 11, 13, 14, 21, 36, 38, Gorakhpur 117 46, 71, 75, 103, 185, 189, 194, 195, Goraksanåtha. 20, 29, 118 196 Gosala 68 Gaudábhinanda ni Goşçhikatha 48, 61 Gauda Brahmanas 194. 196 Gotras 41, 43. 44, 57 Gaudadeśa 109, 193 Govardhana 2, 18, 65, 91 Gauda-Rajaputas 134 Govinda Bhita 189 Gauda pada-Karika 7 Govindacandra 6 Gauda-Rajajutas 194 Govindapala 25, 188, 186 Gaudatagås 194. 196 Govindapur 194 Gaude-Brahmana 62 Govindaraja 8 Gaudeśvara 186 Govindasvåmin go Gaudi 5 Grahamatská 88 Gaudirili s Greck 1go, 191 Gauņa 50 Grhis 60 Gauņakuliņa 49 Ghrya-mantra bhasya 10 Gauri 87, 96, 98, 102, 113, 124 Grousset M. R. 118 Gautama 44 Guhanandin 66 Gåyatri mantra 50 Guhya-Samaja 75 Getty 79 Guhya-Samaj Tanıra 78 Ghantipani 79 Gunaighar 73, 95 Ghatakas 57 Guņavişņu 10 Ghafçajivis 60 Gundari 28 Ghose Collection 127 Gunjari 29 Ghose J. C. 41 Gupla 14, 40, 42, 2, 91, 104. 108, Ghria Kausika 44 116, 117, 118, 122, 128, 124, 125. 126, Girija 115 190, 191 Gita-Govinda 19. 91 Guravamisra 15, 85. 58, 125 Giriša 115 Gurjaras 194 Gochandi-kula 9 H Halayudha 8, 9, 14, 45, 53, 59 Halahala 84, 88 Harisa 117 Hanumana 71, 103 Hara 108 Haraha 5 Háralată 9 Harita go 1989 "STITUTE ja Vint ·( 144 ) Håravarja 10 Hari 76 Haribhadra 20, go Harihara 102, 103, 114 Harihariharivahar 84, 112-18 Harikaladeva go Harikoţi 36 Harimisra 61 Haritagotra 89 Harivamsa go Hariti 88 Harivarmadeva 14 Harivarman 5%, 58 Harsa 194 Harsapura 29 Haryavardhana 24, 37, 134 Haştinibhaçta 14 Hastipáda 87 Hayagriva 89 Hazaribagh 65 Hemcandra 71 Hemådri 6 Heramba g8 Heruka 84 Hetu-tattvopadesa 21 Hevajra 86 Hevajratantra 20 Hill Tippera 102, 120 Himalaya 7 Himávat 39 Hoerule 6 Holiwel Street 78 Homacuțaya 109 Hooghly 14, 1go Horašastra 15 Hoysala 89 Hunterian igo Ichai Ghosc 124 Itahar 92 Indus 184 Indra 107. 113 Indrani 102 Indrapala 38 Indumitra 2 It-Sing 14, 28, 74 Irda 87, 109 1såņa 10), 52 Isänavarman 5 agaddala 28 Jalalabad 25 agaddala.vihåra go Jambhala 84, 85, 86, 87 ajilpara 87 Jambuca våra 36 alandharipå 28 Jänguli 85. 106 alikas 60 jarasandha go ananejaya 186 Jasoreśvari 102 aimini 8 jatar Deal 124, 125 Jätis 60 ainas 44, 45, 46, 47, 49, 59, 66, 67, Jåti-sankara 61 19, 70, 118, 129, 184 Java 2, 25, 118 ainism 38, 40, 65 Jaya 92, 115, 191 Jayacandra 12, 58 aina 7 sare *.. akra 129 ·(145) ayadeva 19, 19. 91 ayanagara 35 aya-nandi 29 ayanta 134 ayantabhafta 11 ayapala 15 ayapida 134 essroe 16, 99, 101, 130, 131 etári 20, 21, 26 hansi 116 hewari 87, 180 imůtavahana 8, 9, 52 ñanapakasamuccya 3 nanasiddhi 78 nánasivadeva 103 Känasrimitra 21 ogirsoan 91 yavişa 15 Kachra 100 Kadambari-Kathására il Kagajipada 98 Kågrama 36 Kaivarta 11, 56, 57, 126 Kajangal 73 Käkapika 129 Kakkasas 60 Kakşa 109 Kala-viveka 9. 52 Kalki 92 Kålidasa 1, 10 Kalighat 130 Kalikå 101 Kalinga 67, 75. 76 Kalosapota 109 Kalpasūtra 66 Kalyanamitra 25 Kalyanasri 21 Kalyanasundara 95, 96 Käma 107 Kámákhya 16 Kamakoti 86 Kamalašila 20 Kamauli 23 Kamandalu 89, 95, 99, 100, 104 Kambala para 23 Kamboja 37, 60, 109, 125 Kamarupa 15, 80, 88 Karnsa-Vanikas 59 Kanaka-stupa-vihara 30 Kanauj 36 Kandi 36 Kanha 29 Kaņişka 130 Kaniska-vihara 25 Käñjika 6 Kankagrama 36 Kankana 28 Kankandighi 105 Kanouj 34. 36 Kanthaka 81 Kánti 4 Kåntideva 109 Kánya-Kuvja 8, 12, 133 Kapardaka-puraņa 198 Kara 5 Karaņa 59 Karangovyuha 81 Karniakåras 60 Karmanusthåna-paddhati 8, 59 Karņa 21 Karņasuvarņa 27, 69, 72, 74 Karņåţa 51, 194 Kårikås 61 Karnatic 48 Karpavati 58 Kartikeya 15, 96, 98, 106, 119 Karuparimitra 29 Karyakáraņa-bhåva-siddhi 21 Käbi 94. 58, 102 Kašika l, S ·( 146 ) Kaskavivarna ? Kasipura g6 Kasmira 11, 26, 184 Kasyapa Susena 44 Kakyapa gotra 94 Kasyapas 55 Kasta-Srotriya 47 Katak 87 Katason 101 Kathuma-Sakha 8 Katmandu 82 Katwa 181 Kalna 20 Kaulajñana.nirnaya 20, 25 Kaulinya 56, 57, 59 Kaundanya 44 Kaundanya gotra 48 Kauri 182 Kaušámbi 25 Kausikagotra 43 Kåva 88 Kavyamimansa 18 Kavyas 11 Kayastha 7, 41, 45, 194, 195, 196 Kharvela 66 Kharveta 66 Khasarpaņa 29. 82, 83 Khasas 60 Khafvanga 104 Khiching 118 Khila 181 Khodulašarman 46 Khri-Sron-den-tsan 19 Khulna 102, 184 Kinnaris 114, 118 Kirtirmukha 119 Kirtivarman 14 Kodivarsiya 66 Kolañca 34, 36, 37, 38 Konarak 118 Katalipara 58, 191 Koti-tirtha 102 Koţivarsa 66 Kotivarsa-visaya 40 Krodanca 87 Kradanja 37, 38 Krşņa 70, 90, 91, 106 Krsnamišra 14 Kșemisvara 5 Kşamå 101 Kşitiśa 84 Kudavas 60 Kukkuri 29 Kula 49 55 Kulácala 47, 49 Kulagranthas 31, 33, 47, 58, 59 Kulamañjari 49 Kulanca 37, 38 Kulapanjikås 31, 32, 33, 36, 44. 46, 49, 68 Kulárnava 61 Kulasastras 31, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 44, 45, 47, 48, 53, 54, 56, 57, 62 Kulatattvårnava 33, 34, 43 Kulina 54, 55, 61 Kulinism 32, 45, 48, 50, 51, 53, 54. Kulinism 61 Kazi 113 Kedåra-misra 15. 5%, 109 Keilhorn 86 Kendubilva 18 Kesava 181 Kesavasena 11, 115, 192, 186 Kesavpur 100 Kesi 91 Ketu 105 & Keur :6 Kewar 46 Khadga 74, 95, 100 Khadi 93, 104 Khadirvani-Tară 86 Khalimpur go Khandagiri 71 Khandana-Khanda-Kbådya 8. Khandesa 134 Kharváta 66 Kharas 60 ?

·( 147 ) Kulinistic 49 Kulyavápas 191 Kumaracandra go Kumaradevi 12 Kumaragupta I 24, 180, 181 Kumara 102 Kumarila 52 Kumarila Bhaſta 8, 15 Kumarpur 116 Kumbha-Kéras 60 Kuntira 37 Kurukulla 19, 87 Kurkihar 93, 190 Karma 9a, 183 Karmapurana 38 Kushana 130 Kuvera 107, 114 Lådha 66 Later Guptas 36 Lahore 16 Dr. B. C. Law g8 Lalitāditya Muktäpida 11 Legione de Honours 56 Lakhindarer medh 128 Linga 98, 99, 106, 107, 139 Lakşmana Sena 3, 8, 9, 11, 13, 36. Lingarāja 114 455, 51, 54, 55, 61, 91, 114, 192 Lohåpaddhati 6 Laksmankathi gi, 116 Lokanatha 5, 41, 79, 88, 90, 181, 89. Lakşmi 92, 93, 111, 115 114 Lakşminarayana 94 Lokeśvara 82 Lalitaparibhasa s Lomasa 7 Lallăcărya 7 Latsavas 28, go Lucknow Museum 37 Lui-på 20, 29 Låţa-Brahmanas 42 Lui-pada 16, 19 Lankå gi Láça 71 anas M Maccandar vihår 88 Madanapala 109 Madhavakara 5 Mådhavasena ni Madhavabhatta 8 Madhu 13 Madhuvan 37 Madhyadesa 37, 39, 41, 117 Madhyadeśa-vinirgata 37, 38, 39 Madhyamaka-Ratna-pradipa go Madhyamsa 55 Madhyama Sankaras 60 Madhyaśreņi 50 Madhurya 4 Madhyamika 21 Madonna 119 Madra 36 Madyadoşi 50 Magadha 18, 34, 36, 48, 56, 57, 59, 66, go, 117, 18% Magadhådhiraja 85 Magadhanátha 36 Mahabharata 96, 10g Mahabháşya 8 Mahabhiniskramapa 81 Mahabodhi 29 Mahacarya 87 Mahăcinatára 76, 84 ·( 148 ) Mahadevi 100 Mahakala 87, 110 Mahakavya 11 Mahalaksmi 100 Mahåmåtra 9 Mahanad 130 Mahamandalika 18 Mahamantrănusårini 88 Mahamaya 84, 98 Mahamayuri 86, 88 Mahapandita 29 Mahapauma 68 Mahaprajna-páramita-sútras 74 Mahapratisara 86, 88, 119 Maharastras 194 Mahasahasrapramardani 88 Mahasårada 88 Mahasiddhas 28 Mahasivagupta II 37 Mahasivagupta-yayati 37 Mahasahasra-pramardini 85 Mahasthana 27, 68, 79, 82, 89, 116, 121, 129, 126, 129 Mahasthangar 188 Mahasveta 104 Mahasitávati 88 Mahavamsa 55, 61, 62 Mahavidya 82, 89 Mahavira 65, 66, 67, 68 Mahåyåna 20, 21, 27, 29, 78, 85 Mahayanists 118 Mahendra 104, Mahendrapala 87 Maheśamisra 61 Mahesvara 4 Mahindrapala 25 Mahinta 89 Mahipala I 21, 37, 117, 127 Mahisamardini 100, 102, 116 Mainamati go Maithilas 198. 24 Maitra 46 Maitreya X, 79, 88 Maitrcyanatha so Maitridrimitra 99 Majbari 87 Mahakhaliputta Gosala 67 Majumdar N. G. 80, 110 Makara 108 Malakaras 60 Malda 100, 116 Malla 60 Mallikarjunasûri 7, 69 Mammata5 Manahali 47 Manas: 106, 107, 119, 119, 121. 126 Manbhum 36, 65 Manda 104, 129 Mandapas 122, 124 Mandla 184 Mandalas 75 Mandasor 5 Mandhata 14 Mandi 16 Mangala 100, 105 Mangalbari 99 Mandhara 82 Manju Ghosa 81 Manjukumāra 81 Manjunatha 81, 82 Manjusri 116, 81, 82, 11, 121 Manjusri-Müla-Kalpa 75 Manjuvara 81 Mantras 45, 75, 76 Mantra-bháşya 10 Manu 39, 60 Manusamhită 8 Mårtanda-Bhairava 105 Måra 71, 81, 11% Marana 77 Mårici 85, 87, 120 Mathuri 81, 66, 118 Måtskás 102, 104 Matsasi 47 Matsaväsa 47 Matsya ge, 133 Marsyapurana 98, 101 . $ 7 ·(149) Matsyivätára 98 Matsyendranatha 20, 23. 113 Maudanga 57 Maulana 113 Maurya 65, 68, 78. 73, 125 Mayadevi 80 Máyájalakeyura 88 Mayurbhanj 118 Medhårithi 84 Medh 128 Meghadůta 18 Manidhara 28 Midnapore 36, 50, igo Milikka 66 Mimarnså 15 Mimátisaka 7 Mimärså-sarvasva 8 Minanátha 20 Minapada 20 Minhaj 132 Mitra K. D. 70 Mleccha 60, 66 Modakas 60 Mokşakaragupta go Mongyr 48 Mrtyunvañcana 89 Mucalinda 80 Mundras 75, 119 Muhammad 113 Mohammadpur 1go, ig! Mukherjee 46, 61 Mukhyakulina 49 Munda 101 Muktavastu 87 Murári 5 Murshidabad 36, 92, 111, 191, 186, 190 Muslim 32, 54, 59, 119, 136 Muşçika gi Mymensingh 129 N Nadia go, 102 Näga 107, go Nagabodhi 19 Nagail 94 Nagara 194 Nagara Brahmanas 41, 184 Någarjunas 17, 19, 26, 20 Nagarjuni 68 Nagarjunikonda 78 Naginis 107 Nag-tso 27 Nahar 96 Naihati 97 Nairatmå 85 Naigadhiya 11, 12 Nala 12 Nalagiri 81 Nålanda 5, 18, 19, 20, 25, 25, 26, 28, 29, 75, 84, 88, 94. 120, 189, 187 Nandi 62 Nanna-Narayana 48, 93 Nămasangiti 81, 87 Näpitas 60 Napoleon 56 Narasimha I 39 Narasi.nha 92, 109 Narasimhgaupta 180 Nárayaņa 5. go, 113, 114, 115 Narayanapala 15, 109 Nårāyaṇavarman 42 Nata 60 Nataraja 95, 96, 120 Nataraja Siva 111, 119 Nátha 20 Näthapanthis 23 Navagrat.as 105, 106 Navagráma 14 Nayapala 5. 21, 22, 26. 37. 109, 187 Neminátha 70 Nepala 16, 23, 79, 118, 188 Nepalese 82, 87 Nidana 5 ·( 180 ) Nidhanpur 5. 35, 41, 45 Nilakantha 58, 82 Nirodosa-Kula-Panjiká 61 Nirgrantha 65, 68, 66, 67, 70 .Nirvana 65 Niscalakara 7 Nigamas 115 Nirátmá 76 Nula Pancanana 61 Nyasa 2, 3 Nyaya-Kandali 7, 8, 14 Nyayamanjari 11 O Odantapurl 26 Ojas 4 Orissa 10, 37, 39. 50, 118, 194 Oriya 24 Pabna 61, 125 Pådīšvara 6 Padma 110 Padmanarttesvara 88 Padampáni 79 Padumsahar 108 Pagan 118 Pag-Sam-Jon-Zang 17, 8, 29, 18, 19, 21, go Paharpur 29. 69. 95, 66, 86, 91, 107, 108, 119, 116, 120, 128, 129, 126, 127, 191, 192 Paikore 125, 126 Páka.yajña-paddhati 10 Palakäpya ? Panca-Dravida 188 Panca-Dravidešvara 194 Panca-Gaudas 84, 193. 194 Panca-Gaudeśvara 185 Pancakhanda 41 Pancakoţi 36 Panca Makaras 77 Panca-raksa 187 Pancarakså Mandala 88 Pancastupa 66 Pancatantra 196 Pandita 19, 26, 27 Pandita-sarvasva 10 Pandita-vihåra 21, 29. go Panjika-kara 7 Pņadya 108 Påņini 2, 68, 195 Panitabhumi 68 Panjika 7 Panjika-kára 7 Panjab 16 Paråkesarivarman 109 Paramira Bhoja 11 Paramsva 87, 119 Paráśara 44 Parasurama 99 Pareshnath Hill 65 Parnąsavari 85, 86, 113, 180 Paribhådriya 8 Pårsvanátha 70 Parvati 96, 98, 99, 112, 113, 115 Paryaga 55 Paša 89, 100 Påścătyaprakarana 5% Paścătya Vaidikas g1, 51, 58 Pasu 77 Pasupata 109 Pasupati 10, 52 Patharghata 26, 87 Patna 87 yfikera go Pundranagara 78 Paundravardhana 78 Paurastya 4 Pavanadütam 18 Payagambar 119 Periplus 190 ·(151) Phala-Sambitás 15 Pindola 191 Pingala 104, 115 Pisacas go Pitakas 21 Po-chi-po 27 Pomvardhaniya 66 Prabhavati 21, 95, 97 Prabodhacandrodaya 14 Pradosašarman 41 Pradaviveka 8 Pradyumnesvera 95, 10g, Prahása 35, 37, 52 Praksit 76 Prajña 76 Prajñāvarman 22 Prajñápáramita 29. 76, 85, 87 Prajnaparamitasútras 76 Praksta 3 Prasanna Tårå 118 Prasasti 5 Pratihara 25 Prahása 104 Prayascitia-nirupana 8 Prayaga 39 Pretasantirpita 82 Pulindas 60 Punda 68 Pundra go Puncravardhana 45, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 78, 194 Pundravardhanabhukti 40 Puranas 9, 60, 132 Purapara 98, 97 Puruşa 76 Purusottamadeva 3 Puspapura 25 Prutreşti 33 R Ravi 105 Raktalokeśvara 82 Ratnavajra 26 Raktaviti 27 Raudra 85 Råma 11, 92 Raudri 102 Råmacarita 10, 11, 62 Rāmāyaṇa 138 Revanta 105 Råmapala 6, 11, 25, 30, 38, 109 91. Rg-Vedic 115 127 Rşabhanátha 70, 71, 119 Raņabhanjadeva 37 Rabhänga 57. 125 Ranavankamalla go Rädha 7, 9, 13, 14, 16, 49, 45, 46, Ranganati 124, 126 48, 59, 65, 66, 68 Rangpur 91, 92, 116, 121, 124, 131 Radha-Krsna 91 Rangpur Sahitya Parisad 107 Rådhiya 8, 81, 44, 45, 46, 47. 49. Ranipati 98 54, 48, 59, 61 Rao Gopoinath 99, 100 Radhiya-kula-mañjari vi Råra 66 Raghurampur 94 Ratnakara Santideva Raghavendrakavisekhara 58 Ratnákara Såntideva 98 Ratnamála 5 Rahulabhadra 18 Ratnapäņi 79 Rahulagupta 21 Ratnapala 80 Råhulamitra 28 Ratnasambhava 79, 86, 87 Rajabhata 74 Råhu 105 ·( 152 ) Rå endracola 109. 194 Ra mahal 125 Rajput 134, 135, 136 Rajyapåla 109 Raksita Rşis 104 Rajagtha 67 Rajadhirajadeva 103 Rajakas 60 Rajaputas 60 Rajmahal 78 Rajshahi 1, 94, 100, 104, 109, 121 119, 122, 129 Raiganj 105 Rajarajesvara 109 Rajarajabhata 27 Rajapandita 9, 10. Rajasekhara 5, 19 Rajatarangiņi 194 Rudra-Caracika 101 Rudra-Cammundă 101 Rudrara 4 Rudrayamåla 110 Rugvinistcaya 5 Rūpakas 191 Rūpavidya 101 S Sabara 18, 29, 75, 60 Sahyadri 133 Subaripa 19 Saiva 20, 26, 98, 102, 106 Sabarisvara 19 Saiva-sarvasva 10 Såbarna 36, 59 Saivism 95, 119 Sabarnagotra 54 Sakadvipi 60 Sabarnas 85 Såktas 98, 108 Sábarna Parafara 44 Sakti 76, 104, 108 Sabda Candrika 6 Sakraditya 24 Sabdapradipa 6 Saktipur 36 Sabhar 16, 91, 126, 131 Saktivarman il Sadaksari 82 Säkyasimha 80, 82 Sadasiva 95. 115 Salikanátha 7 Sadhaka 119 Samáca 131 Sådhana 22, 90, 77, 78, 82, 84, 89, 112 Såmalavarman 33, 52 Sadhanamala 19. 82, 83, 86, 87, 88, Samantabhadra 79 89 Samantasara 58 Saduktikarpåmsta 6, 11, 12, 19 Samatata 18, 29, 67, 70, 72, 73, 74 Sadvargikas 78, 73 75 Sadyajäta 106 Samatiya 74 Sagardighi 11, 181 Såmaveda 8 Sågnika 34 Sambandha-Nirnaya 68 Sahaja 23 Sambhu 115 Sahajayana 118 Samelasikhara 65 Sahajayanists 112 Samikarana 55, 61 Sahet Mahet 189 Samudra 131 Sahore 16 Sårkhyas 76 Sammola Tantra 76 ·( 163 ) Sampradayika 49 Samudragupta igo Samvara 84 Samyutta Nikaya 78 Samvari 94 Sanitana 90 Såndhivigrahika 14 Sandhyåkarnandi 5, 11, 62 Sandilya 15, 35, 36, 46, 47, 58 Sandilyagotra 10, 34 Såndilya Narayana 44 Sanghåráma 27 Säni 108 Sankalia 113 Sankha-Vanikas 60 Sankhahati 99 Santarakṣita 17, 19 Sånti 29 Säntidcva 17 Santinātha 70 Såntivărika 109 Sanyala N. B. 106 Sapädalaksma 41 Saptaksara 84 Saptasāti 43, 44, 45 Saradácilakatantra 98, 105 Saraha 17, 18, 29 Sarahabhadra 18 Sarana 12 Saranadeva 3 Särasvata 39, 4 133, 195 Sarasvati 39, 51 88, 92, 93, 94, 105, 106, 109, 19, 115, 195 Saraswati, S. K. 101, 111, 92 Sarda Act 54 Sarnath 12, 80, 81, 116, 118 Saroha-vajra 112 Sarpa 105 Sarvånanda 3 Sarvåni 95, 97, 99, 121 Sarvotabhadra 128 Såsana 14 Sasanka 95, 191 Sassanian 182 5 Sat-Deul 184 Satananda 11 Satapatha Brahmana 94, 115 Sausati 43 Sat-Srotriyas 47 Satyapir Bhita 29, 189 Saugata 109 Sauhmas 60 Sukumarya 4 Saunaka 58 Saundika 60 Saura 10g Sauraseni 28 Såvakas 60 Sayambhu 79 Song-chi 75 Seoni 194 Scrpore 92 Sesa-Sayin 91, 92 Setaka 72 Shastri, H. P. 3, 7, 16, 29, 51, 76 Siddhas 17, 83 Siddha-Cåmundă 101 Siddhacarya 19 Siddhaikavira 81 Siddhala 14 Siddhanta 14 Siddha-Srotriyas 57 Siddha-Yoga 6 Siddha-Yogesvari 101 Siddhesvari 124 Siddhi 112 Sikharas 124, 125 Silabhadra 18, 75 Siladitya 24 Silas 26 Silimper 15, 85, 87, 107 Simhanada 82 Sirihapura 48 Simha-Sasaka-Katha 126 Siinhavahini 99, 102 Simla 100 Singhbhum 65 ·( 154) giptas 89 . Sipyadhi-mahatantra 7 Sisya-lekhadharma 18 Sitapatra 85 gitatara 87 Sitapatra Tară 181 Siva 87, 95, 96, 97, 102, 103, 105, 106, 107, 109, 112, 113, 115, 119, 196 $iva-bhatjáraka 109 Siva-Buddha ina Sivácarya 10g Sivadasasena 6 Sivanandin 121 Siyambaka 15. 37 Skandagupta 1go, 181 Sumagadhá 71 Skandapurana 133 Smith, V. A. 182 Smfti 9, 31, 46, 58, 60 Sohagura 78 Solosa-mahajanapada 66 Somapura-vihara 69 Somapuri-mähavihara 29, 119 Somesvaradeva 87 Sonarang 121, 125 Sonpur 87. 105 Sradhakrtya-paddhati 10 Srädhäpaddhatiţikå 58 Sramanas 112 Sravasti 15. 38, 80, 198 Sravastijanapada 37 Sråvastideśa 38 Sråvastimandala 37. 89 Sråvastībhukti 37, 39 Sravasti-visaya 89 Aricandra 109 Sridharăcarya 14 Sridharadasa 7, 18, 52, Sriharsa 5, 8, 11, 12, 16 Srikantha 7 Srikuntha 12 Srijana Atiša 21 Srivastava s7 Srotriyas 50 Śrotriyagáiñs 49 Srutakevali 65 srutis 46 Sruti 15, 31, 5% Sthavira 78, 74 Sthiracakra 82 Strota 106 Stupas 129, 127 Subbabhumi 65 Subhakaragupta go Sudaksiņå 38 Sudhåvakumara 89 Sudhånakumára ig! Suddhi 77 Suddhi-viveka 9 Sudhanidhi 84 Sudra 56, 43 Sugatisandarsana 82 Sugriva gi Sukhavaspur 79 Sukhảvati 84 Sukavati-vyuha 81 Sukla-Yajurvedla 10 Sukra 105 Sumagadhã 72 Suparávanátha 71 Sumatra 25 Sumbhas 72 Sunderbans 70, 92, 93, 104, 105, 107, 119 Śünyavada 20 Suparsvrnátha 71 Sura 47, 48, 56 Surapala 109 Suresvaråcårya 7 Surhor 74, 125 Suri 36 Sürya 104, 105, 108, 115, 116, 118, 191 Sürya-siddhanta 7 Sushila 58 Sushila 58 Soma 105 ·( 155 ) Surasta 6 Susunia 90 Sütras &, 60, 102 Suvanga 41 Suvarnadvipa 21, 24, 25 Suvarnavaņikas 50, 56, 60 Suvarņavihara go Svastika 129 Svetämvaras 70 Svelavaraha Svåmin go Suvisada-samputta 20 Swat Valley 16 Sylhet 16, 41, 42, 121 Syamalavarman 38, 58 T Tadaka 23 Tädita 36 Tailaka-pada 17, 21, 30 Tailakåras 60 Tailangas 184 Tailakas 60 Taksa 60 Tämbuli 60 Tamila 194 Tamluk 129 Tarluk High School 129 Tämralipti 13, 14, 28, 66, 72, 74, 186 Tämalithya 66 Tanjore 103 Tankadása 20 Tantra 14, 75, 76, 105, 111, 112, 115 Tantrapradipa ? Tantramúlavstui 21 Tantravårtiká 8, 52 Tántrika 1, 3, 5, 108, 128 Tantuvayas 60 Taponidhi 15 Tärá 29, go, 89, 86, 88, 89, 110, 111 Tárånátha 17, 21, 22, 29, 117 Tarkåri 15. 37 Tarkårikå 87 Tathagalagupta 24 Tattvabodhasamgrahaçika 8, 20 Taurme 129 Tautatimataţika 8, 52 Tepa 92, 91 Theravadin 78 Tibet 81, 28. 118 Tibetan 2, 17. 19. 28, 26, go Tika-sarvasva 3 Tiladaka 25 Tilopa 21 Tippcra 5, 30, 41, 45 79, 90, 95, 99, 114, 121 Tirabhukti 109 Tirhut jog Tirthankaras 65, 70, 71, 119 Tirumalai 6 Traikūça-vihåra 60 Trailokya-vijaya 119 Trailok yavasankara 82, 84 Trailokyavijaya 87 Trisula 99, 100, 104 Trivikrama 92 24 - Parganas 124, 129 U Ubhayavarahanana marici 118 Udana-varga 7, 22 Udayana 13 Udayanácărya 58 Uddiyana 16, 17, 18, 81 ·( 156 ) Udicya deka 10g Ugra 59 Ujjayini g. 11 Umá g8 Umalingana-murti 95 Uma-maheśvara 95, 96 Umāpatidhara 12, 109 Umapatideva 109 Unadavſti 8, 9 Unakoti 102, 114, 120 United Provinces 117,-18 Upaveda 5 Upadhyâya 27 Upangas 66 Upa-Puriņa 60 Upāsakas 74. 75 Upasena 78 Upaya 76 Uposatha 28 Upper Gangetic 40 Urdhavalinga 95 Uşå 104 Uşnişavijaya 85 Utkala 57. 133 Uttamasankaras 59, 60 Uttarakošala 38, 139, 195 Uttara-Radha 10, 14 Uvata 10 V 3 Vacaspatimisra 61 Vadirat 82 Vadnagar 44 Vagabhata Il 6 Vagiśvara 81 Vagišvari 85, 100, 102 Vahana 107 Váhanas 119 Vaidharbha 4 Vaidharbhi 4 Vaidharbhi-riti il Vaidika 44, 46, 59 Vaidikas 48 Vaigram 38, 40, go, 181, 191 Vaikuntha 92 Vainyagupta 27, 78, 95 Vainyeśvara 92 Vairocana 79, 85, 86 Vaisali 67 Vaişpavas 18, 76, 91, 106, 111 Vaippavasarvasva 10 Vaişpavi 102 Vaisnavism 113 Vaivahikamůrti 95 Vajaseneyi Kanvašakha 10 Vajjabhumi 65, 68 Vajra 24 Vajracáracika 85 Vajraçāka 84 Vajradhara 54 Vajrahumkåra 87 Vajragandhari 88 Vajranga 81 Vajrapāņi 79 Vajrasärada 88 Vajrasaltva 79, 87 Vajrasrhkhala 86 Vajrataysă 87, 181 Vajravalamåläkåra 87 Vajravaráhi 85, 86 Vajravidårani 88 Va raviná 88 Vajrayahists 76 Vajroyogini 88, 92, 94 vak 81 Vakreśvara 100 Vallabhananda 56 Vallalacarita 50, 56 Vallalasena 9, 11, 32, 33, 35, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 57, 58, 97 Vámama 4 Vandenburg 127 ·( 157 ) Vandyaghatiya 3 Vånarakilakakatha 186 Vanga 7, 12, 14. 33. 66, 69, 71, 72, 73, 76 Vangaja 45, 46 Vangala 29 Vanganaputta 72, Vangasena 6 Vaņikas 56, 57 Vappaghošavata 35 Vašadra 88, 107 Varadaraja 7 Varada-mudrá 82, 89, 104 Varáha 15, 92, 107 Varahamihira 9 Varshavatara 99 Varihi 10% Varajivis 60 Vardhamana 65 Varendra 8, 10, 11, 15 Varendra 8, 10, u, 15, 20, 26, 31, 87, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 57, 58, 59, 61, 117, 115 Varendrakulapañjika 34, 36, 61 Varman 48, 59, 51, 91, 92 Varnas 48, 60 Varna-Sankara 61 Varuņa 114 Vasantavilása 71 Vašiştha 39. 44, 59, 110 Vastu 181 Vastupala 71 Vasu N. N. 38, 61, 62 Vasudeva go, 92, 109, 115 Vasudeva 1, "go Vasudeva II, 190 Vasudhară 85, 86, 87 Vaça-Gohali 66, 129 Vațagrama 36 Vaçeśvarasvåmi 47 Våtsyas 35, 86 Vatsyagotra 10, 34 Vagudása 19 Våyupurana 98, 193 Vedas 3, 15, 41, 43, 46, 76, 75, 112 Vedängas 46 Vedic 40 Vena 60 Venisamhåra 10 Venkyya 10g Videhaputta 72 Vetåla 13 Vidyadharas 74, 114, 126 Vidyanidhi L. 62 Vidyas 15 Vighnanátaka 109 Vigraha 132 Vigrahapala 48, 192 Vijaya 92, 115 Vijayarakṣita 7 Vijayasena 8, 11, 18. 33, 87, 70, 115. 126 Vijnanavåda 20 Vijñápui-måträsidhi 28 Vikartana 49 Vikramaṇipura 21 Vikrampur 46, 79, 85, 86, 93, 94, 96, 97. 98, 121 Vikramapuri 29 Vikrampurivihăra go Vikramasila 10, 21, 22, 23, 27, 26 Vikramasiladeva-vihåra 127 Viņápåda 28 Vinasana 39 Vinaya 73 Vindhya 99 Viñjhá 68 Vipula 67 Vipulasrimitra 29, 124 Vira 77 Viradova 25 Virasena 12 Viradhavala 71 Virasimha 37 Virupa 89 Viryendrabodhi 29 ·(788) Vrata 94 Visakhadatta 1 Vitaloka 68 Vippu 7, 70, 92. 98. 94, 106, 109. MON 108, 111, 113, 114, 116, 117, 18, Vphakathikoga bis 181, 126, Vrnda 6 Vişnugupta 190 Vvavaharamayska 9 58 Višvakarmasastra 104 Varhat-Svayambhupuräna 79 Visvapani 79 Vyágratatlmandala Višvarūpasena 9. 11, 115, 186, 187 Vyasa 13 Vitarága 94 W Wilson 134 Winternitz 76. Yab-Yum 108 Yaksas 114 Yama 107 Yamari 84 Yamantaka 84 Yamuná 91, 103 Yantras 77, 99 Yasodharamišra 58, 59 Yalovarman 3, 94 Yasovarmapura 25 Yavadvipa 84 Yavanas 60 Yoga 75, 77 Yogacára 81 Yogadeva 52 Yogasana Vişņu 110 Yogi 50, 57 Yogavasistha-Sára 11 Yogesvara 13 Yuan Chwang 5, 13, 18, 24, 27, 66, 69. 70, 78, 73, 74, 75, 134 Yoni 97 Zalore 16, 17, 19, 2% in strivic MUL Ta

·No text on this page.

·No text on this page.

·No text on this page.

·Ναι - η Α Α
λί SA, Μ! 86 Ο 1874 E OF,
1.
Α
ΑΠ
CALGUNS
954.14PAU
107961

·No text on this page.