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·ND DIFFVSION
SMITHSON LAN INSTITUTION
WAR BACKGROUND STUDIES
NUMBER EIGHTEEN
PEOPLES OF INDIA
By
WILLIAM H GILBERT, JR
THE INCRS
FOR
MONC
Yoxsty
HOT
1846
PURUCTION 3767)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SVITHSONIAN INSTITUTIOV
APRIL 29, 1944

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·CONTENTS Pust 1 Latroduction Geography Topographic features Geology Climate Vegetation Animals Natural regions Cultures and races Archeology Material culture R24jal types Temiperamental characteristics Population, health and nutrition Marriage and the family Economic aspects History Government Political areas of today Languages Religions and sects Finc arts Games and recreations Primitive arcas Custe arcas Cultural and ethnic division Summary outline of the social units of India Castes and tribes The system Brahmans Rajputs Banas and allied business castes Sudra or low castes Muslim groups Outlying systems of caste Hill tribes Conclusion Selected b blingraphy 2 3 6 7 7 10 12 13 13 13 17 19 20 24 25 28 31 36 40 46 53 5.4 SS 56 57 59 60 60 64 65 67 68 69 71 75 82 84 TABLES i Increase in the population of ladia 2 Approximate dates of major racial sents in Indian history 3 Steps in the consututional history of Batish India 4 Polucal parties and groupings 17 India 5 Classification of caste groups, with examples Page zz 34 35 37 81 111

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·LSIRATIOYS ILLUSTRATIONS PLATES Past 1 1 1 - 1 + 20 20 20 20 1 Nanga Valley Himalayan border of Afghanistan ? Upper Himalayas near Darjeeling Louer, Vale of hashmir 3 Upper Rice planting in wet rice area Louer Cuxe nut groves on the Malabar Conist 1 Upper Plucking ta Lover Bathing ghat 5 Upper Principal street in Jaipur Rajputan Lower Railway station at Palasa Madras 6 Upper Palhee or palanquin and bearers Calcutta Lamer Modern ekka 7 Upper Rice preparatie n in a h me of the coastal Tropics Loner Press fir coconut oil 8 Urrer Goldsmith at work in his sh r Delhi Jia Loner Brick making hashmir 9 1 cft Todd, drawer gathering sap suthern India Right Bumbay st xk exchange 10 Upper Burning ghat Benares Louer Bathers in the Ganges at Benares 11 Lele Sumaru Temple at Ramnagar near Benares Right A temple in the Mysore state Left Monsoon mists Right Fikir 13 Upper Shalimar Gardens Luhur Loner Village life in Bengal near Calcutta 11 Upper Snake charmers at Delhi Louer A member of the barber caste at uck 15 Left A typical Rajput peasant Right Digra or Hill Brahman from Kashmir 16 Left A minstrel from the Punjab Righe Manipuri dancer 17 Errer Bombay Parsce griests Luer Skh recruits ! the Indian army 18 Upper Street scene and temple in a suth Indarum Lwer Brinjaris ( Bunjars a wry Custo 19 Icft Sikh policeman Right A Telugu aunt 20 left Nayar ir lair of the Malabar Coast Right M plahs (f the west cast 21 Lpper Tie Royal Palace at I Jaipur Mexar liner Village of central India ין 36 16 37 30 36 36 36 5 S 4 TIT FIGURES : Mopf Ind a ? Map of Indu surxnimpinalin map of the loc! 3 Linguistil mur of Inla ·PEOPLES OF INDIA BY WILLIAM H GILBERT, JR speciali a Soniology and Arthropology Legnine Reference Serine Library of Congress (WITH 21 PLATES) INTRODUCTION Hurdly any other country in the world can make a stronger daim on man s unherent desire for the unique and the romantic than India Even in antiquity it was widely reputed for its splendor and incredible nches for bejeu cled sovereigns and wondrous sweet spices The desite to see and obtain these things led many a traveler and trader to the Indian shores Throughout Medieval times the wondes tales pessisted of this fabulous land and stirred by the accounts that they had beard of the riches in the east great explorers such as Vasco da Gama and Christopher Columbus set out in search of better sea routes for teaching this sealm *The strength of this legend is to be seen in the fact that we still call the abonginal natives of America Indians Today even though Europeans have been in India as rulers and traders for sceral centuries there cemaas an air af mystery and strange fascina tron in the weird cents and unusual scenes which are to be encountered or sitnessed in that country The innumerable villages swarming sth tumaa life the grotesque and incredibly decorated temples and shrines attended by exotic priests the brilliantly colorful processions and fairs and the splendid durbars or court reviens combine to cast a spell over men the most blase of travelers But there is in addition to the romantic still another and in some respects more important aspect of India which makes it imperatre for the secious student to become better acquainted with it This is Indus vital role in the global strate of contemporary world politics World planisters and militarily minded geopoliticians such as Homer Lea and Karl Hiushofer have considered lsydia s role as basic in the control of Horld searass and sea Power Strategically situated as it is relative to PLATE) Road near Rugt Chaji Mountains, Nanga Valley Himalayan burder of Afphanistan It was by winning through such a bescies as these that the primitive Arrans of Ochi years oxfore Christ caught their first glimpse of India

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·PEOPLES OF INDIA BY WILLIAM H GILBERT JR. Specialist is Suctology and Aubropology legilamne Reference Serince Library of Congress (TX" PLATES) INTRODLCTION Hardly any other country in the world can make a stronger claim on mans inherent desire for the unique and the romantic than India Even in antiquity it was widely reputed for its splendor and incredible riches for bezen eled son ereigns and wondrous sa eet spices The desire to see and obtain these things led many a traveler and trader to the Indian shores Throughout Medies al times the wonder tales persisted of this fabulous land and stirred by the accounts that they haul heard of the riches in the cast great explorers such as Vasco da Gama and Christopher Columbus set out in search of better ses routes for reaching this realm The strength of this legend is to be seen in the fact that we still call the aboriginal natives of America Indians Today even though Europeans have been in India as rulers and traders for several centuries there remains an air of mystery and strange fascina tion in the weird sents and unusual scenes which are to be encountered or witnessed in that country The innumerable villages swarming with human life the grotesque and incredibly decorated temples and shrines attended by exotic priests the brilliantly colorful processions and farrs and the splendid durbars or court resiens combine to cast a spell over en the most blase of travelers But there is in addition to the romantic still another and in some respects more important aspect of India which makes it imperative for the serious student to become better acquainted with it This is India s vital role in the global strategy of contemporary world politics World planners and militarily maded geopoliticians such as Homer Lea and Karl Haushofer have considered India s role as basic in the control of world seas ays and sea poner Strategically situated as it is relatise to PLATE 1 Road near Rogi and Chigi Mountains Nanga Valley Himalayan border of Afghanistan It was by ng through such bstacles as these that the primitive Aryans of 2000 years before Christ caught their first glimpse of India 1 ·2 VAR BACKGROUND STUDIES, NO 18 the Indian Ocean and the shores of southern Asia, the protection of India has been assigned a dominating role in the world politics of Great Britain for the last 150 years India is considered by some writers to be the keystone to the survival of the British Empire and its political center of gravity The advance of Napoleon into Egypt involved a prolonged struggle on the part of England to maintain her scinays to India, while the march of Russi1 into central Asia during the nineteenth century and toward the control of the Bosphorus, on the 639 to Indis, preceded the Crimean War In the last World War the German dominated Berlin to Bagdad. Raila ay pointed only too clearly at the British lıfe line to India The fortification of the great British base at Singapore and the projected completion of the all Batish 'Cape to Carro Railroad were moves desig nated to protect the flanks of the great ocean domain abutting upon India The latest threat to India, the Japanese occupation of the East Indies and Burma during the present war, has been the most effective thrust in many years agunst British dominance of the Indian subcontinent an additional complication to the situation is offered by the international implications of the internal stresses within India betucen Muslims and Hindus, between British India and the Indian States, and beta con Caste Hindus and Untouchables GEOGRAPIY India is a nord derised from the Grechs, ho in turn got it from a Persian form of the Sanskrit sindhu,' a river, referring to the land castward of the Indus Trom this root the Muslim conquerors of India dermed the term Hindustan,' land of the Hindus which is applied to 211 India or to only that part north of the Vindhya Mountains in Sanskrit the ancient Searned language of India, and in languages derived from it the term 'Bharata sarsha" is the nearest equivalent word applicable to the entire country India 15 roughly about one half the size of the United States but possesses around three times as many inhabitants its arca and porufation are adour cqual to the 2102 and pre mur population of Europe minus Russia Thuc total area is 1,573,107 square miles and the population in 1911 nas 388,997,953 The shape is that of a vast triangular peninsula projecting souths ard from Asii The base of the thingle extends along the Himalaya Range in the north, and its apex runs far into the Indian Ocean in a south ward direction The greatest breadth from east to rest and the greates length from north to south are about the sime, namely, around 1900 miles The country extends from latitude 8'5' N to 39°15 N and from longitude 63 43' E. to 97• E

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·2 KAR BACKGROUND STUDICS, NO 18 the Indian Ocean and the shores of southern Asia, the protection of India has been assigned a dominating role in the world politics of Great Britain for the last 150 years India is considered by some inters to be the keystone to the surnal of the British Empire and its political center of gravity The advance of Napolcon into Lgypt involved a prolonged struggle on the part of England to maintain her scanays to India, while the march of Russia into central Asia during the nineteenth century and toward the control of the Bosphorus, on the way to India, preceded thic Crimean War in the last World War the German dominated Berlin to Bagdad. Razinay pointed only too clearly at the British lıfe line to India The fortification of the great British base at Singapore and the projected completion of the all British Cape to Cairo' Railroad nerc moves desis nated to protect the flanks of the great ocean domain abutting upon India The latest threat to India, the Japanese occupation of the East Indies and Burma during the present war, has been the most effective thrust in many years against British dominance of the Indian subcontinent An additional complication to the situation is offered by the international implications of the internal stresses within India betuccn Muslims and Hindus, between British India and the Indian States, and beta cen Caste Hindus and Untouchables GEOGRAPHY Indra' is a nord deased from the Greeks, who in turn got it from 1 Persian form of the Sanskrit 'sindhu,' a riser, referring to the land castward of the Indus from this root the Muslim conquerors of India derned the term 'Hindustan," land of the Hindus, which is apphed to all India or to only that part north of the Vindhya Mountains In Sanskrit the ancient learned language of India, and in languages derived from the term 'Bharata varsha' is the ncarest equis alent sord applicable to the entire country India is soughly about one half the size of the United States but possesses around three times as many inhabitants Its area and population are about cqual to the area and pre war population of Europe minus Russia The total area is 1,573,107 square miles and the population in 1911 * 2s 388,997,959 The shape is that of a sast triangular peninsula projecting southeard from Asia The base of the tnangle extends along the Himalaya Range in the north, and its apex runs far into the Indian Occan in a souls ward direction Thic greatest breadth from cast to west and the greates! length from north to south are about the same namely around 1,900 miles The country extends from latitude 8'5' N to 39'15 N and from longitude 65°45' E to 97* E

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·2 WAR BACKGROUND STUDICS, NO 18 the Indian Ocean and the shores of southern Asia, the protection of India has been assigned a dominating role in the world politics of Great Britain for the last 150 years India is considered by some writers to be the keystone to the surnal of the British Empire and its political center of gravity The advance of Napoleon into Egypt ini oled a prolonged struggle on the part of England to muntain her seaways to Indi2, while the march of Russia into central Asia during the nineteenth century and tonard the control of the Bosphorus, on the way to India, preceded the Crimean War In the last World War the German dominated 'Berlin to Bagdad' Raila ay pointed only too clearly at the British life line to India The fortification of the great British base at Singapore and the projected completion of the all British Cape to Cairo ' Railroad were moves desig nated to protect the flinks of the great occan domain abutting upon India The latest threat to India, the Japanese occupation of the East Indies and Burma during the present war, has been the most effective thrust in many years against British dominance of the Indian subcontinent An additional complication to the situation is offered by the international implications of the internal stresses within India between Muslims and Hindus, between British India and the Indian States, and betroen Caste Hindus and Untouchables GEOGRAPHY India 15 a nord derived from the Grechs, who in turn got it from a Persian form of the Sanskrit "sındhu," a river, referring to the land castward of the Indus from this rool the Muslim conquerors of India derived the term Hindustan,' land of the Hindus, which is applied to all India or to only that past north of the Vindhya Mountains in Sanskrit the ancient learned language of India, and in languages derived from it the term 'Bharata 12 sha" is the nearest equivalent nord applicable to thic entire country India is roughly about one half the size of the United States but grossesses around three times as many inhabutants lis 11e and population are about cqual to the arci and pre #38 population of Europe minus Russia The total area is 1,573,107 square miles and the population in 1911 x 15 388,997,955 The shape is that of a list triangular peninsula projecting southaard from Asia The base of the triangle atends along the Himalaya Range in the north, and its apcx runs far into the Indian Ocean in a south ward direction The greatest brcadth from cist to west and the greatest length from north to south are about the sime, namely, around 1,900 miles The country extends from latitude 8's' to 39'19' N and from longitude 65°45' E. to 97• E ·3 INDLAGILBERT Wula much of the contigent of Asia is unfit for human occupance, India is so eminently fitted therefor as to shelter about one fifth of the burzaczce la an area a kttle more than half as large as the Dominion of Canada there are 3 times as many people in fact, ncarly three fourths of all the inhabitants of the British Empire . LA SA AJAL اسطه tuwang VAN / می) USA INDIA teren 1 COD ODO FIG 2-Map of Londra superimposed on map of the L Bited States on the same scale TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES Iodia proper is bounded on the north by the Himalaya Range, on the East by the various steep mountain chains that divide it from Burraa, on the south and east by the Bay of Bengal, on the south also by the Gulf of Naaass shich separates it from the island of Ceylon on the rest by the Arabian Sea or Indian Ocean and by the several mountain walls separating it from the plateau of Iran and Afghanistan. The natural mountain barriers on the land frontiers of India are curiously paralleled by rivers the ladus on the rest and the Ganges and Brahmaputra pa the porth and east Thus at might be noted that the mountains a hech shut off India very definitely from the rest of Asia are countered by the disposition of rivers and sea coasts which latter circunstance faalitates Hater communication around the peniphery of the entire country and enables intercourse to take place separated from the rest of the world

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·INDIA-GILBERT 3 While much of the continent of A312 is unfit for human xcupance, India is so eminently fitted therefor as to shelter about onc fifth of the burzan race la an area a httle more than half as large as the Dominion of Canada there are 35 tumes as many people in fact nearly three fourthis of all the inhabitants of the British Empue Me Puke Martin USA INDIA LAO 0 000 000 FIG 2-\lap of Indsa super mased on map of the L nated States on the same scale TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES India proper ts bounded on the north by the Himalaya Range on the east by the various steep mountain chains that divide it from Burma, on the south and east by the Bay of Bengal on the south also by the Gulf of Vlanaar which separates i frors the island Ceylon on the west by the Arabian Sea or Indian Ocean and by the several mountain walls separating it from the plateau of Iran and Afghanistan The natural mountain barriers on the land frontiers of ladia are curiously paralleled by rivers, the Indus on the rest and the Ganges and Brahmaputra on the north and east Thus it asght be noted that the mountains which shut off India very definitely from the rest of Asia are countered by the disposition of rivers and sca coasts rich latter arcumstance facilitates water communication around the periphery of the entire country and enables intercourse to take place separated from the rest of the world ·1 WAR BACKGROUND STUDIES, VO 19 The topography of India may be said to divide the country s surface into three distinct and markedly different areas The first is the great mountain muss along the land frontiers from Buluclustan to the Bay of Bengal, the second is the great plain of northern India formou by the wide allurei valleys of the Indus, the Ganges, and the Brahmaputra and their tributaries, and the third is the great platcau of Peninsular India or the Deccan The mountain wall along the land frontiers is pierced by smeral gips or passes, especially on the northwest frontier, which have been historically important channels of migration for insaders of India These passes on the northuest are the Kliber, Bolun Gomal, and Mahran coast route The climate of the mountains is varied by altitude and by other factors The castern hills separating India from Burma are rainy, heavily forested, and thuniy populated The Himalayan region comprising the Himalaya Mountains from 5,000 feet upuard, is distinguished by its alpine or semi alpine vegetation and animals The Sub Himalayan region consists of the foothills between the plains and the mountains or the loner slopes of the Himalayas themselves up to 5 000 fact This area is forested and difficult to travel "The Tibetan Plateau rs away from the monsoon s roach and is mainly an alpine waste The northwestern hills constitutc a dry region with scry little sustenance for man or beast Thic Baluchistan Plateau is a dry area surrounded by equally dry fuilis The natural regions of the great northern plain are subdivided by climate The loner Indus Valley of Sind is 1 scry dry allurral pisin dependent upon irrigation by the Indus waters The Punjab Plain farther northeast ward is of a similar dry character with irrigation supplied by the waters of the Indus and its four branches The upper Ganges although receiving some rainfall of value, is largely dependent upon irrigation from the Jumna and the Ganges The middle Ganges Valley is intermediate between net and dry zone climates and schies only partly upon amgation Thic louco Ganges Valley consists of the allusul soils of the Ganges Bralimaputra Delia and has an abundant rainfall with which to raise its SICC crops Thic Brahmaputra Valley in Assam to the northeast is similarly wet but is not so thickly populated as the ares of the Deits Thic entirc Indogangelic (+ Indus and Ganges) Plain is toored by an alluuum hundreds of fact thick and possesses fex if any hills or natural del sitios Its riscs are fed from the snons of the Himalayas and are quite dry although uning greatly un volume during the seasons The Siwali range of hulls senes 2$ 1 boundary between the Ganges Valley and the Sub liimalasin region The Indian Platcau of the Peninsula can be duided into thice stations, nimely, (1) the coastal areas (?) the region north of the Supura Moun ·1 EX PLATE 2 Lpper The Himalayas near Darjeeling This mights range of mountains with its unpar: heights and scenic splendors as preeminently sacred in Hindu mythology Such overa helming and grandeur an nature with the correlated implication of the weakness and puniness of man pi a deep vein of mysticism in the Hindu (Photograph from Ewing Gallon ay ) Louer Kashmir The Vale of hashmr hemmed in by the Himalayas and the Hindu Mountains is one of the most parad:saical spots on earth, and many travelers have written beauty (Photograph by Deane Dickason from Exing Gallon ay )

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·PLATE 4
Upper Pluck ng tea Ths ndustry was deseloped by Br tish cap tal and enterpr se and
Inked hhe Englsh national tea-dok ng hab Assam Ceylon and the Nights are con er
for th s type of plantat on culture in India.
Loner Bah ng Ghat The ntual of bab ng is mportant n H ndu sors! p and is smilar
our ceremony of baptism by total mmers on

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·IDAGILBERT tuins and sloping down toward the Hindustan Plain, and (3) Peninsular India proper. The coastal regions around the Plateau proper include (a) the Gujarat region dry or moderately dry and hilly in spots; (b) the West Coast region, a natron coastal plain and the slopes of the Western Ghats, which is very net and heavily forested, opening to the eastward by the famous Palaghat Gap, (c) the Tamuload or Tamil ares, a very broad coastal plain with a hilly inland part, moderately net with sain in October, November, and December, and (d) the Northern Carcars, a region which includes Orissa and is a typical coastal plain of the Tropics, moderately wet in character The regions north of the Satpura Mountains include (a) the That on Great Indian Desert, (b) the Rajput Upland region which is moderately dry to very dry, hilly and sloping upuard from the Thar and Punjab plains toward the Satpura Range, and (c) the Central India Poreland or Plateau, a dry area slopiog upuard from the Ganges Plain to the Central India Highlands Peninsular Indsa proper includes (a) the Deccan or high southern part of the Plateau-dry somen hat barren, and thinly populated, (b) the Deccan lava region or the northaestern part of the Plateau dey but with fertile blach soil, fitted for growing cotton and populated to a moderate density. (c) the Northeast Plateau, a complex region with five subdivisions namely (1) Central Indian Highlands, (2) Chota Nagpur Plateau, (3) Eastern Ghats, (4') Chhatisgarh Plain or Mahanadi Valley and (5) the Godavari Valley The greater part of the population of these areas is NA 1 e Before leaving the subject of the topography of India proper it might be worth while to point out that the plains of the Indogangetic segion and the low river valleys are favorite toutes for the Indian railroads and highways The great Grand Trunk Road, running from Peshawar to Cakutta, is famous in British Indian history The railroads of India differ widely un gages and all differ from the standard gage of the United States (4 fect 8 inches) The two broader gages in India are 5 feet 6 inches and 3 feet 3 inches (the meter gage) respectinely The the smaller Eiges are 2 feet 6 inches and 2 feet respectus elç, and are used for local and kull talroads Nearly half the total of the Indian tailroad mileage, or about 41,000 miles, is broad gage The raslroads are important factors in the modern coinmungling of castes ss India and help hold British India together in a way which was not possible during the previous Indian ·"W: 4 PLATES Upper Principal street in Jaipur Rajputana The Maharajah of ruler who founded Jasur tried out various color schemes on the walls of the city s houses and finally decided to ani the entire toun a raspberry pink Lower A station on the railway at Palasa in Madras Thc rails 15 has been a mont important factor in the economic de clopment of India In addition it has helped to cunite castes and bring together men of many different castes (Photograph by Deane Dickason from fxing Galloway ) ·7 INDL}LBERT puas on the sescoast from salt files and pits in Rajputana and from quarties sa the rock salt deposits of the Salt Range in the Pubjab Buchs are made from clays in the alluvul areas especially about Delht Burnt limestone 15 a source of builhng and road stones the scdumentary ascas CLBEATE The Tropre of Cancer crosses India almost halfway bets een its northern and southecamost points and nearly mazs the decision between Perunsular ladia and the ladogangetic Plain. The result is that the whole of the Indian Plateau ss within the Tropics mfule the Indogangetic Plain lies outside the Tropios but near enough to be greatly infuenced by solar radiatuot sa the summer Oning to the disposition of mountan ranges seacoast and sind directions, the Indogangenk area participates in the tropical beat to a far greater extent than might be expected from its Latitude The monsoon winds are seasonal air traversents blowing alternately from the southnest and the northeast The southnest monsoon reaches the coasts and regions saland dursag the period from May to October and bangs rain to the parched souls It is in fact the sainstay of the Mater supply for cops ta about fire sixths of India. The northeast mon SKG wbuch blous ductag the repia,adet of the year brings 1312 only to the southeast of the Peninsula and to northern Ceylon when the monsoons [21] crops are not obtained and famine ensues When they result in cloudbursts and foods crops are again ruined and the devasta bon is likely to calminate in tarune The region of the upper Ganges and eastert Punjab belongs to the humid subtropical type of climate. It is characterized by Barm sumers and mild Hinters The character of the Indus Valley ranges from a dry tropscal and subtropical desert ca the lower valley to a somes hat Sess dry tropical and subtropical steppe in the upper indus Characteristic also of the Western Ghats are the cathes dry tropical and subtropical steppes or short grass land The rest of the pisteru is mainly of a fairly tooist tropical savanna type of climate with parklike landscape of grassland interspersed with trees The west coast from Bombay southward is a region of steady tropical rainfall similar to that of the Amazon the Congo or the East Indies A simuels: tropical rainy climate and corresponding rain forest is found in loner Ceylon and eastern Bengal VEGETATION The coasts of India are in many places clothed by hidal forests of man grote trees & foem of segetation requnng that its roots be cosered with ·6 VAR BACKGROUND STUDIES, NO 18 empires The cronomic importance of the Indian railroads places that country decades ahead of China off the southern tip of India lics the island of Ceylon, 1 separate colony which, although physiographically complex, may be daided into three major arcas (a) the Central Hills consisting of old, hard rocks and rc ceiving a good rainfall, (b) the Coastal Plain of the south, flat sth cquable temperatures but variable rainfall, and (c) the Northern Lime stone Plain which is fat, dry, and possessed of poor soils In general Ceylon, exposed to both the southa est and the northeast monsoons has a fairis heavy rainfall GEOLOGY The alluvium of the Indogangetic Plain is a natural soil formed by the mixture of many kinds of crumbled rock There are hard limestone pieces in the generally soft allusium called hankar aluch are used for building roads in the main this is a major arca of fertile soils in India and the scat of its most marked population concentration The Indian Plateau is mainly formed of metamorphuc and crystalline rochs, together with some granites, other igneous rochs und sandstone Around the edge of the plateau are some old sedimentary rocks which are important basins or troughs carrying coal scams There are also cnormous shects of lava in the norths estern Deccan which are spolen of as the Deccan Trap Thesclavas form the basis of the dark and fertile soil known as blach cotton soil The saluable ores of gold, silver,' tin copper, lead zinc and occasion ally tron occur in connection with cracks in the crystalline rocks The Kolar Goldficids in Mysore arc well known Manganese is extracted in the Central Provinces, Madras and Orissa Chromite occurs in Madras Mysorc, and Bihar Copper is extracted in the Singhbhum area of Bihar Iron orc is worked in many parts of India, but large first class smelters cxist in Tatanagar and Jamshedpur in the Chota Nagpur Platcau and in Alysace Permitiis ole nocking clsea here in India involves smelting by charcoal obtained from nearby forests Mica is found in Bengal and Madras Oil has been found in the net et sedimentary rochs in the Punjab near Attock and at Digboi in Assam Coil occurs at the edge of the Chota Nagpur Plateau in the Jhara and Ranigan, fields in the Godavani Valles, and at Daltonginį in Bihar' Salt is obtained from caporaling 1 The tendency of the Indian Kisant to board silver in hard times us a recognized economic problem Gold is not hourde * Exploitation of coal has been primarily by Tutorean cari al fun and seth by Indian apital ·INDLIGILBERT greatest commercial crop of the Deccan and finds its major outlets at the seaports of Bombay and Vadras. Its role as a primary source of clothing for India can hardly be Olerestimated Jute is grona extensnely in the lower Ganges Valley and is the source of our butlap sachss Most of the cultnated areas in India depend upon irrigation to sur plement the rainfall The mers and plans of northern India are peculiarly fitted for the development of great systems of canal vigation because the snow led streams provide a never failing source of water On the louet Indus canals are filled only when the mer as in food! On the Pen nsula ertigation canals have been constructed at the deltas of the sarious riters such as the Mahanadı Godaan histna and Cauvery The interior of the Peninsula depends for its irrigation chiefs upon artificial basins called tanks which are filled during the seasonal floods Later the stored water is let out into the fields as needed during the dry periods by means of a neta orh of canals In areas where the rainfall is over 80 inches a year and where owing to the hilly or broken nature of the ground clearing for rice cultivation has not taken place forests of many large trees with very hard wood pic to be found These are spoken of as evergreen forests and are located in the Western Ghats slopes the wetter Himalayan slopes right up to 5000 Seet the hills of Assam, and the hrgher areas of Ceylo? The wood of these forests is chiefy used for fuel A great part of the Decran plateaus in the south of india and the loner slopes of the Himalayan mountain wall are clothed with monsoon forests in these areas the rainfall us more than 40 inches but less than 80 inches per year and the forests become vers dry durine the hont "Ourely Idluable and are consequently cesered (or govern ment use Teah gro is in these forests along the western parts of the Peninsula and the bamboo grous everywhese The valuable sal tree gross in these forests along the forer slopes of the Himalayas and in the north cost of the platou The dreaded Terze os impenetrable band of forest land stretching for hundreds of miles along the Himalayan foothills 15 a monsoon forest Uapleasant accounts are rendered of the giant leeches malat al mosquitoes and voracious tigers that populate the Terai In areas where the rainfall is less than 40 inches per year occur the SJeanni or stub forests in these gronths the scattered trees are most) > LaTEs gte orned by Ind ans ·& WAR RACKGROUND STUDIES NO 19 salt water at a cry high tide In the muddy flats of the Ganges Delta along the Bengalese seaboard are the Sundarbans the best example of this type of plant association in India Most of the Indogangetic Plain and the eastern and western coastlands constitute the cultivated areas of India In addition parts of the fertile plateau in the northern sections of the Western Ghats must be added to this category Rice is the cultivated stapic of the cast and west coasts and of the lower Ganges Valley Wheat and allied cereals are the staples of the rest of the Indogangetic Plain and of the cultivated inland plateau areas Several species of paims are found in conjunction with most of the lou land cultnated areas The coconut palm occurs along the well watered sandy coasts as well as in parts of the interior, and is the source of copra and coir The palmyra palm is chiefly of value is a source of toddy, which is the sap drawn from the flower stalk and someu fut for mented The areca palm cultivated in Bengal and elsewhere yields a nut which is chened all over the Far East along aith the leaf of the betel or pepper vine A species of date palm found particularly in Bengal is one of the chief sources of jaggery or natise sugar The truc date palm flourishes only in the dry hot climate of Sind The wood of all the palms is used for buildings and the lezies make excellent thatch Various supplementary food crops grown in the cultivated arcas arc millets cholum or jowar cumbu or bajra and rag Thiese are staples for the poorer classes Peis und barley sone to supplement these crops and various vegetables such as the su ectpotato and the cosplant are groun On the plains tropical fruits--bananas and mangoes oranges and limes as well as other items--are raised on the platcius and Bulls flourish European and American fruits such 25 apples peurs plums and strau berries Oil seeds in several varieties are cultivated and of these the most im portant are linseed capesceu scsame cottonsecu mustard seed castor scout and groundnuts Oil cahe a food for cattle is made from the dry residuc of the seeds after the oil has been extracted Tea growing is a major European ou nied industry in the Assam forests and coffee is grown in the Mysore arca Spices (ginger gespes and con namon) arc raised over large parts of Indu (for food seasoning purposes and betel chewing) but more particularly on the Malabar (oast and Ceylon In carlier days there existed a trade betueen India and the Space Islands of the East Inches from which still more Jistincte products of this type (closes and nutmes) were obtained Opium is grown under foucrament license in parts of India as uell as In lian liemp from which hashish or our own more familiar marijuana are olxaincu Coxton is the ·INDAGILBERT throughout the entire length of the Himalayas at heights of over 5,000 feet. The wild dog, which hunts in packs, is found in the forests of Assam The wild elephant dxells in the forests of castern Bengal and Assim, in Ceylon, and to a lesser extent in the Peninsula The large one horned thinoceras lives in the north India allussal plain, while from Assam south to the Balay Peninsuls occurs the thahoraed rhinoceros Gaur are met with in the hell jungles of south India, and the wild buffalo 151 Assame Monkeys abound in the forests as do also several species of deer The leopard lurks in the casebrahes along the Ganges The open grasslands and semidesest areas have their characteristic anı mials such as the cheetah or hunting leopard of the Deccan, the wolf and hyena, the jackal, wild hog, the antelope of the coastal flats in Gujarat and Orissa, and the wild ass of Sind and Cutch (Kach) On the higher hålls are to be found the bes, wild sheep, and wild goats. The forests agala are notable for their burds, which are on the whole more esteemed for their plumage tfian for their songs Many kinds of parrots abound, and there are talking starlings or monas, peacochs, pheas ants and the wild jungle fowl from which our domestic poultry of the vest are sud to have been derived The religiously sacred cobra is perhaps the most notable of Indias humcrous snakes which acous both on land and water The blunt-nosed crorodile infests seampy nyers and backa aters The ners are a ell sup pled with fish of many varieties as are also the tanks The mahseer or indian trout found in the hill streams, grows to a great size The hilsa, or Indian shad abounds in the streams of the Ganges Delta Salt water fish are abundant about the coasts and furnish a source of livelihood for many thousands of destructure insects, the most notable are the termutes or a hue ants whose destruction of wooden structures and books is only too well knoon. In addition the locust frequently wreaks havoc on crops and vegetation of all kinds Domestic animals are prominent in the cultivated and pastoral areas Asses and mules, most numerous to the Punjab, are used for army transport in hilly districts Horses and podles also concentrate in the Punjab and are also numerous in the United Provinces and the Central Provinces The gagal or Induza cattle abound throughout the agricultural areas and possess disease resistant qualınes which led to their importation into the Uruted States for cross breeding with the native stock, Sheep are most funerows in Madsas and the Punjab, while goats are most abundant in the United Provinces and next most numerous in the Punjab and Madras The camel 15 copioner than the borse in Sind and is also found in great use in the Punjab and the Northwest Frontier Province ·10 YAP B16CFOUND STUDIES, 10 15 type armed with spires or thoms ahich preveri their besng cated by animals Smull torry trees of this sot rrale up 3 thon forest Frequently the plasts become mere brushes and are found screted far apart. This UPC of dry region is similar to the sunnas of Africa in a hich grass cos most of the area beth cen shrubs One of the trees in this of tegetation, known in India as the 'dhal furnishes a yellos dis, but most are of Irule economic valus Much of assem Rajputana and Mysore is covered with vegetation of this sort Regions of India receiving less than 30 inches of rainfall per jaar arc unforested and incultivated These are deserts or strideserts frass lands such as occur in a estern Rajpllana and rest of the Indus Roser The ſen plants are prouded with thick feshe stems or leases and long roors which reach doanward in*o the ground for mossture Patchms of trum frassland occur in hills regions beta ten rronsoon for The chef use of these areas is for pasturage The only other vegetational types found in India asc tlz- mountain forests and alpine flora of the high Himalayas abore 3000 feet These upland forests are like those of the Tempetz'e Zons, with some conifers and broad leased trees such as oaks Some tall trees with needle shaped leaves con stitu*e conifcrous of pine forests in these areas On the sety highest slopes areas of alpine shrubs and short grasses merge irio rocks and snort *25*cs 2t about 18 000 feet Th- forest produas of Indu are importar for building houses ships and other servis of arpeness firexood is provided by the poorer trees su h as thr mangrores and chergreens and smaller trees Lac the sicky substance that forms the basis of shellsc, is produced by insects Inuing on forest trees 10 th northeast of the plateau and is collected by forest tribes fuld silk from the tusseh moth 15 also collected in the forested areas Timber is al in the dry season and drassed by clephart or bufialo to small stream beds Thinse loos are formed in the ast season to misers and formand iroo rafts a luch are conicred 2* sumills in'o planks It is im potart to nore tha: 191 real the forests are found in bulls regions and this is helpful in trang the distribu'son and hubuts of the full tribing or finire folk ADAL3 wild aurals abound in the thich forests of the hill courity and in th“ Jess densely popula*ed areas Tyrol of the lo es: 210 the tiger loped stath bear of Irdia beat, ir other carr:50's This tiny spXcalizm 12 halaung the jungles of the Surdurbars the Tea! the forests of cero-31 India, and the Western Ghi's Th- llimalayan o Tibe27 8.7 bear somente ·11 INDIA-GILBERT throughout the entire length of the Himalayas at heights of over 5,000 feet The wild dog, nhich hunts in packs, as found in the forests of Assam The wild elephant daells in the forests of eastern Bengal and Assach, 10 Ceylon, and to a lesser extent in the Perunsula The large onc horned thinoceros lives in the north Indta alluvial plan, while from Assam south to the Malay Peninsula occurs the two-borded thinoceros Gaur are met aith in the hill jungles of south India, and the wild buffalo 18 Assam. Monkeys abound in the forests as do also ser tral spears of deer The leopard lurks in the canebrakes aloog the Ganges The open grasslands and semidesert areas have their characteristic ant mals such as the cheetah or hunting leopard of the Deccan, the wolf and hyena the fachal wild hog, the antelope of the coastal flats in Gujarat and Onssa, and the wild ass of Sind and Cutch (Kach) On the lugher hills are to be found the ibex, auld sheep, and wild goats, The forests agaio are cotable for their burds, which are on the whole more esteemed for their plumage than for their songs Many kinds of parrots abound, and there are talking starlings or mynas, peacocks, pheas ants and the wild jungle forl from which our domestic poultry of the West are said to have been derived The religiously sacred cobra is perhaps the most notable of India's Qunicrous snakes which occur both on fand and in water 'The blunt nosed crocodile infests swampy rivers and backa aters The Iners are well sup plied with ash of many varieties, as are also the tanks The mahseer or Indian trout found in the hill streams, grows to a great size The hilsa, or Indian shad abounds in the streams of the Ganges Delta Salt water fish are abundant about the coasts and furush a source of livelihood for many thousands of destructive inserts, the most notable are the termites or white ants shose destruction of wooden structures and books is only too well known In addition the locust frequently wreaks havoc on Crops and vegetation of all kinds Domestic animals are prominent in the cultivated and pastosal areas Asses and mules, most numerous the Punjab, are used for army transport in hilly districts Horses and popies also concentrate in the Punjab and are also numerous in the Uarted Provinces and the Central Provinces The gagal or Indian cattle abound throughout the agricultural ateas and possess disease resistant qualities which led to their importation into the United States for cross breeding wh the native stock Sheep 25e most pumerous in Madras and the Punjab, while goats are most abundant in the Unsted Provinces and next tost numitous in the Punjab and Madras The camel 1 commoner than the bosse in Sind and is also found in great use in the Punjab and the Northnest Frontier Protioce ·10 WAR BACKGROUND STUDIES, NO 18 armed with spines or thorns which prevent their being eaten by animals Small thorny trees of this sort make up a thorn forest Frequently the plants become mere bushes and are found scattered far apart This type of dry region is similar to the savannas of Africa in which grass covers most of the area between shrubs One of the trees in this type of vegetation, known in India as the "dhak,' furnishes a yellow dge, but most are of little economic value Much of eastern Rajputana and Mysore is covered with vegetation of this sort Regions of India receiving less than 30 inches of rainfall per year are unforested and uncultivated These are deserts or semideserts, grass lands such as occur in western Rajputana and rest of the Indus River The few plants are provided aith thich fleshy stems or leaves and long roots which reach downward into the ground for moisture Patches of true grassland occur in hilly regions between monsoon forests The chief use of these areas is for pasturage The only other vegetational types found in India are the mountain forests and alpine flora of the high Himalayas above 5,000 feet These upland forests are like those of the Temperate Zone, sith some conifers and broad leaved trees such as oaks Some tall trees with needle shaped leaves con stitute coniferous or pine forests in these areas On the very highest slopes areas of alpine shrubs and short grasses merge into rocks and snowy at about 18,000 feet The forest products of India are important for building houses, ships and other items of carpentry Firewood is provided by the poorer trees such as the mangroves and evergreens and smaller trees Lac, the sticky substance that forms the basis of shellac, is produced by insects living on forest trees in the northeast of the plateau and is collected by forest tribes Wild silk from the tussah moth is also collected in the forested areas Timber is cut in the dry season and dragged by elephant or buffalo to small stream beds These logs are floated in the wet season to rivers and formed into rafts which are converted at sas mills into planks It is im portant to note that, in general, the forests are found in hulle regions and this is helpful in tracing the distribution and habits of the hill tribes or Wastes primitive folk ANIMALS Wild animals abound in the thick forests of the hill country and in the less densely populated areas Typical of the forest are the tiger, leopard sloth bear or Indian bear, and other carnivores The tiger specializes in haunting the jungles of the Sundarbans, the Terai, the forests of central India, and the Western Ghats The Himalayan or Tibetan sun bear ranges

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·12 WAR BACKGROUND STUDIES, NO 18 The ox and the sheep supplement each other The 25 million sheep range mainly in the dryer areas of the south and west on grassland or waste on which cattle cannot subsist Goats also feed on the poorer grasses or shrubs In the wet areas of Bengal the buffalo is used for rice field plowing Bullock and buffalo carts are employed to carry field crops to market There are less than 2 million horses or ponies in the entire area of India as compared with 30 million buffalo and perhaps 145 million oxen NATURAL REGIONS The geographic areas within India which are of ethnic significance can be divided into two groups, namely, the lowlands and the uplands The lowland areas include Sind, Punjab, United Provinces, Bihar, Bengal, Assam, Orissa, Telingana, Tamilnad, Malabar, and Gujarat The inghland areas include Kashmir, Nepal Rajputana, Central India, Central Prov inces, Hyderabad, Maharashtra, and Mysore Sind is a flat, barren area entirely dependent upon the Indus River for its existence Only the land within immediate reach of the river and its tributaries is irrigated Punjab consists of a series of parallel mer valleys which are tributaries of the Indus The Aat plain eastward, vaguely divisible into the area of the Ganges (Oudh) and that of its tributary, the Jumna (Agra), is not greatly different from the Punjab Bihar consists primarily of the north and south banks of the middle course of the Ganges The flat delta of the Ganges and the Brahmaputra forms the plain of Bengal, and farther eastward the narrow valley of the Brahmaputra constitutes the basic territory for Assam To the southwest of Bengal is the valley of the Mahanadı River which together with the adjoining coastlands forms the territory of Orissa The coastal areas of the Northern Cırcars and the valleys of the Kistna and Godavari Rivers form the area of Telingana or Andhra, nos divided politically between Madras and Hyderabad Still farther south the constal plain, including the Cauvers, Penner, Palar, and Valgai Revers, forms the territory of the Tamils or Tamilnad On the west coast the long narrow strip of lowland is spoken of as Kerala or the Malabar Coast and is divided politically into the south ern native states of Travancore and Cochin and the British areas of South Canara, Malabar, and British Cochin The essential unity of this area is indicated by the distribution of the Malayalam language Finally the nas row coastal plain northward of Goi together with the areas about the Gulf of Cambay and Rann of Cutch-Gujarat, Kathiawar and Cutchform a series of adjoining lowland areas The highland areas of India include, first, the sale of Kaslımır, i basın ·15 INDIA-GILBERT MATERIAL CULTURE The clothing of Jodia hus, from time immemonai, been made par marily from coton, although silk, sool, and other materials have also becer employed. The tendency to use wrap around clothes is charac teristic, and the female sant, a typical example, consists merely of a sectangular piece of doth draped about the bgure and pues the head in becoming fashion Castes, sects, and other units are distinguished by the style, color, and materials of their clothing In Borrbay the type of turban has been particularly symbolic of one's caste The basic article of clothing for noen is the loincloth (dhoti) which constitutes the solc article of apparel of south Indian laboress when they are at work. The sheet or cumble and the course blanket are used to supplement the loin cloth Trousers (pajamas), jackets, coats, and rests, skull caps, and 21st bands or sashes are characteristic of Muslims in India. Forest tubes forterly ager les amante - IT. Sull, tenacioth (Bombay), breast covering (Bombay), long robe, and the simplified widows attice The lonet castes in southern lodus wete formerly restricted by custam from weating garments above the waist Clothuas varies by climate, and to the coolet northwest more use is made of woolen ratenials Shoes, slippers and sandals ate somn as Sootgear The house types of the village are commonly fous salls of mud aith an carthen door and a roof of grass, and the furniture is scant by estern Standards The type of house is dependent Torgely upon the la the rainless the roofs are w suuping lo Maharashtra the roofs ate fat and houses are huddled togethet, surrounded by a wall with a central ghatn or fort In Hindustan clay or unburnt bricks predominate as house materials, although doorways and window frames are of nood Roofs are acci sionally of day tila in Bengal the cottage of cane of bamboo walls With the cursed and thatched soof predominates in Telingana the houses are built of adhesive carth or day la a rectangular or square patterth The walls de seared with red earth, dod there are per pendicular bands of slated Iloe The pytarıdal roof is made of palmyra jeaves or of grass in the Northess Carcats nearby, the houses ase of mod or brick sath tiled of thatched roofs Agable is constructed of jungle rood or bamboo Near the mouth of the Kustna River, circular Kalls of adhesit earth are used in house buiding in the Ceded Dis Inicts, the houses ase stones alled sith Alst roofs of slabs, and there 15 ·14 WAR BACKGROUND STUDIES, NO 18 Neolithic remains are separated by a wide gap from the paleolithic relics in observed sites Ground and smoothly polished implements, such as celts, are characteristic. There are also chisels, adzes, mace heads, arrowheads, cores, and scrapers Dark colored trap rock was preferred as material for tools, but chert, agate, chalcedony, and rock crystal were also employed Pygmy flints are widespread in neolithic finds Implements of copper have been found over a wide area from Bengal to Baluchistan, but bronze smplements are scarce In southern India and Ceylon the Stone Age seems to have passed directly into the Iron Age Copper celts, swords, harpoons, chisels, and spearheads have been found In the hills of Chota Nagpur and in Kathrawar, primitive copper workings have been discovered In 1922 the remains of the Indus avilization began to be uncovered in the valley of that name The culture of the people in this period shows affinities with the Sumerian It was based on bronze tools, and in the construction of houses and other buildings a remarkable standard of sanitation seems to have been attained Pottery made on the wheel was plentiful The Iron Age in India has been associated with the historic Vedic period in the north and with the Dravidians in the south Archeological remains in the form of architectural structures demonstrate the existence of definite periods of culture des elopment within historic times Dressed stone work was introduced into India at the time of Asoka (250 BC”) during the Buddhist period and shows Greek influence During the Sunga period (180 70 BC) the famous railings of Bharhut, Buddh Gaya, and Sanchi nere constructed Rock cut temples with chaityas or chapels and viharas or monasteries were built, the latter resembling the Christian basilicas Notable examples occur at Ajanta, Ellora, Nasık, and Karl During the Gupta period in the fourth century AD, three major styles of architecture emerged, the Indo Aryan of Hindustan, the south ern or Dravidian, and the intermediate or Chalukyan The Indo-Aryan style possessed' a curvilinear steepie rising above a square sanctuary The Jain temples built in this style make a fine use of column and lintel The southern style is characterized by a pyramidal toner rising story upon story in horizontal bands and crowned by a domical roof The Chalukyan style combines a low pyramıd form reminiscent of the south with the perpendicular lines of the north From about A D 1200 a new form of architecture, consisting of domes and pointed arches, appears with the coming of the Muslims The Taj Mahal and Humayun's tomb stand as monuments to this des elopment ·1 INDLAMBERT MATERIAL CULTURE The dothing of India has, from time immemorial, been made pri matile from cotton although siłk, wool, and other materials have also been employed The tendency to use wrap around dothes is charac teristic, and the female sati, a typical example, consists merely of a rectangular piece of cloth draped about the figure and over the head in becoming fashion Castes, sects, and other units are distinguished by the style, color and materials of their clothing lo Bombay the typic of turban has been particularly symbolic of one's caste The basit anul of clothing for men is the loincloth (dhoti) which constitutes the sole article of apparel of south Indian laborers when they are as sock The sheet or cumbli and the course blanket are used to supplement the loin cloth Trousers (pajamas), jachets, costs, and rests, skull caps, and waist bands or sashes are characteristic of Muslims in India forest tribes formerly wore leaf garments, and children up to 3 or 4 years of age may wear no clothing at all. European clothing is now frequent in the cities The basic garments of somen are the bodice of chols, the petticoat 3.271 headdoth (Bombay) breast covering (Bombay), long robe, and the simplified widow s attire The lonet castes in southern India wese formerly restricted by custom from caring garments above the waist Clothing vanes by curate and in the cooler nonha est more use is made of woolen matenais Shoes slippers and sandals zse won as footgear The house types of the ulage are conamonly fout walls of mudith an eartheu hoor and a roof of grass, and the furniture is scant by western standards The type of house 15 dependent largely upon the local materials available for construction and the climate in the rainless Punjab roofs are of mud and fat, while 19 rany Bengal the roofs are thatched and sloping in Maharashtra the roofs are fat and houses are huddled together, surrounded by a mall asth a central gharı or fort In Hindustan clay or uabusar bricks predopunate as house materials although doors ays and window frases are of nood Rools are occa sionally of clay ule in Bengal the cottage of cane ot bamboo walls *ith trim cured and thatched roof predominates In Telingana the houses are butt of adhesis turth of clay in 1 rectangular or squire parters The walls are smesred 11th red earth, and there are per pendicular bands of slaked lwe The prozradil roof is spade of palmyra kares or of grass in the Northeta Cugat Ruby, the houses are of nud or brick sth tiled ot thatched roofs A gable is constructed of jungle wood or bamboo Ness the mouth of the Kistna Reyes, excculas Ralls of adhesive earth are used in house building in the Ceded Dis tricts the houses are stone willed with fiat roofs of slabs, and there is ·14 WAR BACKGROUND STUDIES, NO 18 Neolithic remains are separated by a wide gap from the paleolithic relics in observed sites Ground and smoothly polished implements, such as celts, are characteristic There are also chisels, adzes, mace heads, arrowheads, cores, and scrapers Dark colored trap rock was preferred as material for tools, but chert, agate, chalcedony, and rock crystal were also employed Pygmy flints are widespread in neolithic finds Implements of copper have been found over a wide area from Bengal to Baluchistan, but bronze implements are scarce in southern India and Ceylon the Stone Age seems to have passed directly into the Iron Age Copper celts, swords, harpoons, chisels, and spearheads have been found In the hills of Chota Nagpur and in Kathiawar, primitive copper workings have been discovered In 1922 the remains of the Indus civilization began to be uncovered in the valley of that name The culture of the people in this period shows affinities with the Sumerian It was based on bronze tools, and in the construction of houses and other buildings a remarkable standard of sanitation seems to have been attained Pottery made on the wheel was plentiful The Iron Age in India has been associated with the historic Vedic period in the north and with the Dravidians in the south Archeological remains in the form of architectural structures dernonstrate the existence of definite periods of culture development within historic times Dressed stone work was introduced into India at the time of Asoka (250 BC?) during the Buddhist period and shows Greek influence During the Sunga period (180 70 BC) the famous railings of Bharhut, Buddh Gaza, and Sanchi were constructed Rock cut temples with chaityas or chapels and viharas or monasteries were built, the latter resembling the Christian basilicas Notable examples occur at Ajanta, Ellora, Nasık, and Karlı During the Gupta period in the fourth century AD, three major styles of architecture emerged, the Indo Aryan of Hindustan, the south ern or Dravidian, and the intermediate or Chalukyan The Indo-Aryan style possessed a curvilinear steeple sising above a square sanctuary The Jain temples built in this style make a fine use of column and lintel The southern style is characterized by a pyramıdal tower rising story upon story in horizontal bands and crowned by a domical roof The Chalukyan style combines a low pyramıd form reminiscent of the south with the perpendicular lines of the north From about A D 1200 a new form of architecture, consisting of domes and pointed arches, appears with the coming of the Muslims The Taj Mahal and Humayun's tomb stand as monuments to this development ·INDIAGLBERT dabad, silk bandann3s at Murshidabad and d[aldah silk fabrics in double wearing of colors at Poona and Yeola The manufacture of soolen Lush mit shan's * is a specialty of Amntsar in Ludluana Brass, copper, and bell metal Hosk centered in Nassh, Poons, Hyderabad (Deccan), Vizagapitum, and Tasjore Danekening for armor, shields, and other weapons as carried on in Cuich sind, aad Panjab touns, such as Sialkot, Kodit and Lahore The towns of Rajputana excelled in enameled penelry and stone caning Kasamur specsakzed in papier maché work and Agra in marble inlay Cotton manufacturing centesed in Dacca, Masulipatama, and the Corona del Coast, as hell as in Gujarat Most of these crafts have fallen into decay in the last century The poduction of artwork has often insolsed the state cooperation of Aluslim craftsmen and Hindu capitalists The former introduced needle york on a large scale ato India, and the Punjab darnstitch method for phulkan erbradery) work is attributed to the lats RACIAL TYPES The physical types of the people of India show a wide range in all the characteristic features of skin color nose and head form, hur, and statuce Yet in sorse featutes the range is 1ery small, as in eye and hair color The color of the skia ranges from the dead black of the Andaman Islanders or the brightes black of the south India peoples to the story skin of the hashmi besuty and the heat color of the higher castes of upper India The latter has been compared with the color of mill slightly ringed with coffee and described as identical with that of the Spanisrd or Italian Count less shales of brown. darket or lighter transparent or opaque, and ire quently tending toward yellow, are encountered Rarely a reddish linge or occasionally a grazish black complexion may pe seen Seclusion or amount of outdoor exposure to the suns says play a great part in affecting the complesson as between the different costes and in terms of their occupa tions Eye and hair color tend to be dark bros n or black eserywhere Grageses appear in the Konkanasth Brahmsas of Bombay, sau pule blue or gray eyes conformed with dask complexions are encountered on the Malabar coast, especially among the Syriza Christians Blue eyes and auburn bait combined aith reddish blond complexion occur on the north nest Stonner The head form tends to be universally trug excepting on the western coastal areas and in Bengal Nose forn and from narrar in the northwest to broad in the south The cathiest inhabitants of India ate conjectured to have been al 3 Negrito or Pygmy Negroid type 51mlar to the Andaman Islanders and Sun tuag today in the Kadars and Uralıs of the furests in the extratie ·16 WAR BACKGROUND STUDIES, NO 18 no central courtyard in the Karnatic mud walls and thatching with grass or palm leaf suffice for a house In the Tamil area there is a central courtyard for free ventilation and sunshine, and a gently sloping gable Bricks are occasionally used in walls, and tiles in roofs, especially in the north on the west coast in Malabar houses have stecp gables with large storage lofts and are constructed of wood In Canara above Hutryhur the back of the house is formed by raising a very high wall on which a long sloping roof rests In Telingana, as in Maharashtra, houses are detached single structures clustered around a gharst In the Himalayas stone and wood planks may be used in house building Water navigation in India has given rise to a great variety of bort types On the Indus are to be found rafts, stuffed skin floats with reeds or straw inside, inflated skins, barges, and other types Throughout the southern coasts of India dugout canoes are used Sometimes a double platform canoe with a floor of boards laid across it makes a larger boat in Cochin the snake boat 60 feet long, is used to navigate the backwaters Outrigger canoes are used on the Malabar Coast and in the Nicobars Plank boats are found on all the seacoasts On the east coast catamarans are made from three logs fastened together Dugout canoes and large flat bottomed boits are used on the Ganges The paddle, pole, and sail are principal means of propulsion Steam, oil, and gasoline propelled boats are non frequent Transportation on land was until recently by means of the horse, bulloch, and elephant Several varieties of ox and horse drawn vehicles occur in Hindustan The hackery or garry has two wheels with a high axle and 1 long platform Two bamboo poles join in front and two oxen are yohed to it Wheels may be of stone or solid wood, and a domed roof may be present in the vehicles of the sell to do The ehha, a one horse carriage with canopied roof, and the tonga, a two wheeled horse drawn convey ance with back to bach seats are frequently seen in former times the palanquin borne on the shoulders of bearers was much used for travel in the cities gasoline trucks, buses, and automobiles are non common as well as electric street railways The temples and royal courts of India have been in the past centers for the manufacture of art products In south India where the temple indus tries were best developed, many varieties of fine goods were turned out The courts at Lucknow, Tanjore, Dacca, and Benares were centers of fine handicrafts At Benares copper and brassware and utensils of worship were manufactured At Dacca fine muslins were produced for court dur bars In cotton fabrics the following specialties are recorded Chintzes in Lucknow, cholis in Ahmadabad, silk bordered cloths in Nagpur and Umrer, fabrics at Madura Silk brocades were made at Benares and Ahma ·17 INDLA-GILBERT dabad, stk banlinnas a Murshidabad and Maldah, silk fiones in double Nesring af colors af Poona and Yeola. The manufacture of woolen kush mur skuads Ras a specialty of Assistsze in Ludhiana Brass, copper, and bell metal work centered Nasih, Poonz, Hyderabad (Deccan), Vizagaputan, and Tanjore Damascening for amor, shields, and other theaports wis carried on in Cutch, Sind, and Punjab towns, such as Sialkot, Koth and Lahare The towns of Rajputana excelled in enameled senelry and stone caring Kashmir specialized in papier maché norh and Agra in marble «olas Cataa manufacturing centered in Dacca Masulipatam, and the Coromandel Coast as well as in Gujarat Most of these crafts have fallen sota decay in the last century The production of asta ock has often involved the intimate cooperation of Muslims craftsmen and Hindu capitalists. The former introduced nerdic work on 2 large scale into India, and the Punjab darnstsch method for phulkara (embroidery) Kork is attributed to the lats RACIAL TYPES The physical espes of the people of India shox a wide ranke in there ww ws We Salut Langes from the dead black of the Andaman Islanders Or the brighrer black of the south India peoples to the sony skin of the hashmasa beauty and the heat color of the higher Castes of upper India The lacces has been compared with the color of milk slightly tinged with coffee and described as identical with that of the Spaniard or Italian Count less shades of broxn, dether or lighter, transparent or opaque, and tre quently tending toward yellow are encountered Rarely a reddish tinge or occasionally a graysh black complexion may be see? Seclusion or amount of outdoor exposure to the suns rays play a great part in affecting the complexion as beta cen the different castes and in terms of their occupa trons Eye and hase colos tend to be dirk brown or black merywhere Gray ces appeas sa ibe Knokanasth Brahmans of Bombay, and pale blue of gray yet conjoined Rith dark complexions are encountered on the Malabar Coast, especially among the Syriza Christians Blue eyes and auburn hair combined Rith reddish blond complexion occur on the north mest frontier The head fort tends to be universally long excepting on the stestern coastal areas and in Bengal Nose for sanes from natrow in the northeast to broad in the south The earhest mohabitants of india are conature to have been of a Negris my Negroud type similar to the Andaman Islanders and sufisting today in the Radars and Vialts of the forests at the extreme ·18 VAR BACKGROUND STUDIES, NO 18 southern part of India, who show frizzly hair and short stature Other remains of this race appear in the inaccessible forested areas between Assam and Burma, where dwarfish stature is again combined with frizzly hair Facther eastward the type recurs in the Malay Peninsula and in the Philippine Islands At an early period the original Negrito inhabitants were displaced or absorbed by a medium statuted dark race which most resembled the present aborigines of Australia and is called, therefore, Australoid Examples of the type occur from Kashmir to Cape Cormorin and from Kalat to the Karenni, especially among lower castes and in the south of India Some believe this type had its origin west of India while the Negrito may have appeared from the cast Pottery may have been introduced by the Australoid group As it appears today, the Indian Australoid or Proto Australoid, is sather short, moderately high headed with strongly marked brow ridges, a broad, short face, the mouth inclined forward, and the nose small and flat with the alae extended The hair varies from wavy to curly, and the skın colot is a shade of dark chocolate brown approaching black The type predominates among the aboriginal tribes of central and southern India (in Chota Nagpur especially), but also enters into the lower strata everywhere it is allied to the Veddas in Ceylon, the Toalas of Celebes, and the Sakai of the Malay Peninsula The Bhils of the Vindhya Mountains and the Chenchus of the Farhabad Hills are good representatives A third element in the racial typology of India is a strain similar to the Mediterranean peoples of southern Europe The general characteristics are short stature, long head with high cranial vault, but faintly marked bony eyebrow ridges, broad, short face with nonprojecting jans, medium lips, prominent nose but with wings moderately spread out and intermediate between broad and narrow nosed types, a skin color varying from light brown in the Telugu Brahman to a dark tawny brown among the Kallan, dark brown eyes, and black straight hair inclined occasionally to waviness and moderately distributed on face and body This element is predominant in the greater part of the lower stratum of the population in north India, including the Punjab Examples of this type are found in the Chuhra and Chamar of upper India and the Ilusas of Cochin This race is spoken of as Dravidian by Risley and is abundant in South India and Ceylon A fourth racial type is generally reminiscent of the Nordic type of Europe, excepting that the complexion is more brunet Its traits include long headedness, a tall stature, a long face, prominent, narron nose, usually straight hair, sith body and head hair well developed, and occa sional light eyes or hair Among the Kaffors and the Pathans the skin color of this type is mainly a rosy white tint, and an appreciable number ·19 INDLA-GILBERT possess gray blue eyes and chestnut half Among the Sikhs of the Punjab and the Brahrnacs of the United Provinces the skin color changes to ? light transparent brosn, but een here and farther south there is a small proportion of persons having light efes and brownish hai This type seems to be most abundist among the higher castes of northern India and is spoken of as Indo-Aryan by Risley It occurs also in Ceylon Sull a filth racial type found in India may be spoken of as Alpine in accordance with its resemblance to this corresponding type in Europe It is characterized by medium stature, Rattened ocaput, high head, and fre quently receding forehead, short and broad face, a long nose which is high puched but often arched and convex, and skin color varying from a pale white or light brown among the Nagar Brahmans to tasny brown among the Kannada non Brahmans A small percentage only show's light eyes and dark brown hair in place of black Body and head hair are well devel oped and the latter is usually straight, Good representatives are found among the Nagar Brahmans of Guztar, Kayasthes of Bengal, and the hannada no Brahmans This represents Resley Scytho Dravidian type It «s most abundant in the western coastal area. In add nion to the five elements just mentioned a sixth racial type enters into the population of the areas bordering Burma and Tibet, the Mon golia This type is characterized by medium stature longish to broad head medium nose and the typically Mongoloid eyes, haur, and com plexion. It is best representert moon the . From the beginning of seems to have been occupie long face and narrow pr find another very powerfu, MdL5, duso long headed but with loner Cr2012! vault. A type with broader head and apparenti, Armenosd in character came later and is found mostly at Harappa The distribution of the broad headed faces today is mainly in areas which would seem in indicate entrance satn the The broad beaded ty. origin is now thou me vanem at the Alpine type from the rest TEMPERAMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS Certura shared traits common to the ladsan propies have been mentioned by European observers Among these traits the following may be noted Conservansm and sorship of precedent of custom a low estimate of the value of time which leads to topunctuality and inanite patience, a love of izzat of social esteen leading to an intense jealousy regarding social ·20 WAR BACKGROUND STUDIES, NO 18 station and precedence, an excess of politeness which results in Battery rather than enlightenment, 2 development of religious sentiments to an unusual degree and a highly characteristic other worldliness, speech in circumlocution and by subtlety rather than directly and to the point, a tendency to emphasize gratuities, commissions, and other such sources of Income, a tendency toward kachcha or slipshod methods of doing things rather than pulha or thorough procedures, a dressing up of reports and inspection to suit the humors of superiors, credulity and susceptibility to superstitions and rumors which leads to ready violence and to belief in luck, miracles, divination, and special revelations, fear of responsibility or taking of initiative, babuism or impracticability in general which leads to a speculative cast of mind with an emphasis on fantasy and day dream ing, an eloquence or easy flow or words which results in an intense interest in lawsuits and the arguments advanced therein, strong des otion to family, and unusual kindness and hospitality to strangers The characteristic genius of the Indian peoples is to be found in their superb achievements in the sciences of the mind such as psychology, lan guage, metaphysics and mathematics as well as in the exact sciences such as plıysics and chemistry The demonstrated mental abilities of the Brah mans and other Indian castes both past and present whether originating through intensive inbreeding or other causes, can be sard without exag geration to rank the Indian intellectual elite alongside that of Classic Greece and Renaissance Italy The gracefulness and almost feminine poise of motion in Indians is notable Both dancers and acrobats perform quite incredible feats of suppleness The Indian hand has been described as the most remarkable of any within the human race so unusual are its capacities for movement and for the fabrication of the finest of handicraft products The charac teristic gesture for indicating assent a gentle nodding of the head from $ide to side, seems strange to us westerners POPULATION, HEALTH AND NUTRITION Information on the population of India is obtained chiefly by means of the decennial census Data on sex, age, religion marital condition, educa tion, language, birthplace caste of race, and certain infirmities are col lected for every person in India During January and rebruary of the census year 21] India is divided up into blocks containing 30 to 50 houses with an enumerator in charge of each bloch In 1901, for instance there were 1,325,000 enumerators A supervisor tras placed over every 10 or 15 enumerators and a total of 500 houses under the supervisot sent to make up a arcle Circles kere ·PLATE 6 Liper Palket ut palanguin and bearers Calcutta Abbough the palanquin 4 th longer us to trase! Inda n the days before she railroad us of primary emprame The hahars as ther castes of palanquin bearers are thought to have been the propers of the bearers * ho 195 ened to European Sojourners n Ind a today Laer al den ekka The riders squattin the four and the baggage rack is bek the f bet een he heck Ths and other fuss barse cast are stal character stico much of Indra Kaltan pusat ·PLATE 7 Upper_Household work Rice preparation as carried on in the homes of the coastal Tropics of India The dependence upon rice as India s major source of subsistence is at once the root of hope and despair Many people may live but at a minimal level of existence Lower Press for coconut oil The Teli or oil presser caste z an exclusive monopolist of the extracting of oil from nuts in much of India (Photographs by Giles Gort Brown) ·PLATE 8 Lpper Delhind a One of the results of the caste system has been the alm st unrivaled devel pment of skill in hand crafts, which skill is augmented and transmited within families from ne Aenerat to another Here a member of the goldsmith caste is sh wn at work ntr n f the small smelter in hs shop Luner Kashm Brick making by sun dn ng is a character stoc method in a rthern Ind a Th srks performed in the main by castes (Fho ographs from Ewing Gallon ay ·PLATE 9 Left Southern In dia A man of the toddy drauer caste gathering sap from the toddy palm Their Caste is held in low repute by orthodox Hindus particularly since intoxicants are forbidden by religious Contentcon (Photo graph from fung Galloway ) Right At the Burn bay stock exchange or Bombay Natisc Share and Stockbrekers As se coatson Business mcn of all communi ties gather to deal in the various stacks and shares offered with fortunes made and daily Shown frorn left to right are a Parset i man in a Congress cap a Gujar att and Maratha (Photograph from Information Officer Agency General for Washington DC) list India ·21 IDAGILBERT further grouped into secogauzed administratne units Anong as thanas, talukas, and tahsıls, under a superintendent In 1901 there were 122,000 supervisors and 9,800 superintendents The enumerator prepared for the coming census by writing . a census schedule for all persons in his Block, and his record was then cheched and corrected by super isoss, Superintendents, and officers of the district staff The night of the census must be carefully choses so that (1) the full moon is in appearance from 7pm to midnight, because of uslighted areas, (2) no great religious festival of fair us being held, and (3) it is not a nught auspicious for marriage ceremonies or for bathtag en scred rivers On the night chosen, enumerators go forth around their respectie blocks from 7 to midnight, and bring their entire records up to date by striking out those who died or left the block and adding those who are nen arrivals and new born Preliminary data on houses, sexes, and popu Jation totals are tabulated at once and sent to the higher local census authorities who, in turn, transmit them to destsict officers, to provinaal superintendents, and finally to the Census Commissioner Many difficulties are met asth in collecting returns Primitive tribes are frequently hard to deal with, and whers plague is saging, much of the population fees ta other parts Boats on trips of seneral days duration, trains in motion, woodcutters domiciled in forests for weeks, and sacred places swarmng with pilgrims constitute difficulties to enumeration Oc casionally accountants and enumerators go on strike at the last moment for suadey seasons Special efforts are made to locate all passengers on trans la terrats of tschet buyers, those alighting froms and those departing on trains All tr310s are stopped at 600 am the morning after the census and their passengers checked Practically all equipesations and ensties are made by the enumerators, thereby lending uniformity to the results "The population of India, enormous as it is, cannot be said to spread evenly oves the country Afost of it is conceatrated so the Ganges Valley and the adjoining eastern coastleads where allusion and rainfall make for conditions of an adequate food supply Inasmuch as India is mainly a rural country, population is densest in the agncultural areas in general Bengal, Bihar, and the United Provinces are the most densely populated. One ares of dlus!ım coacentration occuls 3 this group, namely, eastern Bengal. One stem is frequently stressed by ritets on Indian population, namely, the overcronding and pressure at the limits of subsistence The extremely The zensus of 1911 * 13 subjected to extensive group checking in the case of Ittorns írom ellicscates and the stage all night check up $25 not employed ·22 WAR BACKGROUND STUDIES, NO 18 low standards of material existence, the inadence and fatality of famine, and the shortness of life span are ated as evidence for the overcrowding of the country Famines have been known in India from time immemorial During the latter quarter of the nineteenth century at least fire major famines ravaged India, progressing in severity and extent from the earlier to the later in 1876 77 a famine covered Bombay, Hyderabad in the Deccan, Madras, Northwest Provinces, Oudh, and Mysore, in 1888 89 a famine covered Bihar, Orissa, and Madras, in 1891 92 one covered Madras, Bombay, Deccan, Ajmere Merwara, and Bengal, in 1895 97 one covered Bundelk hand, Northwest Provinces, and Oudh, Bengal, Central Provinces Madras, Bombay, Punjab, and Berat, and in 1899 1900 one covered Bombay, Punjab, Central Provinces, Berar, all the native states from Kathianar to Millons 2062 TABLE 1 --Increase in the population of India Year 1872 1881 2539 1891 287 3 294 3 1911 315 2 1921 318 9 1931 3529 1941 3889 1901 Hyderabad, such as Baroda, Rajputana, Gujarat, and Central India. From 1900 until 1943 there were no famines Violent fluctuations of the birth rate and death rate occur in famine years The death rate soars and the birth rate drops markedly during famine, and the latter continues low for 2 of 3 years afterward Disease is another factor affecting both death and birth rates It is reported that during the infuenza epidemic of 1918 19, over 13 millions died in India of the disease, and the birth rate dopped greatly Plague outbreaks and epidemics of various types of malaria have similar effects Cholera, typhoid, smallpox, dysentery (bacillary and amoebic), tuber culosis, rabies, hookworm, sprue, venereal diseases, hydrophobia, pneu monia, typhus, dengue, kala azar, relapsing fever, sandhy fever, and leprosy also constitute serious health problems in India The sight of ghastly cases of advanced leprosy roaming the streets of an Indian city is one of the first to which a traveler must become accustomed The vard • Famines originate in failure of the monsoons, foods rat and locust plagues and wars ·23 INDLICILBERT or Hindu physician still practices the angent Agun edic system of medi cine, and the Muslim kahım the Vaani system alongside modern European medicine The birth rate in lodsa, as in other countries, is a source of political concern The Hiadu population is asserted to have a lower birth rate than the Muslim and various attempts hare bern made to explain and adjust to this difference As in the countries of the Best, the lover os depressed classes have a higher reproduction rate than the upper groups Unlike the countries of the Best, hon ever, there is no great tendency as fet developed touard cessation of reproduction below replacement of existing population in 1931 the average number of children bars alive per family in India as 42, the average number surviving childhood mas 29 The total average life span in India is 1.25ously estimated as 24 to 27 gears In considering buth and death rates one has to recall the fact that the joint family system presails in India shereby the sons of a family continue to reside under the parental roof een after they marty and have children of their own The number of males in India exceeds the number of females A large section of the social problems of India (olses about the nutra tion of the people Nutrition and diet 1258 from caste to caste and from region to region in the Gangetic Delta of Bengal, milk is scarce and babies are fed on rict and barley grue! It is estimated that only 22 percent of the population as well nourished, and the food shows an excess of carbohydrates combined with proteia deficiency The chief anticles of diet are parboiled rice, peas, vegetables, fish in easitra Bengal, sweets, oil seeds, sugar and mustard oil In the upper Ganges Valley of the Unsted Provinces the diet is better balanced Green leafy vegetables are used along tith chapates of wheat four and other cereals, legume soups, sxeets, cord, fruits, skimmed milk, and itd nitt In het millet, SUS . ។ pulse wb LSIDe dulcisnseed J The east coast has a deet of parboiled sice, milet, pulse, vegetables, cuid, and tamarind Salt and calle seasoning is used for legume soups As to the Deccan no leafy vegetables sust, o tuk are used Babies are Heaned on ske matet and then led cereals and coarse vegetables AI though fish are consumed, dietary defcendies seems to select therdselies in the inadeace of leprosy The seat coasts have in the main a diet based on millet, rice, wheat, al seeds, and sugarcane Rice *ster 13 aga substituted for mulk ·26 WAR BACKGROUND STUDIES, NO 18 in the 700,000 villages of India, only 7 cities have a population of more than 400,000 and about 39 have a population of over 100,000 Within the agricultural group the classes are somen hat as follows Half a million land magnates controlling large acreages of hundreds of villages and perhaps 75 percent of all the agricultural land, a million or so cultivators holding about 30 acres or more, 70 million petty farmers who are often tenants or subtenants of others, 32 million agricultural laborers of which 23 millions are totally landless It is estimated, furthermore, that the average annual income of a family of five persons in India is around $100 (Indian money is usually calculated in rupees which are equivalent to about 30 cents in American money) The average peasant lives on an exceedingly narrow margin of sub sistence and when crops fail he falls readily into the clutches of the ubiquitous moneylender To prevent this contingency numerous aget cultural cooperatie credit societies have been organized, but it is esti mated that two thirds of the cultivators are always in debt Among other reasons for this situation may be mentioned the increasing fragmentation of holdings, increasing congestion, improvidence, and modern economic changes There are two types of village in India, the ryotwarı and the zamındarı The ryotwarı or severalty village is characterized by numerous small inde pendent holdings each responsible in taxes to the state The leading families select a patel or headman for the village, who is also provided with assistants or deputies All the land in this type of village is allotted on a subsistence basis with shares to each member of the village in accord ance with his social station This type of village occurs in most of the area south of the Vindhya Range and in much of Bengal The zamındarı or joint village is ruled by a panchayat of five men who are the heads of the senior families in the village The proprietors are the dominant land owning class and are co sharers with many tenants beneath them The zamındars hold shares separately but with joint responsibility for the revenue The liability or revenue is joint rather than individual is in the rotwarı sillage A nominal patel or headman may be elected by the panchayat This type of village prevails in the Punjab United Provinces, Bihar, and other parts of northern India In both northern and southern India the duties of the patel consist in notarızıng documents and collecting statistics, greeting visitors, acting as health officer, collecting taxes, and serving as agent of the Government The village accountant or pats arı keeps revenue accounts, records of ownership, assessments, tenancy, mortgages, and boundaries The village watchman or policeman (chon kıdar) looks after the physical safety of the people ·27 INDAGILBERT Village organization has tended to break down with the impact of Hestero cvilization. Many of the older «sllage and cottage industries have suffered ruinou3 competition from European goods and through the widespread use of the sailroad for bringing goods from abroad to the villagers The industries shich have been particularly affected are setting and spinning oil pressing, pottery making metal sorking, and paper making Gandhi's khaddar movement was designed to revise the hand noren doth made by the use of the charkha or spinning aheel in place of the machine made goods n buch had supplanted them Alhed nith thus mas bus campaign for Swadesht or economic self suficiency for India The earlier organization of Indian industry by guilds can be traced back to about 600 BC. in the Buddhist Era. At that time the industrial groups mere specialized in 18 separate guids which dere localized by villages, towns and streets These were guilds of cultivatars, shepherds, artisans, merchants bankers, and moneylenders, as well as oty guilds These gulds were self governing entities hich coliected fees and taxes, owned prop esty possessed corporate contract poners, recented gilts, acted as trustees for religious endon ments had banking functions kept up temples, sup ported rest houses and animal hospitals, maintained wells and water Courses, and possessed courts for the settlement of disputes Some of the great temple organizations of Medieval southern India seem to have cained on these functions until recent times During the Mogul period and after the British Rule the middlemen began organized production and collected artisans into workshops Master craftsmen berame dependent upon the middlemen, and amaported products began the destruction of nature handicrafts The guilds are 18 found in 2 Sumber of places in India, notably in Ahmadabad, Gujarat generally, and Rajputana in which localitses they still perform funcions such as fix ing standards and prices, organizing stehes, setting trade bolidays, ostra aming vsolators of their cules, and conditioning hours of labor Large scale Indian industrial and financial operations began toward the close of the nineteenth century Pressous to this the plantations and ras muncral oces were the chsef productive industries Lithough Europeans have remained on as administrative personnel, technicians, and bankers during the thentieth century, Indian industry has begun to develop its Dan Organization and financsal backing from popular support. Industrial ism has proceeded farthest around Bombay and in the general area of Calcutta in the former, cotton muilis, aad in the latter region, jute mills and metallurgy (Jamshedpur) kase localized in 1921 tha All India • India is sall, boxner a land of small business enterprise agatetic and arpe! factones for ethasple, commonly creploy from 30 to 50 persons ·26 WAR BACKGROUND STUDIES, NO 18 in the 700,000 villages of India, only 7 cities have a population of more than 400,000 and about 39 have a population of over 100,000 Within the agricultural group the classes are somewhat as follows Half a million land magnates controlling large acreages of hundreds of villages and perhaps 75 percent of all the agricultural land, a million or so cultivators holding about 30 acres or more, 70 million petty farmers who are often tenants or subtenants of others, 32 million agricultural laborers of which 23 millions are totally landless It is estimated, furthermore, that the average annual income of a family of five persons in India is around $100 (Indian money is usually calculated in rupees which are equivalent to about 30 cents in American money) The average peasant lives on an exceedingly narrow margin of sub sistence and when crops fail he falls readily into the clutches of the ubiquitous moneylender To present this contingency numerous agri cultural cooperative credit societies have been organized, but it is esti mated that two thirds of the cultivators are always in debt Among other reasons for this situation may be mentioned the increasing fragmentation of holdings, increasing congestion, improvidence, and modern economic changes There are two types of village in India, the ryotwari and the zamındarı The ryotwarı or severalty village is characterized by numerous small inde pendent holdings each responsible in taxes to the state The leading families select a patel or headman for the village, who is also provided with assistants or deputies All the land in this type of village is allotted on a subsistence basis with shares to each member of the village in accord ance with his social station This type of village occurs in most of the area south of the Vindhya Range and in much of Bengal The zamındarı or joint village is ruled by a panchayat of five men who are the heads of the senior families in the village The proprietors are the dominant land owning class and are co sharers with many tenants beneath them The zamındars hold shares separately but with joint responsibility for the revenue The liability or revenue is joint rather than individual as in the ryotwarı village A nominal patel or headman may be elected by the panchayat This type of village prevails in the Punjab, United Provinces, Bihar, and other parts of northern India In both northern and southern India the duties of the patel consist in notarızıng documents and collecting statistics, greeting visitors, acting as health officer, collecting taxes, and serving as agent of the Government The village accountant or patwart keeps revenue accounts, records of ownership, assessments, tenancy, mortgages and boundaries The village watchman or policeman (chon kıdar) looks after the physical safety of the people ·2 111-GILBERT Kushies, and White Huns, atening somcu kat later at the beginning of the Christian Era, settled in the dryer and higher areas of western anu central India, in Raſputina and the adjoining areas About A D 1200 the folloners of Islam--Persians, Arabs Turls, and donçols-burst into the plains of India and adapted themselves to the dry areas of the north west while making com erts in the humid arcas of eastern Bengal At the beginning of the Neolithic in India the tendency towards regional and Occupations des esions of the people ss thought to have become esident The hill trebes and coustil groups were probably pro Draudian, the plainsmen and the occupants of the desert appear to have been fixed groups of Drauchen and pre Drasidas, while the agru culturalists were perhaps Drausdians proper Fue geographical dissions have been seferred to in early Tamil literature (1) Nedal or the coast, (2) Marudam or cultkated fand. (3) Mfullas of pastoral, (4) Kurunji or hilly and (5) Palas or desert The coastlands were inhabited by the Para adar who engiged in fishing and boating by canoc and catamaran from Gujarar to the Gangetic Delta These were the ancestors of the modera Lascars The Vellalar and Velt settled as cultyvators and land lords in net padis fields, and the Kasalas in dry fields such required tank and well scrigation Both these sections cooperated in producing nice millet and pulse ia the Marudum The Idayar and Ayar settled in pas toral tands of the Mullar and spent their leisure a dance and song The Kurasas of the hosils and the Marata of the desert were settled in these respectxe spheres Thus in south India as well as in the north entdences of ecological differentiation of early social groups are avariable and offer a possible basss for caste differences Certain areas were favorite centers for the groushs of political units from the begioning In Vedic and Brahmanic India the early capitals were loxated in easily defended tal sites along the fryer banks The earher Indun empures of the deaury as and Guptas found the regions of Bihar and Oudh the cerural axes of their political power By the fourth century BC the movement touard state formation had overflowed into the Deccan and the peninsular coasts The tribes of the Vedic Aryans were partis agricultural and partly pastoral Each vibe nas governed by a headman os ra}], whose pouer was generally checked by a tribal council or smt There sere fortified villages but originally no touns A number of tribal names have come down to us but there location by 5 ETS is uncertain for instance, there here the Kutus and Kris apparently daelling near the indus and the Chenab the Cres near the Indus and the Bharatas of Brahmavarta The Vedic period lasted from perhaps 1800 to 1000 BC, and the locus of ·28 WAR BACKGROUND STUDIES, NO 18 Trades Union Congress was formed, and from then until the present the gronth of trade unions has been marked by ads ances and reversals The steadrest groups of unionists have been in the railroads and postal indus tries The organization of trade associations has also proceeded apace since the First World War There are at present about 20 city chambers of commerce and a number of local and general groups such as the Bombay Mill Owners Association, Indian Jute Mills Association, and the Indian Tea Association Urbanization is proceeding steadily in India The chief urban centers of today can be divided into the following classes Religious centers (Benares), unisersity centers (Dacca), cantonment towns (Amballa) hul stations (Darjeeling and Simla), seaside resorts (Puri), railroad Junc tions (Moghalserai), industrial centers (Kolar), and major ports of entry (Bombay and Calcutta) As might be expected the principal exports of India since the decline of the cottage industries in the nineteenth century have been raw materials of modern industry, and her chief imports manufactured industrial products In 1910 41 the principal exports were jute cotton, rice wheat tea hides, seeds, lac, wool, hemp, manganese ore, coir goods, indigo dyes and saltpeter Imported during the same period were finished cotton goods machinery, chemicals, hardware, matches, woolen goods instruments dye ing and tanning substances, drugs, rearing apparel, soap paint, millinery and other items Before the present war began, Indias most important trade relations were with Great Britain, Japan, and the United States HISTORY The history of the Indian peoples is to a considerable extent explained by the varying features of the Indian environments The earliest arrivals the Negrito and Australoid, survive in purer form only in the hill country where jungle and rugged terrain have prevented their displacement Con versely, the British as the latest arrivals, are to be found mainly in the coastal and river areas, in the seaports, and other large settlements It is of course, necessary to note that the latter group has established hill stations where, in restricted areas of high altitude, relief can be obtained from the heat and debilitating effects of the low land areas In between the earliest and the latest arrivals in India are to be found a host of other immigrant groups who have arra ed at various times in the past from the northn est and have adapted themselves to certain portions of the Indian physical en Thus the Vedic Indo-Aſans arried about 1800 BC and settled first in the Punjab plains and later moved on into the retter Ganges basin and the more fertile parts of the peninsular plateau The Sahas vironment ·2) I\014--GILBERT hushans and White Huns arring somewhat later at the beginning of the Christian Ers, settied in the drer and higher areas of western anu central India la Rasputina and the adjoining areas About A D 1200 the followers of Islam Perstins Arabs Turks and Alongolamburst into the plans of India and adapted themselves to the dry areas of the north west while making converts in the humid areas of cistern Bengal At the beginning of the Neolithic in India the tendency toward 1 regional and occupational Jussion of the people is thought to huse become esdent The Hill trees and cosstal groups were probably pre Dravidian the plainsmen and the occupants of the desert appear to have been mned groups of Dravidian and pre-Daudan utule the agre culturalists were perhaps Draudun prapet Pre geographical divisions have been referred to in caelę Tama! istersture (1) Nesdal of the coast (2) Marudam or cultnated land (3) Multi or pastoral (1) kurunji or Bully and (5) Pular or desert The coastlands were calibited by the Parradur who engaged in fishing and boating by canoe and catamaran from Gujarat to the Gangetic Delta These were the ancestors of the modern Lascass The Vellalar and Sehr settled as cultivators and land Jords in aet paddy fields and the haralar on dry helds which required tank and sell igation Both these sections cooperated to producng rice millet and pulse in the Marudam The Idazar and Ayar settled in pas toral lands of the Mullat and spent thesr lessure in dance and song The huranas of the hills and the Marasa of the desert were settled in these respective spheres Thus in south India as well as in the north evidences of ecolog al differentiation of early social groups are avaslable and offer a possible basis for caste differences Certain areas nere favorite centers for the groath of political unsts from the beginning in Vedic and Brahmanic India the early capitals were located to exsily detended bull sites along the ster banks The earlier Indian empires of the Vauras and Cruptas found in the regions of Bihar and Oudh the central axes of their poltıcal powes By the fourth century BC the movement touard state formation had oves para into the Deccan and the permular coasts The tribes of the Vedic Argins were panly agncultural and partly pastoral Exch tesben is folerned by a teadman or ta}a hose pores was generally checked ty 1 tribal couacl or samiti There were fortified Willages but ong nally no touns A number of tribil names sase come doua to us but their location by tners 15 uncertain Foc asistance there were the hurus and Artus apparently dselling scar the Indus and the Chenab the C1125 near the Indus and the Bharatus of Brahmarata The Vedic period lasted from perhaps 1800 to 1000 BC and the locus of 3 ·28 VAR BACKGROUND STUDIES, NO 18 Trades Union Congress was formed, and from then until the present the growth of trade unions has been marked by ads ances and reversals The steadrest groups of unionists have been in the railroads and postal indus tries The organization of trade associations has also proceeded apace since the First World War There are at present about 20 city chambers of commerce and a number of local and general groups such as the Bombay Mill Owners Association, Indian Jute Mills Association, and the Indian Tea Association Urbanization is proceeding steadily in India The chief urban centers of today can be divided into the following classes Religious centers (Benares), unrersity centers (Dacca), cantonment toxas (Amballa). hill stations (Darjeeling and Simla), seaside resorts (Puri), railroad junc tions (Moghalserai), industrial centers (Kolar), and major ports of entry (Bombay and Calcutta) As might be expected, the principal exports of India since the decline of the cottage industries in the nineteenth century have been raw materials of modern industry, and her chief imports manufactured industrial products In 1940 41 the principal exports were jute cotton, nice, wheat, tea, hides, seeds, lac, wool, hemp, manganese ore, cour goods, indigo dyes, and saltpeter Imported during the same period were finished cotton goods machinery, chemicals, hardware, matches noolen goods, instruments dye ing and tanning substances, drugs, nearing apparel, soap, paint, millinery, and other items Before the present war began, India s most important trade relations were with Great Britain, Japan, and the United States HISTORY The history of the Indian peoples is to a considerable extent explained by the varying features of the Indian environments The earliest arrivals, the Negrito and Australoid, surive in purer form only in the hill country where jungle and rugged terrain have prevented their displacement Con versely, the British, as the latest arrivals, are to be found mainly in the coastal and river areas, in the seaports, and other large settlements It is of course, necessary to note that the latter group has established hell stations where, in restricted areas of high altitude, relief can be obtained from the heat and debilitating effects of the lon land areas in between the earliest and the latest arrivals in India are to be found a host of other immigrant groups who have arrived at various times in the past from the northwest and have adapted themselves to certain portions of the Indian physical en vironment Thus the Vedic Indo Aryans arried about 1800 BC and settled first in the Punjab plains and later moved on into the setter Ganges basin and the more fertile parts of the peninsular plateau The Sahas ·31 INDLA-GILBERT destroyes of this emptie The invasion of the Persian Achenseedie in 5128C under Datius, and of Alexander the Great in 326 BC, extended sestera srafluences into the Punjab and helped establish new trends us ladiun art Buddhism and Jalustas both arose in this period in Vadeha, and under Asoka 193 272 AC Buddhison become the state religion Caste 25 Kateced by the Greek writer Megasthenes at this time The theistic philosophical speculations of the Vedzata and the atheistic speculation of the Sankhya, together with the axetic exercises of Yoga, were de teloped Tho forms of westrag were brought into India, the Khasoshthi from the northest frontier, and the Beabass frons aier the Acabtan Scu to the Deccan The farmer died out while the latter seems to have influ enced all subsequent forms of Hindu wnting In the Later Buddhist Period 150 BC to AD 300, a series of invo sions by saces from beyond the northwest Frontier took place, and Budd tresca undera ant a ben development The Gupta Empyre gradually broke vp a Kalmga forysa and the Circass) became independent, along with e other states The Greco-Bactrias kings made sncursions into the Punjab and Sind The Saks invasions from central Asia settled neu groups is Sexstan or Sakasthses and sa parts of Sund, Gujarat, and Malwa mhese sadrspies were developed around 90 BC In 60 BC Excurred a Malwa rung agpinst the Sakas The Indo Parthian kingdom aas at its zenith in AD 20 and esos 35 succeeded by the Kushans sho established an empire which included Kashmir About A D 226 accurred an trasion by the Sassamian dynasty of Persia Saka sutraples continued to flourish as independent Lungdoms from AD 78 to 139 in Gujarat and Malna, the fattet anh 15 caprtal az Uzzix As the great Satsapy of Saurashtrs the Saha Lungdoms controved dons to AD 395 Buddhism expanded from a system of monastsasm to include temple and a large hierarchy of prests it thus became the Mahayana or Great Vehicle such took the place of the older Hinrana or the Little Vehicle (ulisch suryses in Ceylon) 120g rektacas or sosiastenves, and chatyas, of temples were built in this period Greek art was adapted, and the frakrits of vernaculars came into wsc, supplanting Sanskrit The Early Hindu Period was marked by the second Hindu Eropire of the Guptas and lasted frors AD 300 to 600 This was a periad of Brahmarıcal tesiral and Kasamh became the capital of the new empite in Magadhe All Indsa was subjected to its rule, escept for the extretta south though many of the states were subiert in of Coa! Ubit of the Guptas estab ·30 WAR BACKGROUND STUDIES, NO 18 activities was mainly in the Punjab Classes were beginning to differentiate by function The Vaisya or pioneer settiers cleared the forest and tulled the ground, while the rajas or chiefs carried on warfare The Bralimans composed hymns in praise of the gods, such as the Rigseda The chtel gods thus honored were Varuna (god of rain), Agni (god of fire), Indra (god of the sky), and the Maruts (storm gods) Beneath the white Aryans in social status were the dark Dasyu or aborigines who were to become the Sudras of later periods During the Brahmanıc period from 1000 to 550 BC, the Indo Arjans moved eastward down the Ganges Valley and set up kingdoms and se publics in this area The Mahabharata recounts the struggles of the various Aryan groups for supremacy, and apparently the aborigines fought along side of both parties in the several struggles The kingdom of Panchala with its capital at the present site of Agra, Kanauj with its capital at the city of Kanau), Kausambi, Mathura, Kosala or Oudh with its capital at Ayodhya, the republics of Vaisalı, Videha (north Bihar), Magadha (south Bihar), Chedi (Jabalpur and Bilaspur), and farther south the kingdoms of Nishada (south Malwa) and Vidarbha (Berar), male up the political universe of Brahmanıc India The Kshatriyas were the military class, while the Brahmans cultivated learning The Varsyas and Sudras formed the bulk of the population as pessants, merchants, craftsmen, and laborers The latter two groups became subdivided into numerous hereditary occu pations or jatı (castes) The Brahmans composed the Yajur edas or sacrificial formulas, and sacrificial chants or Samavedas, the incantations of the Atharvaveda and theological works or Brahmanas, as well as the theosophical and philosophical treatises of the Aranzakas and Upanishads Indo Aryan occupation seems to have extended dono the Ganges as far as the borders of Bengal and to the south as far as the Narbadda River The one god Paramatma, soul of the universe, is now worshiped as Brahma, the creator, Vishnu, the preserver, and Siva, the destroyer, depending upon the particular manifestation to be honored Tyre Early Buddhist Pened from 550 BC to 150 BC was marked by Greek invasion and by the first indian or Maurya Empire of Asoka The Indo-Aryan occupation extended itself over Bengal, the whole of the Deccan as far as Ceylon, and was augmented mainly by a process of peace ful penetration New Kingdoms came into view in southern India, such as Andhra (modern Hyderabad and Northern Circars) the Cholas, the Pandyas, and the Keralas (of Madras and Mysore and Travancore) The first Indian or Maurya Empire expanded from a nucleus at Ma gadha to include most of India The capital was Patalıputra (Patna) Following the Maurya, the Susunaga and Nanda dynasties controlled the ·31 INDUA GILBERT destinies of this empire The fantasion of the Perssan Achemensdae in 112 BC under Darius, and of Alexander the Great in 326 BC, extended #estetn infuences into the Puajsh and belped establish new trends in Indian art Buddhism and Junison both arose in this period in Vedcha, and under Asoka in 272 BC. Buddhism became the state religioa Caste #25 noticed by the Greek writer dlegasthenes at this time The theistic philosophical speculations of the Vedanta and the stheistic speculation of the Sarkhyz, together with the ascetic exercises of Yogt, were de veloped Two forms of citing nere brought into India, the Kharoshthu from the porths est frontier, and the Brahms from over the Arabsan Sea to the Deccao The former dred out, while the latter seems to have influ enced all subsequent forms of Hindu sting la the Later Buddhist Period, 150 BC to AD 300, a series of sous sions by races from beyond the northwest frontier took place, and Budd hisen vadernent a niet de elopment The Gupta Empire gradually broke up as Kataga (Orissa and the Carcass) became independent, along mah the other states The Greco-Bictaan kings made incursions into the Punjab and Sind The Saka invisions from central Asia settled new groups in Sexstan os Salasthans and in parts of Sind, Gujarat, and Malwa shere satispres were developed around 90 BC In 60 BC Occurred a Malna rising against the Sakas "The Indo Parthian kingdom 1,25 at sts zenith in AD 20 ard this aas succeeded by the Kushans ho established an empire which included Kashmir About AD 226 Occurred an invasion by the Sassacuaa dynasty of Persia Saka satrapies continued to lourish as dependent longdors from AD 78 to 119 in Gujarat and Malsa, the latter with its capital at Ujjain As the great Satra04 of Cechten L poll us became the Mahayana or Great Vehicle which took the place of the oldes Huayana, or the Little Vehicle (a hich survives in Ceylon) Many vihitas, or monasteries, and chastyas, or temples were bult in this period Greek ast as adopted, and the Prakrits or sernaculars came into use, supplanting Sanskrit The Eacle Hindu Period was marked by the second Hindu Empire of the Guptas and lasted from AD 300 to 600 This was a period of Brahminical rernal and Kausubs becure the capital of the new eripest in Nagadha All India was subjected to its rule, except for the extseme south although many of the states Rere subject in a fendatory sense only The Gupta Empire maintained its hegemony from AD 320 to 480 Sev eral states ses olted such as the Malayas in the Central India area and the Chalukya in the Deccan Horsha, the most notable of the Guptas, estab ·32 WAR BACKGROUND STUDIES NO 18 lished his capital at Kanauj Brahmanism slowly adopted the innovations of Buddhism such as temples images pilgrimages and shrines Sanskrit for a while displaced the Prakrit dialects as the official language Nex works were composed such as the Puranas or enciclopedias the Dharma sastra or law books and Tantras or religious formularies At this time also the Ajanta frescoes picturing scenes in the hfe of Buddha were painted in caves of the Ajanta Range The Later Hindu Period lasting from A D 650 to 1200 195 marhed by the Gurjara Empire and by early Muslim incursions in Sind and the Punjab (712 to 1021) The rise of the Rajput clans involved the invalry of many dynasties in northern India Only Bihar and Bengal re marned to the Guptas and those fell to the Palas of Bengal in 780 Two other kingdoms remained in the Ganges Valley namely Kanauj and Ujjain while the Gurjaras rules in Gujarat and Rajputana from 783 to 813 During parts of this period almost all of Hindustan or northern India was subjected to the Gurjars except Bihar and Bengal in the latter state the Sena dynasty ruled from 1095 to 1193 In the Central Deccan the Chalukyas a Rajput clan maintained their power but duided into eastern and western branches They were succeeded by the Rashtrakutas from 757 to 973 and later by the Hoysalas On the southeast coast between the Godavari and Cauvery were the Pallavas dominating the country of the older Andhras and Cholas from 430 to 900 The Chola and Pandya kingdoms still survived in the far south The Early Mohammedan Period (1200 to 1525) was marked by the Muslim Conquest by Turks and allied groups and by the first Muslim or Turkish Hindu Empire Several dynasties ruled such as the Glorides Khaljis and Sayyıds and Delhi became the Muslim capital The first Muslim Empire included most of Hindustan or north India but was dis solved in 1412 and only the smaller kingdom of Delhi survived (1414 1526) Several other Muslim kingdoms resulted from the fragmentation of the empire such as Oudh Jaunpur (1394 to 1487) Malwa (1-401 to 1530) Gujarat (13)6 to 1572) Bengal (1338 to 1570) and the Bahmani Deccan (1347 to 1521) The latter eventually broke up into several other kingdoms namely Berad under the Imad Shahıs (1 185 to 1572) Ahmadnagar under the Nizam Shahıs (1490 to 1636) Bijapur under the Adil Shahıs (14)0 to 1686) Bidar under the Barid Shahıs (1492 to 1609) and Golkonda under the Qutb Shahıs (1512 to 1(87) The only Hindu kingdom sun iling in the Deccan was Vijayanagar (133) to 1565) During this period a great number of sects came into existence such as that of Ramanuja of the Chola area Ramananda of Benares Chai Urdu became tanya of Bengal and Kabır of the United Provinces area ·33 I CILBERT the language sa current use at the Muslim courts in northern India and the crucular of Kandus The later Mohammedan Period from 1526 to 1503 15 marhal by the fourth Indian or second Aluslim Empire of the doguls and by the sise of the Marathas and Sikhs Sertania influence expanded among the Hndus of this period and the Sikhs represented perhaps the most notable de clopment The Mogul rise u as rap and an able administration was set up with a derasion into 15 provinces or Subhas cich under gorcroors drectly subject to the Mogul kimself Most of India was included in this Empire except the extreme south With the decline of the Moguls the Marathas established their power as a hill fortress nition centered in the Western Ghats and plundered almost ta o-thirds of India frcan their moun tan centers Beginning about 1600 we find the rise of the British interest and pouce in India aith the chartering of the British East India Company Until 1783 this des clopment was mainly a struggle with Portuguese French and Duch marauders for the trade in spices Indigo and cotton The Portuguese first ained in India at Calicut under Vasco da Gama in 1439 in search of pepper As in Brazil these settlements at Goa and elsewhere were mainly fortshed coastal islands oc peninsulas Thue Portuguese settlement at Colombo in Ceylon is made 1957 The Dutch attacked the Portuguese forts on the east coast of Ceylon and gradually reduced the whole island except Kandy thus obtaining a mo nupoly on cinnamon in 176 the British took possession of the ssland and soon thereafter xcupied tht handian Kingdom English factores were set up in Bengal and Surat for cotton and silk Sabones oprum and indigo in the late sesenteenth century and the French coastal settlements a 1667 After a series of shemishes the Britt East Indu company forces eliminated the French power in 1783 The later period of the Company a as maried by increasing territorial gains in India from 1 85 to 18*8 Vadu33 a 23 acquired to 1801 the Central Provinces and Bombay ta 181) Sind in 1813 Punjab in 181) and United Provinces 10 1816 After the Sepoy Rex alt 181 1857 the British Con tool are the ad ministration of the country and secerofs nete appointed to represent the royal pouss Nest areas atre added such as Baluchistan Kashmir and other peripheral tertecesses The Hindu groups began a morenient for naponhood with the formation of the Congress Party in 1885 British 12% maana hile gradually loosened some of the legal poners of caste 3d restrictions such as those on widow remarnage ·32 WAR BACKGROUND STUDIES NO 18 lished his capital at Kanaus Brahmanism slonly adopted the innovations of Buddhism such as temples images pilgrimages and shrines Sanskrit for a while displaced the Prahrit dialects as the official language Nen works were composed such as the Puranas or enq clopedias the Dharma sastra or lau books and Tantras or religious formularies At this time also the Ajanta frescoes picturing scenes in the life of Buddha were painted in caves of the Ajanta Range The Later Hindu Period lasting from AD 650 to 1200 was marked by the Gurjara Empire and by early Muslim incursions in Sind and the Punjab (712 to 1021) The rise of the Rajput clans involved the rivalry of many dynasties in northern India Only Bihar and Bengal se mained to the Guptas and those fell to the Palas of Bengal in 780 Two other kingdoms remained in the Ganges Valley namely Kanauj and Ujjain while the Gurjaras ruled in Gujarat and Rajputana from 783 to 813 During parts of this period almost all of Hindustan or northern India was subjected to the Gurjars except Bihar and Bengal In the latter state the Sena dynasty ruled from 1095 to 1193 In the Central Deccan the Chaluhyas a Rajput clan maintained their power but divided into eastern and western branches They were succeeded by the Rashtrahutas from 757 to 973 and later by the Hoysalas On the southeast coast between the Godavari and Cauvery were the Pallavas dominating the country of the older Andhras and Cholas from 430 to 900 The Chola and Pandya kingdoms still survived in the far south The Early Mohammedan Period (1200 to 1525) was marked by the Muslim Conquest by Turks and allied groups and by the first Muslim or Turkish Hindu Empire Several dynasties ruled such as the Ghorides Khaljis and Saygıds and Delhi became the Muslim capital The first Muslun Empire included most of Hindustan or north India but was dis solved in 1412 and only the smaller kingdom of Delhi suruned (1414 1526) Several other Muslim hingdoms resulted from the fragmentation of the empire such as Oudh Jaunpur (13)1 to 1487) Malwa (1401 to 1530) Gujarat (13)6 to 1572) Bengal (1338 to 1576) and the Bahmani Deccan (1317 to 1521) The latter es entually broke up into several other kingdoms nimely Berid under the Imad Shahis (1485 to 1572) Ahmadnagar under the Nizam Shahıs (1490 to 1636) Bijapur under the Adil Shahrs (1490 to 1686) Bidar under the Barıd Shahis (1492 to 1609) and Gollonda under the Qutb Shahıs (1512 to 1(87) The only Hindu kingdom sursing in the Deccan was Vijayanagar (133) to 1565) During this period a great number of sects came into existence such as that of Ramanuja of the Chola arca Ramanands of Benares Chu tanza of Bengal and habır of the United Pros inces area Urdu became ·35 INDL4-GILBERT Punjab, Bihar, Central Provinces sod Berar, Ass.10, Northwest frontier Province, Orissa, and Sind Each of the provincial governors has a council of maisters chosen by the members of the prou naal legislatures Some of the prouinces here to legulatne chusnbers, some one, generally with a bfe of 3 years The Chief Commissioner Provinces (Baluchistan, Delhi, Ajmere afect 203, Coorg, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and Panth Pi. TABLE 3 --Steps ! ibe constutional tistory of Brush ladu | The Regusung Act of 177), or Lord Months Act Parliament recognized the authority of the East India Company to carry on *it and make treates of peace withia Induk. 7 Part's Indst Act of 1784 Commissioner for Afucs of India as wabishes us Londyn 3 Charter Acts of 1793, 1813, 1833 1853 Conored by Parliamentary action the powers of the East India Company 4 The Goveromeat of India Act, 1858 Control of India was taken over by the Crown after the Sepes Revolt of 1837 5 The Indian Cotinals Act of 1861 Eslacged che scope of the acus1963 of the Goveryor General est india 6 The Indian Counals Act of 1893 Enlarged powers and made protestoas for provencal legislatures > Morley Misto Reformas of 1999 Falornalerne epresentation C 5 8 1919 -ya way we luuled lalo peoriecual sevecement and partsal self gouerness 9 Statutory or Sildon Commission made sis report, 1930 Plan for pros estonal self goverarsetzt. 10 Round Table Conferences of ladzaa Partes its London 1933 34 Preuroinary proposals for domingson status and other proposals 5Government of India Act, 1933 Provided for an a!! Indian Federation with self goveroment as goal. 12 Capps fisse, 1942 attempt to bring together the Indian parties us the war program, and reach an agreement on post ar lodia Government ploda) are adroinastered by the Governor General of India acting through a chief commissioner appointed by his The disssions of the provinces are under oſñcers knoxo as commission EFS and the 231 districts of Bertesh India are admisastered by exacutne offocess known as collectors, magistrates, o deputy commissioners who hale entuce contsol over the distant affaţrs The 730-odd municipalities hare self government in local education basket How 1e yi, ·34 WAR BACKGROUND STUDIES, NO 18 TABLE 2- Approximate dates of major racial events in Indian bustory Old Stone Age Entrance of Negritos and Australords New Stone Age Entrance of Dravidians and Mundas Bronze and Copper Ages > 1800 BC (Iron Age) Entrance of Indo Aryans 1000 BC Division of four Varnas established 512 BC Persians in Punjab 326 BC Greeks in Punjab 250 BC Caste divisions established 181 BC Greco Bactrians in western India 100 BC Saka invasions AD Parthians in India AD 78 Kushans in India AD 226 Persians in India AD White Huns in India AD 650 Rise of the Rajput clans AD 780 Rise of Gurjaras AD 800-1200 Incursions of Arabs and Turks Coming of Parsees AD 1200 Ahoms in Assam AD 1526 Moguls in India AD 1700 Portuguese, French Dutch and English in India Gurkhas in Nepal AD 1739 Incursions of Pathans AD 1758 Rise of Sikhs AD 1770 Rise of Marathas 500 GOVERNMENT The Government of India is in a state of transition at present because of the War and the gradual application of the provisions of the Govern ment of India Act of 1935 The supreme executive is the Governor General who is appointed by the British Crown for a period of 5 years He is assisted by a Council, each member of which is responsible for a department of the administra tion He resides at Delhi, the capital, but from April to October main tains his summer residence at Sırla in the hills In England the Secretary of State for India implements actions of Parliament relative to that country The Indian Federal Legislature consists of tho chambers, the Council of State and the House of Assembly The first or upper house has 58 members, of whom 32 are elected and 26 nominated, and has a life of 5 jears The lower house has 141 members, of thich 39 are nominated and 102 are elected, and has a life of 3 years Relations with the Indian states are controlled by the Cros n Representative appointed by the King of England Governors are appointed for Madras, Bombay, Bengal United Provinces ·35 IVOLAGJLBERT Panjab, Bihar, Central Prouinces and Beras, Assam, Northwest Frontier Province, Orissa, and Sind Each of the provincial governors has a council of ministers chosen by the members of the prouinaal legislatures some of the prounces have tho legolane chambers, some one, gerserally with a hfe of 3 years The Chief Connessioner Provinces (Baluchistan, Delhi, Ajonere Mere 202, Coorg, Andaman and Nicobar Isfunds, and Panth Pi. TABLE 3 --Steps in be connational bustory of Ench frtu i The Keguistog Act of 1773, or Lord Norths Act Parlament recognized the authority of the East India Cumpany to carry on war and make treates of peace withia India 2 Putt's fada Act of 1781 Commissioner for Affairs of India was established in London 3 Charter Acts of 1793, 1813 1833 1853 Confirmed by Parliamentary action the powers of the East India Company 4 The Goveroment of India Act, 1858 Control of India was taken over by the Cronn after the Sepoy Rekole of 1857 5 The Indian Counals Act of 1861 Enlacged the scope of the activities of the Governor General in India 6 The Indian Counais Act of 1893 Enlarged powers and made provisions for provençal legislatures 7 Morley Mato Reformas of 1999 Enlarged scope of central and prouocal legislatures in India. Representation of Musums provided for 8 Montague Chelmsford Reforms and the Government of ladia Act 1919 Darchy introduced into prostacial gorecassent and parutal self government 9 Statutory or Simon Commission made its report, 1930 Plan for prosesional self government 10 Round Table Conferences of Indian Parties in London, 1933 34 Preurinary proposals for domason status and other proposals 11 Government of India Act, 1933 Provided for us all Indian Federasion mith self government as gos! 12 Cripps Mission, 1942 no attempt to brug together the lodian parties in the war program, and teach an agreement on post war Indian Gosessment ploda) are administered by the Gorernor General or Inda acting through a chief commissioner appointed by hson The des ssions of the prosieces are voder officers koso as commustan ers and the 231 districts of Butish India are administered by executive vikess knonn as collectors, magistrates, or deputy commissioners sho have entire control over the district affatts The 7211 h31 celf -- - Huuled lae 91, ·36 WAR BACKGROUND STUDICS NO 19 106 and 65 councilors respectively The rural areas are controlled by district boards or counals in charge of roads schools markets and health The tahsıl officials are appointed by the district officers Allied to the administrative set up of India is the educational Education among the peoples of India it is prior to the British rule controlled by the local Brahman pandits or gurus and the Muslim maulvis In 1835 English was made the medium of instruction for all schools above the primary level The present primary schools are under the local boards and municipalities ind children attend from the ages of 5 to 12 Secondary and intermediate schools graduate students at about the nge of 16 The Muslims were slower than the Hindus in taking advantage of the offering of European education Higher education has des eloped greatly during the last 50 years Not only have the Muslims and Hindus established their own universities at Aligarh and Benares but the various provinces and Indian states have established their own universities In addition there are schools for technical and professional instruction is well as for adults defectives criminals bull tribes laborers factory children and jur enile delinquents Private schools are maintained by indo dual castes and other groups In 1931 about 28 million persons—bout 12 percent of the population-could read and write POLITICAL AREAS OF TODAY primary units Some know ledge of the political divisions of present day India is neces sary in order to understand the areas of caste and tribal divisions and the relations of nationality and languige to locality grouping of the population India is duuded primarily into Indian states and British India The latter is duided in turn into three principal aseus Bombay Bengal and Madras and into several other major and minor arcas each with its own legislature courts Lovernor and principal university Thc are known as presidencies or provinces and these are in turn split into divisions then into districts subdivisions tahsıls (talulas or talukdars) and finally into suffiges There are 231 districts exch of as such generally has 3 or 4 subdivisions Each subdivision has 3 or 4 tahsıls and each tahsıl from 70 to 100 villages There ire approximately 500 000 villages in British India and this domain brad population of 2)5810 000 in 1911 Many of these administrative divisions can be traced back to tax areis developed under the Mogul and preceding administrations The Bombay Presidency stretches along the west coast of India from Gujarat to Kanari and has an area of 76 443 square miles its population in 1941 was over 70 millions munly Hindus Its chief languages are Marathi Gujarati and Kannada (or Kinarese) The principıl town 15 ·T PLATE 10 Lpfer Burning Ghat Benares Cremation of the dead preferably on the banks of the Ganges is a sacred custom with the upper castes Temples, bathing ghats and burning thats line the west bank of the Ganges for several miles so that the worshipers may face the cast and greet the rising sun loner Benares bathers The Ganges is so holy that according to Hindus its contact purifies everything including polluted clothing and corpses At Benares the river is especially sacred and no traveler to India can afford to miss the strange Vistas furnished by this city of Sua and his proteges the Brahmans (Photograph from Acme New spictures Inc ) Falls Got dat *

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Left Sumaru Tem
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·$ ta PLATE 13 Upper Shalimar Gardens Lahore This example of the work of the gardeners art sprang up during Mogul rule in India The gardener caste was originally devoted to the production of Aoners for temple ceremonies (Photograph from Information Officer Agency General for India Wash ington DC) Lower Village life in Bengal 4 scene near Calcutta This type of village landscape is typical of the wetter areas of eastern and southern India where rice is the mainstay of 1 fe ·37 2011GILBERT Bombay Cty There are outs de of Bombay Cty ti tec adm misisatie de sons (north, ten et south) under ui ch are 19 dt ts In add t on there 1 e 131 muncpaltes and 20 d sts ct local boards together wth the TAB-Pol with g out (in ne al hese ratus rep esen chin cand el falou commun ht hne wcf a hec e ninja an 1 Akal Party Po kross sth who an nd penn Sih sae In Inh Pur ab 2 Conges Son Alembers of he Ind in Ad Anal Cong es pot man 3 nghy small ind a 1 Commun Asma fantaamun s (1 de la na nal) gam Fmado o Ag up P r J use des ahet nderend nc 3 H Hndu Mihabh tff ndu Dowd E Mum League 6 ก Ind Mum Leacu Ta ndepend n Pak an ompose) Munas Po asal Cang ets and me nhun alpi al goup and ta ng ndepend 17 8 Ahk Ts A me am mo luca Musm { he Pun and in a Pones 91n Party Represent n s and esph a tam a Josh UN D Labe Fd am ላ Ad ts dmnn us RA D moc Р {}ск уе u Gnih in mad SIX HL Rush Rppen he Phone Osts $ whah es mned on on hme e תי e Pest 13 in add hese hamgh be a Red Hasy an Republican Am he\n B hman > Ndahej muu V ma (Mum Mullah ) and he k Pn Alut Pea 39 Party of Benki Mun pal Co po ar ant of Bombay Abou 64 percent of the populat on depends on ag culue but the coon text le trade stery mportant Bengal has an M of 7 521 squa e m les th a popular on of m ll ons Calcutta s the largest e ry 4173 capital Musi ms form 54 percent of the pop là on and Hindus 45 pe cent Bengal the mother tongue of }} ent of the people There are five d 5985 sect oned nto 27 ·38 WAR BACKGROUND STUDIES, NO 18 districts (outside of Calcutta). There are 118 municipalities and the Call cutta Corporation for local self government there are 26 district boards 58 local boards, and 5,158 smaller units called union boards The pri mary industries are jute production, cotton milling, and coal mining Madras Presidency has an area of 142,277 square miles with a popula tion of over 49 millions The principal languages are Tamil, Telugu, Kan nada, and Malayalam Hinduism is the dominant religion of 88 percent of the population There are 25 districts, each under a magistrate or col lector and a board There are 82 municipal councils Madras, the largest city, has a corporative government Although cotton milling is important, agriculture is the major industry, engaging about 71 percent of the popula tion The Laccadive Islands are attached to the Madras Presidency The United Provinces of Agra and Oudh have an area of 106,247 square miles and a population of 55,020,617 Cawnpore is the largest city There are 10 administrative divisions and 48 districts, 85 municipalities, and 48 district boards Muslims form 15 percent of the population and the rest are Hindus The speech is Hindi or Hindustanı About 87 percent of the population is rural, and 76 percent are employed in agriculture Punjab has an area of 99,089 square miles and a population of 28 million of the population 57 percent are Muslim, 26 percent are Hindu, and 32 percent Sihh? The capital is Lahore There are two major lan guages, Punjabi in the east and Lahnda in the west There are 29 districts grouped under 5 commissioners There are 123 municipalities Agricul ture engages 65 percent of the population but there are many factories Ceylon is a British Crown Colony separate from India proper It has its own Governor and State Council and is divided into 9 provinces, each presided over by a government agent There are also 3 municipalities, 27 urban councils, and i local sanitary board The Maldre Islands constitute a dependency of Ceylon Assam has an area of 55,043 square miles with a population of 10, 204,733 Shillong is the capital There are 19 local boards, 18 muarcı palities, and 10 town councils The population speaks Assamese and is mainly Hinduist in religion Agriculture engaged 89 percent of the popu lation, with tea cultivation and manufacturing a principal industry Bihar has an area of 69,745 square miles and a population of 36,340, 151 The capital is Patna and Hindus form a majority of the population There are 4 divisions covering 16 districts The speech is Biharı and Maithili Central Provinces and Berar have an area of 98,533 square miles and ? Notice that the Sikh group overlaps with the Hindu ·39 INDIA-GILBERT a population of 16822,584 The chief town is Nagpur, the capital The Hindus constitute the vast majority of the population, and peoples of abosıgical religions most of the rest. The prinapal languages are Marathi, Hindi, Telugu, and Gond The area is divided into 4 main divisions, 19 dsstricts, and 82 municipalities The 53sing of cotton, nice, and wheat are pritraty ladustries The Northwest Frontiet Prosince has an area of 39,270 square miles and a population of 3,038,067 About 91 percent are Muslims Peshawar is the capital and Pushtu the chief language There are 6 districts Orissa has an area of 32,198 square miles and a population of 8,728,544 Hindus constitute a majority, and there are a number of primitive groups The area is divided into 6 districts Orissa is definitely a linguistic unit, with Oriya the dominant language, and several aborginal tonguts Rice cultivation engages 80 percent of the population Sind has an area of 48,136 square miles and a population of 4,535,000 Hindus make up about one third of the population and Muslims two Cuards The isnguage is Sradh The capital ts Kerachi The area is dreided 15100 7 districts The Indian states are largely governed by their tulers with or without ministers and councils They have their own educational systems A few of the more important require mention here Barade, located in northern Bombay, has an area of 78,164 square miles and a population of 2,443,000, mastly Hindus Baroda City is the capital and the speech is Gujarati Hyderabad located in the Deccan, has an area of 82,698 square miles and a population of 16 194,313 Most of the people are Hindus, but the dynasty is Muslion The speech is Telugu The capital is Hyderabad City, and there are 17 districts Kashmir has an area of 87,471 square sules and a population of 4,021 616 The bulk of the population is Muslim, but the ruling race is Hindu There are a number of bill tibes and lughland groups in this area Kashimurt is the dominant speech, but several other tongues are spoken widely Mysore lasted on the southern Deccan, has an ares of 29,326 square miles and a population of 7,328,896 who are mostly Hindus. The speech ts Kannada or Kanarese Nepal, along the Tibetan border, is an independent kingdom with a population estimated 2: 3,600,000 and an area of 34,000 square miles The religions are principally Hinduim sad Buddhism and the speech Castom Pahali, in Atzan mountzın tongwe, together with Newari and Other Tibetan dialets ·38 WAR BACKGROUND STUDIES, NO 18 districts (outside of Calcutta) There are 118 municipalities and the Cal cutta Corporation for local self government there are 26 district boards, 58 local boards, and 5,158 smaller units called union boards The pri mary industries are jute production, cotton milling, and coal mining Madras Presidency has an area of 142,277 square miles with a popula tion of over 49 millions The principal languages are Tamil, Telugu, Kan nada, and Malayalam Hinduism is the dominant religion of 88 percent of the population There are 25 districts, each under a magistrate or col lector and a board There are 82 municipal councils Madras the largest city, has a corporative government Although cotton milling is important agriculture is the major industry, engaging about 71 percent of the popula tion The Laccadive Islands are attached to the Madras Presidency The United Provinces of Agra and Oudh have an area of 106,247 square miles and a population of 55,020,617 Cannpore is the largest city There are 10 administrative divisions and 48 districts, 85 municipalities, and 48 district boards Muslims form 15 percent of the population and the rest are Hindus The speech is Hindi or Hindustanı About 87 percent of the population is rural, and 76 percent are employed in agriculture Punjab has an area of 99,089 square miles and a population of 28 million of the population 57 percent are Muslim, 26 percent are Hindu, and 32 percent Sıhh? The capital is Lahore There are two major lan guages, Punjabi in the east and Lahnda in the west There are 29 districts grouped under 5 commissioners There are 123 municipalities Agricul ture engages 65 percent of the population but there are many factories Ceylon is a British Crown Colony separate from India proper It has ats onn Governor and State Council and is divided into 9 provinces, each presided over by a government agent There are also 3 municipalities, 27 urban councils, and i local sanitary board The Maldare Islands constitute a dependency of Ceylon Assam has an area of 55,043 square miles with a population of 10, 204,733 Shillong is the capital There are 19 local boards 18 munici palities, and 10 town councils The population speahs Assamese and is mainly Hinduist in religion Agriculture engaged 89 percent of the popu lation with tea cultivation and manufacturing a principal industry Bihar has an area of 69,745 square miles and a population of 36 340, 151 The capital is Patna and Hindus form a majority of the population There are 4 divisions cosering 16 districts The speech is Bihari and Maithili Central Provinces and Berat have an area of 98,533 square miles and Notice that the Sikh group overlaps with the Hindu ·39 INDIA-GILBERT a population of 16,822,584 The chief town us Nagpur, the capital The Hindus constitute the vast majority of the population, and peoples of aboriginal religions most of the rest The principal languages are Marathi, Hinds, Telugu, and Good The area is duided into 4 mun divisions, 19 districts and 82 muruapalities The raising of cotton, rice, and sheat are Primary industries The Northwest Frontier prosince has an area of 39,270 square miles and a population of 3,038,067 About 91 percent are Alustıms Peshaw at is the capital and Pushtu the chief language There are 6 destrias Orissa his an area of 32,198 square miles and a population of 8,728,544 Hindus constitute a majority, and there are a number of primitive groups The area is divided into 6 districts Oussa is definitely a linguistic unit, with Onya the dominant language, and several aboriginal tongues Rice cultivation engages 80 percent of the population Sund has an area of 48,136 square miles and a population of 4,535,000 Hindus make up about one third of the population and Muslims two chords The language is Sindh The capital is Karachi The area is divided into 7 districts The Indian states are largely governed by their culers with ot without ministers and councils They hase their own educational systems A few of the more important require mention here Baroda, located in northern Bombay, has an area of 78,161 square miles and a population of 2,443,000, mostly Hindus Baroda City is the capital and the speech is Gujarati Hyderabad, located in the Deccan, has an area of 82,698 square miles and a population of 16 194,313 Most of the people are Hindus but the dynasty is Muslim The speech is Telugu The capital is Hyderabad City, and there are 17 districts Kashmi has an area of 87,471 square miles and a population of 4021 616 The bulk of the population is Muslim, but the ruling race is Hindu There are a number of bull tribes and highland groups in this ares Kashin is the dominant speech but several other tongues are spoket widely Mysore located in the southero Deccan has an area of 29,326 square miles and a population of 7,328 896 sho are mostly Hindus The speech 1 Kaanada or Kanadese Nepal, zing the Tikecan worder is an independent kingdorn with a population estimated at 3,600,000 and an area of 54,000 square miles The religions are principally Hinduism and Buddhism and the speech Eastern Pahatı an Atyan mountain tongue, together with Newan and other Tibetaa dialects ·40 WAR BACKGROUND STUDIES, NO 18 Sihhım east of Nepal, has in area of 2 818 square miles and a popula tion of 121,520 The people are primarily Tibetans and Nepalese but mainly Hindu in religion Bhutan, stull farther cast, has an area of 8,000 square miles and an estimated population of 300 000 Lamaistic Buddhism is the religion of the Tibetan inhabitants In addition to the British areas and the Indian states and independent kingdoms there are some small fragments of land owned by Portugal and Trance Portuguese India includes Goa (with three islands off the Malabar Coast) and Daman and its additional tracts in Kathrawar and Diu with adjacent tracts on the coast of Gujarat The total area of Portuguese India is 1,537 square miles, and the population in 1936 was 601 000 The Portuguese possessions are administered as an ecclesiastical and political unit with headquarters at Goa In Goa the native population speaks Portuguese and Konkanı, the latter a dialect of Marathi The population is partly Roman Catholic and partly Hindu Trench India includes Pondicherry and Karikal on the Tamil coastland Yanaon on the coast of the Northern Circars Chandernagore in the Ganges Delta, and Mahe on the Malabar Coast The total area covers 200 square miles and the total population in 1941 was 323 295 The administration of French India is centralized in Pondicherry French India rallied to the Tree French or lighting French movement after the defeat of France in June 1940 LANGU ALIS The Grierson linguistic survey of India found approximately 179 lan guages subdivided into 541 dialects in the entire country The greatest number of languages is found in the Tibeto Burman speech area of the Himalayan hill tracts, where owing to the broken nature of the country each tribe is separated linguistically by dialects from its neighbors The four chief language families to be found in India are (1) the Munda Kol (2) the Tibeto Chinese (3) the Draudian and (4) the Aryan The Munda Kol linguistic stoch is represented by the languages of the central plateaus spoken by over 3 973 000 persons Their major location Js in the northeast Central Pros inces southern Bihar northern Orissa Northern Circars, and western Bengal There are also outliers in the upper Himalayan foothills and the United Pros inces The speakers are mostly hill tribes and the languages play no part in the formation of the more important social units of India ·11 INDIA-GILBERT The Tibeto-Chinese linguistic stoch is represented by the Tibeto Burmin speech of the Himalaya hill area and by is small groups on the Assamese borders Except 103 Nepal none of the languages has recensed important cultisation in Indið either as a literary medium or as a means of dis tragushing major social units The total number of speakers is around a million or two which is very small proportionate to the other speech Staups of India The Dravidian languages are spoken in the peninsular area primarily Two of them sursive in the north in Chota Nagpur and the Sonthal Parganas where they are found adjosting Mundo dualexts One isolated Draudan linguage is Brahui found in the highlands of Baluchistan There are two major groups in the Draudian area, the Andhra group and the Tamil group Tamil is spoken in the south of India and the north of Ceylon by over 20 millions It extends as far as Mysore on the west coast and Madras on the east coast and has been carried to Burma and Malaya by emigrant coolres It is the oldest richest and the most highly organized of Draud un languages it possesses an extenske literature wsitten s a literary dislect called Shen or perfect in contradistinction to the colloquial speech called hodum ot rude It has an alphabet of its own the Varte luttu, or round writing and another derived from Brahmi Malayalam is a tongue which branched from Tamil in the ninth cen (ury AD It is the speech of the Malabar Coast and there is one dialect called Yerua nhich is spoken in Coorg Malayalam has borrowed its vocabulary to a considerable extent from Sanskrit and employs an alphabet of the Grantha character much used in southern India for writing Sanskrit ks speakers number 9 millions Kannada or Kanarese is the language of Mysore and the adjoining areas Its ancient Iterature is written in a character detined from the Brahmi alphabet of Asoka A sull older form the Hala kannada 15 derived from the Devanagari like the Telugu tsitten character in the Nilgri hills in Hualects are spoken Badagi and Kurumba hodagu another dialect is spoken in Coorg and hnks Kannada with Tulu another Dravidian language of South kanara hanitese spealers number 11 millons Telugu ts the only important Andhra language nou surviving It 15 spoken on the eastern coast from Aladras to near the southern border of Orissa lts extras te stessture is titten in a character of its own adapted from the Devanagari This character like the wsiting of Osissa is notable for its loops and curses which originate in the difficulty of 192king straight lines sith a stylus on a palm leaf without splitting the leat Telugu spealers number over 26 millions ·40 WAR BACKGROUND STUDIES, NO 18 Sikkim, cast of Nepal, has in arer of 2,818 squire miles and a popula tion of 121,520 The people are primarily Tibetans in Nepalese but munly Hindu in religion Bhutan, still farther cast, his an area of 8,000 square miles and an estimated population of 300,000 Lamaistic Buddhism is the religion of the Tibetan inhabitants In addition to the British areas and the Indian states and independent kingdoms, there are some small fragments of land owned by Portugal and France Portuguese India includes Goa (urth three islands off the Malabar Coast) and Daman and its additional tracts in Kathrzwar and Diu with adjacent tracts on the coast of Gujarat The total area of Portuguese India is 1,537 square miles, and the population in 1936 was 601,000 The Portuguese possessions are administered as in ecclesiastical and political unit with headquarters at Goa In Goa the native population speaks Portuguese and Konhanı, the latter a dialect of Marath The population is partly Roman Catholic and partly Hindu French India includes Pondicherry ind Karshal on the Tamil coastland Yanaon on the coast of the Northern Cırcars, Chandernagore in the Ganges Delta and Mahe on the Malabır Coast The total area covers 200 square miles and the total population in 1911 was 323,295 The administration of Irench India is centralized in Pondicherry French Indra rallied to the Tree French or Fighting I rench movement after the defeat of Irance in June 1910 LANGUAGES The Grierson linguistic survey of Indız found approximately 179 lan guages, subdivided into 544 Jualects in the entire country The greatest number of languages is found in the Tibeto Burman speech area of the Himalayan hill tracts, where, owing to the brohen nature of the country each tribe is separated linguistically by dialects from its neighbors The four chief language families to be found in India are (1) the Mfunda Kol, (2) the Tibeto Chinese (3) the Drudian and (4) the Aryan The Munda Kol linguistic stock is represented by the languages of the central plateaus spoken by over 3,973 000 persons Their major location is in the northeast Central Provinces southern Bihar, northern Orissa Northern Circars, and western Bengal There are also outlers in the upper Himalayan foothills and the United Provinces The speakers are mostly full tribes and the languages play no pirt in the formation of the more important social units of India ·INOGILBERT The Tibeto Chinese linguistic stock is represented by the Tibeto Burman speech of the Himalay3 hill area and by its small groups on the Assamese borders Except in Nepal none of the languages has recessed important Cultivation in India either 23 2 iterary medium or as a means of dis tinguishang major social units The total number of speakers is around a million or two which is very small proportionate to the other speech groups of fodia The Dravidian languages are spoken in the peninsular ares primarily Tuo of them surire in the north in Chota Nagput and the Sonthal Parganas where they are found adjoining Mundu dialects One isolated Draudkan language is Brahur found in the highlands of Baluchistan There are no major groups in the Dravidian frea the Andhra group and the Tamil group Tamil 15 spoken in the south of India and the north of Ceylon by over 20 muions It extends as far as dis sore on the west coast and Madras on the east coast and has been carried to Bisema and Malaya by emigrant coolses It is the offest richest and the most highly organized of Dravid lan languages it possesses an extensive literature written in a literary duglect called Shen or perfect in contradistinction to the colloquial speech called Modum ot rude It has an alphabet of its own the Vatte luttu or round iting and another derned from Brahmi Alalayalam is a tongue shich branched from Tamil in the ninth cen tury AD It is the speech of the Malabar Coist and there 15 one dialect 09. Yerase which is spoken to Coorg Malayalam has borrowed its vocabulary to a considerable extent from Sanshort and employs an alphabet of the Grantha charactet much used in southern India for a piling Sanskrit Its speakers number 9 millions Kannads or Lanarese is the language of Mysore and the adigining atas Its Ancient literature is a citten in a character derived from the Brahms alphabet of Asokz Astill older form the Hala haonada derved from the Desinaga11 like the Telugu written character in the Nilgını bills tno dialects are spoken Badiga and Kurumba Lolagu another dialect 13 spoken ta Coorg and links Kannada Kith Tulus another Dravidian language of South kanara hinatese speakers number 11 millions Telugu as the only important Andhra language not surviving It is spoleo on the eastern corst from Afadras to neat the southern border of Onssa Its extensae bterature is sitten in a character of its own adapted from the Dainga Ilirs character lihe the uniting of Qri$s! 15 notable for ss loops and canes which originate to the difficulty of muling straight lines $31) 2 stílus 611 a palm leaf eithout splitting the leaf Telugu speakers Murciber Dver 26 millions

·42
WAR BACKGROUND STUDIES, NO 18
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FIC 3 Linguistic map of India Based on Grierson s Linguistic Survey of Ind a
prepared by Di Ft Weller (For explanation, see opposite page )

·43 INDIA-GILBERT LANGUAGE STOCKS OF INDIA III DRAVIDIAN SPEECK I INDO EUROPE IN SPEECH 2. Gond 53 Kolam 52 Gondi b Other a Indoaryan speech 1 Assamese 10 Kulu 2 Bengali 11 Lahnda 3 Bhuli 12 Maithil 4 Bibari 13 Marathi 5 Gujarati 14 Oriya 6 Eastern 15 Pahan Hind: 16 Punjabi 7 Western 17 Rajasthani Hindi 18 Sindhi 8 Hindustan 19 Sinhalese 9 Kachu or 54 Badaga SS Brahul 56 Kannada of Kanarese 57 Kodagu 58 Kota 59 Kurukh or Oraon 60 Kui or Khond 61 Malayalam 62 Malto (Paharia, etc ) 63 Tamil 64 Telugu 65 Toda 66 Tulu Cutcht IV INDO-CHINESE SPEECH a Mon Khmer 67 Khast b Pasaca speech 20 Ashkun 26 Kashmiri 21 Astort 27 Khowari 22 Bashgali 28 Kolustani 23 Brokpa 29 Presup (Kafir) 24 Chilasi 30 Shina 5 Gilgitu 31 Wa Ala b Tibeto Burman 68 Balus 69 Bhotsa (Tibetan) 70 Kenawani 71 Ladakhi 72 Lahuli 73 Lepcha 74 Lhoko 75 Lumbu 76 Newari 77 Spits Iranian speech 33 Pushtu 36 Persian 32 Afghan 33 Balucht 34 Puktu Bodo Pamir speech 78 Garo 79 Mech 39 Wakhi 37 Galcha 38 Sarikoli V NON CLASSIFIED SPEECH 11 MUNDA SPEECH 80 Khajona or Burushaski 81 Vedda (of Ceylon) 40 Bihor 41 Bhum 42 Ho 43 Kharvar 41 Koma 45 Male 46 Mundart 47 Santali 48 Juang 49 Kbaria 50 Korku 51 Savata ·WAR BACKGROUND STUDIES NO 18 Gond is the Druvidian language spoken in the hill country of Central India and is intermediate between the Tamil and Andhra groups It possesses many dialects but is unwritten and has no literature The Ary in or Indo European group of tongues are developed on a broad scale in India The hill tribes on the northwest frontier speil varieties of the Iraniin or Dardıc branches of the Ary in tongues There are a variety of Aryan gypsy argots of incompletely classified character widespread in India The total number of persons spelling various branches of the Aryan family in India is around 257 million The more importint of the Aryan languages are Hindi Bengalı Assamese Oriya Marathi Gujarati Punjabi Labında Sindhu hashimiriind Sinhalese Hindi is spoken in the United Provinces Central Prosinces and Rajputana It is written in both Persian and Nagari characters When employed with many Persian words it is spoken of 15 Urdu when without as Hindustanı Its cultos ation is a literary language began in the sixteenth century and its total speakers nou number over 1'1 millions To the east is the kindred tongue Biharı spoken in Bihue and the erstern parts of the United Provinces whose speakers number 37 millions Biliari is written in the Kaithi character and has a literature of poctry and dramatic works Eastern Hindi is the term used for the group of dialects between Bihari and western Hindi Beyond western Hindi to the west are the hindred groups of dialects termed Rajasthani in Rajputana Bengalt is the tongue spoken in the Gangetic Delta and the areas im mediately north and east by 53 millions In no other specch is the literary tongue so widely separated from that of ordinury conversation There are at least seven recognized dialects and the written character is 1 derivatic of the Nagarı form Bengali is one of the most cultivated of languages and its literature reaches bach it least to the fifteenth century Assamese is spoken in the Assam Valley where its speachers number about 2 millions it possesses a national literature exten ling back over (00 years and is characterized by 1 predomın ince of historical and poetical works The written character employed is nearly the same as that of Bengali Oriya is the language of Orissa and is spoken by over 11 million persons It has an awluard and cumbrous written character derned from Nagari As in Telugu the use of palm leaves by scribes his gisen rise to a prominent use of cures and flourishes It has a fairly large literature primarily of religious poetry in wh ch Krishna figures as the outstand ing hero $ In add t on cometh ng over 2 percent filem le p pulat nisl crate in Eng list As the official language Inglist has b en understand and vedh educated classes for a number of decades ·15 INDIA-GILBERT Marathi with its various dialects extends almost across the Peninsula of India and is spoken by over 21 million people in the Bombay Prest dency it covers the north of the Decran plateau and a strip of country beta een the Ghats and the Arabian Sea extending to about a hundred miles south of Portuguese Goa It is also the speech of most of Berar and a good part of Hyderabad It stretches across the south of the Central Prosinces and occupies part of Bastar There are four main dialects and It is usually written and printed in the Nagari character Marathi pos sesses a copious literature of high deselopment Gujaratı the language of Gujarat and the neighboring state of Baroda 15 spoken by over 10 millions The written character is Nagars but another script Anos 25 Laith is employed in common with Bilass Gujarati extends south along the coast of the Arabian Sea to about Daman There is a differentiation between the literary and the colloquial speech and the literature goes back to the fifteenth century AD Punjały the speech of the eastern half of the Punjab and southern Jammu is the common medium of over 13 millions It has two dialects The proper aritten character 13 Landa a dipped form also used for the Lahnda language in the nestern Pinjab It has a small literature con sisting mainly of ballads and foll epics Lahnda is the language of the western half of the Punjab There is no distinct boundary beta ten it and Punjabi which latter merges into it at approximately 740 F longitud. Lahnda is spoken by about 7 millions in about 22 dialects Beyond ballads and other folk songs the language tras na literature the Persias 5:235acter is employed in writing 22 Sindhi is the language of Sind stretching from latitude 29' N doua to the Arabian Sea It is spohen by 31 million people and has six recog nized dualeas It has recened very little literary cultivation The Persian alphabet sth sex eral additional letters for special sounds in the language 13 in general use hach the language of hash is related to Sindhi hashmass spolen by about 1 16 000 persons in the valley of hashmir and in contiguous valleys to the south and east, is a mixed form of speech It is basically a Dard language closely akin to Shina but it has been influenced by Sanskost in which isnguage most of its literature 15 watten Two alphabets are employed— madracation of the Persian used by the Muslims and the ancient Sarada script of Nagari origin which is used by the Hindus Sinhalese is a mixtd tongue spoken in Ceylon by about 66 percent of the population lt 15 in use primarily in the central and southern areas whereas Tamil ss spoken in the north Sinhalese is closely related to Pili in which language most of its literature was originally written ·41 WAR BACKGROUNI) STUDILS, NO 18 Gond is the Dravidian language spoken in the hill country of Central India and is intermediate betu een the Tamil and Andhra groups It possesses many dialects but is unwritten and has no literature The Aryan or Indo European group of tongues are developed on a broad scale in India The hill tribes on the northwest frontier speak varieties of the Iranian or Dardıc branches of the Aryan tongues There are a variety of Aryan gypsy argots of incompletely classified churacter widespread in India The total number of persons speaking various branches of the Aryan family in India is around 257 million * The more important of the Aryan languages are Hindi, Bengalı, Assamese Oriya Marathi, Gujarati, Punjabi, Lahnda, Sindhi, Kashmiri, and Sinhalese Hindi is spoken in the United Provinces, Central Provinces, and Rajputana It is written in both Persian and Nagari characters When employed with many Persian words, it is spoken of as Urdu, when without as Hindustani Its cultivation is a literary language began in the sixteenth century, and its total speakers nou number over 121 millions To the east is the kindred tongue Biharı spoken in Bihar and the eastern parts of the United Prouinces whose speakers number 37 millions Bihuri is written in the Kathi character and has a literature of poetry and dramatic works Eastern Hindi is the term used for the group of dialects between Bihari and western Hinde Beyond western Hindi to the west are the kindred groups of dialects termed Rajasthani in Rajputana Bengali is the tongue spoken in the Gangetic Delti and the areas im mediately north and east by 33 millions In no other speech is the literary tongue so widely separated from that of ordinary conversation There are at lerst seven recognized dialects and the written character is a derivative of the Nagart form Bengali is one of the most cultivated of languages and its literature reaches back at least to the fifteenth century Assamese is spoken in the Assam Valley where its speakers number about 2 millions it possesses a national literature extending back over 600 years and is characterized by a predominance of historical and poetical works The written character employed is nearly the same as that of Bengali Oriya is the language of Orissa and is spoken by over 1 million persons It has an awkward and cumbrous written character derived from Nagarı As in Telugu the use of palm leaves by scribes las given risc to a prominent use of cures and fourishes It has a fairly large literature, primarily of religious poetry in which Krishna figures as the outstand ing hero 8 In addition something over 2 percent of the male population is literate in Ing lish As the official language English has been understood and used by the educated classes for a number of decades ·47 IWD14-CILBERT Parsees, and 22,480 Jews), except for some 25 million adherents of Selure or tribal religions The beliefs of Orthodox Hinduism may be briefly characterized as fol lous There is a supreme god (Parameshaar) who is unknon able, absolute, remote, duorced from personality and ethics, indifferent to man and inaccessible to him. There are more immediate manifestations of this one gad bonerer, who at available to supplants and may be worshiped These are Sisa, Vishay, or Brahmı, or their various incar Gitions, and various other gods resident in trees, animals, images, and pessons, according to the particular mata or doctrine one follows In addition much of human life 15 affected by the walls or potencies of spints resident in nature and acting as the causes of disease, success, and fruitfulness These spirits must be propitiated by sacrifice and worship The cow is to be held sacred-never killed, and its products are held to purify (com uncleanness Charms, smulets, and the stars hast magical potency On a broad basis the sacred scriptures are disisible into the Sruti or Revelations (Vedas and Uparushads) and the Smits or Traditions (Pura als, Laxs of Alaou, and the Bhagsradgita) Merely listening to the scriptures is meritorious, but lon castes should be barted from the privilege Moksha or salvation is achieved by any one of three paths or Margas, the path of Lnon ledge or contemplation (Jnana Marga), the path of action (Kurma Blasga), and the path of devotion (Bhakti Magi) Each sect develops a sampradaya, pantha, or tradition, fuch combines muta and marga (doctrine and practice) Beside the goal of moksha or salra ton a mans life may also be oriented toward dharma, or ethical rectitude. arth, or wealth, and ham, or satisfaction of the senses In order to achiese dharma, an ashram, Os retreat from the world, 15 regarded as necessary The material world is regarded as entirely illusory (maya), modern machinery is thought useless for soul advancement, and asceticism is held desirable The world is thought to be growing norge and to be now in the fourth and last stage of increasing pain and sorros for human earthly existence The older ways ase best for man to follon, and on the other hand fate determines the condition of each one's life Ezch man is born into one of the four vartas and into a caste choch utors the spiritual develop ment of his soul a birth This saluation cannot be channel 2. . d sulted duty to marry and have male ottspring Ancestor sorship is necessary Women are interior to meo } ·46 WAR BACKGROUND STUDIES, NO 18 Sinhalese was imported apparently from western India where its nearest living relative appears to be Marathi Mahl is a dialect of Sinhalese spoken in the Maldive Islands and Minicoy Along the foothills of the Himalaya the Arjan Paharı dialects are spoken from the borders of Kashmir to Sikkım but the principal language of Nepal is Newart, a form of Tibetan speech RELIGIONS AND SECTS In considering the religious life of India, it is well to recall once more the dynamic aspects of the Indian environment, as well as the cultural history of the people The monsoon, that alternating rhythm of extreme violence in wind and rain, is a more marked seasonal change than occurs in the temperate climates farther north As the atmosphere bakes in the late spring and the fiery sunlight glows and blazes from a relentlessly clear sky, the grass withers and man and beast alike feel a tension which cannot find relief Eventually, during June, heavy clouds appear in the southwest and, after advancing and retreating in several false attempts pour down their torrents upon the thirsty earth, frequently sith the result of a disastrous flood Immediately there occurs a wild and luxur jant growth of vegetable and animal life although human social activities are much curtailed by the cloudbursts Under this display of the mighty elemental forces of nature man becomes indeed puny too small to copc with his environment and his apprehension of the cternal round of the heavens reduces his own existence to a transient play of shadons and of illusion emptred of substance and value The ideil min in this world VICW is one who gives up all material possessions and mortifying the flesh, pursues a course of spiritual edification in poverty and solitude The early Vedic religion ems to have been a pastoral inspired shy cult with rituals of fire making and hearth tending predominant Later A state cult grew up indelibly linked with Brahmans and the caste system and also with the worship of Vishnu or Siva and their various incarna trons Buddhism and Jainism arose as reactions against the extreme formalism of the orthodox Brahmans and for a period threatened totalls to obscure it By a process of peaceful penetration thc Suyaite Brahmans finally incorporated most of the Buddhist elements and eliminated Bud dhism as a rnal in India proper Jainism survised among the merchant castes of Rajputana and Bombay Muslim religion is introduced on a broad scale un AD 1200 The major beliefs of today arc Hinduism professed by upward of 255 million, and Mohammedanism, professed by over 91 millions All other groups are minor (such as the some 6 million Christians 115 000 ·47 INDL GILBERT Parsees, and 22,480 Jens), except for some 25 million adhesents of primitne or tribal religioas The beliefs of orthodox Hinduism may be briefy characterized as fol lors There is a supreme god (Parameshwar) who is unknosable, absolute, remote, da orced from personality and ethics, indifferent to man and inaccessible to him There are more imediate manifestations of this one god however, who are arauable to suppliants and may be worshiped These are Sisa, Vishnu, or Brahma, or their various incar nations, and various othes gods resident in trees, animals, images, and persons according to the particular mata or doctrine one follows In addition much of human life is affected by the walls or potencies of spirits resident in nature and acting as the causes of discase, success, and fruitfulness These spirits must be propitiated by sacrifice and worship The con is to be held sacred-never killed, and its products are held to purify from uncleanness Charms, amulets, and the stars hase magical potency On a broad basis the sacred scriptures are disssible into the Srutt or Revelations (Vedas and Upanishads) and the Smrita or Tradehons (Pura Aas, Laws of Manu, and the Bhagavadgita) Merely listening to the scriptures is meritorious but low castes should be barred from the privilege Moksha or salvation is achieved by any one of three paths or Margas, the path of knowledge of contemplation (Jnana Marga) the path of action (Karma Marga), and the path of devotion (Bhakti M2183) Each set develops a sampradzsa pantha, or tradition which combines sata and marga (doctrine and practice) Beside the goal of moksha or silva ton a man s life may also be oriented toward dharma or ethical sectitude, arth, or wealth, and hamı, or satisfaction of the senses in order to achieve dhati, an ashram, or retreat from the world is regarded as precessary The material world is regarded as entirely illusory (Maya), modern machinery is thought useless for soul advancement, and asceticism is held desirable The world is thought to be groning worse and to be now in the fourth and last stage of intressidg pain and sorrow for human earthi, existence The older says are best for man to follow and on the other hand fate determines the condition of cach one s life Each man is born into one of the fout varsas and into a caste thich surrors the spiritusl develop mest of his soul at birth This e aluation cannot by L IT ALL { . 13 4 Seu duty to carry and have male ottspring Ancestor worship is necessary Women are inferior to men ·46 VAR BACKGROUND STUDIES, NO 18 Sinhalese was imported apparently from sestern India where its nearest living relative appears to be Marathi Mahl is a dialect of Sinhalese spoken in the Maldive Islands and Minicoy Along the foothills of the Himalaya the Aryan Paharı dialects are spoken from the borders of Kashmir to Sikkım, but the principal language of Nepal es Newarı, a form of Tibetan speech RELIGIONS AND SECTS In considering the religious life of India, it is well to recall once more the dynamic aspects of the Indian environment, as well as the cultural history of the people The monsoon, that alternating rhythm of extreme violence in wind and rain, is a more mashed seasonal change than occurs in the temperate climates farther north As the atmosphere bakes in the late spring and the fiery sunlight glows and blazes from a relentlessly clear sky, the grass withers and man and beast alıhe feel a tension which cannot find relief Eventually, during June, heavy clouds appear in the southwest and, after advancing and retreating in several false attempts pour down their torrents upon the thirsty earth, frequently with the result of a disastrous flood Immediately there occurs a wild and luxur lant growth of vegetable and animal life although human social activities are much curtailed by the cloudbursts Under this display of the mighty elemental forces of nature, man becomes indeed puny, too small to cope with his environment, and his apprehension of the eternal round of the heavens reduces his own existence to a transient play of shadons and of illusion emptied of substance and value the ideal man in this world VIEW is one who goes up all material possessions and mortifying the flesh, pursues a course of spiritual edification in poverty and solitude The early Vedic religion seems to have been a pastoral inspired shy cult with rituals of fire maling and hearth tending predominant Later a state cult grew up indelibly linked with Brahmans and the caste system and also with the worship of Vishnu or Sra and their various incarna tions Buddhtsm and Jainism arose as reactions against the extreme formalism of the orthodox Brahmans and for a period threatened totally to obscure it By a process of peaceful penetration the Sivaite Brahmans finally incorporated most of the Buddhist elements and eliminated Bud dhism as a mal in India proper Jainism survived among the merchant castes of Rajputana and Bombay Muslim religion was introduced on a broad scale in AD 1200 The major beliefs of today are Hinduism professed by upuard of 255 million, and Mohammedanism, professed by oser 91 millions All other groups are minor (such as the some 6 million Christians, 115 000 ·19 IND-GILBERT with or without a dot or cuscle between them They also mark on their bojies the emblems of Vishnu such as the discus the conch the mace and the latus There are also other signs employed with colors of red an! yetlor or black made from sandalwood paste or from charcoal talen from a fire ta which incense has been burned before an image or of clay brought from a sacred place Subdivisions hase separate masks as for example the followers of Ramanuja who make a simple white line between the eyes curied like the letter Y of V and 3 central red mach Varks incdentally are also used by castes as well as by sects The relgious or sectarian like castes numbered 2 755 900 members la 1901 Most of the great orders ongigated in south India and as part of the reaction against Buddhism Some originated with Sankaracharya the Suna reformer and many more from Ramanuja On seaching upper India the const tution and practice was altered by Raminanda and Chu tanya, who mitigated the austenities and exclusiveness of these groups. Frora their ongenal limitation to Brahman and Rajput recruits they wers opened to members of lower castes and splet inta celibate or ascetic sections of clergy on the one hand and domestic or householder lay members on the other Both exclusive and catholic branches de eloped the exclus Mpu duid inere are many monasteries which supply the itinarant teachers of the sects. The mahants or abbots may take up money lending on the strength of thess endowments and charges The diserbution of celig ons in India is of considerable ethnic interest The adherents of Hinduism proper predominate ia the center and south of the country maling up no less than 89 percent of the population in Madcas Sivate sects preponderate in the Tamil area, 19 Lashrnis Nepal and in Bombay while Vaishnavas are centered in Telingana Gujarat Orissa and in parts of Bengal in Assam and the Gangetic prosinces Saktis are mainly located in Bengal and Sivane Brahmins in the Deccan The Lingayat group is mainly centered in Mysore and adjoimng areas Shhs are localized in the eastern Punjab and ja as in Aymer Meru ara and its entions 25 Bell as in parts of Bombay Tribal religions are found primanly in Bihar Orissa Central Provinces Assam, and to a less degree in Bengal Vadras Rajputana Central India Hyderabad and Kashmir Christians are most oumerous in Goa Cochin Travancore Chota Nagpur the Khasia and (a10f1a Hills and in seaports Sisaites Vaishnavas and to a lesser extent Saltas are found throughout the Gangetic valley Mus I ms preponderate in Sind western Punjab Asshnur and eastern Bengal Buddhists are found along the submontane tracts of the Himalayas espe ·18 WAR BACKGROUND STUDIES, NO 18 in soul, mind, and body, and their chief glory is in bearing sons The Brahman is a divine being who should be served and never molested Morality and the abiding by caste custom are synonymous Erch soul is reborn in a higher or a lower estate for countless incarnations and its ultimate salvation or release lies in nirsana or absorption by the unn ersal World Soul All events in one s life are predetermined by prior merito rious or eul actions in former existence (harma) Non Lilling is a most excellent duty, for to tahe life of either man or animal 15 sinful Mert eating is condemned because it in olves the taking of life Manual labor is considered degrading and should be reserved for those who by their demerits have been reborn into a lower caste The operation of many of these principles can be seen in the career of Mahatma Gandlu During his campaign for swaraj le applied the prin ciple of satyagraha or nonresistance to police action in regard to strikes and also promulgated a policy of ahimsa or nonwolence in carrying out his program The principal festivals of the Hindus are dedicated to the worship and honoring of Sra Krishna, Rama, Durga, and Ganesha To determine the dates of the festivals tuo calendrical systems are widely used (1) the Saka Era which dates from AD 78 and commences its year in March and (2) the Vikrama Samvat which dates from 57 B C and commences its year in September Among the Hindu adherents, Siva is frequently represented by a phallic symbol, such as the male organs or lingam, his tes by the female organs or yoni, n hile Vishnu is always represented by an image The major items of sacrifice are grain fruits, flowers, or milk although followers of Kalı (wife of Siva) sacrifice goats or other animals Worship of Gurus or religious teachers is frequent, as is also the use of a mantra or watchword to which supernatural power is attributed Sectarian groups are roughly divided into Vaishnavites, worshiping Vishnu Sevaites, worshipers of Siva, and Sahtas, worshipers of Siva s wife, Kali The use of sectarial marks or telahs on the forehead or other exposed area to distinguish groups is frequent In the Central Provinces the Savaite mark consists of a mere horizontal line with or without a dot below or above the line or on the middle line, and with or without an os al or hall oval, a triangle, a cone, or any other pointed or arched figure haung its apex upward The figure of a crescent moon or of a trident is also used Marks are made by hand or by metallic stamps with ashes collected from the sacrificial fire or from burned coudung sandalwood paste or turmeric steeped in a solution of lime juice and saltpeter Varshnautes usuilly make two perpendiculat lines on their foreheads ·19 INT-GILBERT with or without a dot or crcle betxeen them They also mail on their bolies the emblems of Vishnu such as the discus, the conch, the muce, and the lotus There are also other signs employed with colors of red and yellos or black mide from sandalwood paste, or from charcoal taken from a fire in which incense has been burned before an image, or of clay brought from a sacred place Subdis isions have separate marks as, for example, the followers of Ramanuja, who make a simple white line between the eyes curved like the letter Y or V and a central red mark Masks, incidentally, are also used by castes 35 well as by sects The religious of sectarian lihe castes tumbered 2,755,900 members in 1901 Most of the great orders originated in south India and as part of the reaction against Buddlusm Some originated with Sankaracharya the Saiva reformer and many more from Ramanuja Os reaching upper india the constitution and practice was altered by Ramananda and Chai canya, who mitigated the austeritits and exclusiveness of these groups from their ongenal Limitation to Brahman and Rajput recruits, they were opened to members of lower castes and split into celibate or ascetic sections of clergy on the one hand, and domestic or householder lay members on the other Both exclusive and catholic branches dereloped The excenta 17 wypt a wee are many monasteries wluch supply the itinerant teachers of the sects The mahants os abbots may take ag moneşlending on the strength of their endowments and charges The distribution of religions in India is of considerable ethnic interest The adheretits of Hinduism proper predominate in the center and south of the country making up no less than 89 percent of the population on Madras Snarte corto and in Bomba On$s2, and in moes, as ASSA, and the Gangetic prosinces Suktas are mainly located in Bengal and State Brahmans in the Deccan The Lingayat group is mainly centered in Mysore and adjoining areas Sikhs are localized in the eastern Punjab and ļains in Aymes Mersara and its caseross, as well as in parts of Bombay Tribal religions are found primanly in Bihar, Orissa Central Provinces, Assam, and, to a less degree, is Bengal. Madia Bapusan,2, Central, Hyderabad, and Kashmir Christians are most numerous in Gos, Cochin, Travancore, Chota Nagpur, the Khasia and Jaintia Hills and a seaports Sisastes, Varshinasas, and to a lesser extent Saltas, are found throughout the Gangetic salley Mus itsns preponderate 10 Sind, western Punjab, Kashmir, and castern Bengal Buddhists we found along the submontane tracts of the Himalayas espe ·18 WAR BACKGROUND STUDILS, NO 18 in soul, mind, and body, and their chief glory is in bearing sons The Brahman is a divine being who should be sersed and never molested Morality and the abiding by caste custom are synonymous Each soul is reborn in a higher or a louer estate for countless incarnations and its ultimate salvation or release lies in nirvana or absorption by the universal World Soul All events in one s life are predetermined by prior merito rious or evil actions in former existence (karma) Non killing is a most excellent duty, for to tahe life of either man or animal is sinful Mest eating is condemned because it involves the taking of life Manual labor is considered degrading and should be resened for those who by their demerits have been reborn into a los cr caste The operation of many of these principles can be seen in the career of Mahatma Gandhi During his campaign for swara, he applied the prin ciple of satyagraha or nonresistance to police action in regard to strikes and also promulgated a policy of alımsa or nonviolence in carrying out his program The principal festivals of the Hindus are dedicated to the worship and honoring of Siva Krishna Rama, Durga, and Ganesha To determine the dates of the festivals tuo calendrical systems are widely used (1) the Saka Era which dites from AD 78 and commences its year in March and (2) the Vihrama Sam at which dates from 57 BC and commences its year in September Among the Hindu adherents, Siva is frequently represented by a phallic symbol, such as the male organs or lingam, his wives by the female organs or yoni, while Vishnu is always represented by an image The major items of sacrifice are grain fruits, flowers, or milk although followers of Kalı (wife of Swa) sacrifice goats or other animals Worship of Gurus or religious teachers is frequent as is also the use of a mantra or watchword to which supernatural power is attributed Sectarian groups are roughly deeded into Vaishnavites worshiping Vishnu Sisaites worshipers of Sia, and Sahtas, worshipers of Swas wife, Kalı The use of sectarial marks or tlaks on the forehead or other exposed area to distinguish groups is frequent in the Central Provinces the Sinaite mark consists of a mere horizontal line with or without a dot below or above the line or on the middle line, and with or without an oval or half oval, a triangle, a cone, or any other pointed or arched figure having its apex upward The figure of a crescent moon or of a trident is also used Masks are made by hand or by metallic stamps with ashes collected from the sacrificial fire or from burned coudung, sand 1/wood paste, or turmeric steeped in a solution of lime juice and saltpeter Vaishnu ites usually male two perpendicular lines on their forcherds ·49 INDU--GILBERT with or without a dot or onle between them They also mark on theis bodies the emblems of Vishnu, such as the discus, the conch, the mace, and the lotus There are also other signs employed with colors of red and fellow or blach made from sandalwood paste, ot from charcoal talen from a fire in which incense has been burned before an image, or of clay brought from a sacred place Subda usions hase separate marks as, for example the folloners of Ramanuja, who make a simple wlute line beta een the gas cuned like the letter Y or U and a central sed mark Marks, incidentally, are also used by castes as well as by sects The religious or sectarian like castes numbered 2,753,900 members in 1901 Most of the great orders originated in south India and as part of the reaction against Buddhism Sorre wignated with Sankarachasse, the Sarya reformet, and many more from Ramanuja On reaching upper India che constitution and practice was altered by Ramananda and Char tanya, who mitigated the austerities and exclusiveness of these groups From thetr original limitation to Brahman and Rajput recruits, they were opened to members of lower castes and split into celibate or ascetic sections of clergy on the one hand, and domestic or householder lay members, on the other Both exclusive and catholic branches des eloped The erclusive Varslinavas of Bengal tended to develop endogamous communnies among theur ty and these often came to constitute the major 117 of sect members In upper India there are many monasteries which supply the itinerant teachers of the sects The mahants or abbats may take up money leading on the strength of their endowments and charges The distribution of religions in India is of considerable ethnic interest The adherents of Hinduism proper predomiaste in the center and south of the country, making up no less than 89 percent of the population in Madras Sisaite sects preponderate in the Tamil area, in Kashmir, Nepal, and in Bombay, while Vaishnavas are centered in Telingani, Gujarat, Orissa and in parts of Bengal, a Assary, and the Gangetic provinces Saktas are mainly located in Bengal and Sazite Brahmans in the Deccan The Lingayat group is manly centered in Mysore and adjoining areas Sikhs are localized in the eastern Punjab sad jains in Ajmer Merw ara and is ensirons as well as in parts of Bombay Tribal religions are found primarily in Bihar, Orissa, Central Provinces, Assam, and, to a less degree, to Bengal, Madsas, Rajputana Central India, Hyderabad, and Kashmir Christians are most numerous is Goi, Cochin, Travancore, Chota Nagpur, the Khasia and Jaintia Hills and in se posts. Ssantes, Vaishnavas, and to a lesser extent Saktas, are found throughout the Gangetic sulley Mus tims preponderate ta Sind western Punjab, Kashmir, and eastert Bengal Buddhists are found along the submontane tracts of the Himalayas, espe ·50 WAR BACKGROUND STUDIES, NO 18 cially in Nepal, Kashmir, and the Assamese borderlands, as well as in central and southern Ceylon The census has never been very satisfactory in its gathering of data on Hindu sects Whereas comparatively the most complete data were ob tained on castes in the census of 1901, only a few of the provinces give extensive sectarian data for that year, and the same is true for the next most complete survey made in 1911 In the latter year a survey of Hindu sects in the Punjab indicated the following types of grouping Religious orders of more or less strict ascetics, such as Barrage, Cakır, and Yogy, saint worshipers, such as Kabırpanthi, Panj pıria, and Rai Dasia, orthodox Hindus of the Sanatan Dharma, who were the most numerous, sects worshiping Muslim saints, such as Sarıtaria, sects of low castes, such as the Lalbegi and Balmıkı, reformist sects, such as the Arya Samaj and Nanak Panthi, and miscellaneous groups The census of 1901 found two great sectarian groups in Bengal, namely, the Sakta who were located in the east, north, and west of Bengal and who were strongest among Kochs, Mechs, Tiparas, and Baidyas Their worship was primarily of Kalt, Durga, Parvatı, and others of Sivas vives, and their sacred texts the Tantras They were formerly reputed to be divided into right and left hand groups The latter indulged in immoral practices and worshiped flesh, wine, women, fish, and finger signs The second group in Bengal were the Vaishnavas, located in the central parts of the province and strongest among the Kaibarttas, Chandals, Rajbansis, Subarnabanıks, and Baidyas They were organized as part of 1 revolt against Saktısm and under the impetus of Chaitanya s reforming zeal One offspring of the Vaishnava sects was the Kartabhaja group, who attempt to reconcile Islam and Hinduism In addition to these major groups Kabırpanthis and Nanakshahis were numerous in Bengal, and there were also Seo Narayaranıs and Panchipura These latter groups with their emphasis on the reconciliation of Islam and Hinduism were strong in Bihar also in Assam the Vaishnavas constituted about two thirds of the Hindu population with Saktists about 15 percent and Siraites less than 2 percent in 1901 The census of 1891 in the Northa est Provinces and Oudh indicated an exceedingly prolific development of sectarian groups A fen sectarians folloned the purer Vedic beliefs, such as the Smartas who were followers of Sanharacharya, and the worshipers of Saura (the sun god) Agni (fire), and planet worshipers The folloners of various sects under Puranic Vaishnavısm numbered over 7 millions and constituted 22 percent of the population Among them could be found des otees of Rama Krishna ·BDU-GILBERT 31 Hanuman, Lakshmi, aod various other deities regarded as incarnations of Vishnu The followers of Sivaistic beliefs numbered 8 millions, or 21 percent of the population, and included devotees of Ganesa, Parvati, Bhairon, and Nandi The adherents of Saktum numbered 10 millions, or over 25 percent of the population, and included sorshipers of disease derties, such as smalipox (Sitalı), cholera, and other serpent gods, ghosts, und spirits There Rere, in addition, Sects devoted to the worship of Muslum saints, ancestral or caste gods, such as Chitragupta of the Kayasths, and Visvalarma of the artisans, low-caste gods, village, forest, and local gods, river gods, holy places, deified devotees, and miscellaneous Pusanic gods The animistic or tribal cults appear to base numbered about 25 percent of the population, whereas sanious unspecified nonsectarian and monotheistic groups numbered 54 millions, or 14 percent In Bombay the Sites included in 1901 oser a hundred sects or over 3 million persons of which the Pashupat and Sankaracharı sere most numerous The Vaishn3135 10cluded about half a million persons des ded into numerous sects of which the folloners of Ramanuja, Ramananda, Vallabhachari, Madhavachari and Visvashnas were most numerous There were next about 800 000 Lingayats, and these rere followed by the Saktas All the remaining sects numbered at most a few thousand folloners each and were numerically unimportant groups, as for example the fol lowers of Kabu and Parinam in the Kathiawar Peninsula the Vaishnava sects preponderated in contrast with Bombay propet la Madras no extenske dassification of sects seems to have been at rempted in the Central Provinces the outstanding groups were Kabit panthts, Nanakpanthis, and Satnamis In Hyderabad, according to the census of 1911, the major sects were Lingayats, Manbhavs, and follon ers of Sankaracharya (Advaitists), Ramanuja (Visashtade artists), and Madhavacharya (Dwastists) in Tra vincore the census of 1902 revealed sex major sects, with Savas most prominent, follon ed by Vaishnavas, Smartas, Madhavists Sahtists, and Adsaitists The sectann returns from most of south India (Cochin, Travancore etc) have grown feebler, indicating a maning noterest in the subject In Central India the most prominent sects in 1901 ere, 10 the order of numbers Vaishnavas, Smartas, Saktas, S183ites Sci Vaishnayas, and Kabupanthus In the Baroda returns of religion, the sects are classified as (1) mosements of comprehensive reform, such as Arya Samaj and Brahmo Samai (2) movements checked by defense of orthodoxy, such as Kabir puths (3) Guru Worshiping cults such as Ramade Per and Kuber Panth, (4) Orthodox sectaries on Vedic and Puranı Huaduism, which includes ·52 WAR BACKGROUND STUDIES, NO 18 Suvaites or Smartas, Sahtas, Vaishnavas, such as followers of Ramananda, Vallabhacliari, Ramanuja, and Swamioarayan, (5) sects on the border line of Hinduism ind Islam, such as the Pirana Panth, (6) sects tending toward tribal religions, such as the Devi bhakta, and degraded Vaishnavas (Hari Bava, Tulsi Upasah, etc), and (7) Hindu unspecified and mis cellaneous Although a number of the sectarian movements have been opposed to caste (at first, at least, as in Jainism, Lingayatısm, etc) the adoption of caste practices and theology esentually seems to have taken place un most instances The Jains, for example, have divided their gods by ciste and now have sweeper gods," as well as Brahman deities Similarly the Sinhalese Buddhists have divided their heavens into compartments, each ruled by the god of a particular rank in the social hierarchy of castes The Jains date their religion from Mahavira, who was Buddha s con temporary around 2,500 years ago (599 to 527 BC) The cult is differ entiated from Hinduism by an absence of Brahman priests and by its emphasis upon the 24 Tirthanharas or Kshatriya saints who are worshiped as gods Many schisms have been recorded and three major sects divide the allegiance of the community today One group believes in absolute nudity as far as practical circumstances will allow The Jains as a whole are distinguished by their unusual regard for animal life and its preser vation and for the severity of their monastic discipline imposed upon the clergy Caste and sect often overlap in a confusing manner The converted Hindu Catholics of Goa are divided into Brahmans, Charadas (Chatris), Sudras, Renders (palm tree tappers) Gavdas (saltmakers), and other castes, intermarriage between which is said to be care The same situa tion exists among the 4 million Sikhs who, as a religious group, are divided into 12 major caste or sect groups and many minor ones Simi larly, the Lingayats are divided into three major castes and innumerable subcastes, and intermarriage es en among the latter is becoming sare The Cochin Jews, although numbering only 1,248 in 1911, were duided into white, brown and black castes The Christian group, small 1s it is relative to the total Hindu popula tion, is much subdivided Anglicans numbered about half a million in 1921, with one fifth of their members in Madras Baptists were 111, 179, chiefly in Madras, Congregationalists were 123 016 chiefly in Travan core, Lutherans were 210,316, primarily sa Madras, Methodists were 208,135, mainly in the United Provinces, Presbyterians were 254,838 and mostly in the Punjab, while Roman Catholics sucre 1 823 079, of which most were in Madras and Travancore, Bombay, and Bihar Orissi ·PLATE 14 Upper Snake charmers at Delh The wander ng pypsy castes who pract ce snake charm ng arc found all over India This is a scene which mght be dupl cated anyu here n that country A gourd fute is the typ cal instrument employed Louer A member of the barber caste Vot much cap tal is regu red to set up a sh p on the roads de or s den alk The barber is the goss p of the Ilages and perforce often acqu res a h gh status because of his ns de know ledge Brahman cal worsh p requ res shaving as a necessary feature of ts nos rsus ·52 WAR BACKGROUND STUDIES, NO 18 Se uites or Smurtas, Sihtis, Vaishnuvas, such as followers of Ramananda, Vallabhachari, Ramanuja, and Swaminarayan, (5) sects on the border line of Hinduism and Islam, such as the Pirina Panth, (6) sects tending toward tribal religions, such as the Devi bhahta, and degraded Vaishnavas (Hari Bava, Tulsi Upasah, etc ), and (7) Hindu unspecified and mis cellaneous Although a number of the sectarian movements have been opposed to caste (at first, at least, as in Jainism, Lingayatısm, etc) the adoption of caste practices and theology eventually seems to have taken place in most instances The Jains, for example, have divided their gods by caste and now have sweeper gods,' as well as Brahman deities Similarly the Sinhalese Buddlusts have divided their heavens into compartments, each ruled by the god of a particular cank in the social hierarchy of castes The Jains date their seligion from Mahavira, who was Buddhas con temporary around 2,500 years ago (599 to 527 BC) The cult is differ entrated from Hinduism by an absence of Brahman priests and by its emphasis upon the 24 Ticthanharas or Kshatriya saints who are worshiped as gods Many schisms have been recorded and three major sects divide the allegiance of the community today One group believes in absolute nudity as far as practical circumstances will allow The Jains as a whole are distinguished by their unusual regard for animal life and its preser vation and for the severity of their monastic discipline imposed upon the clergy Caste and sect often overlap in a confusing manner The converted Hindu Catholics of Gor are divided into Brahmans, Charıdas (Chatris), Sudras, Renders (palm tree tappers) Gasdas (saltmakers), and other castes, intermarriage between which is said to be care The same situa tion exists among the 4 million Sikhs who, as a religious group, are divided into 12 major caste or sect groups and many minor ones Simi larly, the Lingayats are divided into three major castes and innumerable subcastes, and intermarriage even among the latter is becoming rare The Cochin Jews, although numbering only 1 218 in 1911, were divided into white brown, and black castes The Christian group, small as it is relative to the total Hindu popula tion, is much subdivided Anglicans numbered about half a million in 1921, with one fifth of their members in Madras Baptists were 411,179 chiefly in Madras, Congregationalists were 123,016, chiefly in Travan core, Lutherans were 240 316, primarily in Madras, Methodists were 208,135, mainly in the United Provinces, Presbyterians were 251,838 and mostly in the Punjab, while Roman Catholics were 1,823,079, of shich most were in Madras and Travancore Bombay, and Bihar Orissi ·2 PLATE 14 Lpper Snake charmers at Deiht The wandering gypsy castes who practice snake charming are found all over India This is a scene which might be duplicated anywhere in that country A gourd Aure is the typical instrument employed Lower A member of the barber caste Not much capital is required to set up a shop on the roadside or sidewalk The barber is the gossip of the villages and perforce often acquises a high status because of his inside knowledge Brahmanical worship requires shaving as a necessary feature of its rites ·while PLATF 15 ta be Left A typical Rajput peasant The Rajput castes are mainly located in the north and west and have furnished many of the feudal chief ta ns and dynasties of Rajputana and central India Right Dogra or HII Brahman from hashmir These Brah mans in spite of their priestly caste are ex cellent fighters and rank ale ngside of Sikhs Ruputs and Gurkhas (Photographs Informats Officer Agency General for India Washington DC)

·PialF 16
Teſt A menstrul
from the Punjab The
musician Castes are
held in low repute in
India being mostly of
AYPSY cuisin This
man IS Jw Ijeng
howed instrument the
sarangi related to our
rolin
Right
Minipuri
dancer Minipur 2
small state on the
Assam Burma border
has crmed the
Bali of India hecause
of the artistic charac
tot of its macd Cau
castan and Mingold
inhabitants
(Pholegraphs from
Information Officer
Agency General for
India Washington
DC)

·B. V PLATE 17 Upper Bombay Parsee priests The Parsee priests are a caste apart from the lay Parsees All Parsees are descended from Persian immigrants to India in the eighth century AD Today they are leaders in finance social advance and political progress Lower Sikh recruits to the Indian army of Jat extraction The Jats are peasants and fighters of the Punjab #ho are thought to be descended from invading tribes migrating from central Asta about the time of Christ (Photographs from Information Otřicer Agency General fir India Washington DC) ·53 INDIA--GILRIRI Ceylonese Catholicism was also numencally important The Salvation Army had a total of 88,422 adherents, mainly in the Punjab and Travan core Jacobite Syrian Christians numbered 252,989, primanly in Travan core, while Romo Syrians were 123,698, chiefly in Cochin and Travancore The Parsecs are located mainly in Gujarat and Bombay and ace the descendants of Persians who migrated to India on the conquest of their country by the Muslims in the eighth century Their vernacular language is Gujarati and their religion a form of the ancient Zoroastrianism Thes are druided into mo sects and, in addition, the priesthood 35 2 ciste apart from the laucy They are an enterprising commercial class and figure prominently among the intellectual and progressive capitalist groups of India. Sir Jamshedjo N Tata, one of their members, founded the present day steel works in eastern India, promoted sast hydroelectric schemes for harnessing the heavy monsoon rainfall on the Western Ghats, and initiated various educational and welfarc movements Early Parsee entrepreneurs are reputed to have engaged in the toddy trade, an activity disdained by the more respectable and orthodor Bamas, and to have built up fortunes thereby FINE ARTS The music of the Indian people includes elements from both the Hindu and the Muslim cultural inheritances The melodies are classified as 36 traditional airs or ragas, and each of these consists of 5 6 or 7 notes which are constantly used Although there is a Hinda system of musical notation, the music is mainly passed dosa by ear There are no chords bars or harmony The melodies are complex in scale and rhythm the scale having 22 quarter tones The drams in India is apparently a derisative of the recitation of the Epics of the Mahabharata and the Ramayana The Greek invasions seem to have introduced other features to the Hindu drama In classical plays the scenery is scanty, and the performance begins with a prologue in which the play is discussed at the end is an epilogue in which the author calls upon his favorite deity to bring prosperity to the country in modern dramas matters of social reform are dealt sith, and a nature film industry has gronn up since the First World War Alast of the literature of the Indian peoples as in serse Each of the major vernacular languages has developed a poetic literature of its orn With literary figures of India wide renown In Maharashtra the verses of Tukaram are heard, in Hindustan those of Tulsi Das, and in Bengal those of the more recent Rabindranath Tagore Smally, the subject of the ·54 WAR BACKGROUND STUDIES, NO 18 itterature varies from province to province in Bihar and Orissa, for example, the lore of Krishna luring the milkmaids with his flute is pre eminent Among other formative arts the dance has been cultivated from time immemorial by the Indians Siva, as the lord of the dance, is frequently found in images The symbolic gestures of the dance, or mudras, require complete control over the muscles of the face, ges, and body Great emphasis is laid on the positions of the hands and fingers, for which the performance requires a high degree of suppleness Modern exponents of the classical dances such as Uday Shankar and Menaha have achieved world wide fame There is a regional variation in dance forms within India, the elaborate Kathakalı of the south contrastıng with the vigorous Kathak of the north and the freer Manipuri dances of Bengal Both Indian painting and sculpture have had chrefly historic sigarficance in recent times Sculpture has long been a handmaiden to temple archi tecture, while painting has found more variegated expression The elabo rate painting of Buddhist temes has survived in the murais of the temples and palaces of southern India in the north on the other hand, miniature painting developed among the Rajputs and was taken over and elaborated by the Moguls The latter applied the art to the pageantry of court scenes war, the chase, poners, and animals GAMES AND RECREATIONS The games and other recreations of India vary with the region As examples of these, however, we will mention the recreations in Maha rashtra The games of the girls are mostly indoor and consist of dancing and romping exercises, playing with shells or fever nuts, or games with marked wooden strips which serve the purpose of Indian backgammon The games of the boys consist of tops, kites, maypole dances, and other sports Iti dandu is played by means of the Iti, a small wooden stich 4 inches long and tapering at both ends, and a Dandu, a wooden stick about a foot long and rather flattened at one end A small hole called a Gully is made in the ground and over it is placed the It! This is then struck by the Dandu placed against it from behind The distance from the pit (Gully) to the place where the It: lands is now measured by the Dandu, and the number of times its length is scored in Telugu numerals As in our own country, the games of the boys and girls sary with the seasons, the kite season is after the monsoon, and there are also top and marble seasons ·55 LYDIA-GILBERT Among adults various forms of games of chance are popular Kites may be flown and special devices used to cut each other s strings which affords an opportunity for bets Betting on cotton prices is common in Bombay Playing cards contain 120 cards to a pack, and the gune is played by three men at a time It is named after the 10 avatars or incarnations of Vishnu, and the cards are colored red, yellon, green, brown, and black, one color being used for to avatars Other recreations in India today are European sports such as football, Cricket, hockey golf, tennis, billiards, pingpong, badminton, and horse r100g The popularity of these recreations is primarily with the European szed section of the population PRIMITIVE AREAS la contrast to the permeation of the Brahmanıc social system from top to bottom by the aboriginal elements, there are still many sesonants of the aboriginal compicaties which preceded the Aryan in India who have escaped absorption by Brahmanism and preserved their inheritance by reason of residence in relatnvely inaccessible hull and forest areas The most important of the tracts unhabited by these groups is the Central Belt which comprises the great plateau of Chota Nagpur, with an extension north actoss the Santal Parganas to the Ganges at Rajpahal Southward this belt follows the canges which separate Orissa from the eustera parts of the Central Provinces, skirting the plains of Chhatisgarh and contenuing south as far as the loves Godavar, Westo asd from Chota Nagpur the hull country passes along the south of Shahabad and Mirspur shutting the Kaimur Range and the Vindhys to Mewar and the Aravalli Hills Almost exactly para[ſel and to the south of the Nerbada Roser are the Mahadev and Satıpura Ranges of Berar and Khandesh, end ing in the wooded country of eastern Gujarat Beginning at the western end of the belt is the line of the Sahyadrı or Western Ghats which, down to Bhor is inhabited by a few small tribes of the same race and character as the foregoing After a gap, the next locality in which more primitive trides are found as the Nilgis pith their detached area separating Tra ancore from the east co255 The western hulls of the Arasa!! and dfalva constitute the Western Belt of hill tribe areas. Other hill tribe areas stretch along the whole of the land frontiers of Asia from Baluchistan to the eastern coasts of Bengal Around each of the major lonland ethnic areas of India are to be found belts and bands of hill country with their prurituye cultures ·56 WAR BACKGROUND STUDIES, NO 18 CASTI AREAS The caste groups of Indu are tied in with the natural environment in various ways In Pudukkottai the binglemalers must Ire near the river and the tank beds where bangle earth can be obtained, and the same is true of the potter caste in terms of potter s clay The Dhobi, or washermen caste, are linked with the areas containing dhobi earth which is used in washing clothes, and this usually occurs in stream beds The saltworkers, or Uppılıyars, are located near salt deposits, and the workers in saltpeter, the Upparas, are near similar sources of supply Thus it can be seen that the distribution of specific mineral resources, or rather the surface exposure of these minerals, helps determine caste distribution Similarly the distribution of rivers and seacoasts helps characterize the location of fishing and boating castes, the boundaries of specific animal areas the location of shepherd castes and cattlemen castes and of plant areas the distribution of palm toddy drawers and betel cultivators The location of royal courts and trade areas helps indicate the dis tribution of trading and artisan castes whose business services and artistic products are connected with these cultural areas Such groups as Brahmans barbers, and scavengers are localized in terms of the castes sened In the Punjab in 1931 the main castes were the Jat, Rajput, Arain, Chamar, and Brahman in the United Provinces the chief castes in order of numbers are the Chamar, Brahman, Ahir Rajput and Kurmi Tarther east in Bihar and Orissa, the Goala, Brahman, Suntal, Kurmi, and Rajput predominate In Bengal the principal groups are Mahishya, Namasudra, Rajbansi, Kayasth, and Brahman In the Central Provinces and Berar the outstanding castes or tribes are Gond, Mehra Kunbi, Teli, and Ahir In Madras the Unniyan, Paraiyan, Adıdravida ldıryin or Yadava, Mala and Pallan stand out as most numerous Mysore the most abundant castes are the Vakhalıga, Adiharnatiha, Lingayat, Kuruba and Beda In Bombay the main groups are the Ramoshi, Kolt Lingay at Dhangar and Lohana In Rajputana the Jat, Brahman Chamar Bhil and Rajput are most numerous in the order named in Central India the Brahman, Chamar Rajput, and Bhil preponderate Finally among the Hindu population of Kashmit and Jammu the Gujar Rajput Brahman and Jat are most numerous The lowest castes or depressed classes totaled 51,653 917 out of 239 193,635 Hindus ja 1931 These groups are prohibited from temples 9 Bombay (especially Gujarat) Castes are prominent in the South African Hindu community, such as for example the Koli Alemon Darji Khatrı Patidar an! Anavil Brahman ·57 INDIA-GILBERT schools wells bathing places and crematory ghats The distribution of the depressed groups, such as Mala Chuhra, Paraiyan Chamar, Dhed. Mahat, and Nimasudra mas in terms of numbers in 1931 approximately as follous Lnited Pr sintes Bengal Midras Bihat and Oussa Central Pre sinces and Berar Assamn Brmbay Punjab 11,531 143 7.999 38 7.36 157 5,760 071 29.7 313 1970 431 1 750 421 1 2:9 180 Out of the approximately 51 million depressed caste members about 924 207 sete literate CLLTURAL AND ETHIR DIVISIONS The ethnic drv ersity and the cultural unity of India constitutes somewhas of a paradox There are many races and peoples involved in the make up of Indian civilization set through the medium of the caste system these are brought together into a fairly unified whole Within Hinduism the cultural unity is marked and the major discordant note is struck by the Muslims There is some geographical variation in culture within India toneer #bich requires notice in the area aorth of the Vindhya certain Aryan culture traits predominate such as the Indo-European speech the joint O zamından village the family cult of Brahman worship and the endo pamous social group South of the Vindhyas the Dravidian speech is marked the yorgata willage predominates the temple cult of local god desses and totemism with exogamic groups are outstanding trans In terms of clothing house 9 pes and food perhaps tuo bajar cultural subateas may be again distinguished la the north and west the heat cotton and Ceteat growing areas are dryer and marked by a cool season in which beaver clothing is required and more substantial housing in the south and east and on the coastal areas generally in which rice buttalo and the palm are characteristic the climate is tropical clothing ss of the startiest and housing types of ught construction In nonfazterial culture the geographical satiations are more subtie than in materual traits Language areas in the south sense to delineate Brah matrical groups legal schools caste grouping and popular festivals but political dissions de bardly coincidental sith these areas in the north ·56 WAR BACKGROUND STUDIES, NO 18 CASTC ARTAS The caste groups of Indii ate tred in with the natural environment in various ways In Pudukkottai the banglemakers must live near the fier and the tank beds where bangle earth can be obtained, and the same is true of the potter caste in terms of potter's clay The Dhobi, or washermen caste, are linked with the areas containing dhobi earth which is used in Washing clothes, and this usually occurs in stream beds The saltworkers or Uppılıyars, are located near salt deposits, and the workers in saltpeter, the Uppuras, are near similar sources of supply Thus it can be seen that the distcibution of specific mineral resources, or rather the surface exposure of these minerals, helps determine caste distribution Similarly the distribution of rivers and seacoasts helps characterize the location of fishing and boating castes, the boundaries of specific animal areas the location of shepherd castes and cattlemen castes, and of plant areas the distribution of palm toddy drawers and betel cultivators The location of royal courts and trade areas helps indicate the dis tribution of trading and artisan castes whose business services and artistic products are connected with these cultural areas Such groups as Brahmans, barbers, and scavengers are localized in terms of the castes served In the Punjab in 1931 the main castes were the Jat, Rajput, Arain, Chamar, and Brahman In the United Provinces the chief castes in order of numbers are the Chamar, Brahman, Ahir, Rajput, and Kurmi Carther east in Bihar and Orissa, the Goala, Brahman, Santal, Kurmi, and Rajput predominate In Bengal the principal groups are Mahishya, Namasudra, Rajbınsı, Kayasth, and Brahman In the Central Provinces and Berar the outstanding castes or tribes are Gond, Mehra, Kunbi, Teli, and Ahr In Madras the Unnıyan, Paraiyan, Adidravida, Idıryan or Yadava, Mala, and Pallan stand out as most numerous In Mysore the most abundant castes are the Vakhaliga, Adiharnatika, Lingayat, Kuruba and Beda In Bombay the main groups are the Ramoshu, Kols, Lingayat, Dhangar, and Lohana In Rajputana the Jat, Brahman, Chamar, Bhil, and Rajput are most numerous in the order named in Centrul india dhe Bruncit, Clarior Rajput, and Bhil preponderate Tinully among the Hindu population of Kashmir and Jammu the Gujar, Rajput, Brahman, and Jat are most numerous The lonest castes or depressed classes totaled 51,653,917 out of 239 193,635 Hindus in 1931 These groups are prohibited from temples 9 Bombay (especially Gujarat) custes are prominent in the South African find community, such as for example, the Kali Memon Darji Khatri Patidar and Anaval Brahmin ·59 INDLA-GILBERT Besides the movements for geographically separate Pakistan, Hindustan, and Dravidistan, there is Gandhi's Harijan movement in behalf of the untouchable or depressed castes launched in 1933 This is hardly a case of geographical particularism, but represents an attempt to reinstate I now somea hat alvertated group within the ranks of Hinduism proper A separatistic movement of this group has been promoted by B R Ambedkar la addition to the major cultural entities of Muslims, Hindustanis, Draudians, and Untouchables, there us a fifth factor of force to be noted, Camely, the primite groups Hitherto, the cultural separatism of the hill tribes has been marked only in certain sectarian revivals and military uprisings, but it is quite possible that mos ements for tribal cultural autonomy may develop into as marked a force in the future as the "revolt of the untouchables" is today SUMMARY OUTLINE OF THE SOCIAL UNITS OF INDIA Castes --The four Varnas are subdivided into about 3,000 castes, which are in turn broken down into several 10 000 s of subcastes, these latter again are split up into 2011a5 or other exogamous groups, which finally art divasible Imo kulas or . Tribes - From 200 to 300 major tribal groups are divided into subtabes an thace 1914 ويارور wsuwuee majut sections, Vaishnavas, Sirates, and Saktas These three sections are in turn broken up into 30 aggregate of more than 100 sects The lattes are again Arade up of countless temple (village) groups, monastery groups sad shtoe (househoid) sotasies islam is divided into a Supos majority and Shah Minority as een here, with a few additional minor sectarian dit 1100$ Trihal religious 20 mart are the Char serts), Jews major group Political ***--Brush India and the Indian states are the two basic divisions The former codiprises 17 administrations and these are sa turn split into divisions, then into distntts, into subdivisions, inta tahsil os talukas, and finally sato villages. Municpalities are disided into wards Native states, when large enough, are divided into districts of othes such units LNgXistic nails There are four loguistst stocks or families, and these are brokes dows sio 279 languages and then sats 544 dialects ECOAGTIC SUN These is no hierarchy of economic units for all India to the rural areas these are tillages lindholding groups (samındası or joigt village hold snigs and ryotrani or Individual holdogs), cooperatives, and fairs in the towns are the guids, trades unions, Leades associations, and all types of business concerns and lense ·58 WAR BACKGROUND STUDIES, NO 18 language areas and political areas coincide fairly well, but other non material factors overlap to a remarkable degree in other words, one can hardly follow any consistent system or scheme in dividing India into cultural subareas in terms of material and nonmaterial traits Two cultural countercurrents characterize the social forces in present day India, first, the movement for Swaraj, or independence with an all India government, which is supported by the Congress Party and its Brahman Bania leaders, and second, the particularistic tendencies of region alism characterized by such movements as Pakistan and Dravıdıstan Gandhi is asserted to have foreseen this impasse and to have striven to avoid it by once proposing a federation of separate linguistic or ethnic areas in a greater India Sır Mahomed Iqubul initiated the movement for a separate area of Muslım states in India before the Aſuslim League in 1930 10 Mr Rehmat Al gave the name Pakistan" in 1933 to the idea of separating Sind, Kash mir, parts of Punjab, Bengal, and other areas from the rest of India on the grounds of their preponderantly Muslim population On March 26, 1940, the Muslim League at its Lahore session passed a resolution favoring the creation of a Muslim state from areas in northern and restern India where Muslims were in a majority as a federation of Muslim units At one time it was even proposed to include Hyderabad State in the Deccan in Pakistan A militant and apparently fascistic movement, the Khaksars, originated among the Punjab Muslims in 1932 and eventually came into open con flict with the Government The movement for an independent or semi independent arca composed primarily of areas of Dravidian speech has had less publicity, set is quite as significant as the Pakistan movement Somewhat prior to the organiza tion of the initially Brahmanist Congress Party in 1885, the Self Respect Movement was initiated in Bombay in 1872 by antı Brahmanıcal southern After the World War of 1914 1918, this force became especially powerful as the non Brahman movement and organized its osn political group the Justice Party, in 1925 Throughout its history this movement centered in Bombay and Madras and was marked by hostility to the Brah mans, whom it regarded as representatives of the non Dravidian or Aryan north 11 ers 10 The Muslim League was formed in 1906 to proude Muslim political repre sentation in elections and assure adequate quotas of employment in the government service 11 A movement for an autonomous Andhra or Telingana has also gotten under way since the Dravıdıstan movement has fallen under Tamil dominance ·59 INDLA-GILBERT Besides the movements for geographically separate Pakistan, Hindustan, and Dravidistan, there is Gandhis Harijan movement in behalf of the untouchable or depressed castes launched in 1933 This is hardly a case of geographical particularism, but represents an attempt to reinstate a now somen hat alienated group within the ranks of Hinduism proper A separatistic mosement of this group has been promoted by DR Ambedkar To addition to the major cultural entities of Muslims, Hindustanis, Dravidians and Untouchables there is a fifth factor or force to be noted, namely, the primitive groups Hitherto, the cultural separatism of the hill tribyes bas been marked only in certain sectarian revivals and military uprisings, but it is quite possible that movements for tribal cultural autonomy may des elop into as marked 2 force in the future as the revolt of the untouchables us today SUMMARY OUTLINE OF THE SOCIAL UNITS OF INDIA Cables --The four Vamas are subdivided into about 3,000 castes, which are in cum broken dona into several 10 000 s of subcastes, these latter again are split up into sotras or other exogamous groups which finally are divisible into kulas or families Tubes --From 200 to 300 major wibal groups are divided into subtribes, and these latter na tum broken down into exogamous units of clans which in south India often comade with villages Religions --Hinduisan, Islam, and tnbal seligions are the three major groupings Hinduism is divisible into three major sections Vaishnavas, Sivaites, and Saktas These three sections are 177 tern broken up into an aggregate of more than 100 sects The latter are agan made up of countless temple (village) groups, monastery groups, 20d shrine (household) votanes Islam is divided into a Suanı majority and Shiah minority as elsewhere with a few additional minor Sectarian divisions Tribal religions are almost as Qumerous as the onbes themselves Minor religions in India are the Christians (split into a sumber of sects and denominations), Parsees (190 Sects), Jews, Jauns (three sects), Sikhs (wasumerable distons), and Buddhists (two major groupings) Political *-Patish ladia and the Indian states are the two basic divisions The former comprises 17 admjestations and these are in turn split into divisions then mio districts into subd51510ps, into tahsıls or talukas, and Koally into villages Muojapalitzes are divided into wards atre states, when farge enough, are divided into dustnes or othes sich unts Unguse *} _There are four lacustic stocks os famulies and these are broken donn so 179 languages and then into 544 dialects Economer X There tur. ing the ·60 WAR BACKGROUND STUDIIS, NO 18 CASTTS AND TRIBES THE SYSTEM The term caste is derned from a Portuguese word used with refer ence to the Hindu social groups of pure and undiluted lineage The most frequently used Hindu vernacular term 15 jat1 or breed The castes are druded into four great classes or Varnas, namely, the Brahmin, the Kshatriya, the Varsya and the Sudra The Brahman is at the head of the procession and is the keystone of the whole scheme rollowing him comes the Rajput (counterpart of the ancient Kshatriya) who constitutes the nobility of India and champion of Hinduism against Islam following the Rajput come the trading and using castes which clam membership in the Varsza group At the base are the Sudras, or mass of the population, who are cultivators and artisans in the main The clean Sudras stand above the unclean Sudras or Untouchables, who may not be contacteut by members of the upper castes The caste system has proved ditcult for Americans to understand Aside from the occasional tourist business, or missionary visitors to India, direct contact with the system has been practically absent in the early twentieth century, a fen caste Hindus appeired in Cahfornia as part of a migration across the Pacific Ocean from Hong Kong and other Chinese ports 13 The peculiar customs of these immigrants, their separate and exclusive mess and buok groups their turbined or rag headdress their comparately loner standards of living and other traits did not appeal to the California agriculturists At about thus time, Hindu wit nesses were called before a Congressional immigration committee to explain which castes of Hindus might enter the United States under the law as Caucasians and which might not Needless to say the e planations were not very enlightening The recent encounters of American soldiers and their officers with caste in India itsell during the present war have been rather amusing at times The soldier boy writing home told proudly that for the first time in his life he had a bearer In many American army camps in India the famed army drudgery of KP proved to be nothing more arduous than seeing to it that native employees obsen ed ordinary sanitary rules American soldiers often found it difficult to understand why their bearers refused to help out by sweeping a room or doing some laundn 1. An American businessman miling Insestments in Indian enterprise is imme diately foiled by the caste limitations on asailable labur 13 Mainly Sikh and other Punjabi groups ·61 INDIA-GILBERT work, tasks which they regarded as beneath their caste function ! One 102gnature enlisted man kept bus bearer rolling dice over and over for several hours a day to see if the law of artrages really worked Others emplosed their bearers as shortstops and fielders 18 impromptu baseball games posing for photographs of scratching backs untouchable, The English speaking world employs such terms as paruah and outcast with pertinent reference to criminal or other degraded groups aho in western society might be regarded as the Indians do their lonest social groups. Again we in America speak of certun fam lies of old American New England stock as Boston Brah mans referring to a proud and aloof upper caste in the social hierarchy When Charles Darwin and other naturalists of the cighteenth century dscovered certain clearly marked functional subdivisions among ants and other social insects they found it most convenient to refer to this phenomenon as caste thus borrosing a term from Indian social life In add non sociologists have recently taken to describing the relationships of Negroes and Whites in the United States and elsewhere in the Western Hem sphere as caste groupings again showing a borrowing of the term from Hindu society To make the system more real we might put the Indian castes into a modern Amenican skyscraper with the upper casies at the top and the loner at the bottom The penthouse and upper stories would house the Brab mans in all the major varieties Sanadhya, Audicliya, Sarasvat Gaur etc These would correspond to the clergy in our own culture Irish Catholic, Polish Catholic Scatch lash Presbytenan Negro Baptist English Epis copal etc. In the stories next below we rould place the Rajputs Gurkhas Dogras and other mi tarp castes These would correspond to our owo tank corps cavalry antraircraft units infantry etc. Below the military would be the middle stories of the skyscraper occupied by Bapuas Khatri Aroras and simular Va sya groups in our own society these would be small and large businessmen bankers managers engraecis etc Finally toward the street level the skyscraper would be occupied by clean Sudras such as the agricultural castes in good standing barbers goldsmiths etc These would correspond to our man senast More wu * w squeeze the remainder of Hindu society "The 'bearers are thought by sorre to have anglasted 14 palangu n carrers za the (me of Tamerlane They are ad domestic servants drawn from fishing and *er branng castes such as th Kahars s ·62 W/P 2.0.GPOL'D STUDIES, NO 15 all t}un luan Sidras (áshsts, pomads, wasbers, shoes, water, brew'ss, posters, and strest dezges) Fluch ze soe fzml. -r Lanas untos hables Those would correspond 20 Optown set 10 10 shis satory labor, nu er do-wells, hobos, tramps, boms, prostires, stall turna gangsters, and paupers Thir noted English aster on caste, Sir H H. Resley has also proud! an interesting western parallel for our better understanding of Indian caste Jenagine that all the people sho bear the surname of San.th were to constitute a caste on the Indian model All Smiths nould trace their ons in back to a mythical ancestor named Smith #bo first converted the roul stone hatclict into a bronze battle ax and took his name from the snooth weapon wluich he wrought for his tribe Since that time a Smith must always marry a Smith and neser a Bronn, Jones, or Robinson Jater the entire caste of Smith split up into a large number of inmarry ing clans based on all sorts of trivial distinctions Thus there would be vejctarian Smitlis, total abstainer Smiths, pork eating Smiths, hyphenated Smitles, New Ingland Smiths, Baptist Smiths, Scotch Irish Smiths, etc, all of which would confine marriage within their own ranks Still further, we would find within cach of these inmarrying clans a number of sub xlivisions or outmarrying groups bearing distinctive names and governed by rules preventing a man of the same name marrying a girl of that name I'ich of thicsc divisions would trace descent from a traditional ancestor I och norrying clan would be found also divided up into several sub cuns which would form a sort of ascending scale of social distinctions Ilus the New Inglund Smiths might be divided up into (1) Newport Smiths, (2) Bir Hlubor Smiths, and (3) Andover Smiths A man of the lugliest, or Newport, Smiths might marry any girl of his onn group or of thic two lower classes, a Bar Harbor Smith man might take a Bar Harbor wate or Andover wife while an Andover man would be restricted in his choice of 1 wfc to luis on n group Thus a woman would never marry down but most desirably marries up in the social scale As a result, two- Thurs of the Neu port Smith girls get no husbands and to thirds of the An foncr mon no wilcs Ich of thc inmarrying clans must dine primarily with its on a members and ripron al dining relations between these groups are limited to those alations into which water has not entered, to anything with con products smalt 10 chowdlate or candy but not coffee or tez, to ice cream on metal but prex on ponclam plates, etc. Iw of the end of three thousand conmonest English surnames would forma de tinet caste along the lines sketched for the Stith group abore wahat no one could marry ou"side of his case Ime and then could marry ·63 INDIA-GILBERT only within limits which are prescubed by testrictions imposed by differ ences of residence, occupation religion custom, or social status This rould perhaps ghe a faint idea of the complexity of Indian caste society No definition of caste can be given which is entirely satisfactory A few statements of charactefistic features can be made, which, however, are frequently subject to contradiction Generally speaking castes are inmatrying groups inherited from parents, membership is exclusive in one caste and for hfe, fired social status attaches to one s faste, one must Eat With ones fellow caste members and worship sith them, one must follow an occupation traditional to the caste, one considers himself descended from 10 ancestor common to the whole caste, one is con trolled in behavior by village, district and provincial assemblies of his caste fellows one follons certain ceremonies and holds certain beliefs peculiar to the caste and finally, one maintains complex relat onships of reciprocity (the so called Jajmant System) with members of other castes for whom services are performed and from whom other services are experted Without entering further into the complexities of the system, it must be noted that most individual castes are divided into endogamous, Inmarrying and finally into erogamous, outroartying groups of varying social status and that the latter constitute lineages of related famıly lines, within which circles marriage is not possible. Among Brahmans the exogamous subcaste group is the gotra, among Rajputs, the clan There are however many castes of Brahmans and mang castes of Rajputs Castes are divided by Risley according to their general characteristics into the following types Sectanian (or derived from sects), tribal (de fived from inbe) occupational, gypsy, and hill castes. The terms thu_ employed are practically self-explanatory but the per asise influence which stamps the common pattern of caste on all is not easy to debne Today many castes are taling a nen tutn in the effort to uplift their social position Thus the caste members may have Organized sports, recreational center reading rooms and libraries schools nenspapers point stock companies banks welfare associations annual official meetings and other types caste enterprise These actssities have helped in preserving caste consciou ness and tend to disprove the cliché that caste is dying out 15 Eyes Hindu is a member of some caste A descriptive characterization of certai of the important caste groups as gnen in the following pages 1 Caste distinctions have been to some extent presened eyes among Hindu grou abroad as, for exaraple in Fue Mauritius Guzina, and Traidad ·62 WAR BACKGROUND STUDIES, NO 18 all the unclean Sudras (fishers, nomads, washermen, shoemakers, teasers, brewers, potters, and street cleaners) which are more familiarly known as untouchables These would correspond in our own society to itinerant migratory labor, ne'er do wells, hobos, tramps, bums, prostitutes, small time gangsters, and Paupers The noted English scitec on caste, Suc H H Resley, has also provided an interesting western parallel for our better understanding of Indian caste Imagine that all the people who bear the surname of Smith vere to constitute a caste on the Indian model All Smiths would trace their origin back to a mythical ancestor named Smith who first converted the tough stone hatchet into a bronze battle ax and took his name from the smooth weapon which he wrought for hus tribe Since that time a Smith must always marry a Smith and never a Bronn, Jones, or Robinson Later the entire caste of Smith split up into a large number of inmarry ing clans based on ait sorts of trivial distinctions Thus there would be vegetarian Smiths, total abstainer Smiths, pork eating Smiths, hyphenated Smiths, New England Smiths, Baptist Smiths, Scotch Irish Smiths, etc, all of which would confine marriage within their own ranks Still further, we would find within each of these inmarrying clans a number of sub du astons or outmarcylag groups bearing distinctive names and governed by rules preventing a man of the same name marrying a girl of that name Each of these divisions mould trace descent from a traditional ancestor Each inmarrying clan would be found also divided up into several sub clans which would form a sort of ascending scale of social distinctions Thus the Nen England Smiths might be divided up into (1) Nenport Smiths, (2) Bar Harbor Smiths, and (3) Andover Smiths A man of the highest, or Newport, Smiths might marry any girl of his onn group or of the two lower classes, 2 Bar Harbor Smith man might take a Bar Harbor wife or Andover wife while an Andover man would be restricted in his choice of a pufe to his own group Thus a nomen would never marry down but most desirably marries up in the social scale As a result, two thirds of the Newport Smith girls get no husbands and to thirds of the Andover men no wies Each of the inmarrying clans must dine primary aith its own members and reciprocal dining relations between these groups are limited to those confections into which water has not entered, to anything with con products such as chocolate or candy but not coffee or tea, to ice cream on metal but not on porcelain plates, etc Lach of the tro or three thousand commonest English surnames rould form a distinct caste along the lines sketched for the Smith group above so that no one could marry outside of his caste line and then could marry ·63 INDIA-GILBERT only within limits which are prescribed by restrictions imposed by differ ences of residence occupation religion, custom of social status This sould peskaps give a faint idea of the complexity of Indian caste society No definition of caste can be given which is entirely satisfactory A fes statemeats of characteristic features can be made, which, hon ever, atc frequently subject to contradiction Generally speaking, castes are camtarung groups inherited from parents, membership is exclusive in one caste and for life, fixed social status attaches to one s caste, one must est with ones fellow caste members and worship with them, one must fallon an occupation traditional to the caste, one considers himself descended from an ancestor common to the whole caste, one 15 con trolled in behavior by village, district, and prosincial assemblies of his Caste fellows, one follons certain ceremonies and holds certain beliefs peculiar to the caste and finally, one maintains complex relationships of reciprocty (the so called Jajmanı System) with members of other castes for whom serices are performed and from whom other services are expected Without entering further into the complexities of the system, it must be noted that most individual castes are divided into endogamous, amarrying and Gnally, into exogamous, outmarrying groups of varying sooal status and that the latter constitute lineages of related facaily liaes, withia which ardes marriage is not possible Among Brahmans the crogamous subcaste group is the gntra among Rajputs, the clan There ace, howeves many castes of Brahmins and many castes of Rajputs Castes are divided by Risley according to their general characteristics into the following types Sectarian for denned from sects), tribal (de 199ed from ribes) occupational bypsy, and hill castes. The terms thus employed are practically self explanatory but the pertasive mducace much stamps the common pattern of caste on all is not easy to define Today, many castes are taking a new turn in the effort to uplift their social position Thus the caste members may have orgacuzed sports, recrestional centers reading rooms and librasies schools, nen spapers foint stock companies banks selfare associations anaual official meetings, and other types of caste enterprise These activities base helped sa preserying caste conscious ness and tend to disprove the chiche that caste is dying out 16 Every Hindu is a member of some caste A descriptive characterization of certam of the important caste groups is gren in the folloring pages s Casted stinctions hase been to some extent preserved eves arcong Hundu groups abroad as for example so Fuji Mauritius, Guiana, and Trinidad ·62 WAR BACKGROUND STUDIES, NO 18 all the unclean Sudras (fishers, nomads, vashermen, shoemakers, weaters, brewers, potters, and street cleaners) which are more familiariy known as untouchables These would correspond in our own society to itinerant migratory labor, ne'er do wells, hobos, tramps, bums, prostitutes, small time gangsters, and paupers The noted English writer on caste, Sır H H Risley, has also provided an interesting western parallel for our better understanding of Indian caste Imagine that all the people who bear the surname of Smith were to constitute a caste on the Indian model All Smiths would trace their origin back to a mythical ancestor named Smith sho first converted the rough stone hatchet into a bronze battle 2x and took his name from the smooth weapon which he wrought for his tribe Since that time a Smith must always marry a Smith and never a Brown, Jones, or Robinson Later the entire caste of Smith split up into a large number of inmarry ing clans based on all sorts of trivial distinctions Thus there would be vegetarian Smiths, total abstainer Smiths, pork cating Smiths hyphenated Smiths, New England Smiths, Baptist Smiths, Scotch Irish Smiths, etc, all of which would confine marriage within their own ranks Still further, we would find within each of these inmarrying clans a number of sub divisions or outmarrying groups bearing distinctive names and governed by rules preventing a man of the same name marrying a girl of that name Each of these divisions would trace descent from a traditional ancestor Lach inmarrying clan would be found also divided up into several sub clans which would form a sort of ascending scale of social distinctions Thus the New England Smiths might be divided up into (1) Nenport Smiths, (2) Bar Harbor Smiths, and (3) Andover Smiths A man of the highest, or Newport, Smiths might marry any girl of his own group or of the tro lower classes, a Bar Harbor Smith man might take a Bar Harbor wife or Andover wife while an Andover man would be restricted in his choice of a wife to his own group Thus a woman would never marry down but most desirably marries up in the social scale As a result, iso thirds of the Newport Smith girls get no husbands and two thirds of the Andover men no wives Each of the unmarrying clans must dine primarily sith its onn members and reciprocal dining relations between these groups are limited to those confections into which water has not entered, to anything with cow products such as chocolate or candy but not coffee or tea, to ice cream on metal but not on porcelain plates, etc Each of the two or three thousand commonest English surnames would form a distinct caste along the lines sketched for the Smith group above, so that no one could marry outside of his caste line and then could marry ·65 INDIA-GILBERT has proceeded to unusual lengths in erecting innumerablc barriers and in creating munute subdivisions The major dissions ate territorial but there are also tauny minor inbreeding communities bich can be attributed to schisms on doctrine and ceremony of the propriety of eating particular foods la every village or town the rank of each Brahminical subdivision relative to the rest is fixed by custom and effectively bached by public opinion in each community there are degraded groups who, although performing some Brahmapical functions and bearing the title of Brah mans are not recognized by any of the Brahmanical groups proper and ate even frequently held to be inferior to aon Brahmins Bralımans do not confine themselves to priestly functions, but tahe up many of the unpolluting secular occupations as well Regardless of his occupation, however, if it is of a nonpolluting nature, the Brahmin 15 entitled to the homage of the rest of the community He may even Ile without aqual work, since the provision of meals for Brahmans is an essential of all formal rites of birth, death, mainage, and expiation Some of these Brahmans who lwe only by such means have fallen from sadul prestige by participation in the feasts of wealthy but impure castes Service la temples is not als ass a functide of the recogniseed Brahmin groups The services of the latter are confined to rites for private chients only, as in the family sactifice, or to nites in orthodox Hindu temples The Brahman has not been averse to exerting political 10fluence as adviset to kings During the penod of Maratha domination the Brah Min peshwas or prime ministers obtained a monopoly over the ad ministration and avil service throughout the Deccan, Koakan, and Karnatic Being often the ooly literate group in the community, the Brahmans became accountants, scribes, lawyers, and teachers, thus com pletely ruling the professional life Although it 15 taboo for a Brahman to plow the land with his one hand he kz taken a large share in the development of agriculture and land ownership la military capacities, many Bralumans have bees enrolled in the British native armies from an early period as RAJPUTS The Rajput or soldier castes comprised 10 040 m membua 1. JANUE Revolt sgasest the English is generally attributed to the totaltive of saffected Brahman troops ·64 WAR BACKGROUND STUDIES, NO 18 BRAHMANS The Brahmans numbered 14,893,300 in 1901 16 The importance of the Brahman group is seen in its numbers and in its wide dispersion over miny parts of India The greatest concentration is in the upper reaches of the Ganges, and from this area of origin they have spread out in all directions over India Brahmans arrived in south India probably not much before the Christian Era and in Bengal about the tenth century AD By the eleventh century they were firmly established in Orissa Tre quent invasions from the northwest frontier probably helped to scatter the Brahmans from Rajputana and many took flight to inaccessible spots in Nepal and the west coast of the Deccan The Brahmans were never organized as a territorial tribe but were parasitic on the ruling and other classes of the several Hindu kingdoms The kings of remote areas frequently imported Brahmans from areas where they were abundant to their own courts Chieftains occasionally incorporated outsiders into the Brahman community, and the Brahmans themselves introduced into their own ranks the priests and religious functionaries of primitive tribes The Brahmans of notth India are spoken of as Gaur, while those of the south are known as Dravira The latter are divided according to the lin guistic areas of the Deccan into Tailanga (Telingana), Dravira proper (Tamil and Malayalam), Karnata (Kanarese), Maharashtra (Maratha) and Gurjara (Gujaratı) The Gaur are divided into the Gaur proper of Bengal and southern Bihar, the Maithila of northern Bihar, the Kanaujia of the Cawnpore area (sho ate further subdivided into the Sarwaris of eastern United Provinces the Bhuinhar of Benares the Jihotras of Bun delkhand, the Kanaujia proper of the upper middle Ganges River, and the Sanadhıya west of these), the Sarassats of Punjab and Rajputana, the Mals as of Central India, the Uthalas of Orissa the Napalı of Nepal, and the Kashmiri of Kashmir 1? These areas of Brahman territory also coincided formerly with the major areas of legal interpretation in Ind13 the various schools of law being territorial divisions within the Brahman community Today the various Brahman groups are drawing closer to gether, and geographic separatism is less emphasized The wide dispersion of the Brahmans, the variety of castes which they have served, and the differences in practices of eating and speaking formerly made cohesion impracticable Caste separatısm among them 16 The census of 1901 was the most complete enumeration of castes ner made 17 Jawatharlal Nehru 15 of Kashmırı Brahman family s hile C Rajagopalachariar father in law of Gandhis son and an eminent liberal leader is a Tamil Brahman ·INDLA-GILBERT The taboo agunst the Rajputs touching the plos personally and the strict seclusion of hus nomen hampers his agricultural activities in some areas the Rasput ſvinishes a valuable recrut to the Britisb sative armies, and he often dons the offiaal belt as constable or fressenger Osing to his frequent lack of interest in education, des progress in the asıl service is generally slow and he loses out in competition with the Silh, Pathan, and Guriha even in his chosen profession of a The game of chess called chaturanga in Sanskrit, effectually mitros the quietary functionines of the Indian army The king of Rajput is as sested by his mantrı or Bahrman counalor (queen') and by clephants ( castles ), cavalry ( krughts"), foot soldsers ( panns), and chariots ( bishops BANLAS AND ALLIED BUSINESS CASTES The most important of the business castes are the Bands and allied rtaders wibo numbered 10680 000 iD 1901 There are some general titles which include a large part of the trading groups in each community The term 8.042 of Vanig is most frequent in upper and western India Not included however, are such trading castes as the Khatri and Arora in the Puajab or the Bhatra and Lohan3 of Siad. The Arora are of Rajput connections siste the Khatut are traditionally descended from the ancient Wushatriyas Escn the Bania are traditjonally of Rajput onigin and point out the specác aty of Maryad as their point of despersal it 13 conse quently difficult to find representatives of the acaent Vaisya or trading dass The western subdivisions of the B2012, such as the Srimalı, Pornal, and Osual ase fargely of the Jasa religion and account for there separation from the Rajput class on the basis of the peaceful tenets of their cult Frequently a single locality will contain both Brahmanic aod jain sepse sentatives of their subcaste, aad katermarriage stay be allowed between them in addition to being derided into subgroups and religious sections, almost every Bania group s split into full scores (visa) and half scores (dasa) denoting the relative admixture of baseborn persons in mang instances eren quarter scores (paāca) are recogazed which are cosposed of people sth a manitoum of pure descent None of these divisions may intet party The Bania engage in most of the recogarred business pursuits from high finance and foreign trade to the petty retail of everyday acticies in commerce " They are frequently prone to migrate in order to seek their 29 The Gujarati Ban use the capitalistic class (along with the Parsces) of ladia and are reputed to be the fazial backers of the Congress Party Mahatma Gandhi 15. Guazzu Moda Baba ·66 WAR BACKGROUND STUDIES, NO 18 are many of them in Agra, Oudh, the Punjab, and Bihar The principal dispersion of the Rajputs followed upon the Mohammedan conquests of the eleventh and twelfth centuries At this time large numbers were driven to the Himalayan foothills and eastward across the Ganges into the Doab, Oudh, and Bihar The presence of many Rajputs in other parts of India is explainable on the grounds of constant accessions to the title of hereditary noble from outside castes The major qualifications for admission into this group are chieftainship of a tribe or clan, the pos session of landed estates, and scrupulous observance of Brahmanical regula tions in marriage and caste relations The claim to affiliation with Rajputs may be established by the aid of competent Brahmans, bards, or genealo gists in areas such as lower Bengal, accession to the Rajput ranks 1125 frequently made owing to the absence of powerful chiefs under the counal of influential Brahmans In Manipur, Madras, and elsewhere accessions to the Rajput ranh may lay claim to the title of Kshatriya which is less likely to be disputed in south India the laboring and toddy drawing castes may have claim to Rajput membership on the grounds of former military service as archers or infantrymen The ancient Kshatriya class has long disapperred, and the Rajputs stepped in after the demise of Buddhism to take its place The oldest of the Rajput clans can hardly trace their ancestry beyond the fifth century AD, and specific cases of elevation to this rank of lower castes by Brah manical action are recorded The Rajput eventually became the military champion of Hinduism against the Muslims The Rajputs are, like the Brahmans, subdivided into many sections but with the important difference that Rajput sections are exogamous and one must marry outside of his particular cian even if within the Rajput class The Solar (Surajbansı) and the Lunar (Chandrabansı) races are the two principal divisions which in turn include many different cian groups Owing to the circumstances which require a Rajput girl to be married into a higher ranked section than her own (ie, hypergamy) she becomes a burden upon the resources of the family and female infanticide is en couraged The scaraty of massageable females leads to frequent alliances of Rajput males with lower caste females, and the offspring then rank with the mother In the Punjab about three fourths of the Rajputs have embraced Islam, but this has not altered their high social position Traditionally their functions are political rule, military activity, landlordship and field sports In practice many of the Rajputs are cultis ators of a not too efficient type 10 In addition there are also the Fire Tribes (Agnikulas) The Solar Lunar and Fire groups are subdivided into 36 royal tribes and these latter are again divided into clans and families 19 ·67 NDAGILBERT The taboo against the Rajputs touching the plon personally and the strict seclusion of his women bampers lus agricultural activities in some areas the Rajput furnishes a valuable recruit to the British Dative armies and he often dons the offiaal belt as constable of messenger Osing to his frequent lack of interest in education, his progress in the civil service is generally slow and he loses out in competition ith the Sikh Pathan, and Gurkha, eren in his chosen profession of war The game of chess called chaturanga in Sanskrit, efiecually sessors the multary functionaries of the Indian army The king of Rajput is as sisted by his mants of Brahman counslor ( queen) and by elephants (castles) cavalry ( Lights ), foot soldiers ( panas ), and chariots ( bishops > BANLAS AND ALLIED BUSINESS CASTES The most important of the business castes are the Banias and allied traders who numbered 10 680,000 in 1901 There are some general titles #fych uaclude a large part of the trading groups in each community The term Bania of Vapua is most frequent in upper and western India Not oncluded however, are such trading castes as the Khatri and Arora in the Punjab or the Bhatra and Lohana of Sind The Atora are of Rajput connections while the Khatn are tradtionally descended from the ancient Kshatriyas Even the Bania are traditionally of Rajpur ongin and point out the specific city of Barwad as there point of dispersal It is coase quently difficult to find representatives of the ancient Vaisya or trading class The western subdivisions of the Bania such as the Srimal Porwal and Oswal are largely of the ]2191 religion and account for their separation from the Rajput class on the basis of the peaceíui tenets of their cult Frequently a single localiey will contain both Brahmarıc and Jaia repre sentatives of the subcaste and intermariage may be allowed bera cea them. In addition to being divided into subgroups and religious sections almost every Banja group is split into full scores (visa) and half scores (dasa) denoting the relame admixture of baseboro persons in many instances eren quzstes scores (panca) ste recognized, which are composed of people with a samimum of pure descent None of these divisions may intertarry The Baba engage in most of the recognized business pursuits from high finance and foreign trade to the petty retail of everyday articles in commerce 20 They are frequently prone to migrate in order to sech their The Gujarati Banjas are the sapualistic class (along with the Parsees) of ipata ind art reputed to be the mancial backers of the Congress Party Mahatma Gandhy Gujarati Modb Banus ·69 WAR BACKGROUND STUDIES, NO 18 fortunes The upper classes are well educated and hecnly interested in sectarian religious differences Their congeners, the Khatrı of the Punjab, have monopolized not only the trade but the avil service and professional employment in their domain and are even the priests of the Sikh religion The Bhatia have so arranged their caste rules that they can cross the ocean without disagreeable expiations and are found in Zanzib3r and even China The Lohana trading caste has traveled up into central Asia and even to the banks of the Volga River In Bengal the Subarnabanıl comprises almost the entirety of the trading community It is an immigrant body from upper India and may constitute an offspring of the Sonar caste of goldsmiths Their caste has enhanced its status through prosperity and education SUDRA OR LOW CASTES The washermen, or Dhobi, numbered 2,887,600 in 1901 In northern India the sasherman's position is low owing to the pollution of handling soiled dothes and association with the donkey He is often placed with the leatherworkers in the south and west of India where families are often inclined to do their own washing, the Dhobi ranks next below the barber castes He is, moreover, often part of the hereditary village artisan staff and receives his share of crops like the others In Malabar only the women of the caste do washing, and the men work as tailors The Nayar have a caste of washermen exclusively to themselves who often describe them selves as members of their patron s caste In the main the Dhobi belongs to the town rather than the village in these areas When American soldiers first came to India during the present war, smali epidemics of patchy skin eruptions of a distressing and temporarily incapacitating nature broke out among them It has discovered that the patches of dermatitis were localized on that part of the skin in contact with the Dhobi mark, and the course of the disease made it quite obvious that this represented a contact eruption induced by the mashing Purd sluich the native Dnodi asta mmshrog the laundry'isis (crosses, dlats, mes, ate) This marking fud was obtained from the nut of the sal or bella guttı tree, and it developed that this had long had a reputation for affecting sensitive persons Another disease was long known in India as Dhobi s itch" and consisted of a contagious ringnorm of the fingers This disorder was attributed to underclothing washed by infected Dhobis, but this is segarded as an unlikely cause today Leathern orkers, or Chamars, and allied castes numbered 15,028,300 members in 1901, making them one of the most numerous bodies Their contact with dead cattle or other domestic animals is polluting, and con ·Lfper Street scene na souh Ind a toun nih a temple n the background The temple in suh Ind a was ala ays much more of a cen er for skal econ mc and rel & us actus ties than n the north Lower Banars or Bunjars a gypsy case Th s p cture she members the gypsy case in Muhem Ind a As n our onn counen the APS CS are wandering traders f rtune tellers and des essed cas es Our Western ApS es speak a tongue cl sely related to the Aryan languages f Ind a (Pho ographs from Informa on Officer Agency General for Ind 2. 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·mot L Left man PLATE 19 Sikh police The Sikhs are plendid physical types whose religion 15 reformist Hindu creed They make a cellent soldiers and police They resembly ihe physical type of tali fair skinned Ary Ans of 2000 BC who after insidint Indo set up cute burriers between themselves und the dark aby Tigines (Photograph from internation of Cet Agency General for India ishing ton DC) Right A Telugu peasant in southern India the peasants Constitute mont numerous castes and challenge the Supremn jcy of the Brahman which in the north is unquestioned (Pho tograph from Acme Meu spictures Inc) the ·69 INDLA-GILBERT sequently the caste whose function involves this form of contact is of Sery lou estate There are many grades, haneef, in the degree of pollution involved Some touch no circisses except those of a closen footed animal, while others dran the line at cattle, and leave sheep and goats to inferiors Certain sections remove the hides, and others tan and curry them Those who specialize in certain forms of leathers ork hold themselves aloof from the others in some areas the leathers orkers futrush ritually the whole supply of common labor for the village and ate regarded in effect as the peons of the community The Chardars are found all over India except in the south in the village community they receive their share of the harvest hile the other village members Some work for indridual patrons, but more often each is assigned to a certain association of landholders Under modern condi tions the Chamars frequently leave the village for work in the touns or along the railroads, but tend to return eventually to their nathe village There are endless endogamous sections in a recognized order of prece dence, with a caste council in strict control of ceremonial rules The Chamar may be served by Brahmans of lon grade In the Deccan and Telugu country the Chamar gnes way to the dang or Madiga n hose goddess is Kali The Madiga play a prominent part in the worship of the Saxtı adherents The Madiga and Maag employ the onn priests in the Tamil country the Sahhılıyan or Chuckler is the principal leathersocker, this group seems to be of northern origin The Mochi takes up the higher branches of leatherwork such as shoe mabing In seterul parts of India the town Mochi are desided into func tronal subcastes such as that of saddlers, embroiderers of saddlecloths makers of leather buckets for ghe, of spangles, shields, and scabbards, and their rank ontreuses as their function in olves greater skill or more costly matenals BUSLIM GROUPS of the total Muslim population of India the great majority bear group aimes implying Arab descent but ut is not to be assumed that the pro portion of Arab blood is indicated by the prezalence of such titles The period of dominance by Muslizas had eadoned the Arabic race with a halo which is attracte to the local Muslima convert In the Punjab the term 'Mughal s stered and frequently assumed, and the Asnjara has frequently taken over the title of Tusk Caste distinctions while not ad tussible among the Muslims are still maintained by many of the con verted groups in India. In the 1901 ceasus some 25,441 000 returned themselves as Arab ·PLATE 21 Upper The Royal Palace at I da pus un Mesar as seen fr m Lake Pochela Mewar is one of the Rajput states and its cap tal was founded about the beginn ag of the Christ an Era Lower Village of central Inda Here s sh wn a typ cal village of mud houses characterist of the dryer arcas Contrast these hovels with the Royal Palace abc Ths contrast is typ cal of Ind as extremes of wealth and poverty (Photographs frm Ewing Galloway ) ·69 INDIA-GILBERT sequently the ciste whose function implies this form of contact us of rery low estate There are many grades honeser, in the degree of pollution involved Some touch op carcasses except those of a closen footed animal, ahule others draw the line at chle, and leave sheep and goats to inferiors Certain sections semove the hides, and others tan and curry them. Those who specialize in certain forms of leathern ork hold themselves aloof from the others in some areas the leatherworkers furnish virtually the shole supply of common labor for the village and are regarded in effect as the peons of the community The Chamars are found all over India except in the south In the village community they recenle their share of the harvest like the other village members Some work for individual patrons, but more often cach is assigned to a certain association of landholders Under modern condi hons the Chamars frequently leave the village for work in the towns or along the cailroads, but tend to return eventually to their native village There are endless endogamous sections in a recognized Order of prece dence, with a caste council in strict control of ceremonial sules The Chamat may be served by Brahmans of low grade In the Deccan and Telugu country the Chamar gives jy to the Mang of Madiga n bose goddess is Kali The Madiga play 3 prominent part in the worship of the Saxtı adherents The Madiga and Mang employ their dua priests in the Tamal country the Sahhalıyan or Chuckler is the principal leatheraorker, this group seems to be of northern ongın The Mocht takes up the higher branches of leather oth such as shoc making in several parts of India the tona Alochi are divided into func tional subcastes, such as that of saddlers, embroiderers of saddlecloths makers of leather buchets for ghi, of spangles, shields, and scabbards, and their rank increases as their function involves greater skill or more costly materials MUSLIM GROUPS of the total Muslim population of India the great majority bear group frames implying Arab descent, but it is not to be assumed that the pro portion of Atab blood is indicated by the prevalence of such titles The period of dominance by Muslims had endowed the Arabic race with a halo ubich is attracture to the local Muslim convert In the Punjab the term 'Mughal tesered and frequently assumed, and the Banjara has frequently taken over the utle of Turk. Caste distinctions, while not ad mussible among true Muslims, are still maintained by many of the con Tetted groups in ladza In the 1901 census some 25 441 000 returned themseles 19 Arab ·70 WAR BACKGROUND STUDIES, NO 18 Some Arabs have settled in sestern India as guards and bankers but are divided generally into true foreigners and the mixed Arab Hindu group The title of Sheikh is widespread and predominant among groups returning themselves as Arab except in the Punjab and Kashmir In lower Bengal the title appears to cover 85 percent of the total Muslim population, in Hyderabad, 70 percent It is smaller in areas where con iersion to Islam did not involve a change of social status The term is originally used for members of the tribe of the Prophet Mohammed and their descendants Many subdivisions under this title in India have been recorded The term Saijad is used for those who claim descent from Ali, cousin of the Prophet Mohammed and who became his son in law In the tracts surrounding Delhi and the other principal seats of Muslim authority there are families of Sais ads holding estates by inheritance from ancestors who rendered distinguished service to the Mughal power in war and administration in the western Punjab the Saiyad is usually a religious teacher The Turks and Mughals are the other important groups in the Muslim category In Bihar and around Delhi the term Turk is equn alent to official and in Orissa and the eastern Deccan the same might be said for Mughal Real Turks are few and are city dwellers The Mughals represent families brought into Bengal and the southern Deccan by the semi independent viceroys of Delhi In the north there is a tendency to assume the title on rising in the world In general, however, the term Mughal is not considered equal in tank to the Saiyad and Sheikh Pes sian settlers and refugees may also go by the term Mughal The Pathans and Baluch constituted about 4 million persons in 1901 They are highland intruders into India and are independent and fanatical In Bengal and the Peninsula the census returns indicate the assumption of this title by many native converts to Islam in Bengal a Brahman convert to Islam has a right to assume the title of Pathan The madera Pathans uo lodes were introduced by the Indi and Sur dynasties The tribal organization grows weaker as one goes farther into India There is a large floating population of itinerant traders of Pathan extraction They peddle goods engage in contract labor and indulge in usucy A political party called the Red Shirts or Khudai Khidmatgars represent the Pathan interests in political life The Baluch have spread into Sind and Punjab in great numbers from their native Baluchistan They are disided into a number of tribes which are arranged in a rough hierarchy of ranks in the southwest Punjab every camel diner is called a Baluch ·INDLA-GILBERT 71 The Brahu are a similar group spread from Baluchustan into the India plun They hold in common with the Baluch a tradition of Arab descent In spite of their Dravidian language Their particular function is also the fearing and tending of camels. OUTLYING SYSTEMS OF CASTE In addition to the caste groups of India proper there are several systems of caste grouping in peripheral areas surrounding India Of these the prinapal examples are Nepal, Dardıstan, Ceylon, and the Laccadise Islands The kingdom of Nepal falls ethnologically into three divisions, the Tera or low lands, the valley of Nepal proper, and the mountain regions of the Tibetan side The first and third are inhabited by people at a stage of culture which is low compared with that of the daellers in Nepal proper The Nea ars are chiefly confined to the second of these areas and form the most numerous group of the inhabitants The other group of importance in Nepal is that of the Gurkhas, who are the dominant ruling people at the present time They entered Nepal in a body in very recent times—in 1766-although a previous immigration of the Khas people, who form the bulk of the Gurkha population, had already taken place The New ar are the earlier people of Nepal and the chief inhabitants of the valley They are cultivators of the arts of metalworking, agriculture, painting architecture, sculpture, and literature which characterize Nepal The Gurkhas, on the ant of arts and lette artisan castes margis aho are vuudhist, and the Sivamargis or Brahmanists The latter alone are true Hindus in religion The majority of the Nenar mere originally Buddhist and only a small minority Hindu, but the latter have gained ground and non constitute between a third and a half of the entire population The Sıvamargı have an organization similar to that of the Hindu proper, but somen hat simplified The highest castes are the Brah mans (originally immigrants from Kanau), descendants of royalty who are termed Kshatriyas, and a warrior caste of Sresthas There are 14 divisions of this latter group The third group, or Vaisyas, include two castes the Joshi, or astrologers, and the Achat, or priests of local deities The latter expound the sastras and act as a kind of Brahman Finally there are the four groups of outcastes who are Sıvamargis The Buddhamargis are divided into three grades the highest are Bancos, or descendants of Buddhist monks, who have become house holders and who now follow the secular occupation of goldsmiths and ·72 WAR BACKGROUND STUDIES, NO 18 silversmiths, Udas, a class of traders and foreign merchants, who are also artisans in stone, wood, and metal but who are definitely inferior to Banros, the bulk of the people, with the Jyapos at their head, who are cultivators and who form about 50 percent of the population in Nepal One of the latter sections are the Kumhak or potters, and these along with blacksmiths and weavers are equal with the third order of Srvamarg! Occupations are hereditary, and members of one caste may not encroach upon the technical duties and rights of another A few trades such as petty selling, cultivation, tailoring, or porterage may be the recourse of those whose hereditary calling does not afford a living la nocthern Kashmir ate the Dards and Baltı The former speak an Aryan language, while the latter speak Tibetan Both groups have caste lihe systems of social hierarchy Among the Dards the uppermost caste is the Rono Next below them come the Shin, who hold the cow in abhorrence Below the Shin are the Yashkin, the most numerous of all the castes The Shin men will marry Yashhın women but will not ghe their women as wines to the latter s men Below these castes are the Kremin, who are potters, millers, and carriers At the base of the social pyramıd are the Dums None of the Dards are Hindus in religion, some being Buddhist, some Muslim, and the remainder of tribal religion The Balte are Muslimized Tibetans who show physical resemblances, however, to the Indo Arjan Dards Their uppermost caste are the Wazeers who are divided into 12 subcastes Next in order are the Ribu Trakchus, Shait Trakchus, Plamopa and the base the Mon who are gypsy nomads Last of the Balte are the Ladakhi and Champas, who are Tibetan Lamuists and whose only trace of caste is a separate section of blacksmiths At the other end of India on the island of Ceylon are the Sinhalesc, who, although Buddhistic, have a caste system of their own formerly under royal patronage and now maintained by customary practice The first or royal caste was termed the Suraya Wanse or descendants of the sun The second caste was the Brachmina Wanse or descendants of Brahmans The still carstent third caste is the Wiessia Vanse, who are shepherds and cultivators today, and the fourth is the Kshudra Wanse, who are divided into 60 sections or subcastes of artisans At the bottom of the social hierarchy are the outcastes such as the Rodias and Gattaru The Geowanse or Vellale are by far the largest of the Sinhalese castes and are the agricultural branch of the Wiessia Wanse Priests statesmen and hereditary nobility have gronn up within this group The Nillemaka reyes or Pattea are the shepherd diuision of the Wiessia Vanse and are of inferior social status and numbers ·73 INDLA-GILBERT The different disisions of the Kshudra Wanse sere organized on a avsl service basis under the old native lagdoms of Ceylon for the use of the controlling castes Each group had speafic duties and services to perform for the state under the command of the proper officials The Karine or bisherman caste are held in low repute because their occupation involves the destruction of life They are divided into a number of sections per formog such functions as archery, bird snarisg, execution of criminals, trapping net fishing angling, hook and line fishing, fish selling, carpentry, Beaving and sandal making Beside the Karawe there are prinapal groups devoted to functions of artisan work in metals and allied fields, tailoring, barbering pottery malung, washing, cinnamon peeling, jaggery maling, lime burning, and grass cutting The Rodias are the patiahs of Ceylon who must pose aside in the pres ente of higher castes and are forbidden entrance to temples The women have a reputation as beauties and indulge in fortune telling The primary function of Rodras under native rule was to furnish ropes made of hides, and to catch elephants The Paduas perform a variety of measal services such as wall building, roof thatching, and carrying loads They also have a degraded section who perform the silest and lon est of services such as street cleaning, it moving dead bodies, and the like in the case of these and other low castes the washermen who serve them share their low estate Besides the 3,500,000 Sinhalese there are in Ceylon 790.376 Tamils (15 percent of the population), 325,000 Moors or Muslims, 35,000 th natives, 10,000 Euro The Tamils, of course, their congeners on the maand The caste system in Ceylon is said to have fallen into abeyance as far as the Stahalese proper ate concerned, since English rule and restrictions on contacts and interdınıng are far less marked than 10 India proper Intermaretage restrictions are still potent, hon ever, even among the 300 000 Roman Catholic Sinhalese Southwest of Ceylon about 400 miles are 13 coral islets of atolls which go to make up the Maldive Archipelago The population of 79 000 are Nuslims but the speech is related to Sinhalese The occupational de sions of a castelike nature include courmakers, fishers carpenters, cowite collectors lsemakers, cultivators, satimakers, vegetable sellers, and many others North of the Maldives are 14 islands about 200 miles west of the Malabar Coast ahich make up the Laccadive Archipelago The popula tion of 18,393 is nearly all Muslim and the language Malayalam On the R ·72 WAR BACKGROUND STUDIES, NO 18 silversmiths, Udas, a class of traders and foreign merchants, who are also artisans in stone, Food, and metal but who are definitely inferior to Banros, the bull of the people, with the Jyapos at their head, who are cultivators and who form about 50 percent of the population in Nepal One of the latter sections are the Kumhak or potters, and these along with blacksmiths and weavers are equal with the third order of Sıvamargs Occupations are hereditary, and members of one caste may not encroach upon the technical duties and rights of another A few trades such as petty selling cultivation, tarloning, or porterage may be the recourse of those whose hereditary calling does not afford a living in northern Kashmir are the Dards and Balt: The former speak in Aryan language, while the latter speak Tibetan Both groups have caste like systems of social hierarchy Among the Dards the uppermost caste is the Rono Next below them come the Shin, who hold the cow in abhorrence Below the Shin are the Yashkin, the most numerous of all the castes The Shin men will marry Yashkin women but will not gre their women as wises to the latter s men Below these castes are the Kremin, who are potters, millers, and carriers At the base of the social pyramıd are the Dums None of the Dards are Hindus in religion, some being Buddhist, some Muslim, and the remainder of tribal religion The Baltı are Muslimized Tıbctans who shon physical resemblances, however, to the Indo Aryan Dards Their uppermost caste are the Wazeers who are divided into 12 subcastes Next in order are the Ribu Trakchus, Shalı Trakchus, Plamopa and at the base the Mon who are gypsy nomads East of the Baltı are the Ladakhi and Champas, who are Tibetan Lamaists and whose only trace of caste is a separate section of blacksmiths At the other end of India on the island of Ceylon are the Sinhalese, who, although Buddhistic, have a caste system of their own formerly under royal patronage and now maintained by customary practice The first or royal caste was termed the Suraya Wanse or descendants of the sun The second caste 125 the Brachmina Vanse or descendants of Brahmans The still existent third caste is the Viessia Wanse, who are shepherds and cultivators today, and the fourth is the Kshudra Vanse, who are divided into 60 sections or subcastes of artisans At the bottom of the social hierarchy are the outcastes such as the Rodias and Gattaru The Geowanse or Vellale ate by far the largest of the Sinhalese castes and are the agricultural branch of the Wiessia Vanse Priests, statesmen, and hereditary nobility have grown up sithin this group The Nillemaha reyea or Pattes are the shepherd division of the Wiessia Wanse and are of inferior social status and numbers ·75 INDIA-GILBERT 10 Bluslim.zed }ıra strong traces of the Hindu castes can be found in the sogal disisions of the people These colonies from India nete composed of both Sivastes and Buddhists HILL TRIBES The bill Irbes of the Central Beit in India numbered about 9,221,900 members in 1901 Most of the tribes in this area beliere themselies to be autochthonous to the tracts they now inhabit, and in the case of the larger tribes have traditions of dominance over a larger area than the present one la every large tribe there are sections which are partially Brahman ized who usually separate out under caste titles borrowed from the lon country Trece are many exogamous divisions of a totemic nature, but where contact with Brahmanism 15 evident, endogamous sections are formed Where the tribe is not influenced from the outside, it employs prests of its ora Or sacrifices are performed by the head of the family only The religion is kebal or animustic, with a welter of native or ancestral spirits controlled by spells, witchcraft, and exorcism Names of Brahmanical deities may be interraingled with those of the tribal pantheon The greater part of the hill tribes in this area live by cultivation on the primitise and wastefulphum system, 10 thich they clear a patch from the jungle, burn the vegetation for manure, and raise only 2 or 3 years' harvests from it Then it is left fallow for years while the group is moving on to another patch Tous causes a more or less migratory habit, but in the more open country, villages are built saote persoanently In all the large tribes there are sections which live almost entirely on jungle produce before the autumn crop is harvested A regular trade may be set up in fc wild safh, and berries for sale to agents from towns, while others work to cane or smelt iron and wash firer sands for gold in the keast of the jungle conditions are very primitive, but on the outskirts tribal Society is breakior donn into the macta no D Linguistot The teres1 and the sou Paul We Ganges Valley, whereas tos ard the cast the terms used are 'Ho, Munda, and 'Bhuti The Bhumy are a branch of the Munda in nestera Bengal in the districts of Manbhum and Singh bhum and are largely Brahrganized The Munda are subdivided into nu Therous tribes which are further sectioned into exogamous totemic groups Sun and mountain sorship are caracteristic features of their religion One of the largest groups of Kol are the Khaswar Of the latter those possess ing large estates daim Rajput status Another division are the Baga The ·74 WAR BACA GROUND STUDIES, NO 18 island of Minicoy the speech is Mahl, which is apparently an archaic form of Sinhalese The los est and most numerous caste on most of the islands are the Melacheries who are landless servants and tenants, practitioners of barbering, goldsmithy, blacksmithy, and tree climbing Above the Mela cheries are the tenant castes and above these the landed or propertied castes In each island there are only three or four castes, but rules agunst intermarriage between the lower and upper castes are very strict The Melacheries may not use the umbrella or wear sandals, jachets, or coats On the island of Minicoy the two upper castes intermarry, as do the two lower, and children take the caste of the higher-caste parent Interdining is allowed between the castes shich allow intermarriage In the Bay of Bengal are the Andaman Islands, consisting of five long Islands Thece ace the Great and Little Aadamans and 204 islets of the Ritchie Archipelago and the Labyrinth Islands amounting in all to 2 500 square miles Great Andaman is 219 miles long by 32 miles wide The total population in 1941 was 21,483, of which 474 nere aborigines The aboriginal culture was low, consisting of hunting and fishing in the main with a kind of rude pottery in use for cooking During the nine teenth century the Andamans were used as an Indian penal colony, and the present Hindu population came into being At first castes of all sorts intermarried and children took the caste of their fathers, but eventually segregation along orthodox lines ensued Japanese forces occupied the Aadamaas on March 23, 1942 The Nicobar Islands, attached politscally to the Andamans, are 19 in number and have a total area of 635 square miles Only 12 are in habited and the total number of Nicobarese in 1931 was 9,481 The natives represent a mixture of bloods in the northern Islands, with Bur mese predominating, shile in the southern Islands Malay blood is most noticeable There is a strong trace of Hindu mixture in the central group Unlike the Andamanese the Nicobarese are excellent navigators and scem to link the culture of Malabar with that of Polynesia The language has some six dialects and is related to the Indo Chinese group Japanese forces occupied the Islands on June 13, 1942 East of India, in Indo China and the East Indies, traces of the Hindu castes are still to be found, indicating the strength of past colonizations The Mons or Talaing of southern Burma formerly possessed the four Varnas, while the Burmese court muntained Brahman astrologers as part of its functionaries Court Brahmans were also maintained in Siam and Cambodia and ace stili abundant in the latter country In Bals and Lombok the three upper Varnas are still maintained by the aristocracy, although the mass of the people consider themselies outsiders and noncaste Even ·75 INDIA-GILBERT 10 Muslimized Jasa strong traces of the Hindu astes can be found in the social divisions of the people These colonies from India tere composed of both Sivaites and Buddhists HILL TRIBES The bull tribes of the Central Belt in India numbered about 9,221,900 merribers in 1901 Most of the tabes in this area belinse themselves to be autochthonous to the tracts they now inhabit, and in the case of the larger tribes have traditions of dominance over a larget area than the present one la every large tribe there are sectigas nihich are partially Brahman ized a ho usually separate out under caste titles borrowed from the los country There are many exogamous divisions of a totemic nature, but where contact with Brahmanism is evident, endogamous sections are formed Where the tribe is not influenced from the outside, it employs priests of its Own of sacrifices are performed by the head of the family only The religion is tribal or animistic, with a nelter of native or ancestral spirits controlled by spells witchcraft, and exorcism Names of Brahmanical destses may be intermingled with those of the tribal pantheon The greater part of the hill tribes in this area ine by cultivation on the prumutire and wasteful jhum system, in which they clear a patch from the jungle burn the vegetation for manure and raise only 2 or 3 years harvests from it. Then it is left fallow for years while the group is moving on to another patch Thus causes a more or less migratory habit, but in the more open country villages are built more permanently In all the large tribes there are sections which lite almost entirely on pagte produce before the autumn crop us harvested a regular trade may be set up in lac, mild silk, and berries for sale to agents from towns, while Others Rock in cane or smelt iron and wash siret sands for gold in the heart of tbe plagle conditions are very primitive but on the site *2! sty. 1 1 - sloups 19 the Central Provinces, Central India, and the southern parts of the Ganges Valley, whereas ton ard the east the tertos used are Ho Muadi, and "Bhumi The Bhumiy are a branch of the Bunda 17 a estesa Bengal in the districts of Manbhum and Singh bhure and are largely Brahmanized The Munda are subdivided into nu merous tribes thich are further sectioned into exogamous totemic groups Sun and mountain Borship are characteristic features of their religion One of the largest groups of Kol are the Kharwal of the latter those possess ang large estales daim Rajput status Another division are the Batga The ·76 HAR BACKGROUND STUDIES, A Cheru, another group in this area, hare become a i A fen of the latter still keep to the jungle and brce wild silh. This latter occupation, inadentally, is reg The largest of the Kol groups are the Santal, »] originally from the southezst of the Chota Nagpuri spread eastward and northward and peopled the San middle of the nineteenth century In spreading they 1 and to the range of the sal tree They show an aversion tracts They are possessed of an intricate subdisision o The Juang or Patua inhabit the recesses of the Orissa indentured labor for Assamese tea gardens Other trb the Santal also furnish workers for the tea gardens of Assi The Juang have forest and village gods with village priest offices are fulfilled by elders Originally clothing thems they later tool up cotton wrappers men the women y leaf apron The Oraon of Kurukh are apparently immigrant to the the Kanarese area They are non settled in the northaest cor Nagpur in the districts of Ranch and Palamau They are in laborers especially in the Assam and Jalpaiguri districts 11 only their own priests and no Brahmans One branch, the M1 are more Brahmanized and dwell in loner altitudes, wherca branches of Male are still aboriginal One subdınsion of the community is considered a trifle purct than the rest because its eat rats and lizards a part of the daily diet of the others The jungle-burning system of cultiration is used The largest and most widespread of the tribes of the Central 1? the Gond thich again are of Kanarese ongin Trom the Kaimut the pushed eastward into Bundelkhand and the bulls along the south c Ganges Valley and are more or less Brahmanized, with the urrer c claiming Rajput status The Marta Gonds form the principal certion being found chiefly in Bastar state and in the district of Cand. They are probably the n primitive of the Gond The Halabı, onginally from the Bastar state, 117 settled in the plain of Chhatisgarh, and the farther they get from the jung! the more strenuously they disown connection with the Gond and claim to be an independent Brahminic caste As their man ocupation is distillation of ardent spirits from forest produce, their claims are not encouraged by the higher grades of the community The Kond is a much subdivided Dravidian group with bosh bull and plains sections They are rude agriculturists, Leen hunters, and expert in bringing down game with bow and hatchet ·INDIAGILBERT 77 The Suara tube a detached body in the southwest of Orissa, has lost all trace of its primitive religion and language and is simply a low caste of the ordinary Brahmınıcal type A similar offshoot in western Bengal is gradually detaching itself from hill dwelling and employing Brahmans The wilder Savara, interestingly enough, have functional dasses or castes such as agricultural metalworking weaving, and caneworking groups The Kond and Gond also have such functional divisions as blacksmiths, drummers conherds in the Gond and blacksmiths and potters sa the Kond The hill tribes of the Western Belt numbered 1,922,300 members in 1901 The Kor 1, a Kol speaking group located in the Mahadeo Hills are links between the Central and Western Belt areas In some regions they Sinelt iron and forge their own weapons and implements The western branch of the Korwa is divided into clans The Bhil has lost his tribal language and, except in heavily forested areas, hus tribal religion The Bhils are a box and arrow using group and in the west are divided into hill and plains sections Some mixture of this group with Rajputs seems to have occurred The Naikada are found along the south and west border of Rajputan: in Central India with colonies in the forests of east Gujarat They have required military pacification on several occasions In some sections they 367,000 in 1901 These rn Sahyadrı kod almost contiguous to the tribes of the Western Belt The lowest are the Katkars, who extract catechu, of wild rubber, from the forests Although the tribe indulges in tenure The tiger kars are reputed a food The Vari TULLII Lille superior to the Katkan and subtenants on a half share system They deal in forest produce The Thakur tribe worship mountain and tiger gods but make use of the Desasth or local Maratha Brahman in their domestic rites The forest tribes of the Nilgiri Hills and other southern parts of the Western Ghats numbered 226,300 in 1901 The small Nilgit tribes are of uncertain origin. Some are probably descendante ats iul plains groups are more or less Brahmanized and nork the fields from their villages The Toda and Kota are isolated communities, the Toda being pastoral and maintaining lochs of buffalo On the ranges south of the Nilgiris 6 ·76 WAR BACKGROUND STUDIES, NO 18 Cheru, another group in this area, have become a true Brahmanıcal caste A few of the latter still keep to the jungle and breed the tussah moth for wild silk This latter occupation, incidentally, is regarded as impure The largest of the Kol groups are the Santal, who seem to have come originally from the southeast of the Chota Nagpur plateau Thence they spread eastward and northward and peopled the Santal Parganas in the middle of the nineteenth century In spreading they kept to laterite soils and to the range of the sal tree They show an aversion to alluvial lowland tracts They are possessed of an intricate subdivision of clans The Juang or Patua inhabit the recesses of the Orissa hills and furnish indentured labor for Assamese tea gardens Other tribal groups such as the Santal also furnish workers for the tea gardens of Assam and the Terar The Juang have forest and village gods with village priests, but important offices are fulfilled by elders Originally clothing themselves in leaves, thes later took up cotton Krappers, cren the momen yielding up the leaf apron The Oraon or Kurukh are apparently immigrant to the plateau from the Kanarese area They are now settled in the northwest corner of Chota Nagpuc in the districts of Ranchi and Palamau They are in demand as laborers, especially in the Assam and Jalpaiguri districts They emplos only their own priests and no Brahmans One branch, the Mal Pahrania, are more Brahmanized and dwell in lover altitudes, whereas the hill branches of Male are still aboriginal One subdivision of the southern community is considered a trifle purer than the rest because it refuses to eat rats and lizards, a part of the daily diet of the others The wasteful jungle burning system of cultivation is used The largest and most widespread of the tribes of the Central Belt are the Gond, nluch again are of Kanarese origin from the Kaimur the Gond pushed eastward into Bundelkhand and the hills along the south of the Ganges Valley and are more or less Brahmanized, with the upper classes claiming Rajput status The Maria Gonds form the principal section being found chiefly in the Bastar state and in the district of Cand. They are probably the most primetne of the Gond The Halaba originally from the Bastar state, hase settled in the plain of Chlustisgarh, and the farther they get from the jungle the more strenuously they disown connection rith the Gond and claim to be an independent Brahmanic caste As their main occupation is distellation of ardent spirits from forest produce, their claims are not encouraged by the higher grades of the community The Kond is a much subdivided Draudian group with both hill and plains sections They are rude agriculturists, heen hunters, and expert in bringing down game with bow and hatchet ·NDA— GILBERT The Sivara tube, a detached body in the southwest of Orissa, has lost all trace of its primutire religion and language and is simply a low caste of the ordinary Brahmanical type A simular offshoot in sestern Bengal 15 gradually detaching itself from hill duelling and emplosing Brahmans The wilder Savara, interestingly enough, have functional classes or castes such as agricultural, metalworking, weaving, and canen orking groups The Kond and Gond also have such functional divisions as blacksmiths, drummers con berds in the Good, and blackstaths and potters in the Kond The hill inbes of the Western Belt sumbered 1,922,300 members in 1901 The Kor 2, a Kol spezking group located in the Mahadeo Hills, are links between the Central and Western Belt areas In some regions they smelt iron and forge their own weapons and implements The western branch of the Korwa is divided into clans The Bhul has lost bus tribal language and, except in heavily forested areas, his tribal religion The Bhils are a bow and arrow using group and in the west are divided into hiit and plains sections Some mixture of this group with Rajputs sterns to have occurred The Nakada are fouad along the south and west border of Rajputana ia Central India with colonies in the forests of east Gujarat They have required military pacification on several occasions In some sections they regard murder of Brahmans as a mentorious act The tribes of the Sahyadr section numbered 367,000 in 1901 These are several small groups mainly in the northern Sahyadrı and almost contiguous to the tribes of the Western Belt. The lowest are the Katkars, who extract catechu, or wild tobbet, froin the forests Although this tribe indulges in wild cultivation, they never take up land in a permanent tenure The tiger is 20 object of special regard as in Chota Nagpur Kat Lars are reputed as sorcerers and are remarkably dirty and eaters of upure food The Vath are another forest tribe superior to the Katkarı and subtenants on a half share system They deal in forest produce The Thakur tribe worship mountain and tiger gods but make use of the Desasth, or local Maratha Brahman, in their domestic rites The forest tribes of the Nilgın Hills and other southern parts of the Il estero Ghats numbered 226,300 12 1901 The small Nugizi tribes are of uncertain origio Some are probably descendants of fugitive branches of the Kurumban race, after the downfall of the Shepherd dynasties The Itula are divided into plains and forest sections as in the case of the tribes of the Central and Western Belts The plains groups are more or less Brahmanized and work the fields from their villages The Tala and Kota are isolated cornmunities, the Toda being pastoral and maintatang Racks of buffalo On the ranges south of the Nilgiris 6 ·78 WAR BACKGROUND STUDIES, NO 18 are found several small forest tribes most of whom live in as wild a state as conditions will allow The Kanıkhan of Travancore lae by rude culto tation of the wood burning system for part of the year, and also do hunt ing and deal in jungle produce They are skilled archers The Malayarayan oc Arayan are more settled than the Kanıkhan and Inc in well built villages They have a reputation for sorcery Farther south in Ceylon are the hunting Veddas, a forest tribe of obscure lineage In the low ranges along the Coromandel Coast in the Eastern Ghats a few wandering tribes are still subsistent on hunting, collection of fruits and honey, or sale of firewood to villages These are represented by the Yanade and Chenchu, the former regarding themselves as autochthonous The Chenchu breed cattle, and the Yanadı tell fortunes Both consider themselves above the leatherworkers and lower mentais of the plains The hill tribes surrounding Assam numbered somewhat over a million members in 1901 Members of these tribes who become Brahmanized adopt the names of existing castes with or without qualifying epithets Identity of tribes is often lost in the designations of loosely hnit and heterogeneous Brahmanıcal castes These groups probably represent differ ent waves of migration from the northeast by Mongolian stocks They hold a general belief in one deity of a passively benevolent sort and have a tribal cult directed at the propitiation of actively malignant local agencies by sacrifice of foul, pig, or buffalo The general officiation of the shaman is necessary, although there is a priestly class Some tribes are druided into totemistic and exogamous clans, and head hunting is not unknown Divina tion by omens and witchcraft are common procedures The Bodo or Cachacı (817,300 in 1901) are now found chiefly along the northern bank of the Brahmaputra Riser from the restern boundaries of Assam to the Darrang District They are a sturdy independent, and clannish body of field laborers who frequent thc tca gardens in large numbers at seasonal intervals in the hill country exogamous sections are strictly maintained, but these are weakened on the plains Across the Brahmaputra are the Garo who claim to be autochthonous but whose speech reveals relation to the Bodo and other immigrants There are four main clans, each of which has numerous exogamous sections On the north slope of the Jaintia Hills are the hundred Lalung Along with these must be noted the Mecsho le mostly in the Terus on the west of the Brahmaputra partly in Assam and parts in Bengal They seem to have a Bodo and Lalung relationship The Mtung are Brah manized and the chiefs claim Ruput status, the nobility Rajbansi caste status The Himalayan tribes of Assim numbered 48,000 ja 1901 The Air ·79 IND-GILBERT are found in the Sibsagar and Lakhunpur Disends and Riduanoisin affects them only superfically since they estrust their principal sacrifices to their own tribal priests The H:9 Mini are less adranced and have differ ences in zeligion from the others, being connected with the Abor of the north to the rest of the Min are the kindred tribe of the Dafill The Khisi and Sainteng (159,500 un 1901) reside in the Khas Range and are of the same language group Descent in the exogamous dans is based upon a female ancestry and inheritance is in the female lige, the 51 omen being at the head of the famdy These tubes are disided into petty states or independent groups of villages The language shows affins ties to dion The Mikir (87,300 in 1901) inhabit the lower portions of the Khasi Range on the northeast and have spread over the plaid to the east up to the Naga hill country They probably occupied the Milur ull range at one time The many sections do pot intermarry They are excellent agri culturists and their large, separately built houses are located near the fields They breed buffalo but abstain from their milk The Naga tubes (162 800 in 1901) occupy a considerable hulle region between Maarpur and the north bank of the Brahmaputra The Angumi branch appears to have come from the south Their uousually large :) kages are set upon hilltops carefully stockaded and guarded against attad Terrace cultivation is carried on along the full slopes The Ao came from the north and are settled to the southeast of the hills The Sema who came up from the southeast ate distinguushed by their ferocity The Lhota are a quiet and industrious people but duing to the cultivation of burnt patches in the jungle A section of the Reagma have colonized the loner hills cast of Mikor and have taken to the life like that of the plains The Kuka tribes (200,200 10 1901) live in the Kachar Hills and were pushed to the north by pressure from the Lushnı They are divided sato eight social grades like castes which, however, intermarry Brahminical influence on the Kachat area is slight. The population of Manipur was ouglasly fous tribes, but the Meither have absorbed the other three la 1720 the Brahmans converted the Mother and they have become Kshatriya, although the native priesthood still Wines The class of Lou are belots and laborers. The Lusłust (63 000 : 1901) ate of the same race as the Kuks and live so the Lushay Kulls They are much dided with each village under one petty chieftain The villages are stocaded but are laid out differently from those of the Naga esdatisg fsora a square in the center p here the Chieftain resides The Lushai áce kern hunters and snartis The San tribes (4 600 in 1901 ) live east of Sadyga op the Brahmaputra ·78 WAR BACKGROUND STUDIES NO 18 are found several small forest tribes most of whom Irela as sild 1 state as conditions will allow The Kanskhan of Travancore loc by rude culti sation of the wood burning system for part of the year and also do hunt ing and deal in jungle produce They are skilled archers The Malayarajan or Arayan are more settled than the Kanskhan and live in well built sillages They have a reputation for sorcery Parther south in Ceylon are the hunting Veddas a forest tribe of obscure lineage In the low ranges along the Coromandel Coast in the Eastern Ghats a few wandering tribes are still subsistent on hunting collection of fruits and honey or sale of firewood to villages These are represented by the Yanadı and Chenchu the former regarding themselves as autochthonous The Chenchu breed cattle and the Yanadı tell fortunes Both consiler themselves above the leatherworkers and lower menuals of the plains The hill tribes surrounding Assam numbered somen hat over a million members in 1901 Members of these tribes who become Brahmanized adopt the names of existing castes with or without qualifying epithets Identity of tribes is often lost in tlie designations of loosely knit and heterogencous Brahmanical castes These groups probably tepresent differ ent waves of migration from the northeast by Mongolian stocks They hold a general belief in one deity of a passively benevolent sort and love a tribal cult directed at the propitiation of actively malignant local agencies by saceifice of fowl pig or buffalo The general officiation of the shaman is necessary although there is a priestly class Some tribes are divided into totemistic and exogamous clans and head fiunting is not unknona Darina tron by omens and witchcraft are common procedures The Bodo or Cachan (817 300 in 1901) are now found chiefly along the northern bank of the Brahmaputra River from the western boundaries of Assam to the Darrang District They are 3 sturdy independent and channush body of field laborers who frequent the ica gidens in large numbers at seasonal intervals in the hill country exogamous sections are strictly maintained but these are weakened on the plains Across the Brahmaputra are the Garo who claim to be autochthonous but whose speech reveals relation to the Bodo and other immigrants There are four main clans cach of which has numerous exogamous sections On the north slope of the Jaintia Hills are the kindred Lalung Along with these must be noted the Mec who love mostly in the Terat on the west of the Brahmaputra partis in Assam and partly in Bengal They seem to have a Bodo and Lalung relationship The Mrung are Brah manized and the chiefs claim Rajput status the nobility Rajbansı caste status The 151 The Himalayan tribes of Assim numbered 48 000 in 1901 ·79 INDLA-GILBERT are found 10 tbe Subsagar and Lakhiropur Districts and Brahmansın affects them only superboally since they entrust their principal sacrifices to their own tribal priests The Hill Mini are less advanced and hase differ ences in religion from the others being connected with the Abor of the north to the west of the Mirt are the kindred tribe of the Dafia. The Khasi and Santeng (159,500 10 1901) reside in the Khasi Range and are of the same language group Descent in the exogamous dans is based upon a female ancestry and inheritance is in the female line, the worden being at the head of the family These tribes are divided into petty states of independent groups of villages The language shons affini ties to Mon The Alkır (87,300 in 1901) inhabit the lower portions of the Khasi Range on the northeast and have spread over the plain to the east up to the Naga hill country They probably occupied the Mikır hill range at one time The many sections do not intermarry They are excellent agni culturists and their large separately built houses are located near the fields They breed buffalo but abstain from their milk, The Naga tribes (162 800 in 1901) occupy a considerable hilly region betu een Manipur and the north bank of the Brahmaputra The Angame branch appears to have come from the south Their unusually large vil lages are set upon hilltops carefully stockaded and guarded against attack. Terrace cultivation is carried on along the hill slopes 'The Ao came from the north and are settled to the southeast of the hills The Semne who came - a L 1. 1 luu ul We Rengma have colonized the lower hills cast of Mikir and have taken to the life like that of the plains The Kuka tribes (200,200 in 1901) live in the Kachar Hills and were pushed to the north by pressure from the Lusha. They are drided into eight social grades like castes which however intermarcy Brahmanical snfluence on the Kachar area is slight The population of Manipur was originally four tribes but the Meither have absorbed the other three in 1720 the Brabras converted the Meither and they have become Kshatriya, although the native priesthood stall survives 'The class of Lou are helots and laboters The Lushai (63 000 in 1901) are of the same face as the Kuks and live in the Lusha. Hulls They are such divided, with each village under one petty chieftain The villages are stockaded but are laid out differently from those of the Nagz, taduating from a square in the center where the chieftaia resides The Lusha1 are keen tunters and snarers The San tribes (4 600 in 1901) Irve east of Sadiya on the Brahmaputra ·78 WAR BACKGROUND STUDIES, NO 18 Tre found several small forest tribes most of whom ine 10 as wild a state as conditions will allox The Kanıkhan of Travancore love by rude culti. vation of the wood burning system for part of the year, and also do hunt. ing and deal in jungle produce They are skilled archers The Malayarayan or Arayan are more settled than the Kanıkhan and live in well built villages They have a reputation for sorcery Tarther south in Ceylon are the hunting Veddas, a forest tribe of obscure lineage In the low ranges along the Coromandel Coast in the Eastern Ghats a few wandering tribes are still subsistent on hunting, collection of fruits and honey, or sale of firewood to villages These are represented by the Yanadı and Chenchu, the former regarding themselves as autochthonous The Chenchu breed cattle, and the Yanadı tell fortunes Both consider themselves above the leatherworkers and lower mensals of the plains The hill tribes surrounding Assam numbered somewhat over a million members in 1901 Members of these tribes who become Brahmanized adopt the names of existing castes with or without qualifying epithets Identity of tribes is often lost in the designations of loosely hnit and heterogeneous Brahmanıcal castes These groups probably represent differ ent saves of migration from the northeast by Mongolian stochs They hold a general belief in one deity of a passively benevolent sort and have a tribal cult directed at the propitiation of actively malignant local agencies by sacrifice of fowl, pig or buffalo The general officiation of the shaman is necessary, although there is a priestly class Some tribes are divided into totemistic and exogamous clans, and head hunting is not unknown Divina tion by omens and witchcraft are common procedures The Bodo or Cacharı (817,300 in 1901) are now found duefly along the northern bank of the Brahmaputra River from the western boundaries of Assam to the Dacrang District They are a sturdy independent, and clannish body of field laborers who frequent the tea gardens in large numbers at scasonal intervals In the hill country exogamous sections are strictly maintained, but these are weakened on the plains Across the Brahmaputra are the Garo who claim to be autochthonous but whose speech reveals relation to the Bodo and other immigrants There are four main clans, each of which has numerous exogamous sections On the north slope of the Jaintia Hills are the kindred Lalung Along with these must be noted the Mec who Ine mostly in the Tcr31 on the west of the Brahmaputra, partly in Assam and partly in Bengal They seem to have a Bodo and Lalung relationship The Mrung arc Brah manized and the chiefs claim Rajput status, the nobility Rajbansi caste status The More The Himalayan tribes of Assam numbered 48 000 in 1901 ·INDLA-GILBERT 81 The hell tribes of Kashmir have already been noted in connection with outlying systems of caste The Dards are a well proportioned type with black and brown hair, moderately fair complexion, and brown or hazel eyes They are excellent mountaineers The Tibetan Indian mixed groups loclude the Champas, who lead a nomadic life in the higher valleys where po cultivation is possible, and keep herds exclusively The Tibetan Ladakhi are settled in the main, and live in the side valleys of the Indus The Baltis, who have spread farther down the Indus, are the reputed in entors of the game of polo The hill tribes of the northwest frontier are mainly Pathan, Balucht, and Brahul, who have already been potsced in the discussion on Muslim races TABLE S-Classification of taste groups unb examples (From Balnes Ethnography ) A Special groups 1 Braburan 2 Rajput 3 Traders Bania 4 Wnters Kayasth 5 Rel grous devotees Barragi B The village community 6 (a) Landholders military etc Jat (b) Peasants Koen (c) Gardeners etc Mals 7 Cattle breeders Ahir 8 Artisans (a) Combined castes Pancala (b) Gold and silver workers Sopars (c) Carpenters Sutar (2) Blackstonths 10 Oil pressers Teli 11 Potters kumbar 12 Barbers Nai 13 Washermen Dhobi 14 Fashers boatinen, and porters Malo Jhinvar Bhos, etc. 15 Stone salt and lime workers Cain, Agria Uppara etc 16 Toddy drawers Pasi 17 Field laborers Dhanuk 18 Leatherworkers Chamar 19 Watchinen Dosadh 20 Scavengers Bhangi C Professional substdiary 21 Bards and genealogists Bhat 22 Astrologers etc Joshi 23 Temple servants (a) Priests Jangara (b) Servants Satani Lobar (c) Masons Thatt (1) Brass and copper workers Thathera 9 Weavers Julaha ·80 WAR BACKGROUND STUDIES, NO 18 and, although partly Buddhist, have their own priests The Ahom are long settled and politically important inhabitants in the northeast portion of Assam, which bears their name Conversion to Brahmanism scems to have accomplished their decline Distinctions of a castelike type in occu pations and services were formerly important Near these, in part of the Assam Valley, are the small colony of Singpho (1,800 in 1901), who profess Buddhism The Himalayan and Nepali tribes numbered 218,600 in 1901 The Lepcha or Rong claim to have been the original inhabitants of Sikhim, but the Limbu are among the earliest dwellers in the country and appear to be of Tibetan origin Some intermarriage of Lepcha and Limbu has taken place The latter have their own priests as well as exorasts They are indifferently Lamaists and Sıvaites Most of the Himalayan tubes seem to have passed through a Buddhist phase Among the Lepcha clans are two, outstanding above the rest, who do not intermarry with other Lepcha or with Limbu The jungle burning mode of cultivation is still pursued The Murmi have a partly Brahman and partly Buddhist religion, but Lamaism is their real religion The five principal tribes of Nepal are the Muhhya, Khis Gurung Manyar, and Sunuvar They overthrew the Nesvars in the middle eight eenth century and established the rule of the Gurkha The Khas are strongly Brahmanızed Patronymic titles are all Brahmanic and talen from the caste of the father The Gunung are a more Mongoloid group Brahmans may serve the Manyar and Suduvar without loss of status The term Gurkha has only very recently come to be restricted to Mſuhnya tribes Farther west of Nepal are the Himalayan Garhwalis of Garhaal, who are divided into three elements Rajputs, Tibetans (also called Bhotiyas or Huniyas), and Doms The first group has included a large clement of the aboriginal Khasas or Khasijas, who seem to be of ancient origin throughout the submontane regions The Khasiyas, as has been noted previously, have received later accretions of Rajputs from the plains who were fleeing from the Muslims The Doms are aboriginal and at the bottom of the social scale The Bhotija are carriers of the trade between Garhwal and Tibet The Dogras are Hill Brahman and Rajputs of Kangra and other valleys of the Western Himalayas between the rivers Chenab and Suties and the Jammu District (Chamba and Mundi native states, northern part of Hoshiarpur, and Sizlkot) Dogras are notable for their pride of race and purity of blood and high position The Mians have established a mill tary seputation above all others of the Dogras Thuhurs and Rathis carry on the agricultural activities in these patts, 25 sell as los caste Girthus ·INDIA-GILBERT 81 The hill tribes of Kashmir have already been noted in connection with Outlying systems of caste The Dards are 1 Rell proportioned type with black and brona hair, moderately fair complexion, and brown or hazel eyes They are excellent mountaineers The Tibetan Indian mixed groups include the Champas, who lead a nomadic life in the higher valleys where do cultivation is possible and keep berds exclusively The Tibetan Ladal, are settled in the man, and live in the side valleys of the Indus The Baltis, who have spread farther down the Indus, ate the reputed inventors of the game of polo The hull tribes of the northwest frontier are mainly Pathan, Baluchi, and Brahui who have already been noticed in the discussion on Muslim races TABLE S--Classification of caste groups usb erampler (From Baines Ethnography ) A Special groups 10 Oil pressers 1 Brahman Teli 2 Ra put 11 Potters 3 Traders kumhar Bina 12 Barbers 4 Writers Mai Kayasth 13 Washermen y Religious devotees Dhobi Bairagi 14 Fishers boatmen and porters B The village community Malo Jhinvar Bhol, etc 6 (1) Landholders military etc 15 Stone salt and lime workers Jat Cain, Agnia, Uppara etc (b) Peasants 16 Toddy drawers Koen (c) Gardeners etc Mali 17 Field laborers Dhanuk 1 Cattle breeders Ahir 18 Leatherworkers 8 Artisans Chamar (a) Combined castes 19 Watchmen Pancala Dosadh (b) Gold and silver workers ZO Scavengers Sonirs Bhangi (2) Carpenters C Professional subsidiary Sutzt 21 Bards and genealogists (d) Blackstatt Bhat Lohaz 22 Astrologers, etc (c) Missons Thari 23 Temple servants (1) Brass and copper sorkers (a) Priests Jangan (b) Servants Julaha Satani Pasi Joshu Thathara 9 Kaisers ·82 WAR BACKGROUND STUDIES, NO 18 TABLE S-Continued 24 Dancers and singers [ Nomads Dası Detali 31 Cartiers D Urban castes Bunjara 25 Grocers etc 32 Shepherds and woolworkers Gandhabanık Gadarija 26 Grain parchers and confection 33 Earthworkers and well sinkers ers Od Vaddar Bharbhunja 34 Knife grinders, etc. Halva: Silligar 27 Butchers 35 Bambooworkers Khatik Basor Bansphora 28 Peddlers and glassworkers Bisatı 36 Mat and basket makers Kuravan Koraca 29 Artisans (a) Tailors 37 Mimes, etc Darzi Bahurupiya (b) Dyers, etc 38 Drummers, etc Chhipi Nagarci (c) Cotton scutchers 39 Jugglers, acrobats, snale charm Dhuniya (d) Distillers and liquor sell Nat ers 40 Thieves, etc Kalal Kaliar Bediya 30 Domestic servants 41 Hunters and for lers Bhisti Vaghri ers, etc CONCLUSION In the history of human culture the contribution of the Indian peoples in all fields has been of the greatest importance from India we are said to have derived domestic poultry, shellac, lemons, cotton, jute, rice, indigo, the buffalo, cinnamon, ginger, pepper, cane sugar, the games of chess, parchesi, and polo, the zero concept, the decimal system, the basis of certain philological concepts, a wealth of fables with moral import, an astonishing variety of artistic products, and innumerable ideas in phil osophy and religion such as asceticism and monasticism To the west India exported 'ner strange tastes of gypsies, to the tast hntr psychological and religious system of Buddhism Primitive peoples throughout Oceania and southeastern Asia show many indications of Indian influences, as in the caste systems of Polynesia or the mythic dramas of Bali The peoples of India have produced one of the four great avizations of the Old World, ranking alongside of China, the Near East, and Europe in scope and depth of cultural accomplishments In addition India has developed a system of castes such, as a scheme of social adjustment, compares rather favorably with the Luropean system of n 3rting territorial nationalities There is no room for the competition of Soiercign nation states in the Hindu philosophy of the universal world state ·83 INPLA-GILBERT Perhaps the Indian peoples' contnbution to the Allied Posess in the present war constitutes their most important contemporary benefit to the Cause of our affilization when the Bar broke out in 1939, regular indian troops comprised about 170,000 men capable of mobilization, sacluding both the Brush Indian and Indian Natuse States forces between 1939 and 1912 these numbers had nisen to a total of Over 2,000,000 in 10- combatant services millions more mere engaged 10 par production and building military faalties The Indian forces fight as caste groups 19 units made up exclusn elp of particulat castes It is not possible to send men of one caste jato a unit of a totally different caste The martial acts of India, such as the Sikhs, Rajputs, Pathans, Baluchs, Gutkhas, Marathas, Githa aſis and Dogras, are characterized by superb morale and aggressive ness on the field of battle The Fourth Indian Division played a heroic role in the North African desert campaigns as part of the immortal Eighth Army and in thics 118,6%. Between 1939 and 1912 the Division shattered to great Axis atsnies and, although suffering 100 percent casualties, took 100,000 prisoners In Entrea and Abyssing they battled among the mountain peaks and success Fully stormed the well defended fortress of Keren At El Alamen the Fifth ladian Division helped hold the line at a critical moment until rc inforcements could be assembled to turn the tide against Rommels sanks During the long retrear of the Axis forces to Tunisia members of the Fourth Indian Derisian partsaputed to a splendid mannes, serving as the indomitable speashead of constant attacks beside these Allied comrades In other theaters of actioa the Indian troops comsported themselves with equal bravery and disturction They were largely instrumental in sıdding Iraq and Iran of bfth columnists, and Syria of Vichy induences in the defense of Hong Kong agunt Over helming Japanese attack the Indian forces fought Gercely and ask the greatest gallantry, inficting heavy casualties upon the enemy before the semnant of 4,000 cc kete fitually compelled to surrender throughout the desperate defensive battle of Malaga and the last futile stand at Stagapore Indian troops played a noble part, and it was only after the infliction of 11,000 casualties that the re maring 32 000 nere forced to surrender In Burma about 36,000 Indian soldiers helped delay the }apanese advance while the defenses of India proper Aere being crepsted The aid furnished by the Indian peoples to the Allies can be seen so other aspects of the present sur Out of 60,000 different articles required in modern 3 21 Indu3 635 making AS 000 12 1942 indian aircraft produc tuos has beguns, and the manufacture of armored vehicles has taken a huge spurt in addition India has furbished foodstuffs, munitigas, texules, rolling stock, timber, and coal to the Allied Powers The Royal Indian Navy has been rapidly expanded in personeel and slips, while the ladra ·84 WAR BACKGROUND STUDIES, NO 18 Air Force has organized paratroopers from Gurkhas and other groups Finally, India offers a splendid strategic base for attach on Japan and support of China There is a reverse side to the picture, which furnishes a challenge to the good will and ingenuity of the United Nations in finding a solution The failure of the Cripps Mission and the decision of the Congress Party to refrain from cooperation in winning the war are cases in point The air and sea assaults by the Japanese forces on the eastern ports of India and Ceylon did not change the minds of the Congress leaders An additional example is the deplorable war born famine of Bengal and adjoining areas, which seems to have been unavoidable because of food hoarding, inflation aty food prices, the absence of water transportation, cutting off of Burmese fice supplies, and a disastrous cyclone It is hoped that recurrence of famine may be prevented by sigid price controls When the present war is over the people of India will possess economic assets more fully developed than ever before, especially in the field of heavy industry such as iron and steel production This circumstance should operate to improve immensely the material conditions of life during the difficult economic adjustments of the post was period The amelioration of the poverty of Indian life should certainly and rather than retard the solu tion of the more widely advertised problems of India s political future SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY The compilation of a short but adequately representative reading list on the peoples of India is difficult Although the following references are intended to com prehend some major available sources those in search of a more complete survey of the materials are referred to the present authors Caste in India, a bibliography which contains 5,340 titles in European languages and the native Indian vernaculars Publication is planned for this manuscript in mim graphed form in the near future by the Committee on Indic and Iranian Studies of the American Council of Learned Societies In addition, a bibliography of 5000 titles dealing with most of the described tribes and primitive groups of India compiled by David G Mandel baum, is in process of publication in mimeographed form by the same organization ANDERSON, JAMES D 1913 The peoples of India New York ANSTEY, MRS VERA 1936 The economic development of India London BAINES, SIR JA 1912 Ethnography castes and tribes Grundriss der Indo Anischen Philologie und Altertumskunde Bd 2, Heft 5 Strassburg (Fxcellent biblios raphy included) BIRDWOOD, SIR GEORGE 1880 The industrial arts of India 2 vols London BLUNT, E AH 1931 The caste system in northern India London 1938 Social service in India London.

·INDLAGILBERT BRIGGS, GEORGE W 1920 The Chamars Calcutta CENSLS OF 101, 1981 1941 CHAND, GYAN 1939 Indias teciting mulions London. CLINE MARIEI 1943 dleet lad.2. Albuquerque, N Mes CUMMING SIR, JOHN G C 1939 Resealing Indsas past London DAS, TARANATH 1924 India in world politics New York DENHAM, E B 1912 Ceylon at the census of 1911 Colombo DHAI 4X, SHANT (Director, Research Bureau) 1939(?) What are the Indian states) All India States Peoples Conference, Allahabad DUBEY, RN 1939 Economie geography of India DuBois AEBEA. 1936 Hindu manger customs, and ceremonies 3rd ed ERICSON EATON E and ERVID E 1937 Indu2 tevolution Unue North Carolina Ext Publ, vol 3 No 4 Chapel HJI FARQUHAR JOHN N 1920 An outliae of the religious literature of India London GINGULZE N 1939 Health and nutrition in India London GARRATT GT 1937 The legacy of ladia Oxford GAZETTEERS AND MANUALS OF BRITISJI [4014 IMPERIAL PROVINCIAL, NATIVE STATE AND DISTUCT GHURYE GS 1932 Caste and race in India. London GILBERT WILLIAM H1, IR 1943 Castelo lada bibliography of 5 340 titles Ms In Lubrary of Congress, Washington DC. GORE, GEOFFREY 1939 H nularan village London GRANT W) 1939 The spitst of India London GRIEPSON GEORCE A 1903 1928 Linguistic survey of India 11 vols London 1916 Bihar peasant lite 28 ed Parra KOERNE AFR and START, HA 1909 A hisiwry of India. Cattack HOTLAND JOHN S 1943 Indian crisis New York HYPES, JL 1937 Spotlights on the culture of India Washington, DC ·86 WAR BACKGROUND STUDIES, NO 18 JAFAR, SHARIF, and HERKLOTS, G A 1921 Islam in India New ed Oxford JOSHI, GN 1937 Indian administration London MANDELBAUM, DAVID G 1944 Bibliography of ethnological items in present day India. 5000 titles In process of publication la mimeographed form Amec Counc Learned Soc, Washington, DC MILES, ARTHUR 1933 The land of the lingam London MONIER WILLIAMS, SIR MIONICR 1885 The religious thought and life of India London Moraes, I R, and STIMSON, ROBERT 1943 Introduction to India New York MORRIS JOHN 1938 Living with Lepchas London MUKHERJEE, BB 1938 An economic and commercial geography of India Calcutta MURRAY, JOHN 1938 A handbook for travellers in India Burma and Ceylon 15th ed London O MALLEY, ESS 1932 Indian caste customs Cambridge PALANDE MR 1937 An Introduction to Indian administration London PANANDIKAR, S G 1933 Industrial labor in India London PANDYA, MANUBIAL C. 1935 Intelligent mans guide to Indian philosophy Bombay POLEMAN HORACE I, Editor 1944 Basic bibliography on India and Southeast Asia Washington DC (In press) RAMAN, TA 1943 Report on India New York RICE, STANLEY P 1937 Hindu customs and their origin London RISLEY, SIR HH 1915 The peoples of India Calcutta SLATER, GILBERT, Editor 1918 Some South Indian villages [conomic Studies of the University of Madras London SMITH, VINCENT A 1928 The Oxford history of India 2d ed., rey Oxford SRI RAMAKRISHNA CENTENARY COMMITTEE 1936(?) The cultural heritage of India Calcutta STAMP, LD 1939 A new geography of India, Burma and Ceylon London VADLA ARDAŞER S N 1913 Reflections on the problems of India London